Description
Management of naturally occurring hazardous materials begins with their correct identifi cation during pre-feasibility planning, followed by proper characterisation of the orebody, waste rock, overburden, mine process residues and natural soil under the mine infrastructure.
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HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
MANAGEMENT
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
MANAGEMENT
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O CTO BER 2009
ii LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Disclaimer
Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry.
This publication has been developed by a W orking G roup of experts, industry, and governm ent and
nongovernm ent representatives. The effort of the m em bers of the W orking G roup is gratefully
acknow ledged.
The view s and opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily re? ect those of the A ustralian
G overnm ent or the M inister for Resources, Energy and Tourism . W hile reasonable efforts have been m ade
to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Com m onw ealth does not accept
responsibility for the accuracy or com pleteness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or
dam age that m ay be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of
this publication.
U sers of this handbook should bear in m ind that it is intended as a general reference and is not intended
to replace the need for professional advice relevant to the particular circum stances of individual users.
Reference to com panies or products in this handbook should not be taken as A ustralian G overnm ent
endorsem ent of those com panies or their products.
Cover im age: Transporting hazardous substances. Source: CSBP Lim ited
© Com m onw ealth of A ustralia 2009
ISBN 978-1-921516-47-4
This w ork is copyright. A part from any use as perm itted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part m ay be
reproduced by any process w ithout prior w ritten perm ission from the Com m onw ealth. Requests and
inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Com m onw ealth Copyright
A dm inistration, A ttorney-G eneral’s D epartm ent, Robert G arran O f? ces, N ational Circuit, Canberra A CT
2600 or posted at w w w .ag.gov.au/cca
O ctober 2009.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T iii
CONTENTS
A CKN O W LED G EM EN TS iv
FO REW O RD vii
1.0 IN TRO D U CTIO N 1
2.0 PR IN CIPLES 3
2.1 Legislation and regulation 3
2.2 Exposure standards 5
3.0 M ATER IA LS O F CO N CERN 7
3.1 N aturally occurring hazardous m aterials 7
A sbestiform m aterials in m inerals 9
3.2 H azardous substances 15
CA SE STU DY: Copper solvent extraction ? res 20
3.3 D angerous goods 22
3.4 M ining w astes and by-products 25
CA SE STU DY: M anagem ent of arsenic m inerals
at the Yerranderie m ine site 27
3.5 Security risk substances 29
Consider chem icals a security risk 30
4.0 R ISK M A N A G EM EN T 33
4.1 W orker hazard aw areness 33
4.2 Com m unity aw areness 40
CA SE STU DY: Tenby10 Program , N yrstar Port Pirie Sm elter 41
4.3 Controls 42
CA SE STU DY: The control of pneum oconiosis
in the N ew South W ales coal industry 43
4.4 Suppliers 51
CA SE STU DY: A m m onium nitrate transport 53
4.5 Environm ent 57
5.0 PER FO RM A N CE M A N A G EM EN T 59
5.1 H ealth and environm ental m onitoring 59
5.2 A uditing 64
G LO SSA RY A N D A BBR EV IATIO N S LIST 67
R EFER EN CES A N D FU RTH ER R EA D IN G 73
iv LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program is m anaged by a steering
com m ittee chaired by the A ustralian G overnm ent D epartm ent of Resources, Energy
and Tourism . The 14 them es in the program w ere developed by w orking groups of
governm ent, industry, research, academ ic and com m unity representatives. The
leading practice handbooks could not have been com pleted w ithout the cooperation
and active participation of all m em bers of the w orking groups, and their em ployers
w ho agreed to m ake their tim e and expertise available to the program . Particular
thanks go to the follow ing people and organisations w ho contributed to the
Hazardous materials management handbook.
Professor Ian Rae
Chair—W orking G roup
iandrae@ bigpond.com
M r Peter Scott
Principal A uthor
Principal Environm ental
G eochem ist
A ECO M Environm ent
w w w .aecom .com
Shelby Scho? eld and
Jenny Scougall
Secretariat
Sustainable M ining
D epartm ent of Resources,
Energy and Tourism
w w w .ret.gov.au
M r Ross M cFarland
N ational Practice Leader
A ECO M Environm ent
w w w .aecom .com
M r Roger Schulz
Environm ental Consultant &
A uditor
rsschulz@ ozem ail.com .au
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T v
D r Sharann Johnson
O ccupational H ealth and
Safety Consultant
Sharann.johnson@ bigpond.com
A ssociate Professor Brian
D avies
School of H ealth Sciences
U niversity of W ollongong
w w w .uow .edu.au
M r Philip M ulvey
M anaging D irector
Environm ental Earth
Sciences
w w w .environm entalearthsciences.com
M r G eoff M ance
Environm ental Consultant
KM H Environm ental Pty Ltd
w w w .km h.com .au
M r Jon Panic
Environm ental Consultant
KM H Environm ental Pty Ltd
w w w .km h.com .au
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T vii
FOREWORD
A strong com m itm ent to leading practice sustainable developm ent is critical for a
m ining com pany to ? rst gain and then m aintain its ‘social licence to operate’.
The handbooks in the Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the
M ining Industry series integrate environm ental, econom ic and social aspects through
all phases of m ineral production from exploration to construction, to operation
and ? nally m ine site closure. The concept of leading practice is sim ply the best w ay
of doing things for a given site. Leading practice is as m uch about approach and
attitude as it is about a ? xed set of practices or a particular technology.
The International Council on M ining and M etals (ICM M ) de? nes sustainable
developm ent as investm ents that are technically appropriate; environm entally
sound; ? nancially pro? table; and socially responsible. Enduring value: the Australian
minerals industry framework for sustainable development provides guidance for
operational-level im plem entation of the ICM M principles and elem ents by the
A ustralian m ining industry.
A w ide range of organisations have helped develop this handbook, w hich w ill assist
all sectors of the m ining industry to reduce the im pacts of m inerals production on
the com m unity and the environm ent by follow ing the principles of leading practice
sustainable developm ent.
The Hon Martin Ferguson AM MP
M inister for Resources and Energy, M inister for Tourism
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
H azardous M aterials M anagem ent is one of 14 them es in the Leading Practice
Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry. The program aim s to
identify the key issues affecting sustainable developm ent in the m ining industry
and to provide inform ation supplem ented by case studies that identify sustainable
approaches for the m ining industry.
Leading practice sustainable developm ent m anagem ent is an evolving discipline.
A s new problem s em erge and new solutions are developed, or better solutions
are devised for existing problem s, it is im portant that leading practice be ? exible
in developing solutions that m atch site-speci? c requirem ents. A lthough there are
underpinning principles, leading practice is as m uch an approach and an attitude
as a ? xed set of practices or a particular technology. This handbook builds on and
com plem ents the m anagem ent principles and practices developed in the Best
Practice Environm ental M anagem ent Series handbook on hazardous m aterials
m anagem ent, storage and disposal.
The prim ary audience for the handbook are the m ine, exploration and m ineral
processing staff w ho w ill com e into contact w ith hazardous m aterials through their
w ork activity: health and safety and em ergency response staff, m ine planners and
m ineral processing designers. In addition, people w ith an interest in leading practice
in the m ining industry w ill ? nd this handbook relevant, including m ining com pany
directors, m anagers, com m unity relations practitioners, environm ental of? cers,
m ining consultants, suppliers to the m ining industry, governm ents, regulators, non-
governm ent organisations, m ining com m unities, neighbouring com m unities, and
students. It has been w ritten to encourage those people to play a critical role in
continuously im proving the m ining industry’s sustainable developm ent perform ance.
The handbook has been constructed in four m ain sections:
? Principles contains de? nitions and identi? es sources of
relevant A ustralian handling and storage legislation.
? Materials of concern discusses naturally occurring hazardous
substances that m ay be encountered during m ining, m aterials im ported
to the site (such as processing chem icals), and substances and m ining
w astes that are generated during m ining and processing.
? Risk management presents risk m anagem ent strategies that
m ay be im plem ented at corporate or m ine site level, including
the use of m aterial safety data contained in M aterial Safety D ata
Sheets (M SD S) and personal protective equipm ent (PPE).
? Performance management presents inform ation about techniques,
such as m onitoring, reporting and auditing, that provide inform ation
about the use of and exposure to hazardous substances.
2 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
References and further reading contains a list of references and resource
docum ents used to com pile this handbook.
There are 14 handbooks in this series. Som e discuss the m anagem ent of hazardous
substances, including:
? Tailings m anagem ent
? Cyanide m anagem ent
? M anaging acid and m etalliferous drainage.
The follow ing handbooks deal w ith general principles of handling and m anaging
hazardous m aterials:
? M ine closure
? M aterials stew ardship
? Evaluating perform ance: m onitoring and auditing
? A irborne contam inants, noise and vibration
? W ater m anagem ent
? Risk assessm ent and m anagem ent.
This handbook has been designed to identify guiding principles and leading practices
in the handling and storage of hazardous m aterials through the m ine life cycle.
It provides links to relevant source m aterial and state and federal legislation and
guidelines for further reading and detail.
W hile a prim ary consideration of hazardous m aterials m anagem ent is w orker health
and safety, the handbook recognises the potential for im pacts from hazardous
m aterials used and exposed during m ining and m ineral processing on the natural
environm ent and the need to m anage them to m inim ise those im pacts. The
environm ental im pacts from such m aterials are also discussed in the other leading
practice handbooks listed above.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 3
2.0 PRINCIPLES
Purpose
This section presents the regulatory regim e and the principles on w hich the
identi? cation and m anagem ent of hazardous m aterials are based.
Key messages
? Industrial chem icals m anufactured in or im ported into A ustralia
are assessed by an A ustralian G overnm ent agency under the
Industrial Chemicals (Noti?cation and Assessment) Act 1989.
? H azardous substances are governed by tw o key types of legislation
(the N ational M odel Regulations for the Control of W orkplace
H azardous Substances and the A ustralian D angerous G oods
Code), but com pliance is a m atter for states and territories.
? N ot all hazardous substances encountered in the m ining
industry are classi? ed as ‘dangerous goods’.
? Exposure standards have been established for w orksites, including m ine
sites, to reduce risks for people w orking w ith hazardous substances.
? H ealth surveillance, as either biological m onitoring or regular
routine m edical exam inations, is regulated at the state level
to protect the health of w orkers at som e m ine sites.
2.1 Legislation and regulation
This section sum m arises the national and state legislation controlling im porting,
supply, storage, handling and disposal of industrial chem icals.
2.1.1 Chemical imports
W here a m ining com pany plans to im port directly chem icals for use at their site,
rather than use an A ustralian supplier, it m ust com ply w ith N ICN A S (the N ational
Industrial Chem icals N oti? cation and A ssessm ent Schem e, w w w .nicnas.gov.au). If the
chem ical or the chem ical com ponents in the m ixture are not registered in A ustralia,
extensive toxicity data are required for registration.
2.1.2 Handling and storage legislation
The states and territories control the use of industrial chem icals m ainly by exercising
their extensive pow ers relating to prohibition, application of occupational exposure
standards, and health surveillance requirem ents. M any of the controls on industrial
chem icals focus on controlling a chem ical at a particular stage of its life cycle or in
a particular situation. These areas include w orker safety, transport, public health,
environm ental protection and the handling of hazardous substances, including their
disposal as w aste.
4 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
The key m odel codes for m ine sites are those covering hazardous substances and
dangerous goods, w hich can be found on the Safe W ork A ustralia w ebsite.
1
The centrepieces are the National Model Regulations for the Control of Workplace
Hazardous Substances [N O H SC:1005 (1994)] and the National Standard for the
Storage and Handling of Workplace Dangerous Goods [N O H SC:1015(2001)].
‘Hazardous materials’ is an um brella term used to describe any substances that,
because of their chem ical, physical or biological properties, can cause harm to
people, property or the environm ent. The term collectively describes substances
according to the hazard they present, and includes ‘dangerous goods’, ‘com bustible
liquids’and ‘hazardous substances’.
Legislation dealing w ith hazardous m aterials treats them on the one hand as
‘dangerous goods’, or on the other as ‘hazardous substances’. The tw o categories are
classi? ed according to different criteria:
? Dangerous goods are classi? ed on the basis of immediate
physical or chemical effects, such as ? re, explosion, corrosion and
poisoning that m ight affect property, the environm ent or people.
Petrol, pool chlorine and som e pesticides are exam ples.
? Hazardous substances are classi? ed on the basis of health effects,
w hether im m ediate or long-term , particularly in relation to w orkplaces.
For exam ple, exposure to hazardous substances can cause adverse
health effects such as asthm a, skin rashes, allergic reactions,
allergic sensitisation, or cancer and other long-term diseases.
D angerous goods are extensively regulated and controlled for transport by the
N ational Transport Com m ission, w hich is responsible for the A ustralian D angerous
G oods Code, now in its seventh edition (A D G 7).
2
In 2007, the A ustralian G overnm ent initiated changes to the national codes at the
federal level, and there is a plan to harm onise the fram ew ork of national and state
m odel codes and regulations. The new fram ew ork w ill use the G lobally H arm onized
System of Classi? cation and Labelling of Chem icals (G H S) as the basis for hazard
classi? cation and hazard com m unication elem ents on labels and M SD S.
1http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/O H Sstandards/
2http://w w w .ntc.gov.au/view page.aspx?A reaId=35&D ocum entId=1147
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 5
State and territory governm ent m ining and natural resources authorities’w ebsites
provide local occupational health and safety (O H S) and environm ental legislation:
N orthern Territory w w w .nt.gov.au/d/M inerals_Energy/
Q ueensland w w w .dm e.qld.gov.au/
W estern A ustralia w w w .dm p.w a.gov.au/
N ew South W ales w w w .dpi.nsw .gov.au/
South A ustralia w w w .safew ork.sa.gov.au/
Tasm ania D epartm ent Prim ary Industries, Parks, W ater and
Environm ent, Tasm ania w w w .dpiw e.tas.gov.au
M ineral Resources Tasm ania (M RT)
w w w .m rt.tas.gov.au
W orkplace Standards Tasm ania
w w w .w st.tas.gov.au
V ictoria w w w .w orksafe.vic.gov.au
Inform ation papers prepared by various state governm ent agencies provide
additional inform ation on legislation; for exam ple:
? Inform ation Paper N o. 9, Hazardous materials legislation in Queensland:
a guide developed by the Chemical Hazards and Emergency
Management (CHEM) Services with the assistance of the Inter-
Departmental Hazardous Substances Co-ordinating Committee.
2.1.3 Workplace exposures and health surveillance
The N ational Exposure Standards control exposures to m any of the hazardous
substances used in the m ining industry know n to have acute health effects.
State authorities also im pose regulated health exam inations for m ining occupations
considered to be high risk. For exam ple, in N SW , coal m iners are required to undergo
a full m edical exam ination every ? ve years. In addition, Safe W ork A ustralia has
exam ined health surveillance (such as biological m onitoring for lead exposure
during lead m ining) and established biological exposure standards in the H azardous
Substances Inform ation System .
2.2 Exposure standards
O ccupational exposure standards are developed by Safe W ork A ustralia and
regulated through state legislation. The standards refer to airborne levels of
hazardous substances, including dust and crystalline silica generated in the m ining
process. It is believed that nearly all w orkers can be repeatedly exposed to such
levels for a w orking life w ithout adverse health effects. In A ustralia, the levels are
referred to in the N ational Exposure Standard and are listed in the H azardous
Substances Inform ation System .
3
M ore inform ation on exposure standards can be found in Section 5
(Perform ance m anagem ent).
3http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/H azardousSubstances/H SIS
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 7
3.0 MATERIALS OF CONCERN
Purpose
This section presents an overview of hazardous m aterials of various types and the
situations in w hich they m ay be encountered.
Key messages
? N atural m aterials encountered in m ining and processing operations
m ay be hazardous to hum an health and the environm ent.
? Chem ical substances used in m ining, such as explosives, ? otation
chem icals, solvents, acids and gases, m ay be hazardous.
? W astes and by-products of m ining operations, such as dusts
and acid-generating sul? des, m ay also be hazardous.
? Som e m aterials used in the m ining industry are subject
to restrictions because of security risks.
3.1 Naturally occurring hazardous materials
3.1.1 What law applies?
A ll A ustralian states and territories have legislative requirem ents for handling,
storing and transporting naturally occurring m aterials that can be classed as
hazardous w hen exposed by m ining, particularly asbestiform m inerals, silica and
radioactive m inerals. D etails can be obtained through state m ines departm ent
w ebsites.
3.1.2 What are naturally occurring hazardous materials?
Asbestos and asbestiform materials
A sbestos is the general nam e applied to asbestiform m inerals belonging to the
serpentine and am phibole m ineral groups. These m inerals have a particular kind of
? brosity—their ? bres have a high tensile strength and ? exibility (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Asbestiform and non-asbestiform minerals
Asbestiform variety Chemical composition Non-asbestiform variety
Serpentine group
Chrysotile (w hite asbestos) M g
3
(Si
2
O
5
)(O H )
4
antigorite, lizardite
A m phibole group
Crocidolite (blue asbestos) N a
2
Fe
3
Fe
2
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
riebeckite
am osite (grunerite) (brow n asbestos) (M g,Fe)
7
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H )
2
cum m ingtonite-grunerite
anthophylite (M g,Fe)
7
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
anthophyllite
trem olite Ca
2
M g
5
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
trem olite
actinolite Ca
2
(M g,Fe)
5
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
actinolite
8 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
A m phibole, and to a lesser extent serpentine, m inerals are w idely distributed in the
Earth’s crust, so asbestos can occur as an accessory m ineral. These m inerals are
found in m a? c and ultram a? c rocks, skarn deposits and associated igneous rocks
in contact w ith lim estone, such as porphyry copper deposits. They are com m only
associated w ith faults and shears in these rocks and geological settings. A sbestos
can occur as an accessory m ineral w ith other industrial m inerals (such as am phibole
asbestos w ith verm iculite and talc). Fibrous m inerals m ay be associated w ith
carbonate-facies iron form ations.
Serpentine and am phibole that are found in m a? c and ultram a? c rock form ations
can have ? brous and non-? brous structures. The ? brous form is called asbestos
and is rare com pared to other asbestiform m inerals and non-asbestiform am phibole
m inerals. It is im portant to note that non-? brous form s can have sim ilar chem ical
com position, but do not have the sam e health effects as the ? brous form s. Som e
other m inerals are sim ilar to asbestos in their particle shape, but do not possess the
characteristics required to classify them as asbestos.
Serpentine and am phibole m inerals are found in m a? c and ultram a? c rocks of the
‘greenstone’belts in W estern A ustralia that host m ajor nickel and gold deposits,
as w ell as other m a? c and ultram a? c rocks elsew here in A ustralia. Rarely, these
m inerals are asbestiform and, if they are present, they usually occur in veins or sm all
veinlets. Such occurrences are usually sm all and isolated and are therefore not often
noticed. The best know n asbestos deposits are near W ittenoom in the Pilbara region
of W estern A ustralia and at W oodsreef near A rm idale in N ew South W ales.
W here asbestiform m inerals are encountered, airborne asbestos ? bres m ay appear
as a m inor/trace contam inant in the dust produced during blasting, crushing and
subsequent handling and processing. Concern about the effect on health from long-
term , low -level exposure to asbestos requires that appropriate procedures be applied
w herever asbestiform m inerals are encountered, to ensure that exposures are as low
as is reasonably practicable. It is the responsibility of the m ine operator to ensure
that m ining operations provide a safe and healthy w ork environm ent.
Safe W ork A ustralia de? nes a respirable asbestos ? bre as one w ith a diam eter less
than 3 m icrons (1 m icron = 1/1000 m illim etre), a length greater than ? ve m icrons
and a length-to-w idth ratio greater than 3:1. For com parison, a hum an hair is
approxim ately 20 to 100 m icrons w ide.
W ith asbestos, the size of the particle is critical in determ ining w hether there w ill be
a risk to health from inhaling the ? bres. Fibres around 10 m icrons or less long and
3 m icrons or less w ide are the m ost likely to rem ain in the lungs. Fibres larger than
this tend to be rem oved by the norm al clearing m echanism of the lungs.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 9
Asbestiform materials in minerals
Expert guidance and a robust m anagem ent program are needed w herever
asbestiform m inerals are encountered, to ensure that exposures are as low
as is reasonably practicable. A sbestos is a know n carcinogen and is regarded
w ith zero tolerance by w orkers, regulators and the com m unity. It is a banned
substance in m any countries.
Issues to be considered in m ining operations and exported m aterials are as
follow s:
? Product liability
– affected by international and national law s
– com m unity, consum er and end user issues
– cradle-to-grave docum entation of risks and exposures.
? Sustainable developm ent
– potential im pacts on the com m unity w here w aste, tailings
and m aterials are stored and transported (including
environm ental and product liability risks)
– contam ination of w idespread areas, requiring clean up.
? O ccupational health and safety risks to w orkforce
– industrial relations im pacts (asbestos has caused m ore disputes
in the w ork environm ent than other hazardous substances)
– litigation by w orkers
– increased costs for detailed m edical surveillance
and occupational exposure m onitoring.
To m inim ise the potential risks from asbestiform m aterial, a com petent person
(such as a geologist or m ineralogist) should analyse exposed rock during the initial
studies into the ore body to determ ine the presence and extent of asbestos.
A n asbestos m anagem ent plan can then be developed for the risk areas
determ ined through asbestos exposure m onitoring. The plan should address the
follow ing key areas:
? Inform ation, instruction, training and supervision
should be provided to all em ployees.
? W ritten procedures should be developed.
? A irborne ? bre levels should be m onitored.
? Regular surveillance of all m ined rock should be undertaken
to ensure m inim al disturbance of ? brous m aterial.
(continued)
10 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Silica
Silica m inerals m ake up the m atrix or occur in association w ith the targeted m ineral
in ore bodies. They include quartz, a com m on gangue m ineral and a constituent
in m any m inerals in igneous and m etam orphic rocks. Silica m inerals are often
concentrated by the sam e natural process that results in sul? de ore bodies. They are
stable until ground or blasted into a dust.
Crystalline silica dust is classi? ed as a G roup 1 carcinogen by the International
A gency for Research on Cancer.
4
H ence, the N ational Exposure Standard is low at
0.1 m g/m 3. The dust is also an irritant to the lungs.
M anagem ent of silica m inerals is discussed in m ore detail in H ustrulid (1982), Karm is
(2001), H edges & D jukic (2008), and H edges et al. (2007, 2008ab).
Acid and metalliferous drainage
A cid and m etalliferous drainage (A M D) can occur naturally w hen rocks containing
m etal sul? de m inerals are exposed to oxygen and w ater, or w hen sul? dic rock
m aterial is disturbed and exposed to oxidation as a result of m ining, highw ay
construction or coastal land developm ent (acid sulfate soils). The predom inant acid-
generating sul? de m ineral is pyrite (FeS
2
); other acid-generating m inerals include
pyrrhotite (FeS), m arcasite (FeS
2
), chalcopyrite (CuFeS
2
) and arsenopyrite (FeA sS).
The reaction of pyrite w ith oxygen and w ater produces a solution of ferrous sulfate and
sulfuric acid. Ferrous iron can be oxidised, producing additional acidity. Iron and sulfur
oxidising bacteria are know n to catalyse these reactions at low pH , thereby increasing
the rate of reaction by several orders of m agnitude (N ordstrom & Southam 1997).
4http://m onographs.iarc.fr/EN G/M onographs/vol68/index.php
? A ccess to all areas containing ? bres should be
strictly controlled and m onitored.
? To the extent that is reasonably practicable, dust should be suppressed
at source and w orkers should be isolated from dust by the provision of
appropriate equipm ent and facilities. D ust containm ent, collection and
handling facilities should be introduced to m inim ise airborne ? bre levels.
? A pproved disposal procedures should be im plem ented for ? brous w aste.
The W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum has developed
com prehensive reference sources on asbestiform m aterials (w w w .dm p.w a.gov.
au/6751.aspx).
Sources: W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum and M r A Roger, O H &S Pty Ltd.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 11
In undisturbed natural conditions, acid generation is a relatively slow process over
geological tim e. M ining and processing of rocks and m aterials containing m etal
sul? de substances greatly enhances the acid-generating process because it rapidly
exposes those substances to oxidising conditions.
N ot all sul? de m inerals are acid-generating during oxidation, but m ost have the
capacity to release m etals on exposure to acidic w ater. D uring m ining, reactive
sul? des can be routinely exposed to air and w ater in w aste rock piles, ore stockpiles,
tailings storage facilities, pits, underground m ines, and heap and dum p leach piles.
Leading practice A M D m anagem ent involves strategies to m inim ise the interaction
betw een reactive sul? des and air, w ater or both (D ITR 2007). Because large m asses
of sul? de m inerals are exposed quickly during m ining and m illing, the surrounding
environm ent often cannot attenuate the resulting low pH conditions.
M etals found in w ater draining from m ine sites include A g, A l, A s, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr,
Cs, Cu, Fe, H g, M n, M o, N i, Pb, Ra, Sb, Se, Sr, Th, Tl, U , V and Zn. M etal concentrations
increase in w aters at low er pH . O nce released, m etals w ill persist in the environm ent.
Their concentration in w ater can be reduced through physical rem oval (sorption,
precipitation, biological uptake) (Sm ith 2007).
M etals increase the toxicity of m ine drainage (Earle & Callaghan 1998) and act as
m etabolic poisons. Iron, alum inium , and m anganese are the m ost com m on heavy
m etals com pounding the adverse effects of m ine drainage. H eavy m etals are
generally less toxic at circum -neutral pH . Trace m etals, such as zinc, cadm ium , and
copper, w hich m ay also be present in m ine drainage, are toxic at extrem ely low
concentrations and m ay act synergistically to suppress algal grow th and affect
? sh and benthos (H oehn & Sizem ore 1977). In addition to dissolved m etals, iron or
alum inium hydroxide precipitate m ay form in stream s receiving m ine discharges w ith
elevated m etals concentrations. Ferric and alum inium hydroxides decrease oxygen
availability as they form ; the precipitate m ay coat gills and body surfaces, sm other
eggs, and cover the stream bottom , ? lling in crevices in rocks, and m aking the
substrate unstable and un? t for habitation by benthic organism s (H oehn & Sizem ore
1977).
A lum inium rarely occurs naturally in w ater at concentrations greater than a few
tenths of a m illigram per litre; how ever, higher concentrations can occur in acidic
drainage from m ine sites as a result of the breakdow n of clays (H em 1970). The
chem istry of alum inium com pounds in w ater is com plex. It com bines w ith organic
and inorganic ions and can be present in several form s. A lum inium is least soluble
at a pH betw een 5.7 and 6.2; above and below that range, it tends to be in solution
(H em 1970, Brow n & Sadler 1989). O nce acid drainage is created, m etals are released
into the surrounding environm ent, and becom e readily available to biological
organism s. H istorically, A M D, characterised by acidic m etalliferous conditions in
w ater, is responsible for physical, chem ical and biological degradation of stream
habitat in m any areas of the w orld w here m ining has occurred.
12 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
W hile the m ain im pact of A M D is on environm ental values, in extrem e cases it can
potentially affect hum an health through contam ination of w ater supplies and heavy
m etal take-up in aquatic organism s used as food. Managing acid and metalliferous
drainage (D ITR 2007) details the underlying geochem istry and the im pacts of poorly
m anaged drainage, and includes case studies of best practice m anagem ent.
Acid drainage affect ed King River, Tasmania, downst ream f rom
Mount Lyall Copper Mine. Source: Professor David J Williams.
Reactive clays and salinity
In m any parts of A ustralia, m ining is associated w ith salinity. Salinity is a result of tw o
separate occurrences: aeolian deposition of salt from the sea, including salt basins
being deposited and leached into the regolith, over the past tw o m illion years; and
connate salts laid dow n w ith the ore body. In both cases, salt-laden overburden is
deposited w ith the w aste rock in overburden or w aste rock dum ps. Leaching of salt
from the overburden and disposal of salt-enriched groundw ater can be the greatest
regional im pact from m ining. M any sedim entary basins, including the H unter Valley
and the Bow en Basin, contain connate w ater that is salty. Salty w ater (starting above
about 10% of seaw ater’s salt concentration) has an osm otic potential too high for
freshw ater biota and m ost terrestrial plants to survive. Therefore, it does not take
m uch salt to destroy a riparian environm ent. V ictorious arm ies som etim es ploughed
salt into the farm land of enem ies to render it useless. They w ere successful—that
land rem ains unusable today. Careful m anagem ent of w aste rock, overburden and
groundw ater discharges is required to ensure that the environm ental im pacts of
salinity are avoided.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 13
A lthough saline groundw ater is enriched in sulfate, discharges of saline w ater
into dam s or ephem eral stream s m ight have no apparent short-term im pacts.
H ow ever, in the presence of organic m atter under aerobic conditions, the sulfate is
converted to m onosul? de black ooze that collects at the bottom of the w ater body
or as am orphous pyrite in w aterlogged soil. A drop in w ater level due to a clim ate
change or change in process m ay expose the ooze, w hich can be oxidised and rapidly
produce sulfuric acid, causing plant and ? sh kills.
Reactive clays and sodicity
A lthough at ? rst sight clay m inerals do not appear to be ‘hazardous’, the physical
changes in their structure brought about by exposure to certain chem icals can
dam age m ineral processing equipm ent and the environm ent. The prim ary m inerals
concerned include kaolinite and bentonite, w hile secondary m inerals such as
sm ectite and illite m ay result from w eathering. Clay m inerals have an excess of
negative charge across the crystal, w hich is balanced by cations from the pore w ater.
Because of the m ineral structure, clay m inerals clum p together into dom ains w ith
cations betw een the clay sheets w ithin the dom ain and in a cloud around the dom ain.
Certain clay m ineral clum ps sw ell and disperse (break up) or clum p tighter together
(coagulate) depending on cations in the surrounding pore w ater. These m inerals
include clays of the m ontm orillonite group (sm ectite, bentonite, high-charged
verm iculite) and illite and interstrati? ed m inerals. The type, m olar strength and total
ionic activity of cations in solution affects these sw elling clays, causing sw elling and
coagulation depending on the chem ical state. The cations can sw ap w ith each other,
depending on their valency and ionic strength, and are know n as ‘exchangeable’
cations.
In the native state, the exchangeable cations consist of calcium , sodium and
m agnesium . W hen the exchangeable sodium content (relative to the cation exchange
capacity) exceeds 4% in the presence of sw elling clays, the dom ains w ill disperse,
leading to high sedim ent, piping erosion and poor returns of w ater and reagents from
tailing dam s. The inverse also happens to clays prone to sw elling. The introduction of
saline w ater, acid w ater, or w ater rich in am m onium , divalent and trivalent cations w ill
cause sw elling clay dom ains to excessively coagulate to the particle-size equivalent
of silt or ? ne sand. This can cause natural clay liners or im ported bentonite liners to
leak. The potential for leaching w ater into the clay to do this is de? ned as ‘sodium
adsorption ratio for m ine w aters’(SA R-M ining). This needs to be interpreted by
som eone w ith expertise in clay m inerals.
Failure to consider the occurrence of these clay m inerals can have a substantial
im pact on recoverable ef? ciencies, problem s w ith piping failure, high sedim ent
load in dam s, creeks and ponds, and, in the w orst case, catastrophic earthen dam
failure. It can also result in dam liners leaking at a rate up to 1000 tim es greater than
expected.
14 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Radioactivity
A ll m inerals contain radionuclides that are m em bers of the naturally occurring
radioactive decay chains. The im pact of these radionuclides needs to be considered
in certain types of m ining. Igneous and certain m etam orphic rocks are m ore
radioactive than m ost sedim entary rocks. Thus living in A rm idale you w ill be exposed
to elevated background radioactivity com pared to living in Sydney. This radioactivity
obviously increases in uranium orebodies, but can also be elevated in m ineral sands,
rock phosphate and other ores.
Exposure to elevated radioactivity levels can also occur during rare earth production,
bauxite production, and oil and gas extraction, am ongst m any exam ples. The level of
potential hazard from radioactive m inerals depends on the type of radioactivity and
its half-life. O ne of the m ajor radiological risks in m ining is associated w ith inhalation
of radon (a radioactive gas w ith a short half-life) and its short-lived radioactive decay
products. Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of radium . Radon can be a
m ajor problem in underground m ines and needs to be carefully considered.
There are a num ber of law s covering radioactivity. You should contact the
radioactivity liaison of? cer in your state departm ent of m ines for m ore inform ation,
or refer to the Code of Practice and Safety Guide for Radiation Protection and
Radioactive Waste Management in Mining and Mineral Processing (2005) on
the w ebsite of the A ustralian Radiation Protection and N uclear Safety A gency
(A RPA N SA ).
5
Methane
M ethane is com m only encountered in coal seam s and is a w ell-know n explosive
hazard. A dequate ventilation can m inim ise the risk. In som e cases the coal seam
m ethane is collected for use as fuel.
3.1.3 Managing naturally occurring hazardous materials
M anagem ent of naturally occurring hazardous m aterials begins w ith their correct
identi? cation during pre-feasibility planning, follow ed by proper characterisation of
the orebody, w aste rock, overburden, m ine process residues and natural soil under
the m ine infrastructure. If problem atic naturally occurring m inerals are encountered
during m ining, activities should cease until the hazard has been properly evaluated
and corrective action has been planned.
Proper characterisation and hazard assessm ent w ill involve the use of an
experienced environm ental geochem ist or soil chem ist and occupational hygienists.
These professionals should be involved during the planning stage to prepare a
m itigation or avoidance program or corrective action.
H azards from naturally occurring substances depend not only on the concentration
of the substances but also on their chem ical form and the surrounding environm ent.
A risk assessm ent is undertaken to determ ine w hether the natural geology and
environm ent can continue to accom m odate the substances w ithout causing an
adverse im pact on hum an health or the environm ent. This is done by con? rm ing
5http://w w w .arpansa.gov.au/pubs/rps/rps9.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 15
the concentrations of the substances and com paring those concentrations w ith
published criteria or threshold levels that are likely to cause harm to hum an health
or the environm ent. H ow ever, threshold levels and published criteria are often
‘guidelines’, and site-speci? c levels are often m ore suitable because of variations in
geological and environm ental conditions.
For exam ple, reactive clays are not dispersive until sodium is added at low
concentrations. A dverse reactions w ith reactive clays are m ore com m on in the
gold industry in eastern A ustralia, w here sodium hydroxide is used to elevate pH to
control cyanide, than in the gold? elds regions of W estern A ustralia. This is because
although the sodium content is high, the sodium is present in sodium chloride, so
the salinity is very high and the clay is so w eathered that m inim al reactive clays
occur. In som e cases, it is better to use another caustic agent both for environm ental
protection and for gold recovery because the sodium prom otes dispersion, w hich
increases the potential for failures in tailings dam structures and leaks into
w aterw ays.
W ork practices and procedures for a safe and environm entally acceptable m ine site
start w ell before any m ining com m ences, and are ideally developed during detailed
or bankable feasibility study stages. These practices are designed to m itigate the risk
to the environm ent and w orker health during construction and operation of the m ine
and associated facilities, and should dem onstrate continued im provem ent over tim e
in accordance w ith changes in relevant legislation, standards and guidelines.
Typically, an environm ental geochem ist and occupational hygienist or sim ilar
suitably quali? ed professional should be involved in the identi? cation of potentially
hazardous naturally occurring substances, and in the design of w aste em placem ent
facilities to m itigate the potential environm ental im pact from those substances.
3.2 Hazardous substances
To understand the w orkplace health and safety requirem ents for hazardous
m aterials, legal obligations m ust be considered and relevant legislation and codes of
practice m ust be understood.
3.2.1 What law applies?
State legislation, codes of practice and guidance docum ents m ust be considered. The
regulatory regim e is not the sam e in all states. D etails can be obtained through the
w ebsites of state m ines departm ents or w orkplace authorities (listed in Section 2.1.2).
16 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
3.2.2 What are hazardous substances?
H azardous substances are m aterials that can have an adverse effect on hum an
health due to their physical, chem ical, and biological properties. A chem ical
or m ixture of chem icals is classi? ed as a hazardous substance if it m eets the
toxicological criteria in the Approved criteria for classifying hazardous substances
[N O H SC: 1008(2004)], w hich addresses short-term and long-term health effects.
M ore inform ation about hazardous substances can be found on the Safe W ork
A ustralia w ebsite.
6
U nder the N ational M odel Regulations for the Control of W orkplace H azardous
Substances [NOHSC:1005 (1994)], a hazardous substance is one that:
? is included on the List of D esignated H azardous Substances [or]
? has been classi? ed as a hazardous substance by the m anufacturer or im porter
in accordance w ith the Approved criteria for classifying hazardous substances.
If hazardous substances are not stored or handled correctly, they harm w orkers,
m em bers of the public, property and the environm ent. D etailed requirem ents
are outlined in state hazardous substances legislation for labelling, M SDS, risk
assessm ents, control strategies, training and health surveillance of w orkers.
H azardous m aterials include m any com m only found industrial, com m ercial,
pharm aceutical, agricultural and dom estic chem icals, m any of w hich are found in
m ine sites, as w ell as dusts, m etal fum es and m etal concentrates. Exam ples are
? otation chem icals, solvents, cleaning agents, petroleum products, com pressed
gases, and biocides.
Som e chem icals and proprietary m ixtures are hazardous substances, including
m any dangerous goods for w hich a m anufacturer or im porter m ust prepare, am end,
provide and review an M SDS. A ll M SDS for industrial products introduced on site
w ill have a statem ent (‘Classi? ed as a H azardous Substance’or ‘N ot Classi? ed as a
H azardous Substance’) that alerts the user to apply appropriate engineering controls
to protect w orkers.
H azardous substances classi? cations are:
? Very Toxic
? Toxic (includes acute toxic chem icals; carcinogens, categories 1 and 2; m utagenic
agents, categories 1 and 2; and reproductive toxic agents, categories 1 and 2)
? H arm ful (includes carcinogens, category 3; m utagenic agents,
category 3; reproductive toxic agents, category 3)
? Corrosive
? Irritant
? Sensitiser.
6http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/H azardousSubstances/
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 17
Each hazardous substance M SDS w ill include a series of risk and safety phrases to
assist the w orker to handle it safely and be aw are of the hazards. The Safe W ork
A ustralia w ebsite includes inform ation on hazard substance labelling.
7
M any hazardous substances are also classi? ed as dangerous goods, but chem icals
w ith long-term health effects (such as carcinogens and sensitisers) are not classi? ed
as Class 6 Toxic and Infectious Substances under the A ustralian D angerous G oods
Code (A D G 7).
In the next few years, it is intended to introduce the Globally Harmonised System
of Classi?cation and Labelling of Chemicals (G H S). D eveloped by a U nited N ations
agency, the G H S provides a uniform w ay of classifying chem icals internationally. It
also uses risk statem ents and pictogram s to inform chem ical users about chem ical
hazards they m ay be exposed to. The G H S system w ill have im pacts on the current
system of classi? cation and labelling of hazardous substances, and sites should
review the ? nal program w hen it becom es available.
Bulk storage vessels should be appropriately labelled or placarded in accordance w ith
A D G 7. H azardous substances that are not dangerous goods should be appropriately
identi? ed. The M SDS should be located nearby in a storage container (as discussed in
Section 4.1.2).
A full listing of hazchem and dangerous goods placarding requirem ents can be found
in A D G 7.
H azardous substances used and hazardous w aste generated on m ine and m ineral
processing sites can include the follow ing:
? Acids (sulfuric, hydrochloric). Contact w ith strong acid liquids or fum es is
a hum an health hazard and m ay also cause structural dam age in a facility.
Releases of acid to the environm ent m ay have direct effects on biota but
also solubilise and thus m obilise heavy m etal toxicants, as described in
the Managing acid and metalliferous drainage handbook (D ITR 2007).
? Sodium cyanide for gold recovery in large operations. Cyanide management
(D RET 2008a) provides extensive inform ation about sodium and calcium
cyanides, w ith particular attention to toxicity in m am m als and environm ental
im pacts. Environm ental best practice is exem pli? ed by adherence to the
International Cyanide M anagem ent Code for the G old M ining Industry, to
w hich m ajor gold m ining organisations subscribe.
8
The code covers the
production, transport, use and disposal of cyanides. The risk of cyanide
poisoning arises from ingestion and exposure to w orkplace vapours, m ists
and solutions. Sm all quantities of hydrogen cyanide are generated w hen
sodium cyanide is exposed to m oist air, and for genetic reasons only
one person in tw o is able to detect the odour of hydrogen cyanide.
7http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/H azardousSubstances/Labelling/
8http://w w w .cyanidecode.org/
18 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
? Mercury for gold recovery in small/artisanal operations. In sm all or artisanal
operations, w orkplace concentrations of m ercury should be m onitored
routinely w here exposure is possible, for exam ple from therm al desorption
of m etallic m ercury. This can occur w hen ores containing trace am ounts of
m ercury (som e zinc concentrates, for exam ple) are roasted. Risk assessment
and management (D R ET 2008b) includes a case study of the reduction
of m ercury pollution from artisanal m ining. In that case, assistance from
a m ining com pany operating nearby w as provided under the U nited
N ations Industrial D evelopm ent O rganization’s G lobal M ercury Project.
? Metals as ions or complexes from Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Fe, As, Hg and Cd sludges or
solutions. Recovery of the m etal is usually the object of the m ining project,
but hazards m ay arise from the presence of toxic by-products (for exam ple,
arsenic and cadm ium ) or m etals released as a result of developing acidi? cation,
as described in Managing acid and metalliferous drainage (D ITR 2007).
? Thiosulfates and polythionates, also resulting from acid mine water
or processing solutions. Sodium dithionite generates sulfur dioxide
in solution and m ay be stored on m ine sites as an alternative to
gaseous sulfur dioxide. A ccidental w etting of dithionite leads to an
exotherm ic process that m ay produce sulfur dioxide fum es.
? Process reagents (acids, alkalis, frothers and collectors, modi?ers,
?occulants and coagulants) that contain aluminium and iron salts
and organic polymers. Refer to the M SD S for these substances
for inform ation necessary for best practice m anagem ent.
? Nitrogen compounds from blasting materials. In enclosed spaces, the com bustion
products from nitrate explosives (m ainly am m onium nitrate and fuel oil at
present) need to be dispersed before w ork can restart in the affected area.
Best practice consists of adequate ventilation and m onitoring of the w orkplace
atm osphere, rather than the use of personal protective equipm ent.
? Oil and fuel used for engines, power plants, and lubrication. A lthough
hydrocarbon products can cause derm atitis w hen skin is contacted, ? re is the
m ain hazard. Because considerable quantities of hydrocarbons m ay be stored
on a m ine site, their presence also constitutes a security hazard because
they could be targeted in an attack. There are also potential im pacts on the
environm ent from spills, storage tank leaks and accidental discharges.
? Suspended soils, mine water, surface drainage and process ef?uents. State
and territory regulations cover discharges to w atersheds and w ater-
bodies, but best practice should go beyond m ere com pliance and seek
opportunities to avoid environm ental dam age and to im prove w ater quality.
? Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from transformers. A ustralia’s Polychlorinated
Biphenyls M anagem ent Plan (2003) has been taken up in state and territory
regulations.
9
A s a result of earlier efforts to rem ove PCBs from service,
9http://w w w .environm ent.gov.au/settlem ents/publications/chem icals/scheduled-w aste/
pcbm anagem ent/index.htm l
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 19
m any transform er oils are actually dilute solutions of PCB in paraf? n.
W here the PCB content is 50 m g/kg (50 ppm ) or greater, the m aterial
m ust be treated to destroy PCBs and reduce the level to 2 ppm or less.
A lthough com plete phase-out m ay still be som e years aw ay, m ost PCB-
containing oil has been rem oved from service and treated as required.
? Asbestos from on-site plants, including asbestos cement sheets in old
buildings. A sbestos lagging is seldom em ployed on pipew ork these
days, but som e old plants m ay still contain it. State and territory
regulations place restrictions on its rem oval and disposal.
? Surplus paints, pesticides and laboratory chemicals. Stored oil-based
paints are ? re hazards, w hile pesticides and laboratory chem icals m ay
have hum an health im pacts, environm ental im pacts, or both. Chem ical
containers m ay contain residual chem icals that pose risks to hum an
health and the environm ent. They should be disposed of safely. Cleaned
containers m ight not be hazardous, and collection and recycling
options m ay be available under the drum M U STER program for plastic
and m etal containers in w hich pesticides have been supplied.
10
? Solvents used in extraction plants. H ydrocarbon solvents, such as kerosene,
are used in solvent extraction plants for separating com plexed m etal ions. A s
for petroleum products, there are ? am m ability hazards and security risks.
A tm ospheric contam inants can include the follow ing:
? Dust/particulates. These can include crystalline silica, lead and nickel.
? Gases produced by combustion. These are produced by blasting and industrial
com bustion engines, and include CO , CO 2, N O x, SO 2 and diesel particulate.
? Natural gas. This includes m ethane, w hich is com m on in coal m ines but rare in
base m etal m ines.
? Chloro?uorocarbons (CFCs) from cooling equipment and ?re protection
devices. CFCs can be released w ith equipm ent fails. A lthough they are
not toxic, CFCs released into enclosed spaces can displace air and create
an asphyxiation hazard. M ost CFCs w ere phased out som e years ago
because they dam age the Earth’s ozone layer. They w ere replaced w ith
hydrochloro? uorocarbons (H CFCs) or hydro? uorocarbons (H FCs), w hich pose
the sam e asphyxiation hazards but are also ? am m able. O ther hazards m ay
em erge from the reintroduction of sulfur dioxide and am m onia, and possibly
supercritical carbon dioxide, as ‘new ’refrigerants to replace the H CFCs
because of H CFCs’global w arm ing potential. The older chem icals have the
potential to be risks to hum an health if handled incorrectly and released.
10http://w w w .drum m uster.com .au/
20 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
? Gross emissions to the atmosphere. G ross em issions are a special category of
hazardous m aterials. They are discussed in the leading practice handbook
Air contaminants, noise and vibration (D R ET 2009), w hich covers w hat are
know n as the criteria pollutants—SO
2
, CO , N O
2
, photochem ical oxidants reported
as ozone, lead, and particulate m atter (PM 10). Em issions of hydrocarbons
m ust be reported to the N ational Pollutant Inventory as volatile organic
com pounds. From 1 July 2009, em issions of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and m ethane need to be reported to the G reenhouse and
Energy D ata O f? cer in the G reenhouse and Energy Reporting O f? ce.
11
11http://clim atechange.gov.au/reporting/
CASE STUDY: Copper solvent
extraction ?res
The ? rst tw o com m ercial copper solvent extraction (CuSX) plants w ere sm all-
scale plants built in A rizona in the late 1960s. The plants w ere built to treat heap
leach and dum p leach solutions, respectively, and to produce 5500–6500 short
ton per annum (stpa) cathode copper. They w ere follow ed soon after by a m uch
larger CuSX plant in Zam bia, w hich treated tailings leach solution and produced
approxim ately 100,000 tpa cathode copper. Since then, CuSX plants have
proliferated w orld-w ide. Continued im provem ents in design and low er unit capital
and operating costs have led to the production of up to 168,000 tpa (185,000
stpa) at the w orld’s largest electrow inning (EW ) plant, at M orenci, A rizona. A n
even larger 200,000 tpa capacity plant is to be built in Chile.
In CuSX plants designed w ithin the past tw o or three years, ? re safety has been
closely exam ined and incorporated into appropriate low -risk designs. H ow ever, it
seem s highly likely that ? re risks and controls w ere not adequately addressed in
plants designed before 2002.
Sm all but serious CuSX ? res occurred at copper heap leach operations in
A rizona in 2003 and in M exico in 2004. The ? res dem onstrated the need for
a serious and im m ediate review of CuSX design policies for ? re control. Both
w ere exam ined in detailed review s of ? re safety, but there has been only lim ited
public reporting of the ? ndings. The results of these and other review s are being
applied to the design of som e new plants and possibly to the retro? t of som e
existing plants to m inim ise the risk of ? re. Little is know n about re? ts of the
older CuSX plants, w hich m ight still face signi? cant ? re risk.
(continued)
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 21
Causes of ? res in CuSX plants include static electricity, inadequate piping design
(allow ing the form ation of ? am m able vapours and m ists inside organic drain
lines), and hum an error during m aintenance w ork. O f four ? res since 1969, all
w ere in relatively new plants. There appears to be no connection betw een the
size of the m ining com panies or constructing engineering com panies and the
risk of ? res. The ? res w ere m ore likely in a culture that has been insensitive to
the real risks of ? re in CuSX plant design, operation and m aintenance.
Solvent extraction is practised at tw o A ustralian m ines—Ranger and O lym pic
D am . N o solvent ? res have been reported at Ranger, but BH P Billiton’s 2003
Environm ent, H ealth and Safety Report said of the O lym pic D am site:
In O ctober 2001, a ? re caused substantial dam age to the solvent
extraction unit at O lym pic dam . There had been a ? re in a sim ilar area
of the plant in D ecem ber 1999. The 2001 ? re w as m ost likely caused by
ignition of solvent-soaked crud (an im purity from the solvent extraction
process) inside a solvent transfer pipe. The hazard of an internal ? re w as
not identi? ed at any tim e during the design, construction and operation
of the solvent extraction plant, and had not previously been experienced
in the solvent extraction industry.
In rebuilding the solvent extraction plants, w e incorporated new
standards for ? re prevention and ? re protection as identi? ed in the
investigation of the 2001 ? re. They include:
? changing pipe w ork m aterial from high-density
polyethylene to conductive, ? bre-reinforced plastic
to reduce static build-up in the pipe w ork
? installing an autom atic system to scuttle solvent
from the tanks in the event of a ? re
? increasing the bunding and drainage sum ps to
contain and rem ove any solvent spillage.
N o further ? res have been reported at the O lym pic D am facility.
Source: O lym pic D am , including m aterial from
hsecreport.bhpbilliton.com /w m c/2003/sitedata/crp_ehsprf_ftly.htm
22 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
3.3 Dangerous goods
D angerous goods should not be confused w ith hazardous substances —they are
classi? ed according to different criteria. D angerous goods are classi? ed on the basis
of im m ediate physical or chem ical effects, such as ? re, explosion, corrosion and
poisoning affecting property, the environm ent or people.
3.3.1 What law applies?
Regulations and codes of practice governing the storage and handling of dangerous
goods in the w orkplace can be obtained from state m ines departm ents and
w orkplace authority w ebsites (listed in Section 2.1.2).
The A ustralian D angerous G oods code (currently in its seventh edition, A D G 7),
published by The N ational Transport Com m ission, covers the transport of dangerous
goods.
12
3.3.2 What are dangerous goods?
D angerous goods are usually chem icals w ith the potential to present an im m ediate
threat to people, property or the environm ent if they are not properly contained or
controlled.
3.3.3 Types of dangerous goods
Substances (including m ixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the A D G 7 are
assigned to one of nine classes according to the hazard or the m ain hazard they
present. The classes are denoted by labels (or diam onds), and som e are subdivided
into divisions.
The classes and divisions are as follow s:
? Class 1: Explosives
– D ivision 1.1: Substances and articles w hich have a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.2: Substances and articles w hich have a
projection hazard but not a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.3: Substances and articles w hich have a ? re
hazard and either a m inor blast hazard or a m inor projection
hazard or both, but not a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.4: Substances and articles w hich present no signi? cant hazard
– D ivision 1.5: Very insensitive substances w hich have a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.6: Extrem ely insensitive articles w hich
do not have a m ass explosion hazard
12http://w w w .ntc.gov.au/view page.aspx?A reaId=35&D ocum entId=1147
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 23
? Class 2: G ases
– D ivision 2.1: Flam m able gases
– D ivision 2.2: N on-? am m able, non-toxic gases
– D ivision 2.3: Toxic gases
? Class 3: Flam m able liquids
? Class 4: Flam m able solids; substances liable to spontaneous com bustion;
substances w hich, in contact w ith w ater, em it ? am m able gases
– D ivision 4.1: Flam m able solids, self-reactive substances
and solid desensitised explosives
– D ivision 4.2: Substances liable to spontaneous com bustion
– D ivision 4.3: Substances w hich in contact w ith w ater em it ? am m able gases
? Class 5: O xidising substances and organic peroxides
– D ivision 5.1: O xidising substances
– D ivision 5.2: O rganic peroxides
? Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
– D ivision 6.1: Toxic substances
– D ivision 6.2: Infectious substances
? Class 7: Radioactive m aterial
? Class 8: Corrosive substances
? Class 9: M iscellaneous dangerous substances and articles
The num erical order of the classes and divisions does not denote the degree of danger.
Table 3.2 gives exam ples of dangerous goods and the places they m ight be found on
a m ine site.
24 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Table 3.2: Dangerous goods and their likely locations on mine sites
Class Description Examples Location in mine
1 Explosives A N FO M
2.1
Flam m able gases lique? ed petroleum gas (LPG )
lique? ed natural gas (LN G )
acetylene
oxygen
m ethane
P
P
P,W S,M
P
M
2.2
N on-? am m able,
non-toxic gases
nitrogen
carbon dioxide
com pressed air
helium
P
P,W ,M
M ,P,W S
P
2.3
Toxic gases anhydrous am m onia
hydrogen cyanide
sulphur dioxide
carbon m onoxide
P
P, W
P, W
M , P, W S
3
Flam m able liquids unleaded petrol (U LP)
diesel
kerosene
aviation fuel
M , W S
M
P
4.2
Substances liable
to spontaneous
com bustion
Pyrite bearing coal
Som e base m etal sul? des in the presence of pyrite
M , W
M , W
5.1
O xidising agents Caro’s acid
am m onium nitrate
hydrogen peroxide
potassium perm anganate
calcium hypochlorite
P
M (explosives)
P
P
P
6.1
Toxic substances cyanide
arsenic com pounds
cadm ium com pounds
P
P, W
P, W
7
Radioactive
m aterial
naturally occurring radioactive m inerals
containing radioactive elem ents (U , Th Ce etc.)
radon gas
radium in dust and w ater
m easuring instrum ents using radioactive sources
M , P, W S, W
8
Corrosive
substances
nitric acid
sulfuric acid
hydrochloric acid
Caro’s acid
sodium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
calcium oxide
lead acid batteries
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
W
9
M iscellaneous
dangerous goods
asbestos
som e m etal concentrates
W , P, M , W S
P
M = m ining; P = processing; W = w aste; W S = w orkshop and m aintenance
A D G 7 w as issued in 2009, and included protocols and criteria for aquatic
environm ental toxicity testing. Those inclusions have im pacts on the transport of
m etal concentrates off site to ports, as there are cases w here results for different
m etal concentrates have been classi? ed as Class 9, U N 3077, Environm entally
H azardous Substances. (U N 3077 relates to m ixtures of solids w hich are not subject
to the A D G 7.)
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 25
M ine sites m ust test their concentrates before transport to determ ine w hether
they are classi? ed as Class 9, U N 3077. Classi? ed concentrates m ust be stored
and handled in com pliance w ith A S 4681 and transported in com pliance w ith the
requirem ents in A D G 7.
3.4 Mining wastes and by-products
3.4.1 What are mining waste materials?
M ining w aste m aterials are a class of m aterials generated through the m ining and
processing of rock m aterial containing econom ic quantities of m etalliferous or
industrial m inerals, coal, or oil (shale oil).
3.4.2 Types of mining waste materials
There are several classes of m ining w aste. W aste rock or overburden is m aterial that
is m ined from an open cast pit or underground w orkings in order to gain access to
rock m aterial hosting econom ic grades. The classi? cation of w aste is based largely
on the m arket price and the grade of the target com m odity. G enerally, w aste rock
contains little or no econom ic quantities of the m ineral or energy com m odity. It
includes topsoil, w eathered and partially w eathered overburden, and prim ary or
unw eathered w aste rock. Topsoil, on the other hand, cannot be regarded as w aste
since it is a valuable resource for rehabilitation of the m ine site upon closure. In
m any m etalliferous and coal m ines, low -grade or sub-econom ic grade ore or coal
is stockpiled for later processing w hen econom ic circum stances im prove and
com m odity prices rise. O ften, low -grade ores are left to w eather, are never treated
and becom e classed as high-grade w aste rock stockpiles. Stockpiles of low -grade
ores—or high-grade w aste rock, depending on the econom ic view point—often contain
sul? des that can oxidise w hen exposed to air and m oisture, form ing sulfuric acid.
The acid is itself hazardous, but also carries dissolved m etals that can dam age the
environm ent. Managing acid and metalliferous drainage (D ITR 2007) gives a full
account of the hazards and the best practice relating to them .
Tailings are the ? ne-grained residue rem aining after the processing of ore and
extraction of the target com m odity. Tailings from m etalliferous ores contain sm all
quantities (sub-econom ic grade) of the target m etal plus accessory m inerals (for
exam ple, sul? de m inerals, often in high concentrations), m etal ions and process
chem icals. Processing of coal generates ? ne- and coarse-grained rejects, w hich m ay
contain sulphide m inerals and m etal ions, including alum inosilicates that m ay be a
source of alum inium in acidic m ine drainage. Tailings best practice is described in
Tailings management (D ITR 2007).
H eap leaching technology is applied to low -grade ores. The ore is crushed to a
nom inal particle size, stacked on lined pads, and irrigated w ith a leaching solution,
such as cyanide for gold ores or sulfuric acid for copper ores. W hen the process
is com plete, the heap leach pads are decom m issioned and the rem nant m aterial
becom es a m ine w aste product. A variation on the heap leach pad is the dum p leach,
in w hich low -grade ore is placed in a stockpile and irrigated w ith a leaching solution
in an operation sim ilar to heap leaching.
26 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
The other m ain w aste m aterial is m ine w ater that accum ulates w ithin m ine
structures, such as open pits, underground, or interacts w ith m ine disturbed areas.
Further inform ation on tailings can be found in the leading practice handbooks
Tailings management, Managing acid and metalliferous drainage, and Water
management.
M onitoring the concentrations of hazardous m aterials discharged into tailings
storage facilities of any type—such as a paddock, central discharge tailings (CDT) or
pit in? ll—for environm ental effects is part of best practice for the m ining industry. For
exam ple, the gold m ining industry has adopted the voluntary International Cyanide
M anagem ent Code to m inim ise the hazardous effect of cyanide on the environm ent.
A ll operations are expected to com ply w ith the code, com pliance is veri? ed by
independent auditors, and reports are published on the International Cyanide
M anagem ent Institute’s w ebsite.
13
O ne site, A nglo G old A shanti A ustralia’s Sunrise D am operation, uses hypersaline
groundw ater in its gold w inning process. W hile the operation w orks continuously
to reduce the cyanide levels used in the process to m inim ise the loss to the CDT,
the discharge to the CDT is still above the International Cyanide M anagem ent Code
guideline level of 50 m g/L w eak acid-dissociable cyanide. Recent extensive
peer-review ed research
14
provided a novel w ay to reduce the environm ental im pact
and prevent w ildlife death (particularly bird deaths) due to cyanide toxicity by
ensuring that discharge to the CDT is above a certain m inim um in salinity. The
research identi? ed protective m echanism s that prevent birds from drinking from the
ponded solution and drains, and produce a faster oxidation rate of the cyanide to less
toxic cyanate form s. Even the m ost salt-tolerant avian species cannot drink w ater
w ith a salinity above 50,000 m g/L total dissolved solids.
Sim ple daily salinity determ ination con? rm s that the cyanide solutions are above
the m inim um salinity level. W hen rain or storm s threaten to dilute the salinity below
the established ‘safe’level, w ind, solar and m ine-operated groundw ater pum ps
add hypersaline groundw ater to the cyanide solutions, thus protecting w ildlife and
continuing the fast oxidation of the cyanide.
The Cow al gold m ine in central N ew South W ales is a heavily regulated operation
because it is in an environm entally sensitive area adjacent to a lake that ? lls
interm ittently from over? ow of the Lachlan River. The concentration of w eak
acid-dissociable cyanide discharged to tailings ponds m ust not exceed 30 ppm and
m ust rem ain below 20 ppm for 90% of operating tim e, in order to reduce the hazard
posed to birdlife in the area.
13http://w w w .cyanidecode.org/
14 A CM ER research project 58: A R isk A ssessm ent of the Effects of G oldm ining Cyanide-Bearing
Tailings Solutions on W ildlife.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 27
CASE STUDY: Management of arsenic
minerals at the Yerranderie mine site
Yerranderie is a historic abandoned silver–lead m ining tow n southw est of Sydney
near the W orld H eritage listed Blue M ountains N ational Park. The site is about
12 kilom etres upstream from Sydney’s m ajor w ater supply dam , W arragam ba.
M ining at Yerranderie occurred betw een 1898 and the 1930s, and recovered
signi? cant quantities of silver, lead and gold. There w as m inim al rehabilitation
after m ining ceased.
In 2003, intensive environm ental studies found that sm all areas of the site had
arsenic contam ination levels that w ere potentially hazardous to hum an health
and the surrounding environm ent, in particular W arragam ba D am . A t som e
locations, the m aterial contained up to 25% arsenic. Fencing and signage around
those areas w as a tem porary solution to protect the health and safety of visitors
to the historic site, but a robust longer term m anagem ent solution w as required.
The arsenic-contam inated m aterial w as classi? ed as hazardous w aste, and the
requirem ents for handling, transporting and disposing of it w ere investigated
in detail. A m ong a num ber of potential rem ediation options, the best w as the
‘D olocrete treatm ent’—a chem ical ? xation and im m obilisation technique. The
N SW D epartm ent of Environm ent and Clim ate Change provided a speci? c
im m obilisation approval that perm itted the use of that technique. The aim w as
to im m obilise the arsenic in the m ineral m atrix using a m agnesium oxide based
binder. This w ould allow the reclassi? cation of the m aterial from hazardous
to industrial w aste, for disposal to a licensed w aste facility. The desired
rehabilitation outcom e w as to signi? cantly reduce the potential risks to hum an
health and the im pact on the surrounding environm ent.
To m anage the potential occupational health and safety (O H S) risks to w orkers
during the project, full-tim e project and O H S supervisors w ere engaged to
ensure that all w orks w ere carried out in accordance w ith the approved O H S
m anagem ent plan.
A fter approxim ately 101 tonnes of the m aterial w as stabilised, laboratory analysis
con? rm ed that the treatm ent effectively reduced the m obility of the arsenic
(and changed the w aste classi? cation from hazardous to industrial). The m aterial
w as then disposed of at a licensed w aste facility. The project w as com pleted
using clean soil from the site to reshape the rem ediated area so that it w as
free-draining and landscaped in harm ony w ith the am enity and fabric of the
surrounding heritage site.
The project substantially rehabilitated the Yerranderie site, reducing risks to the
surrounding environm ent and Sydney’s w ater supply and im proving safety for
visitors and tourists.
(continued)
28 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Fencing and signage was not a long-t erm management solut ion.
Part of t he mining herit age at Yerranderie.
Source: NSW Depart ment of Indust ry and Invest ment —Minerals and Energy.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 29
3.5 Security risk substances
3.5.1 What law applies?
The basis for security risk substances (SRS) regulations is the CO A G agreem ent of
25 June 2004 relating to counter-terrorism m easures. A ll states and territories have
adopted SRS regulations.
States and territories did not need identical or even new speci? c legislation, but they
contribute to national consistency in various w ays. For exam ple, W estern A ustralia
developed the D angerous G oods Safety (Security Risk Substances) Regulations
2007, rather than including security risk substances in explosives regulations. This
avoids confusion or inconsistencies betw een safety and security requirem ents
for am m onium nitrate. The regulations contain guidance and de? nitive statutory
requirem ents. The requirem ents of the SRS Regulations are in addition to those of
other dangerous goods safety regulations.
3.5.2 Types of security risk substances
The follow ing substances, other than Class 1 D angerous G oods, are SRSs in W estern
A ustralia:
? solid m ixtures containing m ore than 45% am m onium nitrate (A N )
? am m onium nitrate em ulsions, suspensions or gels.
The latter group does not include single-phase, hom ogeneous aqueous solutions
of A N (as opposed to m ultiphase, heterogeneous m ixtures). Such solutions are
classi? ed as Class 5.1, U N 2426 in the A D G 7 and are com m only used as fertiliser or as
hot, concentrated solutions for m aking A N em ulsion explosives. H ow ever, it includes
calcium am m onium nitrate (CA N ), w hich is not a dangerous good under the U N
classi? cation system .
30 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Consider chemicals a security risk
The A ustralian m inerals industry strongly supports the need for a ‘social licence
to operate’as a com plem ent to a regulatory licence issued by governm ent. To
the industry, a social licence to operate is about operating in a m anner that is
attuned to com m unity expectations and w hich acknow ledges that businesses
have a shared responsibility w ith governm ent, and society m ore broadly, to help
develop strong and sustainable com m unities.
A ll m inerals operations receive, store, utilise and dispose of chem ical substances.
Som e of those chem icals can be used to develop m aterials that can be used to
harm people or property. M ost m inerals operations have security procedures
in place related to m itigating O H S, personnel m anagem ent, environm ental
perform ance and asset m anagem ent risks.
M inerals operations should rem ain vigilant about the potential for people or
organisations to access chem icals used in industry operations and use them
in w ays for w hich they are not intended. Such an event w ould incur signi? cant
reputational and direct costs for an operation, the com pany involved and the
broader industry.
Chem icals security risks can be form ally considered and m anaged in existing
operational risk m anagem ent processes. The Risk assessment and management
leading practice handbook (D R ET 2008b), A S/N ZS 4360:2004 and the
m aterials stew ardship philosophy provide a robust fram ew ork for assessing and
m anaging operational risks throughout the value chain. The Standards A ustralia
/ Standards N ew Zealand Security risk management handbook (H B 167:2006)
provides speci? c guidance on m anaging security-related risks.
Incorporating chem icals security into risk registers allow s m inerals operations
m anagers to understand, identify and m anage security risks. The follow ing item s
could be considered for incorporation into existing risk assessm ent processes:
? • em ployability or desirability of the chem ical
– could this substance be of interest for terrorist purposes?
– if not, it w ould not require further assessm ent
from a security perspective
? • supply chain vulnerability, for exam ple
– em ployee/contractor suitability assessm ents
– inventory control m easures
– volum es and packaging transported
– site/route location and accessibility
– security aw areness training and com m unication for suppliers
(continued)
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 31
? on-site vulnerability, for exam ple
– access controls for chem ical store (access onto and w ithin operation)
– em ployee/contractor suitability and m onitoring
– tim e and frequency of chem ical storage
– inventory control, including docum entation and auditing
– training in and aw areness of chem icals security concerns
– procedures for handling, use and disposal.
Leading practice operations in A ustralia have taken a life-cycle approach to
custodianship of all chem icals brought to and used on site, w hich also extends
to chem icals suppliers and w aste disposers. They apply risk assessm ent
and m anagem ent processes, and typically have com prehensive chem icals
inventories that docum ent accountabilities, am ounts, storage conditions and
disposal m ethods. This is often im plem ented w ith dedicated tracking softw are.
A t leading practice operations, chem icals m anagem ent is factored into site
risk m anagem ent through risk registers that are subject to regular and
com prehensive audits against com pany standards.
These existing com prehensive system s can be tailored to include particular
issues related to chem icals’security risks.
Thefts of hazardous m aterial from m ine sites can be dangerous. In 2008,
G erm an prosecutors brought charges of ‘m em bership in a terrorist organisation’
against tw o m en, and a third m an w as extradited from Turkey to face charges
of providing 26 explosive detonators. A ccording to G erm an m edia reports, the
alleged terrorists w anted to blow up U S targets in G erm any and had stockpiled
hundreds of litres of concentrated hydrogen peroxide.
15
The quantities of
chem icals w ere large enough to build bom bs that could have been m ore pow erful
than those that killed 191 com m uters in M adrid in 2004 and 52 com m uters in
London in 2005.
15http://w w w .w elt.de/politik/article2384639/Prozess-gegen-Sauerland-Terroristen-eroeffnet.
htm l
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 33
4.0 RISK MANAGEMENT
Purpose
This section presents risk m anagem ent strategies that m ay be im plem ented at the
corporate, m ine site or personal level.
Key messages
? Substitution of m aterials or control m easures, such as ventilation and
containm ent, can reduce exposures to hazardous substances.
? W orker hazard aw areness and training is of vital im portance.
? Com m unication of risks to the com m unity needs
to be part of broader com m unication.
? Suppliers’stew ardship program s can augm ent m ine m anagem ent practice.
16
In July 2009, the International Council on M ining and M etals released Good practice
guidance on health risk assessment (H RA ), w hich describes the developm ent of
health risk assessm ents of chem icals at m ining sites. This useful docum ent is
available on the council’s w ebsite.
4.1 Worker hazard awareness
4.1.1 Material Safety Data Sheets
M aterial Safety D ata Sheets (M SDS) w ere established around 30 years ago to ful? l
‘w orker’s right to know ’legislation in the U nited States.
Before the 1990s, A ustralian legislation controlling O H S inform ation on labels and
M SDS w as poor, leading to incidents in w hich w orkers w ere not aw are of hazards or
how to handle chem icals safely. N ational legislation w as introduced to ensure that
M SDS and labels m eet standards and include required inform ation content.
The key docum ents, w hich can be found on the Safe W ork A ustralia w ebsite
17
, are:
? National Code of Practice for the Preparation of Material
Safety Data Sheets, 2nd edition [N O H SC: 2011 (2003)]
? National Code of Practice for the Labelling of Workplace
Substances [N O H SC: 2012 (1994)].
16http://w w w .icm m .com /page/14733/new -guidance-on-health-risk-assessm ent
17http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/A boutU s/Publications/N ationalStandards/IndexofN atio
nalStandardsCodesofPracticeandrelatedG uidanceN otes.htm
34 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Legislation
The various O H S A cts require that em ployers provide inform ation, in the form of an
M SDS, to allow w orkers to handle hazardous substances safely. Even w hen a product
is not classi? ed as a hazardous substance or a dangerous good, it is recom m ended
that an M SDS be prepared for the m ine site to enable w orkers and m anagers to store
and handle the product safely. A sim ilar approach should be taken to w aste m aterial
that needs to be disposed.
Employers’ responsibilities
Em ployers have the follow ing responsibilities:
? They m ust provide the inform ation needed to allow the safe
handling of hazardous substances used at w ork.
? They m ust ensure that all em ployees have ready access to
M SD S (either as paper copies or in databases).
? They should encourage em ployees to read M SDS for the hazardous
substances that w orkers m ay be exposed to in their w ork.
? M SDS on site m ust be dated and current (w ithin ? ve years of the issue date).
? In som e states, m ining legislation requires that a risk assessm ent
of every product be conducted and the risks be controlled through
safe w ork procedures or effective controls. This occurs by a default
reference to a guideline, but is nevertheless a legal requirem ent.
M ine operators that directly im port chem icals m ust ensure that those chem icals are
listed in the A ustralian Inventory of Chem ical Substances, w hich is m anaged through
the N ational Industrial Chem icals N oti? cation and A ssessm ent Schem e (N ICN A S).
18
In
the case of a m ixture or blended product, such as a lubricant, its com ponents m ust
be listed. In addition, the m ining com pany becom es responsible for preparing an
M SD S to m eet the legal guidelines.
New chemicals coming on site
The follow ing rules apply w hen a new chem ical com es onto a m ining site:
? Procedures m ust be available to control and assess
new products or chem icals being introduced.
? Before a hazardous substance is used at the site, an M SDS
m ust accom pany the ? rst supply of the substance.
? A risk assessm ent m ust be conducted and signed off by a com petent person.
? A ny necessary controls on the use of the substance
m ust be established in the w orkplace.
? A fter the risk assessm ent, a procedure m ust be generated to ensure
that the w orkers can handle the hazardous m aterial safely.
Figure 4.1 show s a sam ple checklist for a risk assessm ent.
18http://w w w .nicnas.gov.au
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 35
Figure 4.1Sample risk assessment checklist
Identi?cation – (Com pleted By Person Bringing Chem ical to site)
Product N am e:
Supplier:
Site: Location:
D epartm ent/Contractor:
Person Requiring Product:
Intended use:
A pplication M ethod: Average use (eg litres/hour):
Frequency of use D aily: W eekly: M onthly: H our in use:
D angerous G oods Class: Poison Schedule: U N N o:
Storage Q uantities: Container size:
Storage Location:
Risk Assessment – (Com pleted By Safety O f? cer)
H igh M edium Low
1. Eye
2. Inhalation
3. Skin
4. Ingestion
5. Fire hazard
6. O verall Rating
Control – (Com pleted By Safety O f? cer)
D eterm ine the appropriate level of control from the evaluation above.
1. Can the use of this product be avoided or elim inated?
2. A re safer substitutes available
3. Can the product be isolated
4. Engineering controls to reduce the risk
? O pen ventilation ? Barricades / G uards
? Forced ventilation ? Fire extinguisher
? A tm ospheric M onitoring ? Training
? A dditional lighting ? W ritten procedure
? W arning signs ? other
5. W hat special personal protective equipm ent is required
? Splash proof goggles ? Full Face Respirator
? Full face shield ? A ir ? ow hood / M ask
? Standard Rubber gloves ? D isposable Coveralls
? Special G loves ? PVC A pron/coveralls
? Particulate M ask ? other
? H alf Face Respirator
Environment – (Com pleted By Environm ental Superintendent)
The product (or com ponents) is reportable under the N ational Pollutant Inventory?
Storage containm ent / bunding required?
Special w aste disposal requirem ents?
Spill control procedures are necessary?
Stores – (Com pleted By Store Superintendent)
Storage Com patibility:
Storage Requirem ents:
Recommendations/Actions/Comments
Safety Environm ent W arehouse Technical Expert
Review ed by
Signed
D ate
D epartm ent M anager A pproval
Signature: D ate:
Source: N ew crest M ining Ltd
36 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Waste materials
W aste m aterials should also be assessed and an appropriate M SD S and label should
be prepared to ensure that the w orkers handling the drum s of m aterial on site or off
site can do so safely.
Registers
A ll hazardous m aterials on site m ust be on a site register, w hich is often a
com puterised M SDS database.
For all hazardous m aterials, the register m ust include the product nam e, the M SDS,
the quantity, and the location in w hich the m aterial is used.
The register should be updated as new hazardous substances are introduced
to the w orkplace and the use or production of existing hazardous substances is
discontinued.
D angerous goods m ust be recorded in a site m anifest that com plies w ith the
dangerous goods legislation.
Access to the register
A ll w orkers, em ergency services and relevant public authorities should have ready
access to the site register. The register can either be centrally located or kept in the
w orkplace to w hich it pertains.
Identi?cation of hazardous substances in enclosed systems
W here a hazardous substance in a w orkplace is contained in an enclosed system ,
such as a pipe or piping system or a process vessel, it m ust be identi? ed to people
w ho m ay be exposed to the contents. This is particularly im portant for system s
containing cyanide or acid solutions.
Suitable m eans of identi? cation include colour coding in accordance w ith A S 1319
Safety signs for the occupational environment or A S 1345 Identi?cation of the
contents of piping, conduits and ducts.
How to read an MSDS
The M SDS is divided into 16 sections:
? Section 1: Identi?cation of material and supplier provides the
nam e and supplier of the m aterial, recom m ended uses, and contact
inform ation for the supplier, including an em ergency contact.
? Section 2: Hazards identi?cation describes the hazards of the
m aterial and the appropriate w arning inform ation (risk and safety
phrases) associated w ith those hazards, including w hether the
m aterial is a hazardous substance, a dangerous good, or both.
There is no legal requirem ent to provide an M SD S for a non-hazardous and non-
dangerous m aterial. H ow ever, it is good practice to do so, as an M SDS is a w ell-
accepted and effective w ay to provide w orkplace inform ation and inform ation
required for product liability for the supplier.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 37
? Section 3: Composition / information on ingredients identi? es the ingredients
of the m aterial. This includes CA S (Chem ical A bstract Service) registry num bers,
w hich are assigned num bers for chem icals and process stream s. CA S num bers
can be used to ? nd out m ore inform ation about the chem ical on the Safe
W ork A ustralia’s H azardous Substances Inform ation System database.
19
? Section 4: First aid measures describes the initial care that can be given
w ithout sophisticated equipm ent and a w ide selection of available m edications.
? Section 5: Fire ?ghting measures describes the ? re and explosive properties
of the m aterial and provides advice on how to deal w ith incidents. It also
lists hazardous chem icals produced during ? re or by overheating.
? Section 6: Accidental release measures recom m end the appropriate
response to spills, leaks or releases to prevent or m inim ise
adverse effects on people, property and the environm ent.
? Section 7: Handling and storage provides guidance on safe
handling practices that m inim ise potential hazards to people,
property and the environm ent from the m aterial.
? Section 8: Exposure controls / personal protection details engineering control
m easures needed to m inim ise exposure to and risks associated w ith the hazards
of the m aterial. O ccupational exposure standards, if applicable or available, m ust
not be exceeded. N ot all substances have occupational exposure standards.
Those that do, do not cover the derm al (skin) or oral (m outh) routes of exposure.
? Section 9: Physical and chemical properties gives em pirical data
on the m aterial. The key pieces of inform ation are the boiling point
and solubility of the chem ical. The closer the boiling point is to 25°C,
the higher the risk of exposure to airborne m aterial. The ? ash point
also gives an indication of the ? am m ability of the chem ical.
? Section 10: Stability and reactivity describes reactivity hazards of the m aterial
and provides speci? c test data for the product as a w hole, w here available.
H ow ever, the inform ation m ay also be based on general data for the class or
fam ily of chem ical, if such data adequately represent the expected hazard.
? Section 11: Toxicological information describes the potential adverse
health effects and sym ptom s associated w ith exposure to the m aterial
and its ingredients or know n by-products. This w ill cover short-term
health effects and, in som e cases, long-term effects. Routes of exposure
to be considered are airborne or skin absorption, if appropriate.
19http://hsis.ascc.gov.au/
38 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
? Section 12: Ecological information provides inform ation to evaluate
the environm ental im pact of the m aterial if it is released to the
environm ent. This inform ation can assist in handling spills and
evaluating w aste treatm ent practices. The section should clearly
indicate species, m edia, units, test duration and test conditions.
? Section 13: Disposal considerations provide inform ation on the disposal,
recycling or reclam ation of the m aterial and/or its container.
? Section 14: Transport information provides basic classi? cation inform ation for
the preparation of the m aterial for transport or shipm ent. If that inform ation is
not available or relevant, this should be stated. The core transport inform ation is
– U N N um ber
– U N Proper Shipping N am e
– Class and subsidiary risk(s)
– Packing G roup
– Special precautions for user
– H azchem Code.
? Section 15: Regulatory information describes other regulatory
inform ation on the m aterial that is not provided elsew here in the M SD S.
? Section 16: Other information provides inform ation
relevant to the preparation of the M SD S.
4.1.2 Labelling
A ll containers of hazardous substances supplied to, used in or handled at the
w orkplace should be appropriately labelled to allow them to be used safely.
Bulk storage vessels should be appropriately labelled or placarded in accordance w ith
A D G 7. H azardous substances that are not dangerous goods should be appropriately
identi? ed, and the M SD S should be located nearby in a storage container.
H azardous substances can be described by a series of risk and safety phrases that
allow the user to understand the hazards and required precautions. The phrases
are listed in the National Code of Practice for the Labelling of Workplace Substances
[N O H SC:2012(1994)].
20
20http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/N R/rdonlyres/9A 5FFEC7-940E-478A-BB34-
07C8A 1C9D 597/0/LabellingCO PN O H SC_2012_1994.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 39
For exam ple, concentrated sulfuric acid is classi? ed as a corrosive and w ould require
the follow ing risk and safety phrases:
? R35: Causes severe burns
? S23: D o not breathe vapour
? S30: N ever add w ater to this product
? S36: W ear suitable protective clothing
? S37: W ear suitable gloves
? S39: W ear eye/face protection
? S26: In case of contact w ith eyes, rinse im m ediately
w ith plenty of w ater and seek m edical advice
? S45: In case of accident or if you feel unw ell, seek m edical
advice im m ediately (show the label w henever possible).
U nder the G lobally H arm onized System of Classi? cation and Labelling of Chem icals,
som e changes w ill be m ade to term inology.
Risk and safety phrases can vary betw een sim ilar products, as it is up to the
m anufacturer or supplier to nom inate the phrases from the Safe W ork A ustralia list.
4.1.3 Training
M ining com panies have a duty to m ake the w orkforce aw are of the problem s and
dangers associated w ith hazardous m aterials and of safer handling requirem ents. It
is up to the com pany to provide adequate training and enforce the im plem entation of
its procedures.
Workforce training
A ll w orkers and personnel w orking regularly on the m ine site w ho m ight com e into
contact w ith or into the vicinity of hazardous substances or dangerous goods m ust
be trained on the inherent hazards. The training should include:
? recognition of the m aterial as hazardous at the operation
? adequate inform ation about the health or environm ental effects of the m aterial
? sym ptom s of overexposure to the m aterial
? ? rst aid and em ergency procedures
? safe handling procedures and personal protective equipm ent requirem ents.
? environm ental clean-up procedures
? ? re? ghting requirem ents.
M SDS or other useful inform ation in the language of the w orkforce should be
available for this purpose. Refresher training should be conducted at set periods, and
records of that training should be kept.
40 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Each w orker is responsible for abiding by the health, safety and environm ental
com ponents of the training. The training requirem ents for each job should be
identi? ed in the training m aterials. Personnel in particular positions (including those
involved in unloading and storing the m aterials, plant operators, tailings storage
facility operators, m aintenance and environm ental personnel, and m anagem ent staff)
should be trained in the relevant procedures by appropriately quali? ed personnel,
w ho m ay be external experts and/or regulators.
Em ergency drills sim ulating w orker exposure and environm ental releases should
be conducted periodically and be evaluated for effectiveness. The evaluation
should include an assessm ent of w hether all personnel involved have the necessary
know ledge and skill to carry out the required w ork.
Visitor and contractor management
A ll visitors and contractors need to be inducted so that they are aw are of the
basic safety and personal protective equipm ent requirem ents of the site, and of
em ergency procedures. They should be accom panied by suitable site-appointed
personnel w hile on site.
They should be inducted according to the locations they are likely visit. The induction
should be:
? at a basic level for visitors w ho are being accom panied;
for exam ple, to the site of? ce
? at operational levels for contractors, according to the
requirem ents of the relevant sections of the plant.
Education on hazardous materials
The education of site personnel m ay be carried out through internal specialised
training courses or through attendance at conferences, w orkshops or courses
provided by external providers.
Education of the com m unity and stakeholders m ay be through public forum s
or m eetings, new sletters, and the distribution of educational and inform ational
docum ents through local councils, libraries or other m eans.
4.2 Community awareness
4.2.1 Communication
A ppropriate operational and environm ental inform ation on the m anagem ent of
hazardous or dangerous goods should be m ade available to stakeholders, including
the com m unity. The stakeholders should be kept inform ed about how the operation
m anages hazardous substances in relation to health and safety and the environm ent.
This inform ation m ay be com m unicated through public m eetings, new sletters, the
internet and other m eans.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 41
CASE STUDY: Tenby10 Program, Nyrstar
Port Pirie Smelter
In a unique, w orld-leading partnership know n as the Tenby10 Program , the Port
Pirie Regional Council, the South A ustralian D epartm ent of H ealth, the South
A ustralian Environm ent Protection A uthority, N yrstar Port Pirie Sm elter and the
com m unity have been w orking together to ? nd a solution to the elevated blood
lead levels of children in Port Pirie. The goal is to low er children’s blood lead
levels to below the W orld H ealth O rganization standard of 10 ?g/dL (m icrogram s
per decilitre) of blood by the end of 2010. W hat w as acceptable in the past is no
longer acceptable.
Port Pirie is an integrated m ulti-m etal sm elter and re? nery, w ith ? exibility to
process a w ide range of lead-containing feedstocks to produce re? ned lead,
silver, zinc, copper and gold. The sm elter w as built in 1889 and becam e the
w orld’s biggest lead sm elter by 1934.
Lead can enter hum an bodies through ingestion (eating and sw allow ing)
of lead-contam inated food, w ater, soil, dust or paint chips and through
inhalation (breathing in) of lead dust particles. A com m on w ay of absorbing
lead, particularly for young children, is through contam inated hand-to-m outh
m ovem ents.
Blood lead levels above 10 ?g/dL can interfere w ith the developm ent of organ
system s, in particular the central nervous system . This affects babies and
young children, w hose bodies are developing rapidly, m ore than adults. A dverse
effects in neuro-behavioural function, particularly in intellectual perform ance
(decreasing IQ ) and behaviour, and im paired haem oglobin synthesis appear to be
the m ost com m on and dam aging effects of lead exposure.
A dults absorb about 10% of ingested lead, w hereas children’s less m ature
digestive system s can absorb approxim ately 50% because lead resem bles
calcium and children’s gastrointestinal tracts take up calcium at greater rates
than adults. N utritional de? ciencies of iron and calcium can also lead to greater
absorption, exacerbating the toxic effects of lead.
The Tenby10 project has had signi? cant success in reducing the blood lead levels
of Port Pirie’s children. Results in 2008 show ed that 63.1% of children tested
had levels below the W orld H ealth O rganization standard of 10 ?g/dL—an 8%
im provem ent on results in 2007. The project has m ade running im provem ents
each year since it began.
This result w as achieved through substantial investm ent by N yrstar in on-site
em ission control m easures and environm ental program s. In addition, extensive
com m unity education and aw areness program s have increased people’s
understanding of the interactions of lead dust in the environm ent and of how to
lim it children’s exposure to lead dust in the hom e.
Source: N yrstar Port Pirie Sm elter.
42 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Further inform ation on com m unity engagem ent is available from the:
? Community consultation and communication guidelines: The Dangerous Goods
Safety Management Act 2001, Chem ical H azards and Em ergency M anagem ent
(CH EM ) U nit, Q ueensland D epartm ent of Em ergency Services, M arch 2002
21
? Leading practice Community engagement and
development handbook (D ITR 2006).
4.3 Controls
W orker exposure to hazardous m aterials should alw ays be m inim ised, and exposure
m inim isation relies on control regim es.
22
Control regim es involve a hierarchy of controls:
1. Elim ination/substitution
2. Engineering controls
3. A dm inistrative controls
4. Personal protective equipm ent (PPE).
W hich regim e is appropriate depends on the nature of the job. For exam ple,
engineering controls are appropriate for norm al operations or tasks that continue for
long periods. Short-term or interm ediate tasks, such as m aintenance, rely m ore on
controls at the low er end of the hierarchy.
W hile PPE is im portant, action higher up the hierarchy should be considered ? rst.
Long-term use of PPE m ay not be the safest or m ost cost-effective control.
4.3.1 Elimination/substitution
The de? nitive w ay to reduce the risk from a process or substance in the w orkplace is
to com pletely rem ove that process or substance. H ow ever, m ore often substitution
is used to prevent health problem s; for exam ple, by replacing asbestos w ith safer
synthetic substitutes, such as glass foam , rock and glass w ool.
In som e industrial processes w here a less hazardous m aterial cannot be used, the
risk in handling hazardous m aterials can be reduced by changing the process. For
exam ple, an operation m ight:
? use a pelletised form of the hazardous substance, rather than a pow dered form
? vacuum or use an industrial sw eeper to clean up concentrate
dusts, rather than m anually sw eeping them up.
4.3.2 Engineering controls
A range of engineering controls is possible, including various types of containm ent
and ventilation system s.
21http://w w w .ret.gov.au/resources/sdm ining
22 Parts of the control strategies in this section have been extracted from Principles of occupation
health and hygiene: an introduction (A IO H 2007), published by the A ustralian Institute of
O ccupational H ygienists.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 43
CASE STUDY: The control of
pneumoconiosis in the New South Wales
coal industry
Coal w orkers pneum oconiosis (CW P) results from the gradual accum ulation of
coal dust particles in the lung tissue. In dusted lungs, nodules form in the upper
zones of both lungs, resulting in a debilitating disease w ith reduced lung function.
Detection of pneum oconiosis is usually by chest X-ray. CW P is a preventable
disease that can be elim inated by effective control and m onitoring strategies.
In 1948, the overall prevalence of CW P in N SW w as 16% —a totally unacceptable
situation by both m odern and historical standards. Coal Services H ealth data
show s that num bers of new cases of CW P have dropped aw ay, and that no new
cases have been detected since 1988. The drop in new cases is the result of the
coal industry’s efforts to control dust through ventilation and dust suppression
procedures, and through m onitoring (including w orkplace environm ental
m onitoring and m onitoring m iners’health w ith regular chest X-rays and lung
function testing). These im portant prevention and surveillance m easures have
ensured the steady decline in the incidence of new cases of pneum oconiosis
since a peak in 1970–1973. H ow ever, m any new m iners are entering the industry,
m aking it vitally im portant not to forget the O H S lessons of the past or the
im portance of dust suppression and health surveillance.
To that end, the N SW coal industry supports the Coal Services’Standing
Com m ittee on D ust Research and Control, w hich com prises personnel from
m ine operations, statutory authorities and health specialists w ho overview
every w orkplace dust sam ple collected in the industry and investigate regular
exceedances. The com m ittee also conducts research into relevant industry
issues (such as diesel particulate and inhalable dust) and better m ethods of dust
suppression and w orkplace m onitoring.
A n untiring focus over m ore than 50 years has elim inated this debilitating
disease from the N SW coal industry, but the sam e cannot be said for overseas
coal industries. Several years ago, cases of pneum oconiosis occurred in young
coal m iners in the U nited States. A s a result, the A m erican N ational Institute
for O ccupational Safety and H ealth and the M ine Safety and H ealth A uthority
set up the Enhanced Coal W orkers’H ealth Surveillance Program . A t that tim e,
the program detected 37 cases of coal m iners w ith dusted lungs. N otably, all 37
m iners had w orked underground for at least 10 years w ithout having had a chest
X-ray, 22 had w orked for 20 years w ithout an X-ray, and 2 had w orked for over 30
years w ithout radiology.
The im portance of principles of effective control backed by vigilant m onitoring
cannot be overstated. A problem m ight be under control, but it can easily
re-em erge if control and m onitoring procedures are discarded.
Source: Coal Services Pty Ltd.
44 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Isolation
If the w orker can be isolated com pletely from the hazard, the risk to health is
rem oved. Isolation m ay be by a physical or a distance barrier. Tim e is also a barrier,
although tim e m ay equally be considered an adm inistrative control. Isolation controls
include:
? rem ote storage of hazardous m aterials (for exam ple, explosives, fuel tank farm s)
? the separation of m aterials that could create hazards by com ing into
contact w ith each other by accident (for exam ple, oxidants and fuels).
O ccasionally, it is possible to use tim ed sequences to conduct hazardous operations
w hen few er w orkers are present. For exam ple, if a w orkplace is to be painted,
the painting should obviously be done outside norm al w orking hours to prevent
unnecessary exposure to solvent vapours.
Containment
O nce dust, fum es or vapours have escaped from the source, they becom e far m ore
dif? cult to control. A better strategy is to m axim ise containm ent by engineering
controls, for exam ple by:
? totally enclosing the w hole process and using an exhaust extraction system
? enclosing noisy m achinery in sound-proofed structures.
The design of structures to enclose or contain processes m ust allow for m aintenance
activities. Poorly designed enclosures can create a safety risk for m aintenance
w orkers or put their health at risk from an unpredictable exposure.
Care should be taken w hen locating potentially hazardous storage or operational
tasks in rem ote locations, because that rem oteness m ight cause new risks if there
are dif? culties or breakdow ns.
Potentially hazardous m aterials or processes should not be located near frequently
used thoroughfares and buildings.
Ventilation
Ventilation is the engineering control of contam inants by dilution or local exhaust
ventilation. It is one of the m ain m ethods of control of airborne chem ical hazards,
particularly contam inants in underground m ines.
Strict regulatory controls on respirable dust and respirable crystalline silica have
achieved dram atic reductions in the incidence of pneum oconiosis and silicosis in
underground m iners.
4.3.3 Administrative controls
In som e situations, the higher level control m echanism s do not w ork, or they cannot
be m ade to w ork w ell enough to com pletely elim inate the hazard. In such cases,
adm inistrative controls m ay be needed.
A dm inistrative controls include w orker rotation and schedules to rem ove w orkers
from exposure. A n extrem e form of w ork-schedule change w ould be to rotate tasks
w ithin a w orkgroup to spread the exposure across a larger num ber of staff.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 45
In m any circum stances, exposure to hazardous substances or a hazardous environm ent
cannot be avoided. If any w orkers are exposed to the m axim um perm issible level, they
m ay have to be rem oved from that task. Tw o exam ples are as follow s:
? In lead m ines, w orkers m ay be rem oved from the area of exposure if their
blood lead levels exceed a certain level, and kept aw ay from further lead
exposure until their blood lead falls to an acceptable level. The causes of the
exposure should be investigated im m ediately, w ith a view to elim inating it.
? In uranium m ines, w orkers are perm itted a m axim um radiation dose over a
speci? ed period.
To be able to use adm inistrative controls properly, w orkers have to be adequately
trained so that they know :
? w hy the adm inistrative control is being used
? the exact procedures and guidelines to be follow ed
? the lim itations of the adm inistrative control
? the consequences of ignoring the adm inistrative control.
In other w ords, w orker involvem ent, participation, training and education are critical
to success.
H ousekeeping and labelling are tw o adm inistrative control processes that lim it
inadvertent (especially skin) exposure to w orkplace hazards. The im portance
of m aintaining high standards of housekeeping cannot be overstated. D irty and
untidy w orkplaces increase the likelihood of secondary exposures. For exam ple,
lead concentrate dust raised by draughts and w ind, or inadvertent skin contact on
dirty surfaces and equipm ent, m ay cause extra exposures not identi? ed in the risk
assessm ent. Poor housekeeping also sends a m essage to site w orkers, contractors
and em ployees that poor w ork habits are acceptable.
4.3.4 Personal protective equipment
PPE is used w hen other m eans of exposure control cannot be em ployed. U se of
any PPE places restrictions upon w orkers; it reduces the ? exibility of a w orker’s
operation, m ay contribute to heat load on the w orker’s body, and affects the w orker’s
ability to do the task safely.
The selection of PPE is based on the risk assessm ent for the task, and care is
needed to provide the correct level of protection. In som e situations, excessive use
of PPE can com prom ise the w orker’s ability to w ork safely. For exam ple, a w elder
doing structural w ork inside a m ine storage shed m ay be w orking at heights in a hot
environm ent and trying to protect against w elding fum es as w ell as m etal fum es
from m etal concentrates.
Gloves
M ost people use their hands all the tim e at w ork, and hand injuries are consequently
very com m on. Such injuries can be physical traum a or chem ically induced dam age,
such as derm atitis. G ood practice w hen selecting gloves involves a risk assessm ent
of the hazard and consulting the w orkers (as dexterity and ‘feel’are im portant for
w orker acceptance).
46 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Leather, knitted or stitched gloves are good for protecting against sparks or scraping
against rough surfaces, but are not suitable for handling hazardous substances.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gloves are often w orn w hen w orkers are handling oils and
corrosives (acids and alkalis), but m ay offer little protection against m any organic
hazardous substances.
M aking the correct choice requires know ledge of the chem ical and perm eation
resistance of different glove m aterials. M ajor glove m anufacturers publish data on
the internet on the resistance of their glove m aterial to perm eation by the com m on
solvents used in industry.
Respiratory protective equipment and programs
Respiratory protective equipm ent (RPE) and respiratory protection program s are
often used at m ine sites to protect against dusts, chem icals and w elding fum es.
The key requirem ents of a respiratory protection program include:
? m anagem ent to adm inister the program
? know ledge of respiratory hazards
? w orkplace risk assessm ent of the respiratory hazards
? selection and purchase of appropriate type of R PE,
w ith the appropriate protection factor
? w orkers’acceptance of the RPE
? m edical assessm ent of respirator use for som e RPE users
? training in R PE use, including the correct ? t of respirators
? w ritten procedures and guidelines, available at the site
? inspection, m aintenance and repair of RPE
? audit and review of the program .
The person selecting and supervising the R PE program w ill also require training,
w hich can often be provided by the equipm ent supplier.
Respiratory protection program s should be in keeping w ith the requirem ents of:
? A S/N ZS 1715 Selection, use and maintenance of respiratory
protective devices (Standards A ustralia 2009)
? A S/N ZS 1716 Respiratory protective devices (Standards A ustralia 2003).
Respirators
Particulate respirators contain ? lters that trap dusts, m ists or fum es and allow the
w orker to breathe local air. There are tw o m ain form s—the traditional replaceable
? lter type and the m aintenance-free (disposable) type.
It is im portant to select the correct class of respiratory protection for the process
and not treat all respirators as equal.
A ustralian Standard 1715-2009 classi? es particulate respirators as:
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 47
? Class P1 for m echanically generated particulates (dusts and m ists)—particles
generated from operations such as grinding, blasting, spraying and pow der
m ixing, and containing, for exam ple, asbestos, silica, caustic m ist or lead (as
standards change, it w ill be necessary to review these de? nitions)
? Class P2 for therm ally generated particulates (fum es)—particles (m etal fum es)
generated by high-tem perature operations such as w elding, soldering, brazing
and sm elting
? Class P3 for highly toxic particulates, such as radioactive com pounds
and beryllium .
Dusts, m ists and vapours include particles of various sizes that are distributed
differently in the respiratory system . Particles sm aller than 100 ?m are generally
considered to be inhalable, but cannot be seen by the naked eye under norm al light.
Particles sm aller than this (approxim ately 10–50 ?m ) can penetrate to the upper part
of the lungs, and particles sm aller than 10 ?m can penetrate to the depths of the lungs.
Gases and vapours
G as/vapour respirators contain a specialised absorbent to trap those contam inants
(for exam ple, activated charcoal is used to trap organic vapours). A S/N ZS 1715 has a
num ber of gas and vapour classi? cations. Each ? lter type is designated by a letter or
chem ical abbreviation that indicates the substance or group or substances that it is
intended to protect against. Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 list ? lter classes and types.
Table 4.1: Gas/vapour ?lter classes
Class Description
Class A U S Low absorption capacity ? lters
Class 1 Low to m edium absorption capacity ? lters
Class 2 M edium absorption capacity ? lters
Class 3 H igh absorption capacity ? lters
Source: A S/N ZS 1716 (Standards A ustralia 2003).
Table 4.2: Gas/vapour ?lter types
Type Use
A For use against certain organic gases and vapours as speci? ed
B
For use against certain inorganic gases and vapours as speci? ed, excluding carbon
m onoxide
E For use against sulphur dioxide and other acid gases and vapours as speci? ed
G
For use against certain organic com pounds w ith vapour pressures less than 1.3 Pa
(0.01 m m H g) at 25°C as speci? ed. These ? lters shall have an integral particulate ? lter w ith
an ef? ciency at least equivalent to that of a P1 ? lter.
K
For use against am m onia and organic am m onia derivatives as speci? ed by the
m anufacturer
A X
For use against low boiling point organic com pounds as speci? ed by the m anufacturer
(boiling point less than 65°C)
N O For use against oxides of nitrogen
H g For use against m etallic m ercury
M B For use against m ethyl brom ide
Source: A S/N ZS 1716 (Standards A ustralia 2003).
48 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
A ll instructions and w arnings about product use, ? t and lim itations m ust be follow ed
for the product to w ork properly and provide adequate protection.
Facial hair that im pedes the seal of a respirator greatly reduces its effectiveness and
should be discouraged if respirator use is a part of norm al daily w ork.
Fit testing should be considered before a w orker uses a reusable respirator for the
? rst tim e. Som e people m ay be unable to achieve a satisfactory ? t.
Supplied-air and air-purifying respirators
Various types of RPE rely on either supplied fresh air or on purifying air w ith ? lters
(see Table 4.3). They have been developed for different applications and vary in
protection factors. Guidance from the supplier or an occupational hygienist is required.
Table 4.3: Supplied-air and air-purifying respirators
Type Description
A ir purifying, pow ered type Supplied air, self-contained pow ered air purifying respirator
(PA PR) uses a battery-driven fan to force air through a ? lter
assem bly and deliver cleaned air to a helm et, hood or face
m ask.
A ir purifying, replaceable ? lter type A facepiece (full face or half face) to w hich a replaceable ? lter
assem bly is connected. The user’s lung pow er is used to draw
the air through the ? lter.
A ir purifying, disposable A respirator w ith the ? lter as an integral part of the facepiece
and the ? lter is not replaceable. W hen exhausted the w hole
assem bly is discarded.
Supplied air, air hose The respirator facepiece is connected by a w ide diam eter hose
that is located outside the contam inated zone. The user’s lung
pow er draw s air to the facepiece (can be low pressure fan
assisted). The critical factor in air hose system s is they supply
air at or near atm ospheric pressure
Supplied air, com pressed air-line A ir for respiration is supplied by a sm all-bore line that
is connected to a com pressed air source. This m ay be a
com pressor, or com pressed air cylinders located a distance
from the w ork location. There are speci? cations in A S 1716
regarding the purity of air supplied system s and SCBA system s.
Supplied air, self contained The respirator facepiece is connected by a breathing tube to a
cylinder of breathable gas that is carried by the w earer. O ften
referred to as SCBA .
Source: A S/N ZS 1716 (Standards A ustralia 2003).
Protection factors
Inexperienced and untrained personnel should not attem pt to select correct RPE.
Som e regulations or codes of practice (for exam ple, the N ational O ccupational
H ealth and Safety Com m ission’s Code of Practice for the Management and Control
of Asbestos in Workplaces) spells out the m inim um R PE for situations w here it is
required.
23
A S/N ZS 1715 should be consulted to select the m ost appropriate R PE.
23http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/N R/rdonlyres/D B7C0238-F1D 3-4ED E-B444-
F7B751CE83FE/0/M anagem entCode.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 49
Tw o pieces of num erical inform ation are crucial in applying R PE successfully:
? the concentration of contam inant in the w orkplace;
? the target concentration inside the respirator.
Based on these data, it is possible to calculate the required m inim um protection
factor expected from particular RPE using the form ula:
Required minimum PF = concentration in workplace / Workplace Exposure Standard (or other target)
Concentration and the w orkplace exposure standard should be in the sam e units
(ppm or m g/m
3
).
A S/N ZS 1715 also contains an excellent decision tree for arriving at suitable RPE for
m ost applications. The standard deals w ith respirator selection under the sim pli? ed
headings of contam inant, task and operator.
Filter service life and breakthrough
A ? lter’s service life depends on its construction and on w orkplace factors such
as exposure conditions, the concentration of the contam inant, tem perature and
hum idity, and the w orker’s breathing rate and general respiratory com petence.
Service life m ust include som e unexpended reserve capacity as a safety m argin.
Im portantly, ? lters should not be used beyond expiry of their shelf life.
To som e extent, how long the ? lter in a respirator w ill last can only be determ ined by
experience, so it is better to rely on outside experience or advice from m anufacturers
than to chance unsafe practices. Som e suppliers have online system s into w hich the
concentrations can be entered to get an estim ate of the expected service life.
For any type of respirator, the w earer’s acceptance is also an im portant factor. For
particulate ? lters, ? ltration ef? ciency usually increases w ith use as dust particles
slow ly block the ? lter. This causes increased inhalation resistance. This m ay have
adverse effects for the w earer w hen RPE is used for continuous w ork or if the
w earer has som e m edical respiratory condition that m akes respirator use dif? cult.
The service life of such ? lters is over w hen the w earer can no longer tolerate the
increased breathing resistance.
For gas and vapour ? lters, m inim um service lifetim es can be calculated only if there
are reliable data on exposure conditions. O therw ise, scheduled m aintenance and
replacem ent program s w ith a reasonable m argin for safety m ust be scrupulously
adhered to.
Breakthrough of the contam inant, as indicated by odour, is a totally unreliable
m eans of determ ining the end of a respirator ? lter’s service life. Som e contam inants
are odourless; others have w orkplace exposure standards w ell below their odour
threshold. W ith som e substances, such as hydrogen cyanide, breakthrough m ight
have disastrous consequences—particularly because only half the population is
genetically able to detect hydrogen cyanide by odour.
50 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Inspection, maintenance and repair
The em ployer m ust provide all the PPE required for any operation involving
hazardous substances, and m ost m ines keep the bulk of the PPE in stores. Sm all
quantities of stock should also be available in w orkshops and plant areas w here
they m ight be needed. This particularly applies during night shift w hen stores m ay
be closed, or in m ore rem ote w orking locations. This stock is to be kept in a clearly
m arked, dedicated area, such as a w all or post-m ounted cabinet, to w hich em ployees
have ready access.
For non-disposable PPE, such as respirators and gloves, a proper m aintenance
program needs to be developed. The program should follow m anufacturers’
instructions and include:
? cleaning and sanitising of equipm ent
? storage
? repair
? inspection for defects.
Training in use
PPE m ust be used w hen required and w orn correctly to be of value. A n em ployee
training program is required w henever there is a likelihood that PPE m ay be required.
Training should be interactive and dem onstrate the use of the PPE. The follow ing
program form at addressing respiratory protection is from A S 1715:2009, but can be
m odi? ed for m ost form s of PPE:
? Identi? cation of the hazard
? Reasons for respirators
? Respirator selection
? U se and proper ? tting of respirators
? W ear tim e
? Lim itations of respirators
? M aintenance and storage.
W ith the exception of disposable-? lter respirators, the use of RPE requires a constant
program of inspection, m aintenance and repair. M aintenance includes w ashing,
cleaning, disinfecting w here necessary, inspection for w ear, checking for leaks,
replacem ent of w orn com ponents and replacem ent of ? lter com ponents.
It is essential to have proper storage in betw een use. G as and vapour ? lters can
continue to absorb contam inants w hen not in use, further exhausting their capacity.
Plastic sealable food storage containers or zip-lock plastic bags are ideal for
betw een-use storage.
W here possible, each w earer should be provided w ith their ow n individual R PE.
W here air com pressors are used for air-supplied respirators, there should also be a
m aintenance, inspection and testing program in place for the com pressors to ensure
the air quality.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 51
Medical assessment for suitability of RPE for some users
W earing R PE has som e physiological and psychological lim itations. A num ber of
m edical conditions can prevent a w orker from using RPE, including diabetes, asthm a,
em physem a, skin sensitivity, a punctured eardrum or chronic airw ays disease.
Som e w orkers feel claustrophobic w hen w earing a norm al ? lter respirator, but m ay
? nd a pow ered air-purifying respirator m ore acceptable.
4.4 Suppliers
M anufacturers, im porting suppliers and other suppliers have speci? c duties in
relation to hazardous substances used at w orkplaces.
A m anufacturer or im porting supplier m ust:
? determ ine w hether the substance is hazardous
? prepare an M SDS
? review and revise the M SD S every ? ve years
? label containers of the hazardous substance
? disclose a chem ical nam e to a registered m edical
practitioner in certain circum stances.
Im porters, m anufacturers and suppliers of hazardous substances and dangerous goods
are required to label those chem icals correctly, according to labelling guidelines.
Suppliers m ust not supply carcinogenic substances to anyone w ho does not hold a
licence to use them .
M anufacturers, im porting suppliers and suppliers of a hazardous substance for use at
a w orkplace m ust ensure that a current M SD S for the substance is provided w hen a
person:
? purchases the substance from the supplier for the ? rst tim e
? purchases the substance from the supplier at a later tim e and requests an M SDS
or
? purchases the substance from a retailer w ho originally
obtained it from the supplier and requests an M SD S.
The N SW H azardous M aterials (H azm at) Register of Suppliers contains inform ation
about providers that offer resources, equipm ent, products and advice to m inim ise
the environm ental effects of hazardous m aterials incidents.
24
24http://w w w .environm ent.nsw .gov.au/hazm at/register.htm
52 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
4.4.1 Transport codes
The Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail
(7th edition) provides procedures and protocols for the transport of dangerous
goods. The code provides detailed technical speci? cations, requirem ents and
recom m endations, and includes rules and recom m endations covering:
? the de? nition, classi? cation, packaging, m arking and labelling of substances
and articles that m eet the U nited N ations classi? cation criteria for dangerous
goods or are prescribed as dangerous goods by the com petent authority
? the consigning of dangerous goods for transport, including
loading, stow age, load detention and segregation
? the provision of transport docum entation describing the dangerous goods
being transported, and appropriate em ergency inform ation for those goods
? the unloading, receipt and transfer of dangerous goods
? the transport of dangerous goods, including the use of vehicles,
containers and equipm ent, and the provision of safety equipm ent.
Part 3 of the code incorporates a com prehensive listing of dangerous goods of all
classes.
The third edition of the A ustralian Explosives Transport Code
25
w as prepared by
the A ustralian Forum of Explosives Regulators and w as endorsed by the W orkplace
Relations M inisterial Council in A pril 2009. This code is the prim ary reference for
explosives and has been designed to com plem ent and be consistent w ith the 7th
edition of the A ustralian Code for the Transport of D angerous G oods by Road and
Rail.
26
The code adopts the classi? cation, packaging and labelling system for explosives
detailed in the U nited N ations’Recom m endations on the Transport of D angerous
G oods—M odel Regulations (16th revised edition)
27
and is designed to com plem ent the
International M aritim e D angerous G oods Code.
W hile the Transport of D angerous G oods Code provides guidance in the transport
of hazardous m aterials, som e substances are singled out for further m anagem ent
controls. O ne exam ple is am m onium nitrate, w hich is used in m ining and related
activities as an explosive com ponent but is also w idely used as a fertiliser. Security
is the overriding consideration, to prevent access to this m aterial by potential
terrorists.
25http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/IndustryInform ation/A FER/
26http://w w w .ntc.gov.au/? lem edia/Publications/A D G 7Volum e1Introduction.pdf
27http://w w w .unece.org/trans/publications/dg_recom m end.htm l
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 53
CASE STUDY: Ammonium nitrate transport
The Council of Australian Governm ents (CO AG) agreed in 2004 to a national
licensing system for security-sensitive am m onium nitrate (SSA N ), and legislation has
been introduced in each state and territory to give effect to the system . Transport of
SSA N m ust also m eet the safety requirem ents of the Australian Dangerous Goods
Code or jurisdictional occupational health and safety requirem ents. Additional
requirem ents of the licensing system m ean that transport of this hazardous
substance w ithin Australia is arguably w orld’s best practice.
Included in the SSA N designation are am m onium nitrate, am m onium nitrate
em ulsions and m ixtures containing greater than 45% am m onium nitrate, although
there are certain exclusions (for exam ple, Class 1 explosives and fertilisers such as
calcium am m onium nitrate). Class 1 explosives are gunpow der and other explosives
that have a m ass explosion hazard (that is, if part of the load detonates, the entire
load w ill explode). Class 1.1 and Class 1.2 include m ost of the com m on blasting
explosives, such as packaged em ulsions and w ater gels, detonating cords, boosters,
detonators and certain types of Com m onw ealth m unitions.
A transport licence is not required for less than 20 kilogram s of SSA N and there
are exem ptions for up to 5 tonnes for agricultural use, but all others planning to
m ove SSA N m ust subm it a security plan as outlined in the transport guidance
note accessible at the A ustralian N ational Security w ebsite.
28
The SSA N m ust be transported in a locked or sealed container or be under
constant surveillance by an authorised person w ho has undergone police and
PM V (politically m otivated violence) checks and is identi? ed by the 100-point
identi? cation system generally used by ? nancial institutions.
29
The authorised
person m ust be clearly identi? ed in the security plan. Transport m ust be
from one secure location to another, both of w hich m ust be identi? ed in the
security plan, and the SSA N m ust never be left unattended in an unsecured
location. Strict record-keeping is required, both for inventory purposes (and any
discrepancies reported to authorities) and to dem onstrate that the SSA N has
been obtained from an authorised person and supplied to an authorised person.
D iversion of hazardous substances to illicit uses that m ay pose dangers to
em ployees or the public is a serious risk, and best practice is required if the risk
is to be m inim ised or elim inated.
28http://w w w .nationalsecurity.gov.au/agd/w w w /nationalsecurity.nsf/D 2801B61EA BE80A 2CA 2
56809001328BA /8FCA 7A 705B40263A CA 25701B00155D 7A
29http://w w w .aussiem igrant.com /your_? nances/f.htm
(continued)
54 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Transport ing hazardous subst ances
Source: CSBP Lim ited.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 55
4.4.2 Handling and storage
The handling and storage of hazardous m aterials requires the sam e care as is taken
for active involvem ent w ith those substances in the w orkplace, including training of
personnel. Storage of high-risk hazardous m aterials, such as cyanide and explosives,
needs to be organised so that access is only available to authorised staff, there is
strict inventory control and there are regular inspections.
A ll m ine sites should have their existing dangerous goods storage licensed and
registered w ith the regulating authority.
W hen the states and territories introduced their dangerous goods regulations, the
regulations w ere retrospective. Existing storage w as approved w here the licensee
could dem onstrate that the storage provided a level of safety equal to that required
in the regulations. A ll new installations for licensable quantities of dangerous
goods and signi? cant alterations to existing facilities are required to com ply fully
w ith the regulations. A n application for a licence to store dangerous goods m ust
be received and approved before the construction of new facilities is perm itted.
A m ong the requirem ents for licensing of a bulk storage facility is docum entation of
tank approval. This is certi? cation that the storage tank has been constructed to a
suitable standard and is in good condition at the tim e of installation.
Spills and leaks m ay occur during storage and handling of hazardous m aterials and
need to be dealt w ith safely and expeditiously. The follow ing A ustralian Standards
provide guidance in relation to spills m anagem ent for dangerous goods and
com bustible liquids:
A S 1894-1997 The storage and handling of non-? am m able cryogenic and
refrigerated liquids
A S 1940-1993 Storage and handling of ? am m able and com bustible liquids
A S 4326-1995 The storage and handling of oxidizing agents
A S 2507-1984 The storage and handling of pesticides
A S 3780-1994 The storage and handling of corrosive substances
A S 3833-1995 The storage and handling of m ixed classes of dangerous goods in
packages and interm ediate containers
A S 3846-1998 The handling and transport of dangerous cargoes in port areas
A S 2243.10-1993 Safety in laboratories Part 10—storage of chem icals
A S 4681-2000 The storage and handling of Class 9 (M iscellaneous) D angerous
G oods A rticles
M ore detail of the legislative requirem ents is in Section 2.1.2 of this handbook.
56 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Storage of incompatible dangerous goods
This section is adapted from Q ueensland’s Safe Storage and H andling of D angerous
G oods: G uidelines for Industry.
30
W hen incom patible hazardous m aterials com e into contact w ith one another during
a spill or release, the goods can react together adversely to cause ? re, explode or
release toxic, ? am m able or corrosive vapours.
W orkplaces w here dangerous goods or com bustible liquids are stored or handled
m ust have system s and procedures to prevent them com ing into contact.
To m anage the storage of incom patible goods, operations m ust:
? identify each of the dangerous goods intended to be stored onsite
? recognise goods or other m aterials that are incom patible.
The com patibility and segregation tool developed by the Q ueensland G overnm ent
can be used to determ ine w hether each com bination of dangerous goods and
com bustible liquids is likely to be com patible.
31
The tool is only a guide and not m eant
to replace an M SD S or a risk assessm ent.
A n im portant part of identifying incom patible goods and m aterials is a review of
the storage and handling inform ation in the M SDS for each dangerous good. A fter
review ing the M SDS inform ation, operators should list each incom patible dangerous
good or other m aterial m entioned in the M SDS and take appropriate m easures to
keep them apart.
Factors to consider when determining incompatibility
The factors in? uencing com patibility are com plex. A ssessm ents should consider the
follow ing factors:
? A violent reaction (? re or explosion) betw een one or
m ore highly reactive chem icals m ay occur.
? A reaction betw een tw o or m ore spilt goods m ay liberate ? am m able, toxic
or corrosive vapours or gases. Such reactions can be rapid or occur slow ly
over tim e until a build-up of a hazardous m aterial creates an em ergency.
? Released or spilled goods m ay deteriorate, contam inate or destroy the
packaging m aterials of another incom patible product to w orsen a situation.
? Flam m able goods stored next to other toxic or corrosive m aterials m ay
catch ? re, causing rapid dispersal of those m aterials into the environm ent.
? Flam m able m aterials m ay catch ? re and set ? re to other products stored
nearby (for exam ple, gas cylinders, resulting in rupturing of a cylinder).
? Fire suppression com pounds suitable for one type of dangerous good m ay
be incom patible w ith other dangerous goods stored in the sam e area.
? M aterials used in the construction of spill catchm ent system s m ay react
w ith dangerous goods spilled on them (for exam ple, hydrochloric acid w ill
rapidly corrode concrete w alls used as a spill containm ent system ).
30http://w w w .em ergency.qld.gov.au/chem /publications/pdf/G uidelines_for_Industry_version1A _
SW 2D raft.pdf
31http://w w w.deir.qld.gov.au/w orkplace/subjects/hazardousm aterials/incom patible/isolation/index.htm
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 57
4.4.3 Chemical supplier stewardship through the mine cycle
The supplier is part of the stew ardship chain. A ll entities in that chain need to w ork
together and be aw are of constraints and opportunities at every stage. This is the
preferred approach to stew ardship as set out in the Stewardship handbook (D ITR
2006): a shared approach that attem pts to build engagem ent through the life cycle,
w ith particular em phasis on cooperation and partnership. This approach is m ost
evident in the supply and use of cyanide
32
and am m onium nitrate, w hich are am ong
the m ost hazardous m aterials used on m ine sites, but elem ents of best practice
involving suppliers m ay be found in connection w ith other m aterials as w ell.
4.5 Environment
There are tim es during m ining w hen hazardous m aterials can affect the environm ent
by becom ing bioavailable to dow nstream ecosystem s. The m ost com m on pathw ay
is from m ine w astes, ore stockpiles and m ine operations into surface w ater or
groundw ater. Spills during the m ineral processing circuit are another potential
pathw ay, but are less com m on.
If hazardous m aterials used in the m ining industry are m ism anaged, they can poison
hum ans, anim als, plants and aquatic ecosystem s, disrupt their reproductive processes
or their habitat, or som etim es generate ? res or explosions. They can cause considerable
harm if allow ed to leach into sensitive w ater resources. M any hazardous m aterials are
highly m obile, do not degrade or are not attenuated in soils or w aterbodies. Som e are
harm ful at very low concentrations (in the parts per billion range). O nce hazardous
m aterials enter soil or w ater resources, they m ay go undetected for long periods, cause
extended loss of values and be very costly to rem edy.
The W estern Australian Departm ent of W ater’s Toxic and hazardous substances—storage
and use
33
provides guidance on how im pacts on the environm ent m ay stem from :
? leakage of ? uids from dam aged or corroded chem ical storage system s
? accidental spills during transport or m aintenance of equipm ent
? poor chem ical handling, m isuse or vandalism
? dispersion of a chem ical spill or leakage by w ater used to
control ? re at hazardous substances storage facilities
? dispersion of chem ical concentrates in uncontrolled storm w ater run-off.
The im pact on the environm ent from hazardous m aterials used and generated by
m ining is discussed in other handbooks in the leading practice series, including Acid
and metalliferous drainage, Cyanide management, Water management and Tailings
management.
32 International Cyanide M anagem ent Code,http://w w w .cyanidecode.org.
33http://portal.w ater.w a.gov.au/portal/page/portal/W aterQ uality/Publications/
W aterQ ualityProtectionN otes/Content/W Q PN _65.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 59
5.0 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
Purpose
This section considers techniques, such as m onitoring, reporting and auditing, that
provide inform ation about use of and exposure to hazardous m aterials.
Key messages
? Procedures for m onitoring are based on identi? ed hazards
and take into account regulatory requirem ents.
? Reporting against targets is im portant for dem onstrating com pliance.
? A uditing by second or third parties can provide oversight of perform ance.
5.1Health and environmental monitoring
Each site should have in place a m onitoring program that is based on ‘due diligence’.
D ue diligence is not ‘taking general precautions’, but a m indset concentrating on
likely or potentially likely risks.
The risks from hazardous substances and dangerous goods m ust be incorporated into the
site’s speci? c m onitoring program to ensure that potential exposure to the environm ent,
w orkers on site and the com m unity is m inim ised throughout the site’s life cycle.
Procedures for risk assessm ent and m anagem ent are described in the Risk
assessment and management handbook (D R ET 2008b). Section 3.2.1 of that
handbook discusses w orkplace health and safety, noting that the consequences of
an unsafe w orkplace are unacceptable to em ployees, their fam ilies, com m unities,
governm ent health authorities and m ining com panies. Best practice involves the
application of robust standardised risk m anagem ent processes to protect the health
and safety of people. Sim ilarly, hazardous m aterials released to the environm ent
during m ining operations can affect com m unity health and dam age ecosystem s, both
of w hich can be avoided by using best practice. The principles of best practice apply
to the closure of m ines, as w ell as to the period of active m ining.
H azardous substances and dangerous goods can only be m onitored for any real or
perceived effects if they have been identi? ed, registered and thoroughly assessed
according to their potential risk to the environm ent, as w ell as to the health of staff
and people likely to com e into contact w ith the substances.
Exposure standards and/or guidelines for m any substances have been established
in A ustralia or internationally. Based on those standards and guidelines, m onitoring
program s m ust be established to speci? cally address each identi? ed high-risk
or m edium -risk substance. A program m ay involve one or all of electronic area
or personnel m onitoring, the taking of sam ples for assays, and observations by
trained and accredited personnel, such as occupational hygienists and quali? ed
environm ental technologists.
60 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Results of the m onitoring program m ust be recorded, docum ented and review ed at
regular intervals for effectiveness and potential m odi? cation to im prove procedures
and keep them updated w ith the latest A ustralian and international research.
Independent auditors should review and validate the m onitoring program , in addition
to routine review s by m anagem ent-appointed personnel.
Site-speci? c plans m ust m onitor the environm ent—that, is the potential exposure
of hum ans, livestock, w ildlife and other biota through the release of the identi? ed
hazardous substances and dangerous goods to the air (vapours), soil (spillages) and
surface or groundw ater.
The m onitoring plan m ay include speci? c advice for various types of em ission
that m ay result from hazardous m aterial, because the effects of substances can
vary according to the receiving environm ent (air, w ater and biota). To assess the
quantitative and qualitative effect, relevant standards, guidelines and procedures
need to be consulted, such as:
? Australian drinking water guidelines (N H M RC 2004)
? Guidelines for assessing human health risks from
environmental hazards (en-H ealth 2004)
34
? the N ational Pollutant Inventory’s em ission
estim ation technique m anuals (N PI 1999)
? Safe W ork A ustralia national exposure standards.
The collection, preservation and transport of sam ples (solution, soil and air) and the
assay techniques to be used for them should be negotiated w ith N ational A ssociation
of Testing A uthorities-accredited laboratories to ensure that best practice is achieved
and decisions are based on reliable data.
A ll electronic m onitors m ust be regularly calibrated as directed by the m anufacturer
and against certi? ed standards.
5.1.1Occupational exposure standards
In w orkplace exposure m onitoring, exposure standards refer to the level of exposure,
via inhalation, that should not cause ill health in a healthy adult. The results from air
sam pling can be com pared against exposure standards and can be used as a guide to
assist in the control of health hazards. Exposure standards are also variously know n
as ‘threshold lim it values’(TLVs), ‘occupational exposure lim its’(O ELs) or ‘w orkplace
exposure lim its’(W ELs). In general, all such term s are interchangeable.
In m any cases, exposure standards are based on the ‘no observed adverse effect
level’; in other cases, they are based on the ‘low est observed adverse effect level’.
Som e are given by reference to sim ilar substances w ith better datasets. For m any
chem icals, there seem s to be a ‘threshold dose’below w hich no signi? cant adverse
effect w ill occur in m ost people. Epidem iological and toxicological studies, coupled
w ith occupational hygiene m easurem ents, help to identify that threshold.
34http://enhealth.nphp.gov.au/council/pubs/pdf/envhazards.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 61
O ccupational exposure standards are developed by Safe W ork A ustralia and
regulated through state legislation. The standards refer to airborne levels of
hazardous substances, including dust and crystalline silica generated during m ining,
to w hich it is believed nearly all w orkers m ay be repeatedly exposed over a w orking
life w ithout adverse health effects.
N ational Exposure Standards have been established for chem icals and hazardous
m aterials that are know n to cause long-term health effects (such as cancer, or
respiratory diseases such as silicosis, pneum oconiosis and asbestosis).
A n exposure standard represents an airborne concentration of a particular substance
in the w orker’s breathing zone. A ccording to current know ledge and for nearly all
w orkers, exposure to that concentration should not cause adverse health effects or
undue discom fort. The exposure standard can be in one of three form s:
? time-weighted average (TW A ) is an 8-hour tim e-w eighted
average w ork day and a 40-hour w ork w eek
? short-term exposure limit (STEL) is a 15-m inute TW A exposure
that should not be exceeded at any tim e during the w ork day,
even if the 8-hour TW A is w ithin the exposure lim it
? peak (som etim es called ‘ceiling’) is the concentration that should
not be exceeded during any part of the w orking exposure.
These standards are based on the concept of the ‘threshold of intoxication’—for each
substance, no m atter how toxic, there is a dose (the threshold of intoxication) that
the hum an body can accept and detoxify w ithout injury.
The exposure standards established for chem ical agents are based on a num ber of
factors, including toxicity, physiological response (biologic action) and unbearable
odours. Exam ples of such factors include:
? Irritants (for exam ple, hydrochloric acid fum es, am m onia)—ability to cause
in? am m ation of m ucous m em branes that they com e into contact w ith
? Asphyxiants (for exam ple, sim ple asphyxiants such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and helium ; and chem ical asphyxiants such as carbon
m onoxide and cyanides)—ability to deprive the tissue of oxygen
? Anaesthetics (for exam ple, ether and chloroform )—depressant
action on the central nervous system , particularly the brain
? Carcinogens (for exam ple, asbestos, crystalline silica)—cause cancers
? Unbearable odour (for exam ple, m ercaptans)
? Toxic effect (for exam ple, lead).
W here such exposure standards exist, it is best practice and in m any cases a
statutory requirem ent to m aintain w orkplace exposures below those lim its. M any
organisations introduce their ow n ‘safety factor’by initiating m itigating action at an
‘action level’, w hich in m any cases is 50% of the exposure standard.
62 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
The national exposure standards are based on 8-hour shifts, and m ust be adjusted
w hen w orkers are w orking 12-hour shifts. Som e m ining authorities have special
form ulas that take into account 12-hour shifts as w ell as the m ining roster,
particularly for ? y-in, ? y–out (‘FIFO ’) operations.
5.1.2 Health surveillance
Recognition of health hazards in the w orkplace is fundam ental to their proper
control. O ccupational disease still occurs because em ployers and their w orkers
are often unaw are of the hazardous nature of m aterials or processes in particular
w orkplaces. H ealth hazards often arise from unexpected sources, as w ell as from
w ell-docum ented sources.
U nderstanding the particular industrial process and the sources of exposure is the
key to providing a healthy w orkplace. D eterm ining the health risk requires know ledge
of the w ork practices, the chem icals or m aterials, and the potential routes of
exposure (inhalation, skin absorption, skin contam ination, poor personal hygiene,
sm oking).
Because the long latency period of m any diseases m akes direct health indicators less
useful, it is obviously not a good strategy to w ait until w orkers becom e ill. It is best to
m anage the potential risks to w orkers through a w ell-designed surveillance strategy.
Som e hazards can be seen, m ost cannot, but all need evaluating. It m ay be dif? cult
to recognise som e operations as dangerous to health if few w orkers com plain of ill
health and m ost are prepared to tolerate the dust, fum es and noise.
Sim ply identifying a risk does not determ ine its signi? cance; how ever, evaluating the
risk m akes it possible to answ er these questions:
? Is the particular risk from exposure acceptable?
? D oes it m eet regulatory requirem ents?
? W ill it need controlling to m ake it healthy and safe?
? A re there special controls for this hazard?
? H ow m uch control is needed?
? W hat is the m ost effective control m echanism for this process?
In m any situations, evaluation of the risks w ill show that no action is needed.
Experience can be a guide to assessing risk w ithout m easurem ent, provided there
are adequate indicators (such as odour or visual cues) and production param eters
are know n. H ow ever, it usually takes an occupational hygienist a decade or so of
experience to be able to m ake such judgm ents, using instrum ental veri? cation as
back-up. The eye cannot judge a concentration of 0.1 m g/m
3
of quartz dust particles
it cannot see; the nose cannot judge 0.02 m g/m
3
of isocyanates vapour it cannot
sm ell, or the concentrations of various organic vapours in a m ixture; the ear cannot
judge the integrated noise dose of interm ittent or im pulse sounds. There is often no
substitute for proper instrum ental evaluation, w hich should be perform ed only by
som eone w ith the appropriate skills.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 63
In som e situations, usually de? ned by statutory authorities, m edical surveillance
w ill be required. M edical surveillance should be conducted under the guidance of an
occupational physician.
It is recom m ended that m iners and contractors be given a pre-em ploym ent m edical
exam ination to ensure that they do not have pre-existing conditions that could
be aggravated and dam aging to their health w hen they w ork at a m ine site. M ine
ow ners’and m ining industries’current practice for regular m edical exam inations is
variable. The m ost w ell-established system is that in N SW for coal m iners, w ho have a
? ve-yearly full m edical exam ination.
M onitoring of occupational exposures to respirable dust, respirable silica or
particular hazardous substances m ay determ ine that certain w orkers should undergo
routine m edical surveillance, despite protection from PPE. The risk assessm ent
can be used by an occupational physician to determ ine the appropriate health
surveillance and frequency of testing.
H ealth surveillance can be extended to include other high-risk hazardous substances
w here the potential for sources of exposure other than airborne dusts is im portant.
Blood lead m onitoring of w orkers in sm elters and certain m ining activities (including
m aintenance w orkers) highlights the im portance of personal hygiene habits in
preventing exposures and dam age to w orkers’health. In som e lead m ine sites,
w orkers are not allow ed to sm oke on site, as skin contam ination is an im portant
source of exposure.
Biological m onitoring can be considered for w orkers, particularly those involved
in sm elting, to reassure them that they have not been exposed to levels of heavy
m etals that m ight cause adverse health effects.
Sum m aries of biological m onitoring and health surveillance techniques can be found in:
? Health surveillance and biological monitoring on the W estern
A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum w ebsite
35
? Guidelines for health surveillance on the Safe W ork A ustralia w ebsite.
36
5.1.3 Monitoring procedures
O perations m ust develop site-speci? c m onitoring procedures that include separate,
speci? c procedures for each of identi? ed substance. The procedures should cover
all operations on the site in w hich identi? ed m aterials are handled, received, used or
produced as product, by-product or w aste, and all storage areas.
O ccupational hygiene m onitoring and assessm ent of w orker exposure can be
com plex because of the variability of w orkers’activities during a shift. A useful
reference source is Simpli?ed monitoring strategies, published by the A ustralian
Institute of O ccupational H ygienists (A IO H 2001).
35http://w w w .dm p.w a.gov.au/6747.aspx
36http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/N R/rdonlyres/481CF3F5-8C4B-4BCC-A F65-
3FD BA 031D 43B/0/H ealthSurveillance.pdf
64 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
H ealth, safety and environm ental com ponents are intrinsic to m onitoring procedures
and need to be addressed individually.
5.2 Auditing
A n audit is a system atic investigation or appraisal of docum ented procedures,
system s or operations to determ ine w hether they conform to prescribed procedures,
guidelines, standards or regulations. The audit is based on veri? able inform ation,
records or statem ents of fact.
Three types of audits are practised:
? A ?rst-party audit is an internal audit carried out by of? cers of the com pany or
by a consultant com m issioned to conduct the audit. It is often program m ed as
a series of phased audits, w hich should extend to the w hole of the m anagem ent
system . In sm all organisations, a ? rst-party audit m ay lack objectivity.
? A second-party audit is an external audit carried out by a m ajor
custom er, usually at no cost to the auditee. It m ay be scheduled, but
unannounced audits are com m on. It is usually restricted to that part
of the m anagem ent system , operations and procedures that relates to
the speci? c custom er’s w ork. Second-party audits should be objective
but m ay be distorted by the custom er–supplier relationship.
? A third-party audit is an external audit carried out by an independent
organisation, usually a certi? cation body. A ll fees and costs are paid by the
auditee. The audit m ay be a full, partial, phased, follow -up or surveillance audit
and should exam ine the w hole of the system covered by the certi? cation.
The use of skilled and independent auditors should ensure objectivity.
5.2.1Environmental
A n environm ental audit w ill investigate the im pact of the operations on the
environm ent, the processes instigated by the com pany to elim inate or m inim ise that
im pact, and the effectiveness of those processes.
The Evaluating performance: monitoring and auditing handbook (D R ET 2009) covers
in detail the reasons for environm ental auditing and the m ethodology.
There are several types of environm ental auditing:
? A n environmental performance audit is directed at verifying a m ine’s
environm ental status against speci? c, predeterm ined audit criteria.
The audit program objectives should articulate senior m anagem ent’s
and/or the board’s expectations for the audit program .
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 65
? A n environmental management system (EMS) audit is a type of
environm ental perform ance audit in w hich the audit scope is de? ned as the
EM S or selected parts of it. The audit criteria are the internal environm ental
policies, procedures, standards, codes of practice and so on of the EM S, and
their im plem entation. The EM S audit is designed to determ ine w hether a
m ining operation is doing w hat it says it w ill do in its docum entation of the
EM S, and w hether the EM S has been effectively im plem ented throughout the
m ine or that part of it selected for the EM S audit. A n EM S audit m ay assess
conform ance w ith a standard, such as ISO 14001 or a m ining com pany’s
speci? c EM S criteria (w hich m ight or m ight not be based on ISO 14001).
O ther types of audit, possibly m andatory under prevailing legislation, share m any of
the features of these tw o types.
5.2.2 Compliance
Com panies are required to operate under licence according to relevant state or
national legislative instrum ents, including A cts, Regulations and licences.
A com pliance audit carried out by independent auditors determ ines w hether the
com pany’s operations are in accordance w ith all applicable legislation or the EM S,
or w hether a speci? c licence is in accordance w ith the relevant legislation or code. It
w ill also include observed perform ance according to the docum ented m anagem ent
system . The audit report w ill state w hether the operation is fully com pliant w ith the
relevant legislation or codes, is com pliant subject to the recti? cation of listed non-
conform ances, or is not com pliant.
W here non-conform ances relate to com pliance w ith licence conditions, the operation
m ay have a speci? ed tim e in w hich to rectify them . Failure to do so m ay result in
prosecution and potential closure of the operation by the relevant regulator.
5.2.3 Performance
U nder the com pany’s m anagem ent plan, it is obliged to carry out regular
assessm ents of key areas of the operation. The assessm ent determ ines w hether
each operation com plies w ith perform ance requirem ents for output and obligations
under safety and environm ental guidelines and regulations. A ssessm ent is usually
through ? rst-party or second-party audits. U nderperform ance or non-perform ance
w ill activate a corrective action request to the personnel in charge of the section
found lacking.
H azardous m aterials perform ance m onitoring can also be included through key
perform ance indicators established in the m anagem ent business plan for close-out
of audit ? ndings, especially w here legislative lim its are exceeded.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 67
GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS LIST
Acid A n inorganic or organic com pound that has a pH of less than
7, neutralises bases or alkalis and turns litm us paper red.
A cids are corrosive to hum an tissue and are to be handled
w ith care.
Acut e exposure Short-term exposure, usually occurring at high
concentration.
Acut e healt h effect A n effect that develops either im m ediately or a short tim e
after exposure.
ADG7 A ustralian D angerous G oods Code
Alkali A ny com pound having highly basic properties, w ith a pH
above 7 and able to turn litm us paper blue. A lkalis are very
corrosive to hum an tissue and are to be handled w ith care.
AMD acid and m etalliferous drainage
Analysis A process used to identify the kinds or quantities of
ingredients in a substance.
ANFO am m onium nitrate –fuel oil
Asbest osis A chronic lung disease caused by inhaling asbestos ? bres.
Asphyxiant A vapour or gas that can cause unconsciousness or death by
suffocation (lack of oxygen).
Ast hma A disease caused by spasm odic contraction of the
bronchioles in the lungs.
Biological
monit oring
The m easurem ent and evaluation of hazardous substances
or their m etabolites in the body tissues, ? uids or exhaled air
of a person.
Boiling point The tem perature at w hich a liquid changes from a liquid to a
gas at norm al atm ospheric pressure.
Carcinogens A gents/com pounds that can induce cancer in hum ans.
CAS Regist ry
Number
A num ber assigned to a chem ical substance by the Chem ical
A bstracts Service (CA S) of the A m erican Chem ical Society
as a unique identi? er.
Chemical formula A form ula that indicates the elem ents that m ake up a
com pound; som etim es called the m olecular form ula.
Chemical name The proper scienti? c nam e of the active ingredient in a
product.
Combust ible liquid A liquid that has a ? ash point above 37.8ºC.
68 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Compressed gas A m aterial that is a gas at room tem perature (20ºC) and
pressure but is packaged as a pressurised gas, dissolved gas
or gas lique? ed by com pression or refrigeration.
Condensat ion The process of reducing a substance from one form to
another, denser form , such as steam to w ater.
Cont ainer A nything in or by w hich substances are or have been w holly
or partly encased, covered, enclosed, contained or packed
(w hether em pty, partially full or com pletely full), but not
including a bulk container:
? in the case of a container designed to hold gas—a
container that has a capacity of m ore than 500 litres
? in the case of a container designed to hold
either solids or liquids—a container that has
either a net m ass of m ore than 400 kilogram s
or a capacity of m ore than 450 litres.
Densit y The w eight of a m aterial in a given volum e, usually given in
gram s per m illilitre (g/m L).
Dermal U sed on or applied to the skin.
Dermat it is In? am m ation of the skin.
Dose The am ount of an agent that has entered the body through
the various routes of entry.
Dust Solid particles form ed by m echanical action and suspended
in air.
Emphysema A n irreversible lung disease resulting in an excessive loss of
lung capacity.
Exposure The intensity, frequency and duration of any contact w ith
an agent that is present in the environm ent. A person is
exposed to a hazardous substance if they absorb or are
likely to absorb substances by ingestion, inhalation or
through the skin (derm al absorption) or m ucous m em brane.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 69
Exposure limit s Established concentrations w hich, if not exceeded, w ill not
generally cause adverse effects to the exposed w orker.
Exposure lim its differ in nam e and m eaning depending on
origin. For exam ple:
? TW A EV: tim e-w eighted average exposure
value. The average airborne concentration of a
biological or chem ical agent to w hich a w orker
m ay be exposed in a w ork day or a w ork w eek
? STEV: short-term exposure value. The m axim um
airborne concentration of a chem ical or biological agent
to w hich a w orker m ay be exposed in any 15-m inute
period, provided that the TW A EV is not exceeded
? CEV: ceiling exposure value. The m axim um airborne
concentration of a biological or chem ical agent to
w hich a w orker m ay be exposed at any tim e
? SKIN . Indicates that direct or airborne contact w ith
the product m ay result in signi? cant absorption of
the product through the skin, m ucous m em branes
or eyes. This notation is intended to suggest that
preventive action be taken against absorption
of the agent through these routes of entry.
? TLV: TW A threshold lim it value. TW A is the tim e-
w eighted average concentration for a norm al
8-hour w ork day and a 40-hour w ork w eek, to
w hich nearly all w orkers m ay be repeatedly
exposed, day after day, w ithout adverse effect
? TLV–STEL: threshold lim it value –short-term exposure
lim it. A 15-m inute tim e-w eighted average exposure that
should not be exceeded at any tim e during a w ork day,
even if the 8-hour TW A is w ithin the TLV. Exposures at
the STEL should not be repeated m ore than four tim es a
day, and there should be at least
60 m inutes betw een successive exposures at the STEL
? TLV–C: threshold lim it value –ceiling. The
concentration that should not be exceeded
during any part of the w orking exposure.
O ther exposure lim its include perm issible exposure lim its
(PELs), w hich are legal exposure lim its in the U nited States.
Flash point The low est tem perature at w hich a liquid gives off enough
vapour to form an ignitable m ixture of vapour and air
im m ediately above the liquid surface.
Fume A n airborne dispersion consisting of m inute solid particles
arising from the heating of a solid.
Gas A form less ? uid that occupies the space of its enclosure.
GHS G lobally H arm onized System of Classi? cation and Labelling
of Chem icals
Hazard The potential for harm ful effects.
Healt h surveillance The m onitoring of people to identify changes (if any) in their
health due to exposure to a hazardous substance. Includes
biological m onitoring but does not include the m onitoring of
atm ospheric contam inants.
Ignit ion
t emperat ure
The low est tem perature at w hich a com bustible m aterial w ill
catch on ? re in air and continue to burn independently of
the source of heat.
Ingest ion Taking a m aterial into the body by eating it.
Inhalat ion Taking a m aterial into the body by breathing it in.
Int ernat ional
Council on Mining
and Met als (ICMM)
A n organisation that represents m any of the w orld’s leading
m ining and m etals com panies, as w ell as regional, national
and com m odity associations, and is com m itted to the
responsible production of m inerals and m etals.
Irrit ant A m aterial that irritates w hatever tissue it com es into
contact w ith.
Key performance
indicat ors (KPIs)
Predeterm ined targets that help an organisation de? ne and
m easure progress tow ards organisational goals.
Leading Pract ice
Sust ainable
Development
Program for t he
Mining Indust ry
A program that integrates the environm ental, social and
econom ic aspects of 14 key them es across all phases of
the m ining industry, from exploration, construction and
operation, through to m ine closure and rehabilitation.
Mist Suspended liquid droplets in air caused by condensation or
spraying.
MSDS M aterial Safety D ata Sheet
Mut agen A n agent that affects the genes or cells of exposed people
in such a w ay that it m ay cause cancer in the exposed
individual or an undesirable m utation in a later generation.
Neut ralise To return pH to the neutral level of 7 by adding an acid to a
base or a base to an acid.
NIOSH N ational Institute of O ccupational H ealth and Safety
NOHSC N ational O ccupational H ealth and Safety Com m ission
Odour t hreshold The airborne concentration, usually in parts per m illion, at
w hich an odour becom es noticeable.
Part s per million
(ppm)
A m easure of the concentration of a substance in a gas,
vapour, solid or liquid. For exam ple, 1 ppm of a gas m eans
that 1 unit of the gas is present for every 1 m illion units of air.
70 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 71
pH A m easure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a m aterial
w hen dissolved in w ater.
Pneumoconiosis A respiratory tract and lung condition caused by the
inhalation of m ineral or m etallic particles.
Polymer A natural or hum an-m ade m aterial form ed by com bining
units, called m onom ers, into long chains.
PPE Personal protective equipm ent (devices or clothing w orn
to help isolate a w orker from direct exposure to hazardous
substances)
Research System atic investigative or experim ental activities that are
carried out for the purpose of:
? acquiring new know ledge (w hether or not that
know ledge w ill have a speci? c practical application)
? creating new or im proved m aterials,
products, devices, processes or services
? im proving system s.
Risk t o healt h In relation to a substance, the likelihood that the substance
w ill cause harm to health in the circum stances of its use.
RPE respiratory protective equipm ent
Silicosis A condition characterised by shortness of breath, caused by
exposure to silica dusts.
Solubilit y The ability of a m aterial to dissolve in w ater or another
liquid.
Solvent A m aterial that is capable of dissolving another chem ical.
SSAN security sensitive am m onium nitrate
St abilit y The ability of a m aterial to rem ain unchanged in the
presence of heat, m oisture or air.
Subst ance A natural or arti? cial entity, com posite m aterial, m ixture or
form ulation, other than an article.
Supplier A n im porter, m anufacturer, w holesaler or distributor of
w orkplace substances, but not a retailer.
Terat ogens A gents or com pounds that a pregnant w om an takes into her
body and that generate defects in the foetus.
TLV see Exposure lim its.
Toxicit y The ability of a substance to cause harm ful effects.
72 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Type I ingredient A n ingredient present in a particular hazardous substance
in a quantity that exceeds the low est relevant concentration
cut-off level speci? ed for the hazard classi? cation of the
substance in Approved criteria for classifying hazardous
substances [N O H SC: 1008 (1999)], published by the N O H S
Com m ission, being an ingredient that:
? is a substance that is, according to that docum ent,
carcinogenic, m utagenic or teratogenic; a skin or
respiratory sensitiser; corrosive, toxic or very toxic; a
harm ful substance that can cause irreversible effects
after acute exposure; a harm ful substance that can
cause serious dam age to health after repeated or
prolonged exposure; toxic to reproduction, or
? is a substance for w hich an exposure standard is
listed in A dopted N ational Exposure Standards
for atm ospheric contam inants in occupational
environm ents [N O H SC: 1003], published by the
N O H S Com m ission, as in force from tim e to tim e.
Type II ingredient A n ingredient present in a particular hazardous substance
in a quantity that exceeds the low est relevant concentration
cut-off level speci? ed for the hazard classi? cation of the
substance in Approved criteria for classifying hazardous
substances [N O H SC: 1008 (1999)], published by the N O H S
Com m ission, being an ingredient that:
? is a harm ful substance according to that docum ent, and
? is not a Type I ingredient.
Type III ingredient A n ingredient present in a particular hazardous substance
that is not a Type I ingredient or a Type II ingredient.
UN (Unit ed Nat ions)
Number
A four-digit num ber assigned to a potentially hazardous
m aterial or class of m aterials. U N num bers are
internationally recognised and are used by ? re ? ghters and
other em ergency response personnel to identify m aterials
during transportation em ergencies.
Use of a subst ance The use, production, handling, storage, transport or disposal
of the substance.
Vapour A gaseous form of a m aterial that is norm ally solid or liquid
at room tem perature and pressure.
Vapour pressure The pressure of a vapour in equilibrium w ith its liquid or
solid form .
Vent ilat ion The provision of fresh air to provide a safe w ork
environm ent.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 73
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
The hum an health risks posed by hazardous m aterials have long been recognised.
A s a result, there is a large body of legislation covering the production (deliberate
or inadvertent), handling, storage, use and disposal of hazardous m aterials. The
literature on hazardous m aterials is also extensive, and a num ber of professional
associations have published useful guidelines and tem plates.
Changes in m ining, in the types of m inerals encountered and in m ineral processing
technology m ean that com panies need to rem ain vigilant. Know n hazards that have
not previously been encountered at a particular m ine m ay pose new risks, w hile
advances in health science w ill from tim e to tim e lead to reassessm ents of risks. The
coverage in this handbook w ill equip m ine operators to understand the m aterials
they w ork w ith and encounter today and provide a basis for responding to new risks.
There is less legislation and few er ancillary publications on the im pact of hazardous
m aterials on the environm ent than in the hum an health ? eld, but environm ental
docum ents require serious attention from m ine operators.
Readers and users of this handbook are encouraged to explore the literature
listed below . Like the handbook, the list is not exhaustive, but it includes resource
docum ents used to com pile the handbook.
A IO H —see A ustralian Institute of O ccupational H ygienists.
A ustralian and N ew Zealand Environm ent and Conservation Council & A griculture
and Resource M anagem ent Council of A ustralia and N ew Zealand 2000, Australian
and New Zealand guidelines for fresh and marine water quality, A R M CA N Z, Canberra.
A ustralian Institute of O ccupational H ygienists 2001, Simpli?ed monitoring strategies,
1st edn, ed. D G rantham , A IO H .
—2007, Principles of occupational health and hygiene: an introduction, ed. C Tillm an,
A IO H .
A ustralian D angerous G oods Code, 7th edn.
Brow n, D JA & Sadler, K 1989, ‘Fish survival in acid w aters’, In: Acid toxicity and
aquatic animals, eds. R M orris et al, Society for Experim ental Biology Sem inar Series:
34, Cam bridge U niversity Press, pp. 31–44.
D epartm ent of Environm ent 1997, Acid mine drainage in Australia, Supervising
Scientist Report 125.
—2006, Community engagement and development, Leading Practice Sustainable
D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and
Resources.
—2007, Managing acid and metalliferous drainage, Leading Practice Sustainable
D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and
Resources.
74 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
—2006, Stewardship, Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the
M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
—2007, Tailings management, Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for
the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
—2008a, Cyanide management, Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program
for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Resources, Energy and Tourism .
—2008b, Risk assessment and management, Leading Practice Sustainable
D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Resources, Energy and
Tourism .
D ITR—see D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
D RET—see D epartm ent of Resources, Energy and Tourism .
Earle, J & Callaghan, T 1998, ‘Effects of m ine drainage on aquatic life, w ater uses,
and m an-m ade structures’, In: Coal mine drainage prediction and pollution prevention
Pennsylvania, eds. KBC Brady, M W Sm ith & J Schueck, Pennsylvanian D epartm ent of
Environm ental Protection.
en-H ealth (D epartm ent of H ealth and A ged Care) 2004, Guidelines for assessing
human health risks from environmental hazards.
Environm ent A ustralia 1997, Best practice environmental management in
mining—hazardous materials management, storage and disposal.
H edges, K & D jukic, F 2008, ‘M anaging silica dust’, Safety and H ealth Sem inar
presentation, D epartm ent of M ines and Energy Safety and H ealth, Bardon,
Q ueensland.
H edges, K, Reed, SG & D jukic, F 2007, ‘A irborne crystalline silica (RCS) in Q ueensland
quarrying processes, particle size and potency’, 25th A nnual Conference
Proceedings, A ustralian Institute of O ccupational H ygienists, M elbourne.
—2008a, ‘O ccupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica in Q ueensland
quarries, exploration sites and sm all m ines’, Q ueensland M ining Industry Safety and
H ealth Conference, Tow nsville.
—2008b, ‘A irborne crystalline silica (RCS) in Q ueensland quarries, sm all m ines and
exploration sites’, 26th A nnual Conference Proceedings, A ustralian Institute of
O ccupational H ygienists, Perth.
H em , JD 1970, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural
waters, 2nd edn, U nited States G eological Survey W ater Supply Paper N o. 2254.
H oehn, RC & Sizem ore, D R 1977, ‘A cid m ine drainage (A M D) and its im pact on a sm all
V irginia stream ’, Water Resources Bulletin, vol. 13, pp. 153–160.
H ustrulid, W A 1982, Underground mining methods handbook, A m erican Institute of
M ining and M etallurgy and Petroleum Engineers, N ew York.
ICM M —see International Council on M ining and M etals.
International Council on M ining and M etals 2009, Good practice guidance on
occupational health risk assessment, ICM M , London.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 75
International Cyanide M anagem ent Code for the G old M ining Industry, International
Cyanide M anagem ent Institute, A ugust 2008,http://w w w .cyanidecode.org.
Jennings, SR, N eum an, D R & Blicker, PS 2008, Acid mine drainage and effects on ?sh
health and ecology: a review, Reclam ation Research G roup, Bozem an, M ontana.
Karm is, M 2001, Mine health and safety management, SM E.
N ational H ealth and M edical Research Council 2004, National Water Quality
Management Strategy: Australian drinking water guidelines, N H M RC, Canberra, w w w .
nhm rc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm .
N ational Pollutant Inventory 1999, Em ission estim ation technique m anuals, http://
w w w .npi.gov.au/handbooks/approved_handbooks/eetm anuals.htm l.
N H M RC—see N ational H ealth and M edical Research Council.
N ordstrom , D K & Southam , G 1997, ‘G eom icrobiology—interactions betw een m icrobes
and m inerals’, Mineralogical Society of America, vol. 35, pp. 261–390.
N PI—see N ational Pollutant Inventory.
O f? ce of the Q ueensland Parliam entary Counsel 2001, Dangerous Goods Safety
Management Act 2001: Dangerous Goods Safety Management Regulation 2001,
Reprinted 1 Septem ber 2008; Reprint N o. 1B.
Sm ith, K 2007, ‘Strategies to predict m etal m obility in sur? cial m ining environm ents’,
In: Understanding and responding to hazardous substances at mine sites in the
western United States, ed. JV D eG raff, The G eological Society of A m erica, Review s in
Engineering G eology, vol. XV II.
Standards A ustralia 2004, A S/N ZS 4360:2004 Risk management, Standards
A ustralia.
W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of Consum er and Em ploym ent Protection 2008a,
Safe storage of solid ammonium nitrate: code of practice.
—2008b, Storage and handling of dangerous goods: code of practice.
W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum 2009a, Dangerous goods
safety information sheet: overview of SRS regulations.
—2009b, Dangerous goods safety information sheet: overview of transport
regulations.
W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of W ater 2006, Toxic and hazardous substances—
storage and use, W ater Q uality Protection N ote no. 65.
76 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
doc_130232091.pdf
Management of naturally occurring hazardous materials begins with their correct identifi cation during pre-feasibility planning, followed by proper characterisation of the orebody, waste rock, overburden, mine process residues and natural soil under the mine infrastructure.
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Disclaimer
Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry.
This publication has been developed by a W orking G roup of experts, industry, and governm ent and
nongovernm ent representatives. The effort of the m em bers of the W orking G roup is gratefully
acknow ledged.
The view s and opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily re? ect those of the A ustralian
G overnm ent or the M inister for Resources, Energy and Tourism . W hile reasonable efforts have been m ade
to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Com m onw ealth does not accept
responsibility for the accuracy or com pleteness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or
dam age that m ay be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of
this publication.
U sers of this handbook should bear in m ind that it is intended as a general reference and is not intended
to replace the need for professional advice relevant to the particular circum stances of individual users.
Reference to com panies or products in this handbook should not be taken as A ustralian G overnm ent
endorsem ent of those com panies or their products.
Cover im age: Transporting hazardous substances. Source: CSBP Lim ited
© Com m onw ealth of A ustralia 2009
ISBN 978-1-921516-47-4
This w ork is copyright. A part from any use as perm itted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part m ay be
reproduced by any process w ithout prior w ritten perm ission from the Com m onw ealth. Requests and
inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Com m onw ealth Copyright
A dm inistration, A ttorney-G eneral’s D epartm ent, Robert G arran O f? ces, N ational Circuit, Canberra A CT
2600 or posted at w w w .ag.gov.au/cca
O ctober 2009.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T iii
CONTENTS
A CKN O W LED G EM EN TS iv
FO REW O RD vii
1.0 IN TRO D U CTIO N 1
2.0 PR IN CIPLES 3
2.1 Legislation and regulation 3
2.2 Exposure standards 5
3.0 M ATER IA LS O F CO N CERN 7
3.1 N aturally occurring hazardous m aterials 7
A sbestiform m aterials in m inerals 9
3.2 H azardous substances 15
CA SE STU DY: Copper solvent extraction ? res 20
3.3 D angerous goods 22
3.4 M ining w astes and by-products 25
CA SE STU DY: M anagem ent of arsenic m inerals
at the Yerranderie m ine site 27
3.5 Security risk substances 29
Consider chem icals a security risk 30
4.0 R ISK M A N A G EM EN T 33
4.1 W orker hazard aw areness 33
4.2 Com m unity aw areness 40
CA SE STU DY: Tenby10 Program , N yrstar Port Pirie Sm elter 41
4.3 Controls 42
CA SE STU DY: The control of pneum oconiosis
in the N ew South W ales coal industry 43
4.4 Suppliers 51
CA SE STU DY: A m m onium nitrate transport 53
4.5 Environm ent 57
5.0 PER FO RM A N CE M A N A G EM EN T 59
5.1 H ealth and environm ental m onitoring 59
5.2 A uditing 64
G LO SSA RY A N D A BBR EV IATIO N S LIST 67
R EFER EN CES A N D FU RTH ER R EA D IN G 73
iv LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program is m anaged by a steering
com m ittee chaired by the A ustralian G overnm ent D epartm ent of Resources, Energy
and Tourism . The 14 them es in the program w ere developed by w orking groups of
governm ent, industry, research, academ ic and com m unity representatives. The
leading practice handbooks could not have been com pleted w ithout the cooperation
and active participation of all m em bers of the w orking groups, and their em ployers
w ho agreed to m ake their tim e and expertise available to the program . Particular
thanks go to the follow ing people and organisations w ho contributed to the
Hazardous materials management handbook.
Professor Ian Rae
Chair—W orking G roup
iandrae@ bigpond.com
M r Peter Scott
Principal A uthor
Principal Environm ental
G eochem ist
A ECO M Environm ent
w w w .aecom .com
Shelby Scho? eld and
Jenny Scougall
Secretariat
Sustainable M ining
D epartm ent of Resources,
Energy and Tourism
w w w .ret.gov.au
M r Ross M cFarland
N ational Practice Leader
A ECO M Environm ent
w w w .aecom .com
M r Roger Schulz
Environm ental Consultant &
A uditor
rsschulz@ ozem ail.com .au
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T v
D r Sharann Johnson
O ccupational H ealth and
Safety Consultant
Sharann.johnson@ bigpond.com
A ssociate Professor Brian
D avies
School of H ealth Sciences
U niversity of W ollongong
w w w .uow .edu.au
M r Philip M ulvey
M anaging D irector
Environm ental Earth
Sciences
w w w .environm entalearthsciences.com
M r G eoff M ance
Environm ental Consultant
KM H Environm ental Pty Ltd
w w w .km h.com .au
M r Jon Panic
Environm ental Consultant
KM H Environm ental Pty Ltd
w w w .km h.com .au
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T vii
FOREWORD
A strong com m itm ent to leading practice sustainable developm ent is critical for a
m ining com pany to ? rst gain and then m aintain its ‘social licence to operate’.
The handbooks in the Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the
M ining Industry series integrate environm ental, econom ic and social aspects through
all phases of m ineral production from exploration to construction, to operation
and ? nally m ine site closure. The concept of leading practice is sim ply the best w ay
of doing things for a given site. Leading practice is as m uch about approach and
attitude as it is about a ? xed set of practices or a particular technology.
The International Council on M ining and M etals (ICM M ) de? nes sustainable
developm ent as investm ents that are technically appropriate; environm entally
sound; ? nancially pro? table; and socially responsible. Enduring value: the Australian
minerals industry framework for sustainable development provides guidance for
operational-level im plem entation of the ICM M principles and elem ents by the
A ustralian m ining industry.
A w ide range of organisations have helped develop this handbook, w hich w ill assist
all sectors of the m ining industry to reduce the im pacts of m inerals production on
the com m unity and the environm ent by follow ing the principles of leading practice
sustainable developm ent.
The Hon Martin Ferguson AM MP
M inister for Resources and Energy, M inister for Tourism
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
H azardous M aterials M anagem ent is one of 14 them es in the Leading Practice
Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry. The program aim s to
identify the key issues affecting sustainable developm ent in the m ining industry
and to provide inform ation supplem ented by case studies that identify sustainable
approaches for the m ining industry.
Leading practice sustainable developm ent m anagem ent is an evolving discipline.
A s new problem s em erge and new solutions are developed, or better solutions
are devised for existing problem s, it is im portant that leading practice be ? exible
in developing solutions that m atch site-speci? c requirem ents. A lthough there are
underpinning principles, leading practice is as m uch an approach and an attitude
as a ? xed set of practices or a particular technology. This handbook builds on and
com plem ents the m anagem ent principles and practices developed in the Best
Practice Environm ental M anagem ent Series handbook on hazardous m aterials
m anagem ent, storage and disposal.
The prim ary audience for the handbook are the m ine, exploration and m ineral
processing staff w ho w ill com e into contact w ith hazardous m aterials through their
w ork activity: health and safety and em ergency response staff, m ine planners and
m ineral processing designers. In addition, people w ith an interest in leading practice
in the m ining industry w ill ? nd this handbook relevant, including m ining com pany
directors, m anagers, com m unity relations practitioners, environm ental of? cers,
m ining consultants, suppliers to the m ining industry, governm ents, regulators, non-
governm ent organisations, m ining com m unities, neighbouring com m unities, and
students. It has been w ritten to encourage those people to play a critical role in
continuously im proving the m ining industry’s sustainable developm ent perform ance.
The handbook has been constructed in four m ain sections:
? Principles contains de? nitions and identi? es sources of
relevant A ustralian handling and storage legislation.
? Materials of concern discusses naturally occurring hazardous
substances that m ay be encountered during m ining, m aterials im ported
to the site (such as processing chem icals), and substances and m ining
w astes that are generated during m ining and processing.
? Risk management presents risk m anagem ent strategies that
m ay be im plem ented at corporate or m ine site level, including
the use of m aterial safety data contained in M aterial Safety D ata
Sheets (M SD S) and personal protective equipm ent (PPE).
? Performance management presents inform ation about techniques,
such as m onitoring, reporting and auditing, that provide inform ation
about the use of and exposure to hazardous substances.
2 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
References and further reading contains a list of references and resource
docum ents used to com pile this handbook.
There are 14 handbooks in this series. Som e discuss the m anagem ent of hazardous
substances, including:
? Tailings m anagem ent
? Cyanide m anagem ent
? M anaging acid and m etalliferous drainage.
The follow ing handbooks deal w ith general principles of handling and m anaging
hazardous m aterials:
? M ine closure
? M aterials stew ardship
? Evaluating perform ance: m onitoring and auditing
? A irborne contam inants, noise and vibration
? W ater m anagem ent
? Risk assessm ent and m anagem ent.
This handbook has been designed to identify guiding principles and leading practices
in the handling and storage of hazardous m aterials through the m ine life cycle.
It provides links to relevant source m aterial and state and federal legislation and
guidelines for further reading and detail.
W hile a prim ary consideration of hazardous m aterials m anagem ent is w orker health
and safety, the handbook recognises the potential for im pacts from hazardous
m aterials used and exposed during m ining and m ineral processing on the natural
environm ent and the need to m anage them to m inim ise those im pacts. The
environm ental im pacts from such m aterials are also discussed in the other leading
practice handbooks listed above.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 3
2.0 PRINCIPLES
Purpose
This section presents the regulatory regim e and the principles on w hich the
identi? cation and m anagem ent of hazardous m aterials are based.
Key messages
? Industrial chem icals m anufactured in or im ported into A ustralia
are assessed by an A ustralian G overnm ent agency under the
Industrial Chemicals (Noti?cation and Assessment) Act 1989.
? H azardous substances are governed by tw o key types of legislation
(the N ational M odel Regulations for the Control of W orkplace
H azardous Substances and the A ustralian D angerous G oods
Code), but com pliance is a m atter for states and territories.
? N ot all hazardous substances encountered in the m ining
industry are classi? ed as ‘dangerous goods’.
? Exposure standards have been established for w orksites, including m ine
sites, to reduce risks for people w orking w ith hazardous substances.
? H ealth surveillance, as either biological m onitoring or regular
routine m edical exam inations, is regulated at the state level
to protect the health of w orkers at som e m ine sites.
2.1 Legislation and regulation
This section sum m arises the national and state legislation controlling im porting,
supply, storage, handling and disposal of industrial chem icals.
2.1.1 Chemical imports
W here a m ining com pany plans to im port directly chem icals for use at their site,
rather than use an A ustralian supplier, it m ust com ply w ith N ICN A S (the N ational
Industrial Chem icals N oti? cation and A ssessm ent Schem e, w w w .nicnas.gov.au). If the
chem ical or the chem ical com ponents in the m ixture are not registered in A ustralia,
extensive toxicity data are required for registration.
2.1.2 Handling and storage legislation
The states and territories control the use of industrial chem icals m ainly by exercising
their extensive pow ers relating to prohibition, application of occupational exposure
standards, and health surveillance requirem ents. M any of the controls on industrial
chem icals focus on controlling a chem ical at a particular stage of its life cycle or in
a particular situation. These areas include w orker safety, transport, public health,
environm ental protection and the handling of hazardous substances, including their
disposal as w aste.
4 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
The key m odel codes for m ine sites are those covering hazardous substances and
dangerous goods, w hich can be found on the Safe W ork A ustralia w ebsite.
1
The centrepieces are the National Model Regulations for the Control of Workplace
Hazardous Substances [N O H SC:1005 (1994)] and the National Standard for the
Storage and Handling of Workplace Dangerous Goods [N O H SC:1015(2001)].
‘Hazardous materials’ is an um brella term used to describe any substances that,
because of their chem ical, physical or biological properties, can cause harm to
people, property or the environm ent. The term collectively describes substances
according to the hazard they present, and includes ‘dangerous goods’, ‘com bustible
liquids’and ‘hazardous substances’.
Legislation dealing w ith hazardous m aterials treats them on the one hand as
‘dangerous goods’, or on the other as ‘hazardous substances’. The tw o categories are
classi? ed according to different criteria:
? Dangerous goods are classi? ed on the basis of immediate
physical or chemical effects, such as ? re, explosion, corrosion and
poisoning that m ight affect property, the environm ent or people.
Petrol, pool chlorine and som e pesticides are exam ples.
? Hazardous substances are classi? ed on the basis of health effects,
w hether im m ediate or long-term , particularly in relation to w orkplaces.
For exam ple, exposure to hazardous substances can cause adverse
health effects such as asthm a, skin rashes, allergic reactions,
allergic sensitisation, or cancer and other long-term diseases.
D angerous goods are extensively regulated and controlled for transport by the
N ational Transport Com m ission, w hich is responsible for the A ustralian D angerous
G oods Code, now in its seventh edition (A D G 7).
2
In 2007, the A ustralian G overnm ent initiated changes to the national codes at the
federal level, and there is a plan to harm onise the fram ew ork of national and state
m odel codes and regulations. The new fram ew ork w ill use the G lobally H arm onized
System of Classi? cation and Labelling of Chem icals (G H S) as the basis for hazard
classi? cation and hazard com m unication elem ents on labels and M SD S.
1http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/O H Sstandards/
2http://w w w .ntc.gov.au/view page.aspx?A reaId=35&D ocum entId=1147
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 5
State and territory governm ent m ining and natural resources authorities’w ebsites
provide local occupational health and safety (O H S) and environm ental legislation:
N orthern Territory w w w .nt.gov.au/d/M inerals_Energy/
Q ueensland w w w .dm e.qld.gov.au/
W estern A ustralia w w w .dm p.w a.gov.au/
N ew South W ales w w w .dpi.nsw .gov.au/
South A ustralia w w w .safew ork.sa.gov.au/
Tasm ania D epartm ent Prim ary Industries, Parks, W ater and
Environm ent, Tasm ania w w w .dpiw e.tas.gov.au
M ineral Resources Tasm ania (M RT)
w w w .m rt.tas.gov.au
W orkplace Standards Tasm ania
w w w .w st.tas.gov.au
V ictoria w w w .w orksafe.vic.gov.au
Inform ation papers prepared by various state governm ent agencies provide
additional inform ation on legislation; for exam ple:
? Inform ation Paper N o. 9, Hazardous materials legislation in Queensland:
a guide developed by the Chemical Hazards and Emergency
Management (CHEM) Services with the assistance of the Inter-
Departmental Hazardous Substances Co-ordinating Committee.
2.1.3 Workplace exposures and health surveillance
The N ational Exposure Standards control exposures to m any of the hazardous
substances used in the m ining industry know n to have acute health effects.
State authorities also im pose regulated health exam inations for m ining occupations
considered to be high risk. For exam ple, in N SW , coal m iners are required to undergo
a full m edical exam ination every ? ve years. In addition, Safe W ork A ustralia has
exam ined health surveillance (such as biological m onitoring for lead exposure
during lead m ining) and established biological exposure standards in the H azardous
Substances Inform ation System .
2.2 Exposure standards
O ccupational exposure standards are developed by Safe W ork A ustralia and
regulated through state legislation. The standards refer to airborne levels of
hazardous substances, including dust and crystalline silica generated in the m ining
process. It is believed that nearly all w orkers can be repeatedly exposed to such
levels for a w orking life w ithout adverse health effects. In A ustralia, the levels are
referred to in the N ational Exposure Standard and are listed in the H azardous
Substances Inform ation System .
3
M ore inform ation on exposure standards can be found in Section 5
(Perform ance m anagem ent).
3http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/H azardousSubstances/H SIS
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 7
3.0 MATERIALS OF CONCERN
Purpose
This section presents an overview of hazardous m aterials of various types and the
situations in w hich they m ay be encountered.
Key messages
? N atural m aterials encountered in m ining and processing operations
m ay be hazardous to hum an health and the environm ent.
? Chem ical substances used in m ining, such as explosives, ? otation
chem icals, solvents, acids and gases, m ay be hazardous.
? W astes and by-products of m ining operations, such as dusts
and acid-generating sul? des, m ay also be hazardous.
? Som e m aterials used in the m ining industry are subject
to restrictions because of security risks.
3.1 Naturally occurring hazardous materials
3.1.1 What law applies?
A ll A ustralian states and territories have legislative requirem ents for handling,
storing and transporting naturally occurring m aterials that can be classed as
hazardous w hen exposed by m ining, particularly asbestiform m inerals, silica and
radioactive m inerals. D etails can be obtained through state m ines departm ent
w ebsites.
3.1.2 What are naturally occurring hazardous materials?
Asbestos and asbestiform materials
A sbestos is the general nam e applied to asbestiform m inerals belonging to the
serpentine and am phibole m ineral groups. These m inerals have a particular kind of
? brosity—their ? bres have a high tensile strength and ? exibility (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Asbestiform and non-asbestiform minerals
Asbestiform variety Chemical composition Non-asbestiform variety
Serpentine group
Chrysotile (w hite asbestos) M g
3
(Si
2
O
5
)(O H )
4
antigorite, lizardite
A m phibole group
Crocidolite (blue asbestos) N a
2
Fe
3
Fe
2
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
riebeckite
am osite (grunerite) (brow n asbestos) (M g,Fe)
7
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H )
2
cum m ingtonite-grunerite
anthophylite (M g,Fe)
7
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
anthophyllite
trem olite Ca
2
M g
5
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
trem olite
actinolite Ca
2
(M g,Fe)
5
(Si
8
O
22
)(O H ,F)
2
actinolite
8 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
A m phibole, and to a lesser extent serpentine, m inerals are w idely distributed in the
Earth’s crust, so asbestos can occur as an accessory m ineral. These m inerals are
found in m a? c and ultram a? c rocks, skarn deposits and associated igneous rocks
in contact w ith lim estone, such as porphyry copper deposits. They are com m only
associated w ith faults and shears in these rocks and geological settings. A sbestos
can occur as an accessory m ineral w ith other industrial m inerals (such as am phibole
asbestos w ith verm iculite and talc). Fibrous m inerals m ay be associated w ith
carbonate-facies iron form ations.
Serpentine and am phibole that are found in m a? c and ultram a? c rock form ations
can have ? brous and non-? brous structures. The ? brous form is called asbestos
and is rare com pared to other asbestiform m inerals and non-asbestiform am phibole
m inerals. It is im portant to note that non-? brous form s can have sim ilar chem ical
com position, but do not have the sam e health effects as the ? brous form s. Som e
other m inerals are sim ilar to asbestos in their particle shape, but do not possess the
characteristics required to classify them as asbestos.
Serpentine and am phibole m inerals are found in m a? c and ultram a? c rocks of the
‘greenstone’belts in W estern A ustralia that host m ajor nickel and gold deposits,
as w ell as other m a? c and ultram a? c rocks elsew here in A ustralia. Rarely, these
m inerals are asbestiform and, if they are present, they usually occur in veins or sm all
veinlets. Such occurrences are usually sm all and isolated and are therefore not often
noticed. The best know n asbestos deposits are near W ittenoom in the Pilbara region
of W estern A ustralia and at W oodsreef near A rm idale in N ew South W ales.
W here asbestiform m inerals are encountered, airborne asbestos ? bres m ay appear
as a m inor/trace contam inant in the dust produced during blasting, crushing and
subsequent handling and processing. Concern about the effect on health from long-
term , low -level exposure to asbestos requires that appropriate procedures be applied
w herever asbestiform m inerals are encountered, to ensure that exposures are as low
as is reasonably practicable. It is the responsibility of the m ine operator to ensure
that m ining operations provide a safe and healthy w ork environm ent.
Safe W ork A ustralia de? nes a respirable asbestos ? bre as one w ith a diam eter less
than 3 m icrons (1 m icron = 1/1000 m illim etre), a length greater than ? ve m icrons
and a length-to-w idth ratio greater than 3:1. For com parison, a hum an hair is
approxim ately 20 to 100 m icrons w ide.
W ith asbestos, the size of the particle is critical in determ ining w hether there w ill be
a risk to health from inhaling the ? bres. Fibres around 10 m icrons or less long and
3 m icrons or less w ide are the m ost likely to rem ain in the lungs. Fibres larger than
this tend to be rem oved by the norm al clearing m echanism of the lungs.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 9
Asbestiform materials in minerals
Expert guidance and a robust m anagem ent program are needed w herever
asbestiform m inerals are encountered, to ensure that exposures are as low
as is reasonably practicable. A sbestos is a know n carcinogen and is regarded
w ith zero tolerance by w orkers, regulators and the com m unity. It is a banned
substance in m any countries.
Issues to be considered in m ining operations and exported m aterials are as
follow s:
? Product liability
– affected by international and national law s
– com m unity, consum er and end user issues
– cradle-to-grave docum entation of risks and exposures.
? Sustainable developm ent
– potential im pacts on the com m unity w here w aste, tailings
and m aterials are stored and transported (including
environm ental and product liability risks)
– contam ination of w idespread areas, requiring clean up.
? O ccupational health and safety risks to w orkforce
– industrial relations im pacts (asbestos has caused m ore disputes
in the w ork environm ent than other hazardous substances)
– litigation by w orkers
– increased costs for detailed m edical surveillance
and occupational exposure m onitoring.
To m inim ise the potential risks from asbestiform m aterial, a com petent person
(such as a geologist or m ineralogist) should analyse exposed rock during the initial
studies into the ore body to determ ine the presence and extent of asbestos.
A n asbestos m anagem ent plan can then be developed for the risk areas
determ ined through asbestos exposure m onitoring. The plan should address the
follow ing key areas:
? Inform ation, instruction, training and supervision
should be provided to all em ployees.
? W ritten procedures should be developed.
? A irborne ? bre levels should be m onitored.
? Regular surveillance of all m ined rock should be undertaken
to ensure m inim al disturbance of ? brous m aterial.
(continued)
10 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Silica
Silica m inerals m ake up the m atrix or occur in association w ith the targeted m ineral
in ore bodies. They include quartz, a com m on gangue m ineral and a constituent
in m any m inerals in igneous and m etam orphic rocks. Silica m inerals are often
concentrated by the sam e natural process that results in sul? de ore bodies. They are
stable until ground or blasted into a dust.
Crystalline silica dust is classi? ed as a G roup 1 carcinogen by the International
A gency for Research on Cancer.
4
H ence, the N ational Exposure Standard is low at
0.1 m g/m 3. The dust is also an irritant to the lungs.
M anagem ent of silica m inerals is discussed in m ore detail in H ustrulid (1982), Karm is
(2001), H edges & D jukic (2008), and H edges et al. (2007, 2008ab).
Acid and metalliferous drainage
A cid and m etalliferous drainage (A M D) can occur naturally w hen rocks containing
m etal sul? de m inerals are exposed to oxygen and w ater, or w hen sul? dic rock
m aterial is disturbed and exposed to oxidation as a result of m ining, highw ay
construction or coastal land developm ent (acid sulfate soils). The predom inant acid-
generating sul? de m ineral is pyrite (FeS
2
); other acid-generating m inerals include
pyrrhotite (FeS), m arcasite (FeS
2
), chalcopyrite (CuFeS
2
) and arsenopyrite (FeA sS).
The reaction of pyrite w ith oxygen and w ater produces a solution of ferrous sulfate and
sulfuric acid. Ferrous iron can be oxidised, producing additional acidity. Iron and sulfur
oxidising bacteria are know n to catalyse these reactions at low pH , thereby increasing
the rate of reaction by several orders of m agnitude (N ordstrom & Southam 1997).
4http://m onographs.iarc.fr/EN G/M onographs/vol68/index.php
? A ccess to all areas containing ? bres should be
strictly controlled and m onitored.
? To the extent that is reasonably practicable, dust should be suppressed
at source and w orkers should be isolated from dust by the provision of
appropriate equipm ent and facilities. D ust containm ent, collection and
handling facilities should be introduced to m inim ise airborne ? bre levels.
? A pproved disposal procedures should be im plem ented for ? brous w aste.
The W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum has developed
com prehensive reference sources on asbestiform m aterials (w w w .dm p.w a.gov.
au/6751.aspx).
Sources: W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum and M r A Roger, O H &S Pty Ltd.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 11
In undisturbed natural conditions, acid generation is a relatively slow process over
geological tim e. M ining and processing of rocks and m aterials containing m etal
sul? de substances greatly enhances the acid-generating process because it rapidly
exposes those substances to oxidising conditions.
N ot all sul? de m inerals are acid-generating during oxidation, but m ost have the
capacity to release m etals on exposure to acidic w ater. D uring m ining, reactive
sul? des can be routinely exposed to air and w ater in w aste rock piles, ore stockpiles,
tailings storage facilities, pits, underground m ines, and heap and dum p leach piles.
Leading practice A M D m anagem ent involves strategies to m inim ise the interaction
betw een reactive sul? des and air, w ater or both (D ITR 2007). Because large m asses
of sul? de m inerals are exposed quickly during m ining and m illing, the surrounding
environm ent often cannot attenuate the resulting low pH conditions.
M etals found in w ater draining from m ine sites include A g, A l, A s, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr,
Cs, Cu, Fe, H g, M n, M o, N i, Pb, Ra, Sb, Se, Sr, Th, Tl, U , V and Zn. M etal concentrations
increase in w aters at low er pH . O nce released, m etals w ill persist in the environm ent.
Their concentration in w ater can be reduced through physical rem oval (sorption,
precipitation, biological uptake) (Sm ith 2007).
M etals increase the toxicity of m ine drainage (Earle & Callaghan 1998) and act as
m etabolic poisons. Iron, alum inium , and m anganese are the m ost com m on heavy
m etals com pounding the adverse effects of m ine drainage. H eavy m etals are
generally less toxic at circum -neutral pH . Trace m etals, such as zinc, cadm ium , and
copper, w hich m ay also be present in m ine drainage, are toxic at extrem ely low
concentrations and m ay act synergistically to suppress algal grow th and affect
? sh and benthos (H oehn & Sizem ore 1977). In addition to dissolved m etals, iron or
alum inium hydroxide precipitate m ay form in stream s receiving m ine discharges w ith
elevated m etals concentrations. Ferric and alum inium hydroxides decrease oxygen
availability as they form ; the precipitate m ay coat gills and body surfaces, sm other
eggs, and cover the stream bottom , ? lling in crevices in rocks, and m aking the
substrate unstable and un? t for habitation by benthic organism s (H oehn & Sizem ore
1977).
A lum inium rarely occurs naturally in w ater at concentrations greater than a few
tenths of a m illigram per litre; how ever, higher concentrations can occur in acidic
drainage from m ine sites as a result of the breakdow n of clays (H em 1970). The
chem istry of alum inium com pounds in w ater is com plex. It com bines w ith organic
and inorganic ions and can be present in several form s. A lum inium is least soluble
at a pH betw een 5.7 and 6.2; above and below that range, it tends to be in solution
(H em 1970, Brow n & Sadler 1989). O nce acid drainage is created, m etals are released
into the surrounding environm ent, and becom e readily available to biological
organism s. H istorically, A M D, characterised by acidic m etalliferous conditions in
w ater, is responsible for physical, chem ical and biological degradation of stream
habitat in m any areas of the w orld w here m ining has occurred.
12 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
W hile the m ain im pact of A M D is on environm ental values, in extrem e cases it can
potentially affect hum an health through contam ination of w ater supplies and heavy
m etal take-up in aquatic organism s used as food. Managing acid and metalliferous
drainage (D ITR 2007) details the underlying geochem istry and the im pacts of poorly
m anaged drainage, and includes case studies of best practice m anagem ent.
Acid drainage affect ed King River, Tasmania, downst ream f rom
Mount Lyall Copper Mine. Source: Professor David J Williams.
Reactive clays and salinity
In m any parts of A ustralia, m ining is associated w ith salinity. Salinity is a result of tw o
separate occurrences: aeolian deposition of salt from the sea, including salt basins
being deposited and leached into the regolith, over the past tw o m illion years; and
connate salts laid dow n w ith the ore body. In both cases, salt-laden overburden is
deposited w ith the w aste rock in overburden or w aste rock dum ps. Leaching of salt
from the overburden and disposal of salt-enriched groundw ater can be the greatest
regional im pact from m ining. M any sedim entary basins, including the H unter Valley
and the Bow en Basin, contain connate w ater that is salty. Salty w ater (starting above
about 10% of seaw ater’s salt concentration) has an osm otic potential too high for
freshw ater biota and m ost terrestrial plants to survive. Therefore, it does not take
m uch salt to destroy a riparian environm ent. V ictorious arm ies som etim es ploughed
salt into the farm land of enem ies to render it useless. They w ere successful—that
land rem ains unusable today. Careful m anagem ent of w aste rock, overburden and
groundw ater discharges is required to ensure that the environm ental im pacts of
salinity are avoided.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 13
A lthough saline groundw ater is enriched in sulfate, discharges of saline w ater
into dam s or ephem eral stream s m ight have no apparent short-term im pacts.
H ow ever, in the presence of organic m atter under aerobic conditions, the sulfate is
converted to m onosul? de black ooze that collects at the bottom of the w ater body
or as am orphous pyrite in w aterlogged soil. A drop in w ater level due to a clim ate
change or change in process m ay expose the ooze, w hich can be oxidised and rapidly
produce sulfuric acid, causing plant and ? sh kills.
Reactive clays and sodicity
A lthough at ? rst sight clay m inerals do not appear to be ‘hazardous’, the physical
changes in their structure brought about by exposure to certain chem icals can
dam age m ineral processing equipm ent and the environm ent. The prim ary m inerals
concerned include kaolinite and bentonite, w hile secondary m inerals such as
sm ectite and illite m ay result from w eathering. Clay m inerals have an excess of
negative charge across the crystal, w hich is balanced by cations from the pore w ater.
Because of the m ineral structure, clay m inerals clum p together into dom ains w ith
cations betw een the clay sheets w ithin the dom ain and in a cloud around the dom ain.
Certain clay m ineral clum ps sw ell and disperse (break up) or clum p tighter together
(coagulate) depending on cations in the surrounding pore w ater. These m inerals
include clays of the m ontm orillonite group (sm ectite, bentonite, high-charged
verm iculite) and illite and interstrati? ed m inerals. The type, m olar strength and total
ionic activity of cations in solution affects these sw elling clays, causing sw elling and
coagulation depending on the chem ical state. The cations can sw ap w ith each other,
depending on their valency and ionic strength, and are know n as ‘exchangeable’
cations.
In the native state, the exchangeable cations consist of calcium , sodium and
m agnesium . W hen the exchangeable sodium content (relative to the cation exchange
capacity) exceeds 4% in the presence of sw elling clays, the dom ains w ill disperse,
leading to high sedim ent, piping erosion and poor returns of w ater and reagents from
tailing dam s. The inverse also happens to clays prone to sw elling. The introduction of
saline w ater, acid w ater, or w ater rich in am m onium , divalent and trivalent cations w ill
cause sw elling clay dom ains to excessively coagulate to the particle-size equivalent
of silt or ? ne sand. This can cause natural clay liners or im ported bentonite liners to
leak. The potential for leaching w ater into the clay to do this is de? ned as ‘sodium
adsorption ratio for m ine w aters’(SA R-M ining). This needs to be interpreted by
som eone w ith expertise in clay m inerals.
Failure to consider the occurrence of these clay m inerals can have a substantial
im pact on recoverable ef? ciencies, problem s w ith piping failure, high sedim ent
load in dam s, creeks and ponds, and, in the w orst case, catastrophic earthen dam
failure. It can also result in dam liners leaking at a rate up to 1000 tim es greater than
expected.
14 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Radioactivity
A ll m inerals contain radionuclides that are m em bers of the naturally occurring
radioactive decay chains. The im pact of these radionuclides needs to be considered
in certain types of m ining. Igneous and certain m etam orphic rocks are m ore
radioactive than m ost sedim entary rocks. Thus living in A rm idale you w ill be exposed
to elevated background radioactivity com pared to living in Sydney. This radioactivity
obviously increases in uranium orebodies, but can also be elevated in m ineral sands,
rock phosphate and other ores.
Exposure to elevated radioactivity levels can also occur during rare earth production,
bauxite production, and oil and gas extraction, am ongst m any exam ples. The level of
potential hazard from radioactive m inerals depends on the type of radioactivity and
its half-life. O ne of the m ajor radiological risks in m ining is associated w ith inhalation
of radon (a radioactive gas w ith a short half-life) and its short-lived radioactive decay
products. Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of radium . Radon can be a
m ajor problem in underground m ines and needs to be carefully considered.
There are a num ber of law s covering radioactivity. You should contact the
radioactivity liaison of? cer in your state departm ent of m ines for m ore inform ation,
or refer to the Code of Practice and Safety Guide for Radiation Protection and
Radioactive Waste Management in Mining and Mineral Processing (2005) on
the w ebsite of the A ustralian Radiation Protection and N uclear Safety A gency
(A RPA N SA ).
5
Methane
M ethane is com m only encountered in coal seam s and is a w ell-know n explosive
hazard. A dequate ventilation can m inim ise the risk. In som e cases the coal seam
m ethane is collected for use as fuel.
3.1.3 Managing naturally occurring hazardous materials
M anagem ent of naturally occurring hazardous m aterials begins w ith their correct
identi? cation during pre-feasibility planning, follow ed by proper characterisation of
the orebody, w aste rock, overburden, m ine process residues and natural soil under
the m ine infrastructure. If problem atic naturally occurring m inerals are encountered
during m ining, activities should cease until the hazard has been properly evaluated
and corrective action has been planned.
Proper characterisation and hazard assessm ent w ill involve the use of an
experienced environm ental geochem ist or soil chem ist and occupational hygienists.
These professionals should be involved during the planning stage to prepare a
m itigation or avoidance program or corrective action.
H azards from naturally occurring substances depend not only on the concentration
of the substances but also on their chem ical form and the surrounding environm ent.
A risk assessm ent is undertaken to determ ine w hether the natural geology and
environm ent can continue to accom m odate the substances w ithout causing an
adverse im pact on hum an health or the environm ent. This is done by con? rm ing
5http://w w w .arpansa.gov.au/pubs/rps/rps9.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 15
the concentrations of the substances and com paring those concentrations w ith
published criteria or threshold levels that are likely to cause harm to hum an health
or the environm ent. H ow ever, threshold levels and published criteria are often
‘guidelines’, and site-speci? c levels are often m ore suitable because of variations in
geological and environm ental conditions.
For exam ple, reactive clays are not dispersive until sodium is added at low
concentrations. A dverse reactions w ith reactive clays are m ore com m on in the
gold industry in eastern A ustralia, w here sodium hydroxide is used to elevate pH to
control cyanide, than in the gold? elds regions of W estern A ustralia. This is because
although the sodium content is high, the sodium is present in sodium chloride, so
the salinity is very high and the clay is so w eathered that m inim al reactive clays
occur. In som e cases, it is better to use another caustic agent both for environm ental
protection and for gold recovery because the sodium prom otes dispersion, w hich
increases the potential for failures in tailings dam structures and leaks into
w aterw ays.
W ork practices and procedures for a safe and environm entally acceptable m ine site
start w ell before any m ining com m ences, and are ideally developed during detailed
or bankable feasibility study stages. These practices are designed to m itigate the risk
to the environm ent and w orker health during construction and operation of the m ine
and associated facilities, and should dem onstrate continued im provem ent over tim e
in accordance w ith changes in relevant legislation, standards and guidelines.
Typically, an environm ental geochem ist and occupational hygienist or sim ilar
suitably quali? ed professional should be involved in the identi? cation of potentially
hazardous naturally occurring substances, and in the design of w aste em placem ent
facilities to m itigate the potential environm ental im pact from those substances.
3.2 Hazardous substances
To understand the w orkplace health and safety requirem ents for hazardous
m aterials, legal obligations m ust be considered and relevant legislation and codes of
practice m ust be understood.
3.2.1 What law applies?
State legislation, codes of practice and guidance docum ents m ust be considered. The
regulatory regim e is not the sam e in all states. D etails can be obtained through the
w ebsites of state m ines departm ents or w orkplace authorities (listed in Section 2.1.2).
16 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
3.2.2 What are hazardous substances?
H azardous substances are m aterials that can have an adverse effect on hum an
health due to their physical, chem ical, and biological properties. A chem ical
or m ixture of chem icals is classi? ed as a hazardous substance if it m eets the
toxicological criteria in the Approved criteria for classifying hazardous substances
[N O H SC: 1008(2004)], w hich addresses short-term and long-term health effects.
M ore inform ation about hazardous substances can be found on the Safe W ork
A ustralia w ebsite.
6
U nder the N ational M odel Regulations for the Control of W orkplace H azardous
Substances [NOHSC:1005 (1994)], a hazardous substance is one that:
? is included on the List of D esignated H azardous Substances [or]
? has been classi? ed as a hazardous substance by the m anufacturer or im porter
in accordance w ith the Approved criteria for classifying hazardous substances.
If hazardous substances are not stored or handled correctly, they harm w orkers,
m em bers of the public, property and the environm ent. D etailed requirem ents
are outlined in state hazardous substances legislation for labelling, M SDS, risk
assessm ents, control strategies, training and health surveillance of w orkers.
H azardous m aterials include m any com m only found industrial, com m ercial,
pharm aceutical, agricultural and dom estic chem icals, m any of w hich are found in
m ine sites, as w ell as dusts, m etal fum es and m etal concentrates. Exam ples are
? otation chem icals, solvents, cleaning agents, petroleum products, com pressed
gases, and biocides.
Som e chem icals and proprietary m ixtures are hazardous substances, including
m any dangerous goods for w hich a m anufacturer or im porter m ust prepare, am end,
provide and review an M SDS. A ll M SDS for industrial products introduced on site
w ill have a statem ent (‘Classi? ed as a H azardous Substance’or ‘N ot Classi? ed as a
H azardous Substance’) that alerts the user to apply appropriate engineering controls
to protect w orkers.
H azardous substances classi? cations are:
? Very Toxic
? Toxic (includes acute toxic chem icals; carcinogens, categories 1 and 2; m utagenic
agents, categories 1 and 2; and reproductive toxic agents, categories 1 and 2)
? H arm ful (includes carcinogens, category 3; m utagenic agents,
category 3; reproductive toxic agents, category 3)
? Corrosive
? Irritant
? Sensitiser.
6http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/H azardousSubstances/
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 17
Each hazardous substance M SDS w ill include a series of risk and safety phrases to
assist the w orker to handle it safely and be aw are of the hazards. The Safe W ork
A ustralia w ebsite includes inform ation on hazard substance labelling.
7
M any hazardous substances are also classi? ed as dangerous goods, but chem icals
w ith long-term health effects (such as carcinogens and sensitisers) are not classi? ed
as Class 6 Toxic and Infectious Substances under the A ustralian D angerous G oods
Code (A D G 7).
In the next few years, it is intended to introduce the Globally Harmonised System
of Classi?cation and Labelling of Chemicals (G H S). D eveloped by a U nited N ations
agency, the G H S provides a uniform w ay of classifying chem icals internationally. It
also uses risk statem ents and pictogram s to inform chem ical users about chem ical
hazards they m ay be exposed to. The G H S system w ill have im pacts on the current
system of classi? cation and labelling of hazardous substances, and sites should
review the ? nal program w hen it becom es available.
Bulk storage vessels should be appropriately labelled or placarded in accordance w ith
A D G 7. H azardous substances that are not dangerous goods should be appropriately
identi? ed. The M SDS should be located nearby in a storage container (as discussed in
Section 4.1.2).
A full listing of hazchem and dangerous goods placarding requirem ents can be found
in A D G 7.
H azardous substances used and hazardous w aste generated on m ine and m ineral
processing sites can include the follow ing:
? Acids (sulfuric, hydrochloric). Contact w ith strong acid liquids or fum es is
a hum an health hazard and m ay also cause structural dam age in a facility.
Releases of acid to the environm ent m ay have direct effects on biota but
also solubilise and thus m obilise heavy m etal toxicants, as described in
the Managing acid and metalliferous drainage handbook (D ITR 2007).
? Sodium cyanide for gold recovery in large operations. Cyanide management
(D RET 2008a) provides extensive inform ation about sodium and calcium
cyanides, w ith particular attention to toxicity in m am m als and environm ental
im pacts. Environm ental best practice is exem pli? ed by adherence to the
International Cyanide M anagem ent Code for the G old M ining Industry, to
w hich m ajor gold m ining organisations subscribe.
8
The code covers the
production, transport, use and disposal of cyanides. The risk of cyanide
poisoning arises from ingestion and exposure to w orkplace vapours, m ists
and solutions. Sm all quantities of hydrogen cyanide are generated w hen
sodium cyanide is exposed to m oist air, and for genetic reasons only
one person in tw o is able to detect the odour of hydrogen cyanide.
7http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/H ealthSafety/H azardousSubstances/Labelling/
8http://w w w .cyanidecode.org/
18 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
? Mercury for gold recovery in small/artisanal operations. In sm all or artisanal
operations, w orkplace concentrations of m ercury should be m onitored
routinely w here exposure is possible, for exam ple from therm al desorption
of m etallic m ercury. This can occur w hen ores containing trace am ounts of
m ercury (som e zinc concentrates, for exam ple) are roasted. Risk assessment
and management (D R ET 2008b) includes a case study of the reduction
of m ercury pollution from artisanal m ining. In that case, assistance from
a m ining com pany operating nearby w as provided under the U nited
N ations Industrial D evelopm ent O rganization’s G lobal M ercury Project.
? Metals as ions or complexes from Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Fe, As, Hg and Cd sludges or
solutions. Recovery of the m etal is usually the object of the m ining project,
but hazards m ay arise from the presence of toxic by-products (for exam ple,
arsenic and cadm ium ) or m etals released as a result of developing acidi? cation,
as described in Managing acid and metalliferous drainage (D ITR 2007).
? Thiosulfates and polythionates, also resulting from acid mine water
or processing solutions. Sodium dithionite generates sulfur dioxide
in solution and m ay be stored on m ine sites as an alternative to
gaseous sulfur dioxide. A ccidental w etting of dithionite leads to an
exotherm ic process that m ay produce sulfur dioxide fum es.
? Process reagents (acids, alkalis, frothers and collectors, modi?ers,
?occulants and coagulants) that contain aluminium and iron salts
and organic polymers. Refer to the M SD S for these substances
for inform ation necessary for best practice m anagem ent.
? Nitrogen compounds from blasting materials. In enclosed spaces, the com bustion
products from nitrate explosives (m ainly am m onium nitrate and fuel oil at
present) need to be dispersed before w ork can restart in the affected area.
Best practice consists of adequate ventilation and m onitoring of the w orkplace
atm osphere, rather than the use of personal protective equipm ent.
? Oil and fuel used for engines, power plants, and lubrication. A lthough
hydrocarbon products can cause derm atitis w hen skin is contacted, ? re is the
m ain hazard. Because considerable quantities of hydrocarbons m ay be stored
on a m ine site, their presence also constitutes a security hazard because
they could be targeted in an attack. There are also potential im pacts on the
environm ent from spills, storage tank leaks and accidental discharges.
? Suspended soils, mine water, surface drainage and process ef?uents. State
and territory regulations cover discharges to w atersheds and w ater-
bodies, but best practice should go beyond m ere com pliance and seek
opportunities to avoid environm ental dam age and to im prove w ater quality.
? Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from transformers. A ustralia’s Polychlorinated
Biphenyls M anagem ent Plan (2003) has been taken up in state and territory
regulations.
9
A s a result of earlier efforts to rem ove PCBs from service,
9http://w w w .environm ent.gov.au/settlem ents/publications/chem icals/scheduled-w aste/
pcbm anagem ent/index.htm l
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 19
m any transform er oils are actually dilute solutions of PCB in paraf? n.
W here the PCB content is 50 m g/kg (50 ppm ) or greater, the m aterial
m ust be treated to destroy PCBs and reduce the level to 2 ppm or less.
A lthough com plete phase-out m ay still be som e years aw ay, m ost PCB-
containing oil has been rem oved from service and treated as required.
? Asbestos from on-site plants, including asbestos cement sheets in old
buildings. A sbestos lagging is seldom em ployed on pipew ork these
days, but som e old plants m ay still contain it. State and territory
regulations place restrictions on its rem oval and disposal.
? Surplus paints, pesticides and laboratory chemicals. Stored oil-based
paints are ? re hazards, w hile pesticides and laboratory chem icals m ay
have hum an health im pacts, environm ental im pacts, or both. Chem ical
containers m ay contain residual chem icals that pose risks to hum an
health and the environm ent. They should be disposed of safely. Cleaned
containers m ight not be hazardous, and collection and recycling
options m ay be available under the drum M U STER program for plastic
and m etal containers in w hich pesticides have been supplied.
10
? Solvents used in extraction plants. H ydrocarbon solvents, such as kerosene,
are used in solvent extraction plants for separating com plexed m etal ions. A s
for petroleum products, there are ? am m ability hazards and security risks.
A tm ospheric contam inants can include the follow ing:
? Dust/particulates. These can include crystalline silica, lead and nickel.
? Gases produced by combustion. These are produced by blasting and industrial
com bustion engines, and include CO , CO 2, N O x, SO 2 and diesel particulate.
? Natural gas. This includes m ethane, w hich is com m on in coal m ines but rare in
base m etal m ines.
? Chloro?uorocarbons (CFCs) from cooling equipment and ?re protection
devices. CFCs can be released w ith equipm ent fails. A lthough they are
not toxic, CFCs released into enclosed spaces can displace air and create
an asphyxiation hazard. M ost CFCs w ere phased out som e years ago
because they dam age the Earth’s ozone layer. They w ere replaced w ith
hydrochloro? uorocarbons (H CFCs) or hydro? uorocarbons (H FCs), w hich pose
the sam e asphyxiation hazards but are also ? am m able. O ther hazards m ay
em erge from the reintroduction of sulfur dioxide and am m onia, and possibly
supercritical carbon dioxide, as ‘new ’refrigerants to replace the H CFCs
because of H CFCs’global w arm ing potential. The older chem icals have the
potential to be risks to hum an health if handled incorrectly and released.
10http://w w w .drum m uster.com .au/
20 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
? Gross emissions to the atmosphere. G ross em issions are a special category of
hazardous m aterials. They are discussed in the leading practice handbook
Air contaminants, noise and vibration (D R ET 2009), w hich covers w hat are
know n as the criteria pollutants—SO
2
, CO , N O
2
, photochem ical oxidants reported
as ozone, lead, and particulate m atter (PM 10). Em issions of hydrocarbons
m ust be reported to the N ational Pollutant Inventory as volatile organic
com pounds. From 1 July 2009, em issions of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and m ethane need to be reported to the G reenhouse and
Energy D ata O f? cer in the G reenhouse and Energy Reporting O f? ce.
11
11http://clim atechange.gov.au/reporting/
CASE STUDY: Copper solvent
extraction ?res
The ? rst tw o com m ercial copper solvent extraction (CuSX) plants w ere sm all-
scale plants built in A rizona in the late 1960s. The plants w ere built to treat heap
leach and dum p leach solutions, respectively, and to produce 5500–6500 short
ton per annum (stpa) cathode copper. They w ere follow ed soon after by a m uch
larger CuSX plant in Zam bia, w hich treated tailings leach solution and produced
approxim ately 100,000 tpa cathode copper. Since then, CuSX plants have
proliferated w orld-w ide. Continued im provem ents in design and low er unit capital
and operating costs have led to the production of up to 168,000 tpa (185,000
stpa) at the w orld’s largest electrow inning (EW ) plant, at M orenci, A rizona. A n
even larger 200,000 tpa capacity plant is to be built in Chile.
In CuSX plants designed w ithin the past tw o or three years, ? re safety has been
closely exam ined and incorporated into appropriate low -risk designs. H ow ever, it
seem s highly likely that ? re risks and controls w ere not adequately addressed in
plants designed before 2002.
Sm all but serious CuSX ? res occurred at copper heap leach operations in
A rizona in 2003 and in M exico in 2004. The ? res dem onstrated the need for
a serious and im m ediate review of CuSX design policies for ? re control. Both
w ere exam ined in detailed review s of ? re safety, but there has been only lim ited
public reporting of the ? ndings. The results of these and other review s are being
applied to the design of som e new plants and possibly to the retro? t of som e
existing plants to m inim ise the risk of ? re. Little is know n about re? ts of the
older CuSX plants, w hich m ight still face signi? cant ? re risk.
(continued)
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 21
Causes of ? res in CuSX plants include static electricity, inadequate piping design
(allow ing the form ation of ? am m able vapours and m ists inside organic drain
lines), and hum an error during m aintenance w ork. O f four ? res since 1969, all
w ere in relatively new plants. There appears to be no connection betw een the
size of the m ining com panies or constructing engineering com panies and the
risk of ? res. The ? res w ere m ore likely in a culture that has been insensitive to
the real risks of ? re in CuSX plant design, operation and m aintenance.
Solvent extraction is practised at tw o A ustralian m ines—Ranger and O lym pic
D am . N o solvent ? res have been reported at Ranger, but BH P Billiton’s 2003
Environm ent, H ealth and Safety Report said of the O lym pic D am site:
In O ctober 2001, a ? re caused substantial dam age to the solvent
extraction unit at O lym pic dam . There had been a ? re in a sim ilar area
of the plant in D ecem ber 1999. The 2001 ? re w as m ost likely caused by
ignition of solvent-soaked crud (an im purity from the solvent extraction
process) inside a solvent transfer pipe. The hazard of an internal ? re w as
not identi? ed at any tim e during the design, construction and operation
of the solvent extraction plant, and had not previously been experienced
in the solvent extraction industry.
In rebuilding the solvent extraction plants, w e incorporated new
standards for ? re prevention and ? re protection as identi? ed in the
investigation of the 2001 ? re. They include:
? changing pipe w ork m aterial from high-density
polyethylene to conductive, ? bre-reinforced plastic
to reduce static build-up in the pipe w ork
? installing an autom atic system to scuttle solvent
from the tanks in the event of a ? re
? increasing the bunding and drainage sum ps to
contain and rem ove any solvent spillage.
N o further ? res have been reported at the O lym pic D am facility.
Source: O lym pic D am , including m aterial from
hsecreport.bhpbilliton.com /w m c/2003/sitedata/crp_ehsprf_ftly.htm
22 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
3.3 Dangerous goods
D angerous goods should not be confused w ith hazardous substances —they are
classi? ed according to different criteria. D angerous goods are classi? ed on the basis
of im m ediate physical or chem ical effects, such as ? re, explosion, corrosion and
poisoning affecting property, the environm ent or people.
3.3.1 What law applies?
Regulations and codes of practice governing the storage and handling of dangerous
goods in the w orkplace can be obtained from state m ines departm ents and
w orkplace authority w ebsites (listed in Section 2.1.2).
The A ustralian D angerous G oods code (currently in its seventh edition, A D G 7),
published by The N ational Transport Com m ission, covers the transport of dangerous
goods.
12
3.3.2 What are dangerous goods?
D angerous goods are usually chem icals w ith the potential to present an im m ediate
threat to people, property or the environm ent if they are not properly contained or
controlled.
3.3.3 Types of dangerous goods
Substances (including m ixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the A D G 7 are
assigned to one of nine classes according to the hazard or the m ain hazard they
present. The classes are denoted by labels (or diam onds), and som e are subdivided
into divisions.
The classes and divisions are as follow s:
? Class 1: Explosives
– D ivision 1.1: Substances and articles w hich have a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.2: Substances and articles w hich have a
projection hazard but not a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.3: Substances and articles w hich have a ? re
hazard and either a m inor blast hazard or a m inor projection
hazard or both, but not a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.4: Substances and articles w hich present no signi? cant hazard
– D ivision 1.5: Very insensitive substances w hich have a m ass explosion hazard
– D ivision 1.6: Extrem ely insensitive articles w hich
do not have a m ass explosion hazard
12http://w w w .ntc.gov.au/view page.aspx?A reaId=35&D ocum entId=1147
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 23
? Class 2: G ases
– D ivision 2.1: Flam m able gases
– D ivision 2.2: N on-? am m able, non-toxic gases
– D ivision 2.3: Toxic gases
? Class 3: Flam m able liquids
? Class 4: Flam m able solids; substances liable to spontaneous com bustion;
substances w hich, in contact w ith w ater, em it ? am m able gases
– D ivision 4.1: Flam m able solids, self-reactive substances
and solid desensitised explosives
– D ivision 4.2: Substances liable to spontaneous com bustion
– D ivision 4.3: Substances w hich in contact w ith w ater em it ? am m able gases
? Class 5: O xidising substances and organic peroxides
– D ivision 5.1: O xidising substances
– D ivision 5.2: O rganic peroxides
? Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
– D ivision 6.1: Toxic substances
– D ivision 6.2: Infectious substances
? Class 7: Radioactive m aterial
? Class 8: Corrosive substances
? Class 9: M iscellaneous dangerous substances and articles
The num erical order of the classes and divisions does not denote the degree of danger.
Table 3.2 gives exam ples of dangerous goods and the places they m ight be found on
a m ine site.
24 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Table 3.2: Dangerous goods and their likely locations on mine sites
Class Description Examples Location in mine
1 Explosives A N FO M
2.1
Flam m able gases lique? ed petroleum gas (LPG )
lique? ed natural gas (LN G )
acetylene
oxygen
m ethane
P
P
P,W S,M
P
M
2.2
N on-? am m able,
non-toxic gases
nitrogen
carbon dioxide
com pressed air
helium
P
P,W ,M
M ,P,W S
P
2.3
Toxic gases anhydrous am m onia
hydrogen cyanide
sulphur dioxide
carbon m onoxide
P
P, W
P, W
M , P, W S
3
Flam m able liquids unleaded petrol (U LP)
diesel
kerosene
aviation fuel
M , W S
M
P
4.2
Substances liable
to spontaneous
com bustion
Pyrite bearing coal
Som e base m etal sul? des in the presence of pyrite
M , W
M , W
5.1
O xidising agents Caro’s acid
am m onium nitrate
hydrogen peroxide
potassium perm anganate
calcium hypochlorite
P
M (explosives)
P
P
P
6.1
Toxic substances cyanide
arsenic com pounds
cadm ium com pounds
P
P, W
P, W
7
Radioactive
m aterial
naturally occurring radioactive m inerals
containing radioactive elem ents (U , Th Ce etc.)
radon gas
radium in dust and w ater
m easuring instrum ents using radioactive sources
M , P, W S, W
8
Corrosive
substances
nitric acid
sulfuric acid
hydrochloric acid
Caro’s acid
sodium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
calcium oxide
lead acid batteries
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
W
9
M iscellaneous
dangerous goods
asbestos
som e m etal concentrates
W , P, M , W S
P
M = m ining; P = processing; W = w aste; W S = w orkshop and m aintenance
A D G 7 w as issued in 2009, and included protocols and criteria for aquatic
environm ental toxicity testing. Those inclusions have im pacts on the transport of
m etal concentrates off site to ports, as there are cases w here results for different
m etal concentrates have been classi? ed as Class 9, U N 3077, Environm entally
H azardous Substances. (U N 3077 relates to m ixtures of solids w hich are not subject
to the A D G 7.)
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 25
M ine sites m ust test their concentrates before transport to determ ine w hether
they are classi? ed as Class 9, U N 3077. Classi? ed concentrates m ust be stored
and handled in com pliance w ith A S 4681 and transported in com pliance w ith the
requirem ents in A D G 7.
3.4 Mining wastes and by-products
3.4.1 What are mining waste materials?
M ining w aste m aterials are a class of m aterials generated through the m ining and
processing of rock m aterial containing econom ic quantities of m etalliferous or
industrial m inerals, coal, or oil (shale oil).
3.4.2 Types of mining waste materials
There are several classes of m ining w aste. W aste rock or overburden is m aterial that
is m ined from an open cast pit or underground w orkings in order to gain access to
rock m aterial hosting econom ic grades. The classi? cation of w aste is based largely
on the m arket price and the grade of the target com m odity. G enerally, w aste rock
contains little or no econom ic quantities of the m ineral or energy com m odity. It
includes topsoil, w eathered and partially w eathered overburden, and prim ary or
unw eathered w aste rock. Topsoil, on the other hand, cannot be regarded as w aste
since it is a valuable resource for rehabilitation of the m ine site upon closure. In
m any m etalliferous and coal m ines, low -grade or sub-econom ic grade ore or coal
is stockpiled for later processing w hen econom ic circum stances im prove and
com m odity prices rise. O ften, low -grade ores are left to w eather, are never treated
and becom e classed as high-grade w aste rock stockpiles. Stockpiles of low -grade
ores—or high-grade w aste rock, depending on the econom ic view point—often contain
sul? des that can oxidise w hen exposed to air and m oisture, form ing sulfuric acid.
The acid is itself hazardous, but also carries dissolved m etals that can dam age the
environm ent. Managing acid and metalliferous drainage (D ITR 2007) gives a full
account of the hazards and the best practice relating to them .
Tailings are the ? ne-grained residue rem aining after the processing of ore and
extraction of the target com m odity. Tailings from m etalliferous ores contain sm all
quantities (sub-econom ic grade) of the target m etal plus accessory m inerals (for
exam ple, sul? de m inerals, often in high concentrations), m etal ions and process
chem icals. Processing of coal generates ? ne- and coarse-grained rejects, w hich m ay
contain sulphide m inerals and m etal ions, including alum inosilicates that m ay be a
source of alum inium in acidic m ine drainage. Tailings best practice is described in
Tailings management (D ITR 2007).
H eap leaching technology is applied to low -grade ores. The ore is crushed to a
nom inal particle size, stacked on lined pads, and irrigated w ith a leaching solution,
such as cyanide for gold ores or sulfuric acid for copper ores. W hen the process
is com plete, the heap leach pads are decom m issioned and the rem nant m aterial
becom es a m ine w aste product. A variation on the heap leach pad is the dum p leach,
in w hich low -grade ore is placed in a stockpile and irrigated w ith a leaching solution
in an operation sim ilar to heap leaching.
26 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
The other m ain w aste m aterial is m ine w ater that accum ulates w ithin m ine
structures, such as open pits, underground, or interacts w ith m ine disturbed areas.
Further inform ation on tailings can be found in the leading practice handbooks
Tailings management, Managing acid and metalliferous drainage, and Water
management.
M onitoring the concentrations of hazardous m aterials discharged into tailings
storage facilities of any type—such as a paddock, central discharge tailings (CDT) or
pit in? ll—for environm ental effects is part of best practice for the m ining industry. For
exam ple, the gold m ining industry has adopted the voluntary International Cyanide
M anagem ent Code to m inim ise the hazardous effect of cyanide on the environm ent.
A ll operations are expected to com ply w ith the code, com pliance is veri? ed by
independent auditors, and reports are published on the International Cyanide
M anagem ent Institute’s w ebsite.
13
O ne site, A nglo G old A shanti A ustralia’s Sunrise D am operation, uses hypersaline
groundw ater in its gold w inning process. W hile the operation w orks continuously
to reduce the cyanide levels used in the process to m inim ise the loss to the CDT,
the discharge to the CDT is still above the International Cyanide M anagem ent Code
guideline level of 50 m g/L w eak acid-dissociable cyanide. Recent extensive
peer-review ed research
14
provided a novel w ay to reduce the environm ental im pact
and prevent w ildlife death (particularly bird deaths) due to cyanide toxicity by
ensuring that discharge to the CDT is above a certain m inim um in salinity. The
research identi? ed protective m echanism s that prevent birds from drinking from the
ponded solution and drains, and produce a faster oxidation rate of the cyanide to less
toxic cyanate form s. Even the m ost salt-tolerant avian species cannot drink w ater
w ith a salinity above 50,000 m g/L total dissolved solids.
Sim ple daily salinity determ ination con? rm s that the cyanide solutions are above
the m inim um salinity level. W hen rain or storm s threaten to dilute the salinity below
the established ‘safe’level, w ind, solar and m ine-operated groundw ater pum ps
add hypersaline groundw ater to the cyanide solutions, thus protecting w ildlife and
continuing the fast oxidation of the cyanide.
The Cow al gold m ine in central N ew South W ales is a heavily regulated operation
because it is in an environm entally sensitive area adjacent to a lake that ? lls
interm ittently from over? ow of the Lachlan River. The concentration of w eak
acid-dissociable cyanide discharged to tailings ponds m ust not exceed 30 ppm and
m ust rem ain below 20 ppm for 90% of operating tim e, in order to reduce the hazard
posed to birdlife in the area.
13http://w w w .cyanidecode.org/
14 A CM ER research project 58: A R isk A ssessm ent of the Effects of G oldm ining Cyanide-Bearing
Tailings Solutions on W ildlife.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 27
CASE STUDY: Management of arsenic
minerals at the Yerranderie mine site
Yerranderie is a historic abandoned silver–lead m ining tow n southw est of Sydney
near the W orld H eritage listed Blue M ountains N ational Park. The site is about
12 kilom etres upstream from Sydney’s m ajor w ater supply dam , W arragam ba.
M ining at Yerranderie occurred betw een 1898 and the 1930s, and recovered
signi? cant quantities of silver, lead and gold. There w as m inim al rehabilitation
after m ining ceased.
In 2003, intensive environm ental studies found that sm all areas of the site had
arsenic contam ination levels that w ere potentially hazardous to hum an health
and the surrounding environm ent, in particular W arragam ba D am . A t som e
locations, the m aterial contained up to 25% arsenic. Fencing and signage around
those areas w as a tem porary solution to protect the health and safety of visitors
to the historic site, but a robust longer term m anagem ent solution w as required.
The arsenic-contam inated m aterial w as classi? ed as hazardous w aste, and the
requirem ents for handling, transporting and disposing of it w ere investigated
in detail. A m ong a num ber of potential rem ediation options, the best w as the
‘D olocrete treatm ent’—a chem ical ? xation and im m obilisation technique. The
N SW D epartm ent of Environm ent and Clim ate Change provided a speci? c
im m obilisation approval that perm itted the use of that technique. The aim w as
to im m obilise the arsenic in the m ineral m atrix using a m agnesium oxide based
binder. This w ould allow the reclassi? cation of the m aterial from hazardous
to industrial w aste, for disposal to a licensed w aste facility. The desired
rehabilitation outcom e w as to signi? cantly reduce the potential risks to hum an
health and the im pact on the surrounding environm ent.
To m anage the potential occupational health and safety (O H S) risks to w orkers
during the project, full-tim e project and O H S supervisors w ere engaged to
ensure that all w orks w ere carried out in accordance w ith the approved O H S
m anagem ent plan.
A fter approxim ately 101 tonnes of the m aterial w as stabilised, laboratory analysis
con? rm ed that the treatm ent effectively reduced the m obility of the arsenic
(and changed the w aste classi? cation from hazardous to industrial). The m aterial
w as then disposed of at a licensed w aste facility. The project w as com pleted
using clean soil from the site to reshape the rem ediated area so that it w as
free-draining and landscaped in harm ony w ith the am enity and fabric of the
surrounding heritage site.
The project substantially rehabilitated the Yerranderie site, reducing risks to the
surrounding environm ent and Sydney’s w ater supply and im proving safety for
visitors and tourists.
(continued)
28 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Fencing and signage was not a long-t erm management solut ion.
Part of t he mining herit age at Yerranderie.
Source: NSW Depart ment of Indust ry and Invest ment —Minerals and Energy.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 29
3.5 Security risk substances
3.5.1 What law applies?
The basis for security risk substances (SRS) regulations is the CO A G agreem ent of
25 June 2004 relating to counter-terrorism m easures. A ll states and territories have
adopted SRS regulations.
States and territories did not need identical or even new speci? c legislation, but they
contribute to national consistency in various w ays. For exam ple, W estern A ustralia
developed the D angerous G oods Safety (Security Risk Substances) Regulations
2007, rather than including security risk substances in explosives regulations. This
avoids confusion or inconsistencies betw een safety and security requirem ents
for am m onium nitrate. The regulations contain guidance and de? nitive statutory
requirem ents. The requirem ents of the SRS Regulations are in addition to those of
other dangerous goods safety regulations.
3.5.2 Types of security risk substances
The follow ing substances, other than Class 1 D angerous G oods, are SRSs in W estern
A ustralia:
? solid m ixtures containing m ore than 45% am m onium nitrate (A N )
? am m onium nitrate em ulsions, suspensions or gels.
The latter group does not include single-phase, hom ogeneous aqueous solutions
of A N (as opposed to m ultiphase, heterogeneous m ixtures). Such solutions are
classi? ed as Class 5.1, U N 2426 in the A D G 7 and are com m only used as fertiliser or as
hot, concentrated solutions for m aking A N em ulsion explosives. H ow ever, it includes
calcium am m onium nitrate (CA N ), w hich is not a dangerous good under the U N
classi? cation system .
30 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Consider chemicals a security risk
The A ustralian m inerals industry strongly supports the need for a ‘social licence
to operate’as a com plem ent to a regulatory licence issued by governm ent. To
the industry, a social licence to operate is about operating in a m anner that is
attuned to com m unity expectations and w hich acknow ledges that businesses
have a shared responsibility w ith governm ent, and society m ore broadly, to help
develop strong and sustainable com m unities.
A ll m inerals operations receive, store, utilise and dispose of chem ical substances.
Som e of those chem icals can be used to develop m aterials that can be used to
harm people or property. M ost m inerals operations have security procedures
in place related to m itigating O H S, personnel m anagem ent, environm ental
perform ance and asset m anagem ent risks.
M inerals operations should rem ain vigilant about the potential for people or
organisations to access chem icals used in industry operations and use them
in w ays for w hich they are not intended. Such an event w ould incur signi? cant
reputational and direct costs for an operation, the com pany involved and the
broader industry.
Chem icals security risks can be form ally considered and m anaged in existing
operational risk m anagem ent processes. The Risk assessment and management
leading practice handbook (D R ET 2008b), A S/N ZS 4360:2004 and the
m aterials stew ardship philosophy provide a robust fram ew ork for assessing and
m anaging operational risks throughout the value chain. The Standards A ustralia
/ Standards N ew Zealand Security risk management handbook (H B 167:2006)
provides speci? c guidance on m anaging security-related risks.
Incorporating chem icals security into risk registers allow s m inerals operations
m anagers to understand, identify and m anage security risks. The follow ing item s
could be considered for incorporation into existing risk assessm ent processes:
? • em ployability or desirability of the chem ical
– could this substance be of interest for terrorist purposes?
– if not, it w ould not require further assessm ent
from a security perspective
? • supply chain vulnerability, for exam ple
– em ployee/contractor suitability assessm ents
– inventory control m easures
– volum es and packaging transported
– site/route location and accessibility
– security aw areness training and com m unication for suppliers
(continued)
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 31
? on-site vulnerability, for exam ple
– access controls for chem ical store (access onto and w ithin operation)
– em ployee/contractor suitability and m onitoring
– tim e and frequency of chem ical storage
– inventory control, including docum entation and auditing
– training in and aw areness of chem icals security concerns
– procedures for handling, use and disposal.
Leading practice operations in A ustralia have taken a life-cycle approach to
custodianship of all chem icals brought to and used on site, w hich also extends
to chem icals suppliers and w aste disposers. They apply risk assessm ent
and m anagem ent processes, and typically have com prehensive chem icals
inventories that docum ent accountabilities, am ounts, storage conditions and
disposal m ethods. This is often im plem ented w ith dedicated tracking softw are.
A t leading practice operations, chem icals m anagem ent is factored into site
risk m anagem ent through risk registers that are subject to regular and
com prehensive audits against com pany standards.
These existing com prehensive system s can be tailored to include particular
issues related to chem icals’security risks.
Thefts of hazardous m aterial from m ine sites can be dangerous. In 2008,
G erm an prosecutors brought charges of ‘m em bership in a terrorist organisation’
against tw o m en, and a third m an w as extradited from Turkey to face charges
of providing 26 explosive detonators. A ccording to G erm an m edia reports, the
alleged terrorists w anted to blow up U S targets in G erm any and had stockpiled
hundreds of litres of concentrated hydrogen peroxide.
15
The quantities of
chem icals w ere large enough to build bom bs that could have been m ore pow erful
than those that killed 191 com m uters in M adrid in 2004 and 52 com m uters in
London in 2005.
15http://w w w .w elt.de/politik/article2384639/Prozess-gegen-Sauerland-Terroristen-eroeffnet.
htm l
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 33
4.0 RISK MANAGEMENT
Purpose
This section presents risk m anagem ent strategies that m ay be im plem ented at the
corporate, m ine site or personal level.
Key messages
? Substitution of m aterials or control m easures, such as ventilation and
containm ent, can reduce exposures to hazardous substances.
? W orker hazard aw areness and training is of vital im portance.
? Com m unication of risks to the com m unity needs
to be part of broader com m unication.
? Suppliers’stew ardship program s can augm ent m ine m anagem ent practice.
16
In July 2009, the International Council on M ining and M etals released Good practice
guidance on health risk assessment (H RA ), w hich describes the developm ent of
health risk assessm ents of chem icals at m ining sites. This useful docum ent is
available on the council’s w ebsite.
4.1 Worker hazard awareness
4.1.1 Material Safety Data Sheets
M aterial Safety D ata Sheets (M SDS) w ere established around 30 years ago to ful? l
‘w orker’s right to know ’legislation in the U nited States.
Before the 1990s, A ustralian legislation controlling O H S inform ation on labels and
M SDS w as poor, leading to incidents in w hich w orkers w ere not aw are of hazards or
how to handle chem icals safely. N ational legislation w as introduced to ensure that
M SDS and labels m eet standards and include required inform ation content.
The key docum ents, w hich can be found on the Safe W ork A ustralia w ebsite
17
, are:
? National Code of Practice for the Preparation of Material
Safety Data Sheets, 2nd edition [N O H SC: 2011 (2003)]
? National Code of Practice for the Labelling of Workplace
Substances [N O H SC: 2012 (1994)].
16http://w w w .icm m .com /page/14733/new -guidance-on-health-risk-assessm ent
17http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/A boutU s/Publications/N ationalStandards/IndexofN atio
nalStandardsCodesofPracticeandrelatedG uidanceN otes.htm
34 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Legislation
The various O H S A cts require that em ployers provide inform ation, in the form of an
M SDS, to allow w orkers to handle hazardous substances safely. Even w hen a product
is not classi? ed as a hazardous substance or a dangerous good, it is recom m ended
that an M SDS be prepared for the m ine site to enable w orkers and m anagers to store
and handle the product safely. A sim ilar approach should be taken to w aste m aterial
that needs to be disposed.
Employers’ responsibilities
Em ployers have the follow ing responsibilities:
? They m ust provide the inform ation needed to allow the safe
handling of hazardous substances used at w ork.
? They m ust ensure that all em ployees have ready access to
M SD S (either as paper copies or in databases).
? They should encourage em ployees to read M SDS for the hazardous
substances that w orkers m ay be exposed to in their w ork.
? M SDS on site m ust be dated and current (w ithin ? ve years of the issue date).
? In som e states, m ining legislation requires that a risk assessm ent
of every product be conducted and the risks be controlled through
safe w ork procedures or effective controls. This occurs by a default
reference to a guideline, but is nevertheless a legal requirem ent.
M ine operators that directly im port chem icals m ust ensure that those chem icals are
listed in the A ustralian Inventory of Chem ical Substances, w hich is m anaged through
the N ational Industrial Chem icals N oti? cation and A ssessm ent Schem e (N ICN A S).
18
In
the case of a m ixture or blended product, such as a lubricant, its com ponents m ust
be listed. In addition, the m ining com pany becom es responsible for preparing an
M SD S to m eet the legal guidelines.
New chemicals coming on site
The follow ing rules apply w hen a new chem ical com es onto a m ining site:
? Procedures m ust be available to control and assess
new products or chem icals being introduced.
? Before a hazardous substance is used at the site, an M SDS
m ust accom pany the ? rst supply of the substance.
? A risk assessm ent m ust be conducted and signed off by a com petent person.
? A ny necessary controls on the use of the substance
m ust be established in the w orkplace.
? A fter the risk assessm ent, a procedure m ust be generated to ensure
that the w orkers can handle the hazardous m aterial safely.
Figure 4.1 show s a sam ple checklist for a risk assessm ent.
18http://w w w .nicnas.gov.au
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 35
Figure 4.1Sample risk assessment checklist
Identi?cation – (Com pleted By Person Bringing Chem ical to site)
Product N am e:
Supplier:
Site: Location:
D epartm ent/Contractor:
Person Requiring Product:
Intended use:
A pplication M ethod: Average use (eg litres/hour):
Frequency of use D aily: W eekly: M onthly: H our in use:
D angerous G oods Class: Poison Schedule: U N N o:
Storage Q uantities: Container size:
Storage Location:
Risk Assessment – (Com pleted By Safety O f? cer)
H igh M edium Low
1. Eye
2. Inhalation
3. Skin
4. Ingestion
5. Fire hazard
6. O verall Rating
Control – (Com pleted By Safety O f? cer)
D eterm ine the appropriate level of control from the evaluation above.
1. Can the use of this product be avoided or elim inated?
2. A re safer substitutes available
3. Can the product be isolated
4. Engineering controls to reduce the risk
? O pen ventilation ? Barricades / G uards
? Forced ventilation ? Fire extinguisher
? A tm ospheric M onitoring ? Training
? A dditional lighting ? W ritten procedure
? W arning signs ? other
5. W hat special personal protective equipm ent is required
? Splash proof goggles ? Full Face Respirator
? Full face shield ? A ir ? ow hood / M ask
? Standard Rubber gloves ? D isposable Coveralls
? Special G loves ? PVC A pron/coveralls
? Particulate M ask ? other
? H alf Face Respirator
Environment – (Com pleted By Environm ental Superintendent)
The product (or com ponents) is reportable under the N ational Pollutant Inventory?
Storage containm ent / bunding required?
Special w aste disposal requirem ents?
Spill control procedures are necessary?
Stores – (Com pleted By Store Superintendent)
Storage Com patibility:
Storage Requirem ents:
Recommendations/Actions/Comments
Safety Environm ent W arehouse Technical Expert
Review ed by
Signed
D ate
D epartm ent M anager A pproval
Signature: D ate:
Source: N ew crest M ining Ltd
36 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Waste materials
W aste m aterials should also be assessed and an appropriate M SD S and label should
be prepared to ensure that the w orkers handling the drum s of m aterial on site or off
site can do so safely.
Registers
A ll hazardous m aterials on site m ust be on a site register, w hich is often a
com puterised M SDS database.
For all hazardous m aterials, the register m ust include the product nam e, the M SDS,
the quantity, and the location in w hich the m aterial is used.
The register should be updated as new hazardous substances are introduced
to the w orkplace and the use or production of existing hazardous substances is
discontinued.
D angerous goods m ust be recorded in a site m anifest that com plies w ith the
dangerous goods legislation.
Access to the register
A ll w orkers, em ergency services and relevant public authorities should have ready
access to the site register. The register can either be centrally located or kept in the
w orkplace to w hich it pertains.
Identi?cation of hazardous substances in enclosed systems
W here a hazardous substance in a w orkplace is contained in an enclosed system ,
such as a pipe or piping system or a process vessel, it m ust be identi? ed to people
w ho m ay be exposed to the contents. This is particularly im portant for system s
containing cyanide or acid solutions.
Suitable m eans of identi? cation include colour coding in accordance w ith A S 1319
Safety signs for the occupational environment or A S 1345 Identi?cation of the
contents of piping, conduits and ducts.
How to read an MSDS
The M SDS is divided into 16 sections:
? Section 1: Identi?cation of material and supplier provides the
nam e and supplier of the m aterial, recom m ended uses, and contact
inform ation for the supplier, including an em ergency contact.
? Section 2: Hazards identi?cation describes the hazards of the
m aterial and the appropriate w arning inform ation (risk and safety
phrases) associated w ith those hazards, including w hether the
m aterial is a hazardous substance, a dangerous good, or both.
There is no legal requirem ent to provide an M SD S for a non-hazardous and non-
dangerous m aterial. H ow ever, it is good practice to do so, as an M SDS is a w ell-
accepted and effective w ay to provide w orkplace inform ation and inform ation
required for product liability for the supplier.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 37
? Section 3: Composition / information on ingredients identi? es the ingredients
of the m aterial. This includes CA S (Chem ical A bstract Service) registry num bers,
w hich are assigned num bers for chem icals and process stream s. CA S num bers
can be used to ? nd out m ore inform ation about the chem ical on the Safe
W ork A ustralia’s H azardous Substances Inform ation System database.
19
? Section 4: First aid measures describes the initial care that can be given
w ithout sophisticated equipm ent and a w ide selection of available m edications.
? Section 5: Fire ?ghting measures describes the ? re and explosive properties
of the m aterial and provides advice on how to deal w ith incidents. It also
lists hazardous chem icals produced during ? re or by overheating.
? Section 6: Accidental release measures recom m end the appropriate
response to spills, leaks or releases to prevent or m inim ise
adverse effects on people, property and the environm ent.
? Section 7: Handling and storage provides guidance on safe
handling practices that m inim ise potential hazards to people,
property and the environm ent from the m aterial.
? Section 8: Exposure controls / personal protection details engineering control
m easures needed to m inim ise exposure to and risks associated w ith the hazards
of the m aterial. O ccupational exposure standards, if applicable or available, m ust
not be exceeded. N ot all substances have occupational exposure standards.
Those that do, do not cover the derm al (skin) or oral (m outh) routes of exposure.
? Section 9: Physical and chemical properties gives em pirical data
on the m aterial. The key pieces of inform ation are the boiling point
and solubility of the chem ical. The closer the boiling point is to 25°C,
the higher the risk of exposure to airborne m aterial. The ? ash point
also gives an indication of the ? am m ability of the chem ical.
? Section 10: Stability and reactivity describes reactivity hazards of the m aterial
and provides speci? c test data for the product as a w hole, w here available.
H ow ever, the inform ation m ay also be based on general data for the class or
fam ily of chem ical, if such data adequately represent the expected hazard.
? Section 11: Toxicological information describes the potential adverse
health effects and sym ptom s associated w ith exposure to the m aterial
and its ingredients or know n by-products. This w ill cover short-term
health effects and, in som e cases, long-term effects. Routes of exposure
to be considered are airborne or skin absorption, if appropriate.
19http://hsis.ascc.gov.au/
38 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
? Section 12: Ecological information provides inform ation to evaluate
the environm ental im pact of the m aterial if it is released to the
environm ent. This inform ation can assist in handling spills and
evaluating w aste treatm ent practices. The section should clearly
indicate species, m edia, units, test duration and test conditions.
? Section 13: Disposal considerations provide inform ation on the disposal,
recycling or reclam ation of the m aterial and/or its container.
? Section 14: Transport information provides basic classi? cation inform ation for
the preparation of the m aterial for transport or shipm ent. If that inform ation is
not available or relevant, this should be stated. The core transport inform ation is
– U N N um ber
– U N Proper Shipping N am e
– Class and subsidiary risk(s)
– Packing G roup
– Special precautions for user
– H azchem Code.
? Section 15: Regulatory information describes other regulatory
inform ation on the m aterial that is not provided elsew here in the M SD S.
? Section 16: Other information provides inform ation
relevant to the preparation of the M SD S.
4.1.2 Labelling
A ll containers of hazardous substances supplied to, used in or handled at the
w orkplace should be appropriately labelled to allow them to be used safely.
Bulk storage vessels should be appropriately labelled or placarded in accordance w ith
A D G 7. H azardous substances that are not dangerous goods should be appropriately
identi? ed, and the M SD S should be located nearby in a storage container.
H azardous substances can be described by a series of risk and safety phrases that
allow the user to understand the hazards and required precautions. The phrases
are listed in the National Code of Practice for the Labelling of Workplace Substances
[N O H SC:2012(1994)].
20
20http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/N R/rdonlyres/9A 5FFEC7-940E-478A-BB34-
07C8A 1C9D 597/0/LabellingCO PN O H SC_2012_1994.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 39
For exam ple, concentrated sulfuric acid is classi? ed as a corrosive and w ould require
the follow ing risk and safety phrases:
? R35: Causes severe burns
? S23: D o not breathe vapour
? S30: N ever add w ater to this product
? S36: W ear suitable protective clothing
? S37: W ear suitable gloves
? S39: W ear eye/face protection
? S26: In case of contact w ith eyes, rinse im m ediately
w ith plenty of w ater and seek m edical advice
? S45: In case of accident or if you feel unw ell, seek m edical
advice im m ediately (show the label w henever possible).
U nder the G lobally H arm onized System of Classi? cation and Labelling of Chem icals,
som e changes w ill be m ade to term inology.
Risk and safety phrases can vary betw een sim ilar products, as it is up to the
m anufacturer or supplier to nom inate the phrases from the Safe W ork A ustralia list.
4.1.3 Training
M ining com panies have a duty to m ake the w orkforce aw are of the problem s and
dangers associated w ith hazardous m aterials and of safer handling requirem ents. It
is up to the com pany to provide adequate training and enforce the im plem entation of
its procedures.
Workforce training
A ll w orkers and personnel w orking regularly on the m ine site w ho m ight com e into
contact w ith or into the vicinity of hazardous substances or dangerous goods m ust
be trained on the inherent hazards. The training should include:
? recognition of the m aterial as hazardous at the operation
? adequate inform ation about the health or environm ental effects of the m aterial
? sym ptom s of overexposure to the m aterial
? ? rst aid and em ergency procedures
? safe handling procedures and personal protective equipm ent requirem ents.
? environm ental clean-up procedures
? ? re? ghting requirem ents.
M SDS or other useful inform ation in the language of the w orkforce should be
available for this purpose. Refresher training should be conducted at set periods, and
records of that training should be kept.
40 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Each w orker is responsible for abiding by the health, safety and environm ental
com ponents of the training. The training requirem ents for each job should be
identi? ed in the training m aterials. Personnel in particular positions (including those
involved in unloading and storing the m aterials, plant operators, tailings storage
facility operators, m aintenance and environm ental personnel, and m anagem ent staff)
should be trained in the relevant procedures by appropriately quali? ed personnel,
w ho m ay be external experts and/or regulators.
Em ergency drills sim ulating w orker exposure and environm ental releases should
be conducted periodically and be evaluated for effectiveness. The evaluation
should include an assessm ent of w hether all personnel involved have the necessary
know ledge and skill to carry out the required w ork.
Visitor and contractor management
A ll visitors and contractors need to be inducted so that they are aw are of the
basic safety and personal protective equipm ent requirem ents of the site, and of
em ergency procedures. They should be accom panied by suitable site-appointed
personnel w hile on site.
They should be inducted according to the locations they are likely visit. The induction
should be:
? at a basic level for visitors w ho are being accom panied;
for exam ple, to the site of? ce
? at operational levels for contractors, according to the
requirem ents of the relevant sections of the plant.
Education on hazardous materials
The education of site personnel m ay be carried out through internal specialised
training courses or through attendance at conferences, w orkshops or courses
provided by external providers.
Education of the com m unity and stakeholders m ay be through public forum s
or m eetings, new sletters, and the distribution of educational and inform ational
docum ents through local councils, libraries or other m eans.
4.2 Community awareness
4.2.1 Communication
A ppropriate operational and environm ental inform ation on the m anagem ent of
hazardous or dangerous goods should be m ade available to stakeholders, including
the com m unity. The stakeholders should be kept inform ed about how the operation
m anages hazardous substances in relation to health and safety and the environm ent.
This inform ation m ay be com m unicated through public m eetings, new sletters, the
internet and other m eans.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 41
CASE STUDY: Tenby10 Program, Nyrstar
Port Pirie Smelter
In a unique, w orld-leading partnership know n as the Tenby10 Program , the Port
Pirie Regional Council, the South A ustralian D epartm ent of H ealth, the South
A ustralian Environm ent Protection A uthority, N yrstar Port Pirie Sm elter and the
com m unity have been w orking together to ? nd a solution to the elevated blood
lead levels of children in Port Pirie. The goal is to low er children’s blood lead
levels to below the W orld H ealth O rganization standard of 10 ?g/dL (m icrogram s
per decilitre) of blood by the end of 2010. W hat w as acceptable in the past is no
longer acceptable.
Port Pirie is an integrated m ulti-m etal sm elter and re? nery, w ith ? exibility to
process a w ide range of lead-containing feedstocks to produce re? ned lead,
silver, zinc, copper and gold. The sm elter w as built in 1889 and becam e the
w orld’s biggest lead sm elter by 1934.
Lead can enter hum an bodies through ingestion (eating and sw allow ing)
of lead-contam inated food, w ater, soil, dust or paint chips and through
inhalation (breathing in) of lead dust particles. A com m on w ay of absorbing
lead, particularly for young children, is through contam inated hand-to-m outh
m ovem ents.
Blood lead levels above 10 ?g/dL can interfere w ith the developm ent of organ
system s, in particular the central nervous system . This affects babies and
young children, w hose bodies are developing rapidly, m ore than adults. A dverse
effects in neuro-behavioural function, particularly in intellectual perform ance
(decreasing IQ ) and behaviour, and im paired haem oglobin synthesis appear to be
the m ost com m on and dam aging effects of lead exposure.
A dults absorb about 10% of ingested lead, w hereas children’s less m ature
digestive system s can absorb approxim ately 50% because lead resem bles
calcium and children’s gastrointestinal tracts take up calcium at greater rates
than adults. N utritional de? ciencies of iron and calcium can also lead to greater
absorption, exacerbating the toxic effects of lead.
The Tenby10 project has had signi? cant success in reducing the blood lead levels
of Port Pirie’s children. Results in 2008 show ed that 63.1% of children tested
had levels below the W orld H ealth O rganization standard of 10 ?g/dL—an 8%
im provem ent on results in 2007. The project has m ade running im provem ents
each year since it began.
This result w as achieved through substantial investm ent by N yrstar in on-site
em ission control m easures and environm ental program s. In addition, extensive
com m unity education and aw areness program s have increased people’s
understanding of the interactions of lead dust in the environm ent and of how to
lim it children’s exposure to lead dust in the hom e.
Source: N yrstar Port Pirie Sm elter.
42 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Further inform ation on com m unity engagem ent is available from the:
? Community consultation and communication guidelines: The Dangerous Goods
Safety Management Act 2001, Chem ical H azards and Em ergency M anagem ent
(CH EM ) U nit, Q ueensland D epartm ent of Em ergency Services, M arch 2002
21
? Leading practice Community engagement and
development handbook (D ITR 2006).
4.3 Controls
W orker exposure to hazardous m aterials should alw ays be m inim ised, and exposure
m inim isation relies on control regim es.
22
Control regim es involve a hierarchy of controls:
1. Elim ination/substitution
2. Engineering controls
3. A dm inistrative controls
4. Personal protective equipm ent (PPE).
W hich regim e is appropriate depends on the nature of the job. For exam ple,
engineering controls are appropriate for norm al operations or tasks that continue for
long periods. Short-term or interm ediate tasks, such as m aintenance, rely m ore on
controls at the low er end of the hierarchy.
W hile PPE is im portant, action higher up the hierarchy should be considered ? rst.
Long-term use of PPE m ay not be the safest or m ost cost-effective control.
4.3.1 Elimination/substitution
The de? nitive w ay to reduce the risk from a process or substance in the w orkplace is
to com pletely rem ove that process or substance. H ow ever, m ore often substitution
is used to prevent health problem s; for exam ple, by replacing asbestos w ith safer
synthetic substitutes, such as glass foam , rock and glass w ool.
In som e industrial processes w here a less hazardous m aterial cannot be used, the
risk in handling hazardous m aterials can be reduced by changing the process. For
exam ple, an operation m ight:
? use a pelletised form of the hazardous substance, rather than a pow dered form
? vacuum or use an industrial sw eeper to clean up concentrate
dusts, rather than m anually sw eeping them up.
4.3.2 Engineering controls
A range of engineering controls is possible, including various types of containm ent
and ventilation system s.
21http://w w w .ret.gov.au/resources/sdm ining
22 Parts of the control strategies in this section have been extracted from Principles of occupation
health and hygiene: an introduction (A IO H 2007), published by the A ustralian Institute of
O ccupational H ygienists.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 43
CASE STUDY: The control of
pneumoconiosis in the New South Wales
coal industry
Coal w orkers pneum oconiosis (CW P) results from the gradual accum ulation of
coal dust particles in the lung tissue. In dusted lungs, nodules form in the upper
zones of both lungs, resulting in a debilitating disease w ith reduced lung function.
Detection of pneum oconiosis is usually by chest X-ray. CW P is a preventable
disease that can be elim inated by effective control and m onitoring strategies.
In 1948, the overall prevalence of CW P in N SW w as 16% —a totally unacceptable
situation by both m odern and historical standards. Coal Services H ealth data
show s that num bers of new cases of CW P have dropped aw ay, and that no new
cases have been detected since 1988. The drop in new cases is the result of the
coal industry’s efforts to control dust through ventilation and dust suppression
procedures, and through m onitoring (including w orkplace environm ental
m onitoring and m onitoring m iners’health w ith regular chest X-rays and lung
function testing). These im portant prevention and surveillance m easures have
ensured the steady decline in the incidence of new cases of pneum oconiosis
since a peak in 1970–1973. H ow ever, m any new m iners are entering the industry,
m aking it vitally im portant not to forget the O H S lessons of the past or the
im portance of dust suppression and health surveillance.
To that end, the N SW coal industry supports the Coal Services’Standing
Com m ittee on D ust Research and Control, w hich com prises personnel from
m ine operations, statutory authorities and health specialists w ho overview
every w orkplace dust sam ple collected in the industry and investigate regular
exceedances. The com m ittee also conducts research into relevant industry
issues (such as diesel particulate and inhalable dust) and better m ethods of dust
suppression and w orkplace m onitoring.
A n untiring focus over m ore than 50 years has elim inated this debilitating
disease from the N SW coal industry, but the sam e cannot be said for overseas
coal industries. Several years ago, cases of pneum oconiosis occurred in young
coal m iners in the U nited States. A s a result, the A m erican N ational Institute
for O ccupational Safety and H ealth and the M ine Safety and H ealth A uthority
set up the Enhanced Coal W orkers’H ealth Surveillance Program . A t that tim e,
the program detected 37 cases of coal m iners w ith dusted lungs. N otably, all 37
m iners had w orked underground for at least 10 years w ithout having had a chest
X-ray, 22 had w orked for 20 years w ithout an X-ray, and 2 had w orked for over 30
years w ithout radiology.
The im portance of principles of effective control backed by vigilant m onitoring
cannot be overstated. A problem m ight be under control, but it can easily
re-em erge if control and m onitoring procedures are discarded.
Source: Coal Services Pty Ltd.
44 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Isolation
If the w orker can be isolated com pletely from the hazard, the risk to health is
rem oved. Isolation m ay be by a physical or a distance barrier. Tim e is also a barrier,
although tim e m ay equally be considered an adm inistrative control. Isolation controls
include:
? rem ote storage of hazardous m aterials (for exam ple, explosives, fuel tank farm s)
? the separation of m aterials that could create hazards by com ing into
contact w ith each other by accident (for exam ple, oxidants and fuels).
O ccasionally, it is possible to use tim ed sequences to conduct hazardous operations
w hen few er w orkers are present. For exam ple, if a w orkplace is to be painted,
the painting should obviously be done outside norm al w orking hours to prevent
unnecessary exposure to solvent vapours.
Containment
O nce dust, fum es or vapours have escaped from the source, they becom e far m ore
dif? cult to control. A better strategy is to m axim ise containm ent by engineering
controls, for exam ple by:
? totally enclosing the w hole process and using an exhaust extraction system
? enclosing noisy m achinery in sound-proofed structures.
The design of structures to enclose or contain processes m ust allow for m aintenance
activities. Poorly designed enclosures can create a safety risk for m aintenance
w orkers or put their health at risk from an unpredictable exposure.
Care should be taken w hen locating potentially hazardous storage or operational
tasks in rem ote locations, because that rem oteness m ight cause new risks if there
are dif? culties or breakdow ns.
Potentially hazardous m aterials or processes should not be located near frequently
used thoroughfares and buildings.
Ventilation
Ventilation is the engineering control of contam inants by dilution or local exhaust
ventilation. It is one of the m ain m ethods of control of airborne chem ical hazards,
particularly contam inants in underground m ines.
Strict regulatory controls on respirable dust and respirable crystalline silica have
achieved dram atic reductions in the incidence of pneum oconiosis and silicosis in
underground m iners.
4.3.3 Administrative controls
In som e situations, the higher level control m echanism s do not w ork, or they cannot
be m ade to w ork w ell enough to com pletely elim inate the hazard. In such cases,
adm inistrative controls m ay be needed.
A dm inistrative controls include w orker rotation and schedules to rem ove w orkers
from exposure. A n extrem e form of w ork-schedule change w ould be to rotate tasks
w ithin a w orkgroup to spread the exposure across a larger num ber of staff.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 45
In m any circum stances, exposure to hazardous substances or a hazardous environm ent
cannot be avoided. If any w orkers are exposed to the m axim um perm issible level, they
m ay have to be rem oved from that task. Tw o exam ples are as follow s:
? In lead m ines, w orkers m ay be rem oved from the area of exposure if their
blood lead levels exceed a certain level, and kept aw ay from further lead
exposure until their blood lead falls to an acceptable level. The causes of the
exposure should be investigated im m ediately, w ith a view to elim inating it.
? In uranium m ines, w orkers are perm itted a m axim um radiation dose over a
speci? ed period.
To be able to use adm inistrative controls properly, w orkers have to be adequately
trained so that they know :
? w hy the adm inistrative control is being used
? the exact procedures and guidelines to be follow ed
? the lim itations of the adm inistrative control
? the consequences of ignoring the adm inistrative control.
In other w ords, w orker involvem ent, participation, training and education are critical
to success.
H ousekeeping and labelling are tw o adm inistrative control processes that lim it
inadvertent (especially skin) exposure to w orkplace hazards. The im portance
of m aintaining high standards of housekeeping cannot be overstated. D irty and
untidy w orkplaces increase the likelihood of secondary exposures. For exam ple,
lead concentrate dust raised by draughts and w ind, or inadvertent skin contact on
dirty surfaces and equipm ent, m ay cause extra exposures not identi? ed in the risk
assessm ent. Poor housekeeping also sends a m essage to site w orkers, contractors
and em ployees that poor w ork habits are acceptable.
4.3.4 Personal protective equipment
PPE is used w hen other m eans of exposure control cannot be em ployed. U se of
any PPE places restrictions upon w orkers; it reduces the ? exibility of a w orker’s
operation, m ay contribute to heat load on the w orker’s body, and affects the w orker’s
ability to do the task safely.
The selection of PPE is based on the risk assessm ent for the task, and care is
needed to provide the correct level of protection. In som e situations, excessive use
of PPE can com prom ise the w orker’s ability to w ork safely. For exam ple, a w elder
doing structural w ork inside a m ine storage shed m ay be w orking at heights in a hot
environm ent and trying to protect against w elding fum es as w ell as m etal fum es
from m etal concentrates.
Gloves
M ost people use their hands all the tim e at w ork, and hand injuries are consequently
very com m on. Such injuries can be physical traum a or chem ically induced dam age,
such as derm atitis. G ood practice w hen selecting gloves involves a risk assessm ent
of the hazard and consulting the w orkers (as dexterity and ‘feel’are im portant for
w orker acceptance).
46 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Leather, knitted or stitched gloves are good for protecting against sparks or scraping
against rough surfaces, but are not suitable for handling hazardous substances.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gloves are often w orn w hen w orkers are handling oils and
corrosives (acids and alkalis), but m ay offer little protection against m any organic
hazardous substances.
M aking the correct choice requires know ledge of the chem ical and perm eation
resistance of different glove m aterials. M ajor glove m anufacturers publish data on
the internet on the resistance of their glove m aterial to perm eation by the com m on
solvents used in industry.
Respiratory protective equipment and programs
Respiratory protective equipm ent (RPE) and respiratory protection program s are
often used at m ine sites to protect against dusts, chem icals and w elding fum es.
The key requirem ents of a respiratory protection program include:
? m anagem ent to adm inister the program
? know ledge of respiratory hazards
? w orkplace risk assessm ent of the respiratory hazards
? selection and purchase of appropriate type of R PE,
w ith the appropriate protection factor
? w orkers’acceptance of the RPE
? m edical assessm ent of respirator use for som e RPE users
? training in R PE use, including the correct ? t of respirators
? w ritten procedures and guidelines, available at the site
? inspection, m aintenance and repair of RPE
? audit and review of the program .
The person selecting and supervising the R PE program w ill also require training,
w hich can often be provided by the equipm ent supplier.
Respiratory protection program s should be in keeping w ith the requirem ents of:
? A S/N ZS 1715 Selection, use and maintenance of respiratory
protective devices (Standards A ustralia 2009)
? A S/N ZS 1716 Respiratory protective devices (Standards A ustralia 2003).
Respirators
Particulate respirators contain ? lters that trap dusts, m ists or fum es and allow the
w orker to breathe local air. There are tw o m ain form s—the traditional replaceable
? lter type and the m aintenance-free (disposable) type.
It is im portant to select the correct class of respiratory protection for the process
and not treat all respirators as equal.
A ustralian Standard 1715-2009 classi? es particulate respirators as:
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 47
? Class P1 for m echanically generated particulates (dusts and m ists)—particles
generated from operations such as grinding, blasting, spraying and pow der
m ixing, and containing, for exam ple, asbestos, silica, caustic m ist or lead (as
standards change, it w ill be necessary to review these de? nitions)
? Class P2 for therm ally generated particulates (fum es)—particles (m etal fum es)
generated by high-tem perature operations such as w elding, soldering, brazing
and sm elting
? Class P3 for highly toxic particulates, such as radioactive com pounds
and beryllium .
Dusts, m ists and vapours include particles of various sizes that are distributed
differently in the respiratory system . Particles sm aller than 100 ?m are generally
considered to be inhalable, but cannot be seen by the naked eye under norm al light.
Particles sm aller than this (approxim ately 10–50 ?m ) can penetrate to the upper part
of the lungs, and particles sm aller than 10 ?m can penetrate to the depths of the lungs.
Gases and vapours
G as/vapour respirators contain a specialised absorbent to trap those contam inants
(for exam ple, activated charcoal is used to trap organic vapours). A S/N ZS 1715 has a
num ber of gas and vapour classi? cations. Each ? lter type is designated by a letter or
chem ical abbreviation that indicates the substance or group or substances that it is
intended to protect against. Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 list ? lter classes and types.
Table 4.1: Gas/vapour ?lter classes
Class Description
Class A U S Low absorption capacity ? lters
Class 1 Low to m edium absorption capacity ? lters
Class 2 M edium absorption capacity ? lters
Class 3 H igh absorption capacity ? lters
Source: A S/N ZS 1716 (Standards A ustralia 2003).
Table 4.2: Gas/vapour ?lter types
Type Use
A For use against certain organic gases and vapours as speci? ed
B
For use against certain inorganic gases and vapours as speci? ed, excluding carbon
m onoxide
E For use against sulphur dioxide and other acid gases and vapours as speci? ed
G
For use against certain organic com pounds w ith vapour pressures less than 1.3 Pa
(0.01 m m H g) at 25°C as speci? ed. These ? lters shall have an integral particulate ? lter w ith
an ef? ciency at least equivalent to that of a P1 ? lter.
K
For use against am m onia and organic am m onia derivatives as speci? ed by the
m anufacturer
A X
For use against low boiling point organic com pounds as speci? ed by the m anufacturer
(boiling point less than 65°C)
N O For use against oxides of nitrogen
H g For use against m etallic m ercury
M B For use against m ethyl brom ide
Source: A S/N ZS 1716 (Standards A ustralia 2003).
48 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
A ll instructions and w arnings about product use, ? t and lim itations m ust be follow ed
for the product to w ork properly and provide adequate protection.
Facial hair that im pedes the seal of a respirator greatly reduces its effectiveness and
should be discouraged if respirator use is a part of norm al daily w ork.
Fit testing should be considered before a w orker uses a reusable respirator for the
? rst tim e. Som e people m ay be unable to achieve a satisfactory ? t.
Supplied-air and air-purifying respirators
Various types of RPE rely on either supplied fresh air or on purifying air w ith ? lters
(see Table 4.3). They have been developed for different applications and vary in
protection factors. Guidance from the supplier or an occupational hygienist is required.
Table 4.3: Supplied-air and air-purifying respirators
Type Description
A ir purifying, pow ered type Supplied air, self-contained pow ered air purifying respirator
(PA PR) uses a battery-driven fan to force air through a ? lter
assem bly and deliver cleaned air to a helm et, hood or face
m ask.
A ir purifying, replaceable ? lter type A facepiece (full face or half face) to w hich a replaceable ? lter
assem bly is connected. The user’s lung pow er is used to draw
the air through the ? lter.
A ir purifying, disposable A respirator w ith the ? lter as an integral part of the facepiece
and the ? lter is not replaceable. W hen exhausted the w hole
assem bly is discarded.
Supplied air, air hose The respirator facepiece is connected by a w ide diam eter hose
that is located outside the contam inated zone. The user’s lung
pow er draw s air to the facepiece (can be low pressure fan
assisted). The critical factor in air hose system s is they supply
air at or near atm ospheric pressure
Supplied air, com pressed air-line A ir for respiration is supplied by a sm all-bore line that
is connected to a com pressed air source. This m ay be a
com pressor, or com pressed air cylinders located a distance
from the w ork location. There are speci? cations in A S 1716
regarding the purity of air supplied system s and SCBA system s.
Supplied air, self contained The respirator facepiece is connected by a breathing tube to a
cylinder of breathable gas that is carried by the w earer. O ften
referred to as SCBA .
Source: A S/N ZS 1716 (Standards A ustralia 2003).
Protection factors
Inexperienced and untrained personnel should not attem pt to select correct RPE.
Som e regulations or codes of practice (for exam ple, the N ational O ccupational
H ealth and Safety Com m ission’s Code of Practice for the Management and Control
of Asbestos in Workplaces) spells out the m inim um R PE for situations w here it is
required.
23
A S/N ZS 1715 should be consulted to select the m ost appropriate R PE.
23http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/N R/rdonlyres/D B7C0238-F1D 3-4ED E-B444-
F7B751CE83FE/0/M anagem entCode.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 49
Tw o pieces of num erical inform ation are crucial in applying R PE successfully:
? the concentration of contam inant in the w orkplace;
? the target concentration inside the respirator.
Based on these data, it is possible to calculate the required m inim um protection
factor expected from particular RPE using the form ula:
Required minimum PF = concentration in workplace / Workplace Exposure Standard (or other target)
Concentration and the w orkplace exposure standard should be in the sam e units
(ppm or m g/m
3
).
A S/N ZS 1715 also contains an excellent decision tree for arriving at suitable RPE for
m ost applications. The standard deals w ith respirator selection under the sim pli? ed
headings of contam inant, task and operator.
Filter service life and breakthrough
A ? lter’s service life depends on its construction and on w orkplace factors such
as exposure conditions, the concentration of the contam inant, tem perature and
hum idity, and the w orker’s breathing rate and general respiratory com petence.
Service life m ust include som e unexpended reserve capacity as a safety m argin.
Im portantly, ? lters should not be used beyond expiry of their shelf life.
To som e extent, how long the ? lter in a respirator w ill last can only be determ ined by
experience, so it is better to rely on outside experience or advice from m anufacturers
than to chance unsafe practices. Som e suppliers have online system s into w hich the
concentrations can be entered to get an estim ate of the expected service life.
For any type of respirator, the w earer’s acceptance is also an im portant factor. For
particulate ? lters, ? ltration ef? ciency usually increases w ith use as dust particles
slow ly block the ? lter. This causes increased inhalation resistance. This m ay have
adverse effects for the w earer w hen RPE is used for continuous w ork or if the
w earer has som e m edical respiratory condition that m akes respirator use dif? cult.
The service life of such ? lters is over w hen the w earer can no longer tolerate the
increased breathing resistance.
For gas and vapour ? lters, m inim um service lifetim es can be calculated only if there
are reliable data on exposure conditions. O therw ise, scheduled m aintenance and
replacem ent program s w ith a reasonable m argin for safety m ust be scrupulously
adhered to.
Breakthrough of the contam inant, as indicated by odour, is a totally unreliable
m eans of determ ining the end of a respirator ? lter’s service life. Som e contam inants
are odourless; others have w orkplace exposure standards w ell below their odour
threshold. W ith som e substances, such as hydrogen cyanide, breakthrough m ight
have disastrous consequences—particularly because only half the population is
genetically able to detect hydrogen cyanide by odour.
50 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Inspection, maintenance and repair
The em ployer m ust provide all the PPE required for any operation involving
hazardous substances, and m ost m ines keep the bulk of the PPE in stores. Sm all
quantities of stock should also be available in w orkshops and plant areas w here
they m ight be needed. This particularly applies during night shift w hen stores m ay
be closed, or in m ore rem ote w orking locations. This stock is to be kept in a clearly
m arked, dedicated area, such as a w all or post-m ounted cabinet, to w hich em ployees
have ready access.
For non-disposable PPE, such as respirators and gloves, a proper m aintenance
program needs to be developed. The program should follow m anufacturers’
instructions and include:
? cleaning and sanitising of equipm ent
? storage
? repair
? inspection for defects.
Training in use
PPE m ust be used w hen required and w orn correctly to be of value. A n em ployee
training program is required w henever there is a likelihood that PPE m ay be required.
Training should be interactive and dem onstrate the use of the PPE. The follow ing
program form at addressing respiratory protection is from A S 1715:2009, but can be
m odi? ed for m ost form s of PPE:
? Identi? cation of the hazard
? Reasons for respirators
? Respirator selection
? U se and proper ? tting of respirators
? W ear tim e
? Lim itations of respirators
? M aintenance and storage.
W ith the exception of disposable-? lter respirators, the use of RPE requires a constant
program of inspection, m aintenance and repair. M aintenance includes w ashing,
cleaning, disinfecting w here necessary, inspection for w ear, checking for leaks,
replacem ent of w orn com ponents and replacem ent of ? lter com ponents.
It is essential to have proper storage in betw een use. G as and vapour ? lters can
continue to absorb contam inants w hen not in use, further exhausting their capacity.
Plastic sealable food storage containers or zip-lock plastic bags are ideal for
betw een-use storage.
W here possible, each w earer should be provided w ith their ow n individual R PE.
W here air com pressors are used for air-supplied respirators, there should also be a
m aintenance, inspection and testing program in place for the com pressors to ensure
the air quality.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 51
Medical assessment for suitability of RPE for some users
W earing R PE has som e physiological and psychological lim itations. A num ber of
m edical conditions can prevent a w orker from using RPE, including diabetes, asthm a,
em physem a, skin sensitivity, a punctured eardrum or chronic airw ays disease.
Som e w orkers feel claustrophobic w hen w earing a norm al ? lter respirator, but m ay
? nd a pow ered air-purifying respirator m ore acceptable.
4.4 Suppliers
M anufacturers, im porting suppliers and other suppliers have speci? c duties in
relation to hazardous substances used at w orkplaces.
A m anufacturer or im porting supplier m ust:
? determ ine w hether the substance is hazardous
? prepare an M SDS
? review and revise the M SD S every ? ve years
? label containers of the hazardous substance
? disclose a chem ical nam e to a registered m edical
practitioner in certain circum stances.
Im porters, m anufacturers and suppliers of hazardous substances and dangerous goods
are required to label those chem icals correctly, according to labelling guidelines.
Suppliers m ust not supply carcinogenic substances to anyone w ho does not hold a
licence to use them .
M anufacturers, im porting suppliers and suppliers of a hazardous substance for use at
a w orkplace m ust ensure that a current M SD S for the substance is provided w hen a
person:
? purchases the substance from the supplier for the ? rst tim e
? purchases the substance from the supplier at a later tim e and requests an M SDS
or
? purchases the substance from a retailer w ho originally
obtained it from the supplier and requests an M SD S.
The N SW H azardous M aterials (H azm at) Register of Suppliers contains inform ation
about providers that offer resources, equipm ent, products and advice to m inim ise
the environm ental effects of hazardous m aterials incidents.
24
24http://w w w .environm ent.nsw .gov.au/hazm at/register.htm
52 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
4.4.1 Transport codes
The Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail
(7th edition) provides procedures and protocols for the transport of dangerous
goods. The code provides detailed technical speci? cations, requirem ents and
recom m endations, and includes rules and recom m endations covering:
? the de? nition, classi? cation, packaging, m arking and labelling of substances
and articles that m eet the U nited N ations classi? cation criteria for dangerous
goods or are prescribed as dangerous goods by the com petent authority
? the consigning of dangerous goods for transport, including
loading, stow age, load detention and segregation
? the provision of transport docum entation describing the dangerous goods
being transported, and appropriate em ergency inform ation for those goods
? the unloading, receipt and transfer of dangerous goods
? the transport of dangerous goods, including the use of vehicles,
containers and equipm ent, and the provision of safety equipm ent.
Part 3 of the code incorporates a com prehensive listing of dangerous goods of all
classes.
The third edition of the A ustralian Explosives Transport Code
25
w as prepared by
the A ustralian Forum of Explosives Regulators and w as endorsed by the W orkplace
Relations M inisterial Council in A pril 2009. This code is the prim ary reference for
explosives and has been designed to com plem ent and be consistent w ith the 7th
edition of the A ustralian Code for the Transport of D angerous G oods by Road and
Rail.
26
The code adopts the classi? cation, packaging and labelling system for explosives
detailed in the U nited N ations’Recom m endations on the Transport of D angerous
G oods—M odel Regulations (16th revised edition)
27
and is designed to com plem ent the
International M aritim e D angerous G oods Code.
W hile the Transport of D angerous G oods Code provides guidance in the transport
of hazardous m aterials, som e substances are singled out for further m anagem ent
controls. O ne exam ple is am m onium nitrate, w hich is used in m ining and related
activities as an explosive com ponent but is also w idely used as a fertiliser. Security
is the overriding consideration, to prevent access to this m aterial by potential
terrorists.
25http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/sw a/IndustryInform ation/A FER/
26http://w w w .ntc.gov.au/? lem edia/Publications/A D G 7Volum e1Introduction.pdf
27http://w w w .unece.org/trans/publications/dg_recom m end.htm l
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 53
CASE STUDY: Ammonium nitrate transport
The Council of Australian Governm ents (CO AG) agreed in 2004 to a national
licensing system for security-sensitive am m onium nitrate (SSA N ), and legislation has
been introduced in each state and territory to give effect to the system . Transport of
SSA N m ust also m eet the safety requirem ents of the Australian Dangerous Goods
Code or jurisdictional occupational health and safety requirem ents. Additional
requirem ents of the licensing system m ean that transport of this hazardous
substance w ithin Australia is arguably w orld’s best practice.
Included in the SSA N designation are am m onium nitrate, am m onium nitrate
em ulsions and m ixtures containing greater than 45% am m onium nitrate, although
there are certain exclusions (for exam ple, Class 1 explosives and fertilisers such as
calcium am m onium nitrate). Class 1 explosives are gunpow der and other explosives
that have a m ass explosion hazard (that is, if part of the load detonates, the entire
load w ill explode). Class 1.1 and Class 1.2 include m ost of the com m on blasting
explosives, such as packaged em ulsions and w ater gels, detonating cords, boosters,
detonators and certain types of Com m onw ealth m unitions.
A transport licence is not required for less than 20 kilogram s of SSA N and there
are exem ptions for up to 5 tonnes for agricultural use, but all others planning to
m ove SSA N m ust subm it a security plan as outlined in the transport guidance
note accessible at the A ustralian N ational Security w ebsite.
28
The SSA N m ust be transported in a locked or sealed container or be under
constant surveillance by an authorised person w ho has undergone police and
PM V (politically m otivated violence) checks and is identi? ed by the 100-point
identi? cation system generally used by ? nancial institutions.
29
The authorised
person m ust be clearly identi? ed in the security plan. Transport m ust be
from one secure location to another, both of w hich m ust be identi? ed in the
security plan, and the SSA N m ust never be left unattended in an unsecured
location. Strict record-keeping is required, both for inventory purposes (and any
discrepancies reported to authorities) and to dem onstrate that the SSA N has
been obtained from an authorised person and supplied to an authorised person.
D iversion of hazardous substances to illicit uses that m ay pose dangers to
em ployees or the public is a serious risk, and best practice is required if the risk
is to be m inim ised or elim inated.
28http://w w w .nationalsecurity.gov.au/agd/w w w /nationalsecurity.nsf/D 2801B61EA BE80A 2CA 2
56809001328BA /8FCA 7A 705B40263A CA 25701B00155D 7A
29http://w w w .aussiem igrant.com /your_? nances/f.htm
(continued)
54 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Transport ing hazardous subst ances
Source: CSBP Lim ited.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 55
4.4.2 Handling and storage
The handling and storage of hazardous m aterials requires the sam e care as is taken
for active involvem ent w ith those substances in the w orkplace, including training of
personnel. Storage of high-risk hazardous m aterials, such as cyanide and explosives,
needs to be organised so that access is only available to authorised staff, there is
strict inventory control and there are regular inspections.
A ll m ine sites should have their existing dangerous goods storage licensed and
registered w ith the regulating authority.
W hen the states and territories introduced their dangerous goods regulations, the
regulations w ere retrospective. Existing storage w as approved w here the licensee
could dem onstrate that the storage provided a level of safety equal to that required
in the regulations. A ll new installations for licensable quantities of dangerous
goods and signi? cant alterations to existing facilities are required to com ply fully
w ith the regulations. A n application for a licence to store dangerous goods m ust
be received and approved before the construction of new facilities is perm itted.
A m ong the requirem ents for licensing of a bulk storage facility is docum entation of
tank approval. This is certi? cation that the storage tank has been constructed to a
suitable standard and is in good condition at the tim e of installation.
Spills and leaks m ay occur during storage and handling of hazardous m aterials and
need to be dealt w ith safely and expeditiously. The follow ing A ustralian Standards
provide guidance in relation to spills m anagem ent for dangerous goods and
com bustible liquids:
A S 1894-1997 The storage and handling of non-? am m able cryogenic and
refrigerated liquids
A S 1940-1993 Storage and handling of ? am m able and com bustible liquids
A S 4326-1995 The storage and handling of oxidizing agents
A S 2507-1984 The storage and handling of pesticides
A S 3780-1994 The storage and handling of corrosive substances
A S 3833-1995 The storage and handling of m ixed classes of dangerous goods in
packages and interm ediate containers
A S 3846-1998 The handling and transport of dangerous cargoes in port areas
A S 2243.10-1993 Safety in laboratories Part 10—storage of chem icals
A S 4681-2000 The storage and handling of Class 9 (M iscellaneous) D angerous
G oods A rticles
M ore detail of the legislative requirem ents is in Section 2.1.2 of this handbook.
56 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Storage of incompatible dangerous goods
This section is adapted from Q ueensland’s Safe Storage and H andling of D angerous
G oods: G uidelines for Industry.
30
W hen incom patible hazardous m aterials com e into contact w ith one another during
a spill or release, the goods can react together adversely to cause ? re, explode or
release toxic, ? am m able or corrosive vapours.
W orkplaces w here dangerous goods or com bustible liquids are stored or handled
m ust have system s and procedures to prevent them com ing into contact.
To m anage the storage of incom patible goods, operations m ust:
? identify each of the dangerous goods intended to be stored onsite
? recognise goods or other m aterials that are incom patible.
The com patibility and segregation tool developed by the Q ueensland G overnm ent
can be used to determ ine w hether each com bination of dangerous goods and
com bustible liquids is likely to be com patible.
31
The tool is only a guide and not m eant
to replace an M SD S or a risk assessm ent.
A n im portant part of identifying incom patible goods and m aterials is a review of
the storage and handling inform ation in the M SDS for each dangerous good. A fter
review ing the M SDS inform ation, operators should list each incom patible dangerous
good or other m aterial m entioned in the M SDS and take appropriate m easures to
keep them apart.
Factors to consider when determining incompatibility
The factors in? uencing com patibility are com plex. A ssessm ents should consider the
follow ing factors:
? A violent reaction (? re or explosion) betw een one or
m ore highly reactive chem icals m ay occur.
? A reaction betw een tw o or m ore spilt goods m ay liberate ? am m able, toxic
or corrosive vapours or gases. Such reactions can be rapid or occur slow ly
over tim e until a build-up of a hazardous m aterial creates an em ergency.
? Released or spilled goods m ay deteriorate, contam inate or destroy the
packaging m aterials of another incom patible product to w orsen a situation.
? Flam m able goods stored next to other toxic or corrosive m aterials m ay
catch ? re, causing rapid dispersal of those m aterials into the environm ent.
? Flam m able m aterials m ay catch ? re and set ? re to other products stored
nearby (for exam ple, gas cylinders, resulting in rupturing of a cylinder).
? Fire suppression com pounds suitable for one type of dangerous good m ay
be incom patible w ith other dangerous goods stored in the sam e area.
? M aterials used in the construction of spill catchm ent system s m ay react
w ith dangerous goods spilled on them (for exam ple, hydrochloric acid w ill
rapidly corrode concrete w alls used as a spill containm ent system ).
30http://w w w .em ergency.qld.gov.au/chem /publications/pdf/G uidelines_for_Industry_version1A _
SW 2D raft.pdf
31http://w w w.deir.qld.gov.au/w orkplace/subjects/hazardousm aterials/incom patible/isolation/index.htm
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 57
4.4.3 Chemical supplier stewardship through the mine cycle
The supplier is part of the stew ardship chain. A ll entities in that chain need to w ork
together and be aw are of constraints and opportunities at every stage. This is the
preferred approach to stew ardship as set out in the Stewardship handbook (D ITR
2006): a shared approach that attem pts to build engagem ent through the life cycle,
w ith particular em phasis on cooperation and partnership. This approach is m ost
evident in the supply and use of cyanide
32
and am m onium nitrate, w hich are am ong
the m ost hazardous m aterials used on m ine sites, but elem ents of best practice
involving suppliers m ay be found in connection w ith other m aterials as w ell.
4.5 Environment
There are tim es during m ining w hen hazardous m aterials can affect the environm ent
by becom ing bioavailable to dow nstream ecosystem s. The m ost com m on pathw ay
is from m ine w astes, ore stockpiles and m ine operations into surface w ater or
groundw ater. Spills during the m ineral processing circuit are another potential
pathw ay, but are less com m on.
If hazardous m aterials used in the m ining industry are m ism anaged, they can poison
hum ans, anim als, plants and aquatic ecosystem s, disrupt their reproductive processes
or their habitat, or som etim es generate ? res or explosions. They can cause considerable
harm if allow ed to leach into sensitive w ater resources. M any hazardous m aterials are
highly m obile, do not degrade or are not attenuated in soils or w aterbodies. Som e are
harm ful at very low concentrations (in the parts per billion range). O nce hazardous
m aterials enter soil or w ater resources, they m ay go undetected for long periods, cause
extended loss of values and be very costly to rem edy.
The W estern Australian Departm ent of W ater’s Toxic and hazardous substances—storage
and use
33
provides guidance on how im pacts on the environm ent m ay stem from :
? leakage of ? uids from dam aged or corroded chem ical storage system s
? accidental spills during transport or m aintenance of equipm ent
? poor chem ical handling, m isuse or vandalism
? dispersion of a chem ical spill or leakage by w ater used to
control ? re at hazardous substances storage facilities
? dispersion of chem ical concentrates in uncontrolled storm w ater run-off.
The im pact on the environm ent from hazardous m aterials used and generated by
m ining is discussed in other handbooks in the leading practice series, including Acid
and metalliferous drainage, Cyanide management, Water management and Tailings
management.
32 International Cyanide M anagem ent Code,http://w w w .cyanidecode.org.
33http://portal.w ater.w a.gov.au/portal/page/portal/W aterQ uality/Publications/
W aterQ ualityProtectionN otes/Content/W Q PN _65.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 59
5.0 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
Purpose
This section considers techniques, such as m onitoring, reporting and auditing, that
provide inform ation about use of and exposure to hazardous m aterials.
Key messages
? Procedures for m onitoring are based on identi? ed hazards
and take into account regulatory requirem ents.
? Reporting against targets is im portant for dem onstrating com pliance.
? A uditing by second or third parties can provide oversight of perform ance.
5.1Health and environmental monitoring
Each site should have in place a m onitoring program that is based on ‘due diligence’.
D ue diligence is not ‘taking general precautions’, but a m indset concentrating on
likely or potentially likely risks.
The risks from hazardous substances and dangerous goods m ust be incorporated into the
site’s speci? c m onitoring program to ensure that potential exposure to the environm ent,
w orkers on site and the com m unity is m inim ised throughout the site’s life cycle.
Procedures for risk assessm ent and m anagem ent are described in the Risk
assessment and management handbook (D R ET 2008b). Section 3.2.1 of that
handbook discusses w orkplace health and safety, noting that the consequences of
an unsafe w orkplace are unacceptable to em ployees, their fam ilies, com m unities,
governm ent health authorities and m ining com panies. Best practice involves the
application of robust standardised risk m anagem ent processes to protect the health
and safety of people. Sim ilarly, hazardous m aterials released to the environm ent
during m ining operations can affect com m unity health and dam age ecosystem s, both
of w hich can be avoided by using best practice. The principles of best practice apply
to the closure of m ines, as w ell as to the period of active m ining.
H azardous substances and dangerous goods can only be m onitored for any real or
perceived effects if they have been identi? ed, registered and thoroughly assessed
according to their potential risk to the environm ent, as w ell as to the health of staff
and people likely to com e into contact w ith the substances.
Exposure standards and/or guidelines for m any substances have been established
in A ustralia or internationally. Based on those standards and guidelines, m onitoring
program s m ust be established to speci? cally address each identi? ed high-risk
or m edium -risk substance. A program m ay involve one or all of electronic area
or personnel m onitoring, the taking of sam ples for assays, and observations by
trained and accredited personnel, such as occupational hygienists and quali? ed
environm ental technologists.
60 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Results of the m onitoring program m ust be recorded, docum ented and review ed at
regular intervals for effectiveness and potential m odi? cation to im prove procedures
and keep them updated w ith the latest A ustralian and international research.
Independent auditors should review and validate the m onitoring program , in addition
to routine review s by m anagem ent-appointed personnel.
Site-speci? c plans m ust m onitor the environm ent—that, is the potential exposure
of hum ans, livestock, w ildlife and other biota through the release of the identi? ed
hazardous substances and dangerous goods to the air (vapours), soil (spillages) and
surface or groundw ater.
The m onitoring plan m ay include speci? c advice for various types of em ission
that m ay result from hazardous m aterial, because the effects of substances can
vary according to the receiving environm ent (air, w ater and biota). To assess the
quantitative and qualitative effect, relevant standards, guidelines and procedures
need to be consulted, such as:
? Australian drinking water guidelines (N H M RC 2004)
? Guidelines for assessing human health risks from
environmental hazards (en-H ealth 2004)
34
? the N ational Pollutant Inventory’s em ission
estim ation technique m anuals (N PI 1999)
? Safe W ork A ustralia national exposure standards.
The collection, preservation and transport of sam ples (solution, soil and air) and the
assay techniques to be used for them should be negotiated w ith N ational A ssociation
of Testing A uthorities-accredited laboratories to ensure that best practice is achieved
and decisions are based on reliable data.
A ll electronic m onitors m ust be regularly calibrated as directed by the m anufacturer
and against certi? ed standards.
5.1.1Occupational exposure standards
In w orkplace exposure m onitoring, exposure standards refer to the level of exposure,
via inhalation, that should not cause ill health in a healthy adult. The results from air
sam pling can be com pared against exposure standards and can be used as a guide to
assist in the control of health hazards. Exposure standards are also variously know n
as ‘threshold lim it values’(TLVs), ‘occupational exposure lim its’(O ELs) or ‘w orkplace
exposure lim its’(W ELs). In general, all such term s are interchangeable.
In m any cases, exposure standards are based on the ‘no observed adverse effect
level’; in other cases, they are based on the ‘low est observed adverse effect level’.
Som e are given by reference to sim ilar substances w ith better datasets. For m any
chem icals, there seem s to be a ‘threshold dose’below w hich no signi? cant adverse
effect w ill occur in m ost people. Epidem iological and toxicological studies, coupled
w ith occupational hygiene m easurem ents, help to identify that threshold.
34http://enhealth.nphp.gov.au/council/pubs/pdf/envhazards.pdf
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 61
O ccupational exposure standards are developed by Safe W ork A ustralia and
regulated through state legislation. The standards refer to airborne levels of
hazardous substances, including dust and crystalline silica generated during m ining,
to w hich it is believed nearly all w orkers m ay be repeatedly exposed over a w orking
life w ithout adverse health effects.
N ational Exposure Standards have been established for chem icals and hazardous
m aterials that are know n to cause long-term health effects (such as cancer, or
respiratory diseases such as silicosis, pneum oconiosis and asbestosis).
A n exposure standard represents an airborne concentration of a particular substance
in the w orker’s breathing zone. A ccording to current know ledge and for nearly all
w orkers, exposure to that concentration should not cause adverse health effects or
undue discom fort. The exposure standard can be in one of three form s:
? time-weighted average (TW A ) is an 8-hour tim e-w eighted
average w ork day and a 40-hour w ork w eek
? short-term exposure limit (STEL) is a 15-m inute TW A exposure
that should not be exceeded at any tim e during the w ork day,
even if the 8-hour TW A is w ithin the exposure lim it
? peak (som etim es called ‘ceiling’) is the concentration that should
not be exceeded during any part of the w orking exposure.
These standards are based on the concept of the ‘threshold of intoxication’—for each
substance, no m atter how toxic, there is a dose (the threshold of intoxication) that
the hum an body can accept and detoxify w ithout injury.
The exposure standards established for chem ical agents are based on a num ber of
factors, including toxicity, physiological response (biologic action) and unbearable
odours. Exam ples of such factors include:
? Irritants (for exam ple, hydrochloric acid fum es, am m onia)—ability to cause
in? am m ation of m ucous m em branes that they com e into contact w ith
? Asphyxiants (for exam ple, sim ple asphyxiants such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and helium ; and chem ical asphyxiants such as carbon
m onoxide and cyanides)—ability to deprive the tissue of oxygen
? Anaesthetics (for exam ple, ether and chloroform )—depressant
action on the central nervous system , particularly the brain
? Carcinogens (for exam ple, asbestos, crystalline silica)—cause cancers
? Unbearable odour (for exam ple, m ercaptans)
? Toxic effect (for exam ple, lead).
W here such exposure standards exist, it is best practice and in m any cases a
statutory requirem ent to m aintain w orkplace exposures below those lim its. M any
organisations introduce their ow n ‘safety factor’by initiating m itigating action at an
‘action level’, w hich in m any cases is 50% of the exposure standard.
62 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
The national exposure standards are based on 8-hour shifts, and m ust be adjusted
w hen w orkers are w orking 12-hour shifts. Som e m ining authorities have special
form ulas that take into account 12-hour shifts as w ell as the m ining roster,
particularly for ? y-in, ? y–out (‘FIFO ’) operations.
5.1.2 Health surveillance
Recognition of health hazards in the w orkplace is fundam ental to their proper
control. O ccupational disease still occurs because em ployers and their w orkers
are often unaw are of the hazardous nature of m aterials or processes in particular
w orkplaces. H ealth hazards often arise from unexpected sources, as w ell as from
w ell-docum ented sources.
U nderstanding the particular industrial process and the sources of exposure is the
key to providing a healthy w orkplace. D eterm ining the health risk requires know ledge
of the w ork practices, the chem icals or m aterials, and the potential routes of
exposure (inhalation, skin absorption, skin contam ination, poor personal hygiene,
sm oking).
Because the long latency period of m any diseases m akes direct health indicators less
useful, it is obviously not a good strategy to w ait until w orkers becom e ill. It is best to
m anage the potential risks to w orkers through a w ell-designed surveillance strategy.
Som e hazards can be seen, m ost cannot, but all need evaluating. It m ay be dif? cult
to recognise som e operations as dangerous to health if few w orkers com plain of ill
health and m ost are prepared to tolerate the dust, fum es and noise.
Sim ply identifying a risk does not determ ine its signi? cance; how ever, evaluating the
risk m akes it possible to answ er these questions:
? Is the particular risk from exposure acceptable?
? D oes it m eet regulatory requirem ents?
? W ill it need controlling to m ake it healthy and safe?
? A re there special controls for this hazard?
? H ow m uch control is needed?
? W hat is the m ost effective control m echanism for this process?
In m any situations, evaluation of the risks w ill show that no action is needed.
Experience can be a guide to assessing risk w ithout m easurem ent, provided there
are adequate indicators (such as odour or visual cues) and production param eters
are know n. H ow ever, it usually takes an occupational hygienist a decade or so of
experience to be able to m ake such judgm ents, using instrum ental veri? cation as
back-up. The eye cannot judge a concentration of 0.1 m g/m
3
of quartz dust particles
it cannot see; the nose cannot judge 0.02 m g/m
3
of isocyanates vapour it cannot
sm ell, or the concentrations of various organic vapours in a m ixture; the ear cannot
judge the integrated noise dose of interm ittent or im pulse sounds. There is often no
substitute for proper instrum ental evaluation, w hich should be perform ed only by
som eone w ith the appropriate skills.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 63
In som e situations, usually de? ned by statutory authorities, m edical surveillance
w ill be required. M edical surveillance should be conducted under the guidance of an
occupational physician.
It is recom m ended that m iners and contractors be given a pre-em ploym ent m edical
exam ination to ensure that they do not have pre-existing conditions that could
be aggravated and dam aging to their health w hen they w ork at a m ine site. M ine
ow ners’and m ining industries’current practice for regular m edical exam inations is
variable. The m ost w ell-established system is that in N SW for coal m iners, w ho have a
? ve-yearly full m edical exam ination.
M onitoring of occupational exposures to respirable dust, respirable silica or
particular hazardous substances m ay determ ine that certain w orkers should undergo
routine m edical surveillance, despite protection from PPE. The risk assessm ent
can be used by an occupational physician to determ ine the appropriate health
surveillance and frequency of testing.
H ealth surveillance can be extended to include other high-risk hazardous substances
w here the potential for sources of exposure other than airborne dusts is im portant.
Blood lead m onitoring of w orkers in sm elters and certain m ining activities (including
m aintenance w orkers) highlights the im portance of personal hygiene habits in
preventing exposures and dam age to w orkers’health. In som e lead m ine sites,
w orkers are not allow ed to sm oke on site, as skin contam ination is an im portant
source of exposure.
Biological m onitoring can be considered for w orkers, particularly those involved
in sm elting, to reassure them that they have not been exposed to levels of heavy
m etals that m ight cause adverse health effects.
Sum m aries of biological m onitoring and health surveillance techniques can be found in:
? Health surveillance and biological monitoring on the W estern
A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum w ebsite
35
? Guidelines for health surveillance on the Safe W ork A ustralia w ebsite.
36
5.1.3 Monitoring procedures
O perations m ust develop site-speci? c m onitoring procedures that include separate,
speci? c procedures for each of identi? ed substance. The procedures should cover
all operations on the site in w hich identi? ed m aterials are handled, received, used or
produced as product, by-product or w aste, and all storage areas.
O ccupational hygiene m onitoring and assessm ent of w orker exposure can be
com plex because of the variability of w orkers’activities during a shift. A useful
reference source is Simpli?ed monitoring strategies, published by the A ustralian
Institute of O ccupational H ygienists (A IO H 2001).
35http://w w w .dm p.w a.gov.au/6747.aspx
36http://w w w .safew orkaustralia.gov.au/N R/rdonlyres/481CF3F5-8C4B-4BCC-A F65-
3FD BA 031D 43B/0/H ealthSurveillance.pdf
64 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
H ealth, safety and environm ental com ponents are intrinsic to m onitoring procedures
and need to be addressed individually.
5.2 Auditing
A n audit is a system atic investigation or appraisal of docum ented procedures,
system s or operations to determ ine w hether they conform to prescribed procedures,
guidelines, standards or regulations. The audit is based on veri? able inform ation,
records or statem ents of fact.
Three types of audits are practised:
? A ?rst-party audit is an internal audit carried out by of? cers of the com pany or
by a consultant com m issioned to conduct the audit. It is often program m ed as
a series of phased audits, w hich should extend to the w hole of the m anagem ent
system . In sm all organisations, a ? rst-party audit m ay lack objectivity.
? A second-party audit is an external audit carried out by a m ajor
custom er, usually at no cost to the auditee. It m ay be scheduled, but
unannounced audits are com m on. It is usually restricted to that part
of the m anagem ent system , operations and procedures that relates to
the speci? c custom er’s w ork. Second-party audits should be objective
but m ay be distorted by the custom er–supplier relationship.
? A third-party audit is an external audit carried out by an independent
organisation, usually a certi? cation body. A ll fees and costs are paid by the
auditee. The audit m ay be a full, partial, phased, follow -up or surveillance audit
and should exam ine the w hole of the system covered by the certi? cation.
The use of skilled and independent auditors should ensure objectivity.
5.2.1Environmental
A n environm ental audit w ill investigate the im pact of the operations on the
environm ent, the processes instigated by the com pany to elim inate or m inim ise that
im pact, and the effectiveness of those processes.
The Evaluating performance: monitoring and auditing handbook (D R ET 2009) covers
in detail the reasons for environm ental auditing and the m ethodology.
There are several types of environm ental auditing:
? A n environmental performance audit is directed at verifying a m ine’s
environm ental status against speci? c, predeterm ined audit criteria.
The audit program objectives should articulate senior m anagem ent’s
and/or the board’s expectations for the audit program .
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 65
? A n environmental management system (EMS) audit is a type of
environm ental perform ance audit in w hich the audit scope is de? ned as the
EM S or selected parts of it. The audit criteria are the internal environm ental
policies, procedures, standards, codes of practice and so on of the EM S, and
their im plem entation. The EM S audit is designed to determ ine w hether a
m ining operation is doing w hat it says it w ill do in its docum entation of the
EM S, and w hether the EM S has been effectively im plem ented throughout the
m ine or that part of it selected for the EM S audit. A n EM S audit m ay assess
conform ance w ith a standard, such as ISO 14001 or a m ining com pany’s
speci? c EM S criteria (w hich m ight or m ight not be based on ISO 14001).
O ther types of audit, possibly m andatory under prevailing legislation, share m any of
the features of these tw o types.
5.2.2 Compliance
Com panies are required to operate under licence according to relevant state or
national legislative instrum ents, including A cts, Regulations and licences.
A com pliance audit carried out by independent auditors determ ines w hether the
com pany’s operations are in accordance w ith all applicable legislation or the EM S,
or w hether a speci? c licence is in accordance w ith the relevant legislation or code. It
w ill also include observed perform ance according to the docum ented m anagem ent
system . The audit report w ill state w hether the operation is fully com pliant w ith the
relevant legislation or codes, is com pliant subject to the recti? cation of listed non-
conform ances, or is not com pliant.
W here non-conform ances relate to com pliance w ith licence conditions, the operation
m ay have a speci? ed tim e in w hich to rectify them . Failure to do so m ay result in
prosecution and potential closure of the operation by the relevant regulator.
5.2.3 Performance
U nder the com pany’s m anagem ent plan, it is obliged to carry out regular
assessm ents of key areas of the operation. The assessm ent determ ines w hether
each operation com plies w ith perform ance requirem ents for output and obligations
under safety and environm ental guidelines and regulations. A ssessm ent is usually
through ? rst-party or second-party audits. U nderperform ance or non-perform ance
w ill activate a corrective action request to the personnel in charge of the section
found lacking.
H azardous m aterials perform ance m onitoring can also be included through key
perform ance indicators established in the m anagem ent business plan for close-out
of audit ? ndings, especially w here legislative lim its are exceeded.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 67
GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS LIST
Acid A n inorganic or organic com pound that has a pH of less than
7, neutralises bases or alkalis and turns litm us paper red.
A cids are corrosive to hum an tissue and are to be handled
w ith care.
Acut e exposure Short-term exposure, usually occurring at high
concentration.
Acut e healt h effect A n effect that develops either im m ediately or a short tim e
after exposure.
ADG7 A ustralian D angerous G oods Code
Alkali A ny com pound having highly basic properties, w ith a pH
above 7 and able to turn litm us paper blue. A lkalis are very
corrosive to hum an tissue and are to be handled w ith care.
AMD acid and m etalliferous drainage
Analysis A process used to identify the kinds or quantities of
ingredients in a substance.
ANFO am m onium nitrate –fuel oil
Asbest osis A chronic lung disease caused by inhaling asbestos ? bres.
Asphyxiant A vapour or gas that can cause unconsciousness or death by
suffocation (lack of oxygen).
Ast hma A disease caused by spasm odic contraction of the
bronchioles in the lungs.
Biological
monit oring
The m easurem ent and evaluation of hazardous substances
or their m etabolites in the body tissues, ? uids or exhaled air
of a person.
Boiling point The tem perature at w hich a liquid changes from a liquid to a
gas at norm al atm ospheric pressure.
Carcinogens A gents/com pounds that can induce cancer in hum ans.
CAS Regist ry
Number
A num ber assigned to a chem ical substance by the Chem ical
A bstracts Service (CA S) of the A m erican Chem ical Society
as a unique identi? er.
Chemical formula A form ula that indicates the elem ents that m ake up a
com pound; som etim es called the m olecular form ula.
Chemical name The proper scienti? c nam e of the active ingredient in a
product.
Combust ible liquid A liquid that has a ? ash point above 37.8ºC.
68 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Compressed gas A m aterial that is a gas at room tem perature (20ºC) and
pressure but is packaged as a pressurised gas, dissolved gas
or gas lique? ed by com pression or refrigeration.
Condensat ion The process of reducing a substance from one form to
another, denser form , such as steam to w ater.
Cont ainer A nything in or by w hich substances are or have been w holly
or partly encased, covered, enclosed, contained or packed
(w hether em pty, partially full or com pletely full), but not
including a bulk container:
? in the case of a container designed to hold gas—a
container that has a capacity of m ore than 500 litres
? in the case of a container designed to hold
either solids or liquids—a container that has
either a net m ass of m ore than 400 kilogram s
or a capacity of m ore than 450 litres.
Densit y The w eight of a m aterial in a given volum e, usually given in
gram s per m illilitre (g/m L).
Dermal U sed on or applied to the skin.
Dermat it is In? am m ation of the skin.
Dose The am ount of an agent that has entered the body through
the various routes of entry.
Dust Solid particles form ed by m echanical action and suspended
in air.
Emphysema A n irreversible lung disease resulting in an excessive loss of
lung capacity.
Exposure The intensity, frequency and duration of any contact w ith
an agent that is present in the environm ent. A person is
exposed to a hazardous substance if they absorb or are
likely to absorb substances by ingestion, inhalation or
through the skin (derm al absorption) or m ucous m em brane.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 69
Exposure limit s Established concentrations w hich, if not exceeded, w ill not
generally cause adverse effects to the exposed w orker.
Exposure lim its differ in nam e and m eaning depending on
origin. For exam ple:
? TW A EV: tim e-w eighted average exposure
value. The average airborne concentration of a
biological or chem ical agent to w hich a w orker
m ay be exposed in a w ork day or a w ork w eek
? STEV: short-term exposure value. The m axim um
airborne concentration of a chem ical or biological agent
to w hich a w orker m ay be exposed in any 15-m inute
period, provided that the TW A EV is not exceeded
? CEV: ceiling exposure value. The m axim um airborne
concentration of a biological or chem ical agent to
w hich a w orker m ay be exposed at any tim e
? SKIN . Indicates that direct or airborne contact w ith
the product m ay result in signi? cant absorption of
the product through the skin, m ucous m em branes
or eyes. This notation is intended to suggest that
preventive action be taken against absorption
of the agent through these routes of entry.
? TLV: TW A threshold lim it value. TW A is the tim e-
w eighted average concentration for a norm al
8-hour w ork day and a 40-hour w ork w eek, to
w hich nearly all w orkers m ay be repeatedly
exposed, day after day, w ithout adverse effect
? TLV–STEL: threshold lim it value –short-term exposure
lim it. A 15-m inute tim e-w eighted average exposure that
should not be exceeded at any tim e during a w ork day,
even if the 8-hour TW A is w ithin the TLV. Exposures at
the STEL should not be repeated m ore than four tim es a
day, and there should be at least
60 m inutes betw een successive exposures at the STEL
? TLV–C: threshold lim it value –ceiling. The
concentration that should not be exceeded
during any part of the w orking exposure.
O ther exposure lim its include perm issible exposure lim its
(PELs), w hich are legal exposure lim its in the U nited States.
Flash point The low est tem perature at w hich a liquid gives off enough
vapour to form an ignitable m ixture of vapour and air
im m ediately above the liquid surface.
Fume A n airborne dispersion consisting of m inute solid particles
arising from the heating of a solid.
Gas A form less ? uid that occupies the space of its enclosure.
GHS G lobally H arm onized System of Classi? cation and Labelling
of Chem icals
Hazard The potential for harm ful effects.
Healt h surveillance The m onitoring of people to identify changes (if any) in their
health due to exposure to a hazardous substance. Includes
biological m onitoring but does not include the m onitoring of
atm ospheric contam inants.
Ignit ion
t emperat ure
The low est tem perature at w hich a com bustible m aterial w ill
catch on ? re in air and continue to burn independently of
the source of heat.
Ingest ion Taking a m aterial into the body by eating it.
Inhalat ion Taking a m aterial into the body by breathing it in.
Int ernat ional
Council on Mining
and Met als (ICMM)
A n organisation that represents m any of the w orld’s leading
m ining and m etals com panies, as w ell as regional, national
and com m odity associations, and is com m itted to the
responsible production of m inerals and m etals.
Irrit ant A m aterial that irritates w hatever tissue it com es into
contact w ith.
Key performance
indicat ors (KPIs)
Predeterm ined targets that help an organisation de? ne and
m easure progress tow ards organisational goals.
Leading Pract ice
Sust ainable
Development
Program for t he
Mining Indust ry
A program that integrates the environm ental, social and
econom ic aspects of 14 key them es across all phases of
the m ining industry, from exploration, construction and
operation, through to m ine closure and rehabilitation.
Mist Suspended liquid droplets in air caused by condensation or
spraying.
MSDS M aterial Safety D ata Sheet
Mut agen A n agent that affects the genes or cells of exposed people
in such a w ay that it m ay cause cancer in the exposed
individual or an undesirable m utation in a later generation.
Neut ralise To return pH to the neutral level of 7 by adding an acid to a
base or a base to an acid.
NIOSH N ational Institute of O ccupational H ealth and Safety
NOHSC N ational O ccupational H ealth and Safety Com m ission
Odour t hreshold The airborne concentration, usually in parts per m illion, at
w hich an odour becom es noticeable.
Part s per million
(ppm)
A m easure of the concentration of a substance in a gas,
vapour, solid or liquid. For exam ple, 1 ppm of a gas m eans
that 1 unit of the gas is present for every 1 m illion units of air.
70 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 71
pH A m easure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a m aterial
w hen dissolved in w ater.
Pneumoconiosis A respiratory tract and lung condition caused by the
inhalation of m ineral or m etallic particles.
Polymer A natural or hum an-m ade m aterial form ed by com bining
units, called m onom ers, into long chains.
PPE Personal protective equipm ent (devices or clothing w orn
to help isolate a w orker from direct exposure to hazardous
substances)
Research System atic investigative or experim ental activities that are
carried out for the purpose of:
? acquiring new know ledge (w hether or not that
know ledge w ill have a speci? c practical application)
? creating new or im proved m aterials,
products, devices, processes or services
? im proving system s.
Risk t o healt h In relation to a substance, the likelihood that the substance
w ill cause harm to health in the circum stances of its use.
RPE respiratory protective equipm ent
Silicosis A condition characterised by shortness of breath, caused by
exposure to silica dusts.
Solubilit y The ability of a m aterial to dissolve in w ater or another
liquid.
Solvent A m aterial that is capable of dissolving another chem ical.
SSAN security sensitive am m onium nitrate
St abilit y The ability of a m aterial to rem ain unchanged in the
presence of heat, m oisture or air.
Subst ance A natural or arti? cial entity, com posite m aterial, m ixture or
form ulation, other than an article.
Supplier A n im porter, m anufacturer, w holesaler or distributor of
w orkplace substances, but not a retailer.
Terat ogens A gents or com pounds that a pregnant w om an takes into her
body and that generate defects in the foetus.
TLV see Exposure lim its.
Toxicit y The ability of a substance to cause harm ful effects.
72 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
Type I ingredient A n ingredient present in a particular hazardous substance
in a quantity that exceeds the low est relevant concentration
cut-off level speci? ed for the hazard classi? cation of the
substance in Approved criteria for classifying hazardous
substances [N O H SC: 1008 (1999)], published by the N O H S
Com m ission, being an ingredient that:
? is a substance that is, according to that docum ent,
carcinogenic, m utagenic or teratogenic; a skin or
respiratory sensitiser; corrosive, toxic or very toxic; a
harm ful substance that can cause irreversible effects
after acute exposure; a harm ful substance that can
cause serious dam age to health after repeated or
prolonged exposure; toxic to reproduction, or
? is a substance for w hich an exposure standard is
listed in A dopted N ational Exposure Standards
for atm ospheric contam inants in occupational
environm ents [N O H SC: 1003], published by the
N O H S Com m ission, as in force from tim e to tim e.
Type II ingredient A n ingredient present in a particular hazardous substance
in a quantity that exceeds the low est relevant concentration
cut-off level speci? ed for the hazard classi? cation of the
substance in Approved criteria for classifying hazardous
substances [N O H SC: 1008 (1999)], published by the N O H S
Com m ission, being an ingredient that:
? is a harm ful substance according to that docum ent, and
? is not a Type I ingredient.
Type III ingredient A n ingredient present in a particular hazardous substance
that is not a Type I ingredient or a Type II ingredient.
UN (Unit ed Nat ions)
Number
A four-digit num ber assigned to a potentially hazardous
m aterial or class of m aterials. U N num bers are
internationally recognised and are used by ? re ? ghters and
other em ergency response personnel to identify m aterials
during transportation em ergencies.
Use of a subst ance The use, production, handling, storage, transport or disposal
of the substance.
Vapour A gaseous form of a m aterial that is norm ally solid or liquid
at room tem perature and pressure.
Vapour pressure The pressure of a vapour in equilibrium w ith its liquid or
solid form .
Vent ilat ion The provision of fresh air to provide a safe w ork
environm ent.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 73
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
The hum an health risks posed by hazardous m aterials have long been recognised.
A s a result, there is a large body of legislation covering the production (deliberate
or inadvertent), handling, storage, use and disposal of hazardous m aterials. The
literature on hazardous m aterials is also extensive, and a num ber of professional
associations have published useful guidelines and tem plates.
Changes in m ining, in the types of m inerals encountered and in m ineral processing
technology m ean that com panies need to rem ain vigilant. Know n hazards that have
not previously been encountered at a particular m ine m ay pose new risks, w hile
advances in health science w ill from tim e to tim e lead to reassessm ents of risks. The
coverage in this handbook w ill equip m ine operators to understand the m aterials
they w ork w ith and encounter today and provide a basis for responding to new risks.
There is less legislation and few er ancillary publications on the im pact of hazardous
m aterials on the environm ent than in the hum an health ? eld, but environm ental
docum ents require serious attention from m ine operators.
Readers and users of this handbook are encouraged to explore the literature
listed below . Like the handbook, the list is not exhaustive, but it includes resource
docum ents used to com pile the handbook.
A IO H —see A ustralian Institute of O ccupational H ygienists.
A ustralian and N ew Zealand Environm ent and Conservation Council & A griculture
and Resource M anagem ent Council of A ustralia and N ew Zealand 2000, Australian
and New Zealand guidelines for fresh and marine water quality, A R M CA N Z, Canberra.
A ustralian Institute of O ccupational H ygienists 2001, Simpli?ed monitoring strategies,
1st edn, ed. D G rantham , A IO H .
—2007, Principles of occupational health and hygiene: an introduction, ed. C Tillm an,
A IO H .
A ustralian D angerous G oods Code, 7th edn.
Brow n, D JA & Sadler, K 1989, ‘Fish survival in acid w aters’, In: Acid toxicity and
aquatic animals, eds. R M orris et al, Society for Experim ental Biology Sem inar Series:
34, Cam bridge U niversity Press, pp. 31–44.
D epartm ent of Environm ent 1997, Acid mine drainage in Australia, Supervising
Scientist Report 125.
—2006, Community engagement and development, Leading Practice Sustainable
D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and
Resources.
—2007, Managing acid and metalliferous drainage, Leading Practice Sustainable
D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and
Resources.
74 LEA D IN G PRA CTICE SU STA IN A BLE D EV ELO PM EN T PRO G RA M FO R TH E M IN IN G IN D U STRY
—2006, Stewardship, Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for the
M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
—2007, Tailings management, Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program for
the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
—2008a, Cyanide management, Leading Practice Sustainable D evelopm ent Program
for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Resources, Energy and Tourism .
—2008b, Risk assessment and management, Leading Practice Sustainable
D evelopm ent Program for the M ining Industry, D epartm ent of Resources, Energy and
Tourism .
D ITR—see D epartm ent of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
D RET—see D epartm ent of Resources, Energy and Tourism .
Earle, J & Callaghan, T 1998, ‘Effects of m ine drainage on aquatic life, w ater uses,
and m an-m ade structures’, In: Coal mine drainage prediction and pollution prevention
Pennsylvania, eds. KBC Brady, M W Sm ith & J Schueck, Pennsylvanian D epartm ent of
Environm ental Protection.
en-H ealth (D epartm ent of H ealth and A ged Care) 2004, Guidelines for assessing
human health risks from environmental hazards.
Environm ent A ustralia 1997, Best practice environmental management in
mining—hazardous materials management, storage and disposal.
H edges, K & D jukic, F 2008, ‘M anaging silica dust’, Safety and H ealth Sem inar
presentation, D epartm ent of M ines and Energy Safety and H ealth, Bardon,
Q ueensland.
H edges, K, Reed, SG & D jukic, F 2007, ‘A irborne crystalline silica (RCS) in Q ueensland
quarrying processes, particle size and potency’, 25th A nnual Conference
Proceedings, A ustralian Institute of O ccupational H ygienists, M elbourne.
—2008a, ‘O ccupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica in Q ueensland
quarries, exploration sites and sm all m ines’, Q ueensland M ining Industry Safety and
H ealth Conference, Tow nsville.
—2008b, ‘A irborne crystalline silica (RCS) in Q ueensland quarries, sm all m ines and
exploration sites’, 26th A nnual Conference Proceedings, A ustralian Institute of
O ccupational H ygienists, Perth.
H em , JD 1970, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural
waters, 2nd edn, U nited States G eological Survey W ater Supply Paper N o. 2254.
H oehn, RC & Sizem ore, D R 1977, ‘A cid m ine drainage (A M D) and its im pact on a sm all
V irginia stream ’, Water Resources Bulletin, vol. 13, pp. 153–160.
H ustrulid, W A 1982, Underground mining methods handbook, A m erican Institute of
M ining and M etallurgy and Petroleum Engineers, N ew York.
ICM M —see International Council on M ining and M etals.
International Council on M ining and M etals 2009, Good practice guidance on
occupational health risk assessment, ICM M , London.
H A ZA R D O U S M ATER IA LS M A N A G EM EN T 75
International Cyanide M anagem ent Code for the G old M ining Industry, International
Cyanide M anagem ent Institute, A ugust 2008,http://w w w .cyanidecode.org.
Jennings, SR, N eum an, D R & Blicker, PS 2008, Acid mine drainage and effects on ?sh
health and ecology: a review, Reclam ation Research G roup, Bozem an, M ontana.
Karm is, M 2001, Mine health and safety management, SM E.
N ational H ealth and M edical Research Council 2004, National Water Quality
Management Strategy: Australian drinking water guidelines, N H M RC, Canberra, w w w .
nhm rc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm .
N ational Pollutant Inventory 1999, Em ission estim ation technique m anuals, http://
w w w .npi.gov.au/handbooks/approved_handbooks/eetm anuals.htm l.
N H M RC—see N ational H ealth and M edical Research Council.
N ordstrom , D K & Southam , G 1997, ‘G eom icrobiology—interactions betw een m icrobes
and m inerals’, Mineralogical Society of America, vol. 35, pp. 261–390.
N PI—see N ational Pollutant Inventory.
O f? ce of the Q ueensland Parliam entary Counsel 2001, Dangerous Goods Safety
Management Act 2001: Dangerous Goods Safety Management Regulation 2001,
Reprinted 1 Septem ber 2008; Reprint N o. 1B.
Sm ith, K 2007, ‘Strategies to predict m etal m obility in sur? cial m ining environm ents’,
In: Understanding and responding to hazardous substances at mine sites in the
western United States, ed. JV D eG raff, The G eological Society of A m erica, Review s in
Engineering G eology, vol. XV II.
Standards A ustralia 2004, A S/N ZS 4360:2004 Risk management, Standards
A ustralia.
W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of Consum er and Em ploym ent Protection 2008a,
Safe storage of solid ammonium nitrate: code of practice.
—2008b, Storage and handling of dangerous goods: code of practice.
W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of M ines and Petroleum 2009a, Dangerous goods
safety information sheet: overview of SRS regulations.
—2009b, Dangerous goods safety information sheet: overview of transport
regulations.
W estern A ustralian D epartm ent of W ater 2006, Toxic and hazardous substances—
storage and use, W ater Q uality Protection N ote no. 65.
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