The tourism life cycle an overview of Langkawi Island Malaysia

Description
The purpose of this paper is to examine the tourism life cycle of Langkawi Island, Malaysia.
The paper seeks to investigate the stages of life cycle that the island has passed through and at what
stage the island is in today

International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
The tourism life cycle: an overview of Langkawi Island, Malaysia
Shida Irwana Omar Abdul Ghapar Othman Badaruddin Mohamed
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Shida Irwana Omar Abdul Ghapar Othman Badaruddin Mohamed , (2014),"The tourism life cycle: an overview of Langkawi
Island, Malaysia", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 8 Iss 3 pp. 272 - 289
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The tourism life cycle: an overview of
Langkawi Island, Malaysia
Shida Irwana Omar, Abdul Ghapar Othman and Badaruddin Mohamed
Shida Irwana Omar is
based at Sustainable
Tourism Research
Cluster, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang,
Malaysia.
Abdul Ghapar Othman
and Badaruddin Mohamed
are based at School of
Housing, Building and
Planning, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang,
Malaysia.
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the tourism life cycle of Langkawi Island, Malaysia.
The paper seeks to investigate the stages of life cycle that the island has passed through and at what
stage the island is in today.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper adopts Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle model as the
research framework to describe the characteristics of each stage of the island’s tourism life cycle and
determine the time scale of the stages. The evidence presented in the stages is derived fromsecondary
sources dating from 1642 to present.
Findings – The ?ndings indicate that the tourism life cycle in Langkawi Island has undergone four
stages of development and that it is currently in the consolidation stage. Numerous characteristics
suggested by Butler’s model for each stage are clearly discernible in the island’s tourism growth. The
government serves as the major player and catalyst for tourism expansion in the island from one stage
to the next.
Practical implications – It is hoped that the paper will contribute to a better understanding of how
tourismand its market have evolved in Langkawi Island. The paper also provides insights on how future
planning should be directed in more sustainable and responsible ways to position the island.
Originality/value – The paper delivers a comprehensive understanding on the tourism developmental
process of Langkawi Island, besides facilitating the understanding of major fundamental causes and
conditions and the accompanying transition in the stages. The paper also bridges the gaps in
knowledge addressed in similar previous studies.
Keywords Malaysia, Tourism, Tourism development, Island tourism, Langkawi Island,
Tourism area life cycle model
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
The tourismsector is an important segment of the Malaysian economy due to its importance
in the nation’s foreign exchange, economic growth and employment generation
(Government of Malaysia, 1986). Beginning in the mid-1980s, the government geared up
the sector of?cially, and since this time, many destinations in the country including the
islands and highlands have ?ourished with tourismplans. Langkawi Island, which is located
in the Northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia, was earmarked as one of the country’s
leading destinations for tourism development because of its abundant natural resources
and potential that could be exploited. The island is well-known for its pristine beaches, rich
marine life and coral reef, tropical weather, verdant rainforests, freshwater lakes and the
karst landscape, which makes it a favorite holiday destination for local and foreign tourists
alike. Indeed, an estimated of 0.97 per cent of 25.03 million foreign tourists that visited
Malaysia in 2012 (Tourism Malaysia, 2013), were reported to visit Langkawi Island during
their stay (Langkawi Development Authority, 2013c).
As tourism today becomes the major economic activity of the island, Langkawi Island has
undergone signi?cant transformation, evolving from an idyllic tropical island inhabited by
Received 26 September 2013
Revised 3 January 2014
Accepted 13 January 2014
The authors would like to
extend their appreciation to
the Universiti Sains Malaysia
for the Research University
Grant entitled “Tourism
Capacity and Impact Studies”
(Grant No. 1001/PTS/8660011)
that makes this study and
paper possible.
PAGE 272 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 3, 2014, pp. 272-289, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-09-2013-0069
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farmers and ?sher folk into a tourist island. The island has experienced considerable
changes in government policies, economic and social changes and physical settings
between the early arrival of tourists and the present day, but studies focusing on these
changes have surprisingly had little regard paid to them. Perhaps, therefore, stages of life
cycle that the island has passed through and at what stage the island is in today is
unknown. Furthermore, the island has received a substantial volume of visitors from
different types and markets over time, which has had signi?cant effects on the island’s
tourism sector. Past studies pertaining to Langkawi’s tourism life cycle are scarce except
for a few, e.g. Din (1992), Sirat et al. (1993), Hazmi et al. (2012). Din’s work (1992) focused
on the nature of involvement in the tourism industry by local entrepreneurs in the Penang–
Langkawi region, from the pre-colonial phase prior to 1786 up to the early 1990s. Sirat et
al. (1993) examined tourism progression in the island from 1986 to 1993 and stated that
Langkawi at that time was in the stagnation stage. Hazmi et al. (2012) used Butler’s (1980)
tourism area life cycle model merely to examine the lodging development in Langkawi. The
study concluded that the lodging evolution in the island is consistent with the model and ?ts
up to the consolidation stage. However, studies by Sirat et al. (1993) and Hazmi et al. (2012)
denote a collision on the stages of tourism development in Langkawi Island as well as a
difference in the unit of analysis involved.
To address this knowledge gap, this paper attempts to examine the life cycle of the tourism
sector in Langkawi Island using Butler’s (1980) Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) model as
the research framework. TALC is found to be an appropriate diagnostic tool (Almeida and
Correia, 2010) and a useful research framework (Cooper, 1994) to describe and
understand the developmental process of the island, facilitating the understanding of major
underlying causes and conditions in the various stages and the accompanying transitions
(Haywood, 1986). Although the model is more than three decades old, it has been widely
accepted and applied by scholars worldwide and, thus, has retained its relevance. The
model is described by Haywood (2006b, p. 29) as “simple, comprehensible, suf?ciently
intuitive and is purported to have descriptive as well as prescriptive power”.
2. TALC model
2.1 An overview of the TALC model
Tourist areas are dynamic over time. The changes in tourist areas are brought about by a
variety of factors such as changes in the preferences and needs of visitors, the gradual
degradation and possible replacement of physical facilities and plants and changes of the
original natural and cultural attractions which were cause for the initial popularity of the area
(Butler, 1980). In 1980, Butler has proposed an evolutionary cycle model (known as the
TALC model) that describes the development of tourist areas in terms of a series of stages.
The development of this model was in?uenced by early studies of Christaller (1963), Cohen
(1972), Plog (1973), Doxey (1975) and Stans?eld (1978). Based on the two major bases of
the Product Life Cycle and models of wildlife populations; the TALC model determines the
stages by combining features of demand such as consumer tastes, with elements of
tourism supply such as facilities and infrastructures (Papatheodorou, 2006). The cycle
follows the pattern of a basic asymptotic S-curve on six stages (Figure 1) that suggests
tourism areas experience a “birth to death cycle” (Cooper, 1994) and each stage is
characterized by certain identi?able attributes (Table I).
The TALC model suggests that tourism areas undergo six phases of progression. The
exploration, involvement and development stages of the model are characterized by
accelerated growth rates, whereas the consolidation stage is characterized by a gradual
decline of growth rate. In the stagnation stage, visitor arrivals are peaking. The cycle ends
with a post-stagnation phase, comprising a set of ?ve options that a destination may utilize.
Decline results from a market that continues to become smaller as well as the inability of the
destination to compete with newer attractions (curves C, D and E). However, if
countermeasures (of planning, management and development) are adopted, such as
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 273
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Figure 1 Hypothetical evolution of tourist area
Time
Number
of tourists
Critical
Range of
elements of
capacity
Exploration
Involvement
Development
Consolidation
Stagnation
Rejuvenation
Decline
A
B
C
D
E
Source: Butler (1980)
Table I Stages of destination development and associated features
Stage Characteristic
Exploration Limited visitation by a few adventurous tourists with individual travel arrangement and following irregular
visitation patterns. Visitors expected to be non-local, attracted by the destination’s natural and cultural
features. Visiting sites have no speci?c facilities for visitors. Visitors use local facilities and contact with
them is high. The physical fabric and social milieu of the area would be unchanged by tourism. The
arrivals of visitors have little signi?cance on economic and social life of local residents
Involvement The number of visitors increases and assumes some regularity. Local begin to provide facilities primarily
for visitors. Contact with local remains high. Increasing advertising induces a de?nable pattern of
seasonal variation and de?nite market area begins to emerge. Locals adjust their social patterns to
accommodate the changing economic conditions. Government and public agencies begin to be
pressured to provide or improve transport and other facilities for visitors
Development A well-de?ned tourist market area emerges and advertisement becomes intensive. Local involvement and
control of development decline rapidly. Local facilities are displaced by larger, more elaborate and up-to-
date ones provided by external organizations. Natural and cultural attraction are developed and marketed
speci?cally. Original attractions are supplemented by imported facilities. Changes in the physical
appearance of the area are noticeable. The number of tourists at peak periods equal or exceed the local
population. Imported labor and auxiliary facilities and services become necessary. The type of tourists
changes and a wider market is drawn upon
Consolidation The rate of increase in the number of visitors decline. Tourism has become a major part of the local
economy and is dominated by major franchises and chains. Marketing and advertising efforts are further
widened to extend the visitor season and market area. The resort cities have well-de?ned recreational
business districts. Old facilities are regarded as second rate and undesirable
Stagnation A peak number of visitors reached. Capacity levels for many variables exceeded with attendant
environmental, social, and economic problems. The area has a well-established image, but it is no longer
fashionable. The area has heavy reliance on repeat visitation and on conventions and similar form of
traf?c. Surplus bed capacity available. Imported arti?cial facilities supersede the natural and genuine
cultural attractions. New development is peripheral to the original tourist area and the existing properties
experience frequent changes in ownership. The type of tourists expected to change towards the
organized mass tourist
Decline The area faces declining market both spatially and numerically, and is unable to compete with newer
destinations. It no longer holds appeal for vacationers, but attracts weekend and day visitors. Property
turnover is high and tourist facilities often replaced by non-tourist related structures as the area moves out
of tourism. Local involvement likely to increase as the price of facilities drop along with market decline.
The area either becomes a tourist slum or loses its tourist function completely
Rejuvenation A complete change in the attractions on which tourism is based. Either a new set of attractions is
constructed or a previously untapped natural resource is utilized. The development of new facilities
becomes economically feasible. A new avenue for of recreation appears
Source: Compiled from Butler (1980)
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restructuring tourist attractions, enhancing the environment or repositioning destinations
within an overall market are enacted, the decline may be offset and varying degrees of
rejuvenation are stimulated (curves A and B).
Although the evolution of tourist areas can be conceptualized, “not all areas experience the
stages of the cycle as clearly as others” (Butler, 1980,p. 10). This is because the life cycle
of tourism areas occur with different timings and variations (Cooper, 1994). Given that the
model does not have a ?xed time scale, Butler (2011) asserts that certain destinations
might pass through the cycle within a century or even longer. However, the notion that
destinations experience such a cycle in a few decades at most is generally accepted. In
addition, the shape of the cycle is expected to vary for different areas, as the variations
depend on several distinct factors, namely, the rate of development of the tourist area, the
numbers of visitors, its accessibility, government policies and the number of similar
competing areas (Butler, 1980). Although each of these factors can delay or accelerate
progress through the various stages, development can also be arrested at any stage in the
cycle. Only tourist developments promising considerable ?nancial returns will mature to
experience all stages of the cycle. Consecutively, the length of each stage and of the cycle
itself is variable (Cooper, 1994).
After two and a half decades, Butler (2006) who sought to improvise his model has
emphasized on several elements that could further support the model’s signi?cance in
studying tourism destination, over time. Of interest, Butler (2006) claimed that the following
elements under-representation in the literature are in?uenced by scholars’ inef?cient
discussion ?ow:

Dynamismor changes: One of the key elements of tourismdestination development and
its tourism activities.

Process: An identi?able and replicable process that the changes in each tourism
destination went through and this process could be described and modeled.

Carrying capacity: The model is based on the belief that the quality of visitors’
experience, quality of residents’ life and the destination’s physical appearance would
decline if demand and visitation exceeded the capacity of the destination (i.e. physical,
economic, environmental or psychological).

Management: One element that has been most often ignored in the discussion and
application of the model that needs the greatest attention in the future.

Spatial components: The spatial hypothesis was that as development at the initial
destination peaked and stagnated, there would be a series of locational shifts of
development to nearby location.

Triggers: Factors that cause changes in destination (e.g. induced triggers, unintentional
and accidental triggers).
2.2 Applicability of the TALC model
Over time, the TALC model has received considerable attention from other researchers.
Previous studies on TALC have challenged, supported and expanded Butler’s model
(Lagiewski, 2006). A lack of consensus remains regarding the degree of validity of the
model along with arguments against and in favor of the model (Almeida and Correia, 2010).
Prosser (1995) broadly encapsulated these arguments into ?ve categories, namely:
1. the existence of a single development model;
2. carrying capacity issues con?nement;
3. conceptual constrain of the life cycle model;
4. limited empirical support for the concept; and
5. restricted pragmatic utilization of the model.
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 275
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Agarwal (1997), however, argued that the applicability of Butler’s model in a variety of
destinations has led to considerable controversy particularly on the shape and pattern of
the curve, as well as the detail specifying its parameters. She speci?cally elaborated that
the applicability of this model has been subjected to a number of problems and limitations
that cannot be easily resolved included temporal discontinuity, spatial scope of analysis,
lack of standardization, reliability, calibration of resort model and determination of stages
and turning points. Moreover, Hovinen (2002) notes that the limitations of Butler’s model
have been emphasized both in critiques on concepts used (Haywood, 1986; Prosser,
1995) and in its application on case studies (Bianchi, 1994; Getz, 1992; Hovinen, 1982).
Therefore, Haywood (1986, 2006a) suggests six requirements to make the model useful
and operational. These are unit of analysis, relevant market, pattern and stages of TALC,
identi?cation of the area’s shape in the life cycle, determination of the unit of measurement
and determination of the relevant time unit.
Regardless, the model is continuously gaining popularity. Indeed, a number of studies that
have supported the applicability of the TALC model include Tooman (1997), Douglas
(1997), Russell and Faulkner (1998), Knowles and Curtis (1999), Moss et al. (2003),
Lundgren (2006), Bao and Zhang (2006), Zhong et al. (2008) and Almeida and Correia
(2010). Tooman (1997) who applied the TALC model to three Smoky Mountain counties in
assessing the socioeconomic time series effects by using social welfare indicators such as
unemployment and food stamp ?gure, claimed the potential of tourism negatively
impacting avoidance. In Melanesia, the TALC model is acknowledged as a practical
analysis tool and the development level, which in?uenced by colonialism, was found unique
for each country (Douglas (1997). According to Moss et al. (2003, p. 393):
The model supports the position that casino conform to Butler’s S-shaped product life cycle for
resorts, suggesting that the rapid increases in early-period gaming revenues will not continue
without intervention to rejuvenate the industry.
Bao and Zhang (2006) who employed the admission ticket count as the unit of analysis,
documented the model ability in revitalizing Danxia Mountain’s attraction. In case of
Madeira Island, its tourism development, which econometrically assessed, was found to be
in parallel with the TALC model (Almeida and Correia, 2010).
Apart from its original focus on resorts, TALC model also has been applied in a variety of
settings such as national parks (Zhong et al., 2008), heritage sites (Malcolm-Davies, 2006),
protected natural areas (Weizenegger, 2006), aboriginal art performance (Xie and Lane,
2006) and many others. For instance, Zhong et al. (2008) have successfully applied the
TALC model to China’s ?rst national forest park, i.e. the Zhangjiajie National Forest Park,
which is showing signs of consolidation stage. On the other hand, Xie and Lane (2006)
proposed a ?ve-stage life cycle model for aboriginal arts performance in tourism, namely:
1. the primordial state;
2. increasing involvement;
3. situational adaptations;
4. revitalization; and
5. management for change, conservation or decline.
3. Methodology
3.1 Background of study area
Langkawi Island is the largest of an archipelago of 104 islands in the Andaman Sea. It is
located between latitude 6°10=N-6°30=N and longitude 99°35=E-100°E, approximately 51
km from the mainland coast of Northwestern Peninsular Malaysia. The island belongs to the
state of Kedah and has a total land area of 47,848 ha; two-thirds of which are hilly areas.
The island is divided into six parishes, namely, Kuah, Padang Matsirat, Ayer Hangat, Bohor,
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Ulu Melaka and Kedawang (Figure 2), with its highest peak (Raya Mountain) is 881 m
above sea level. Kuah, the largest town in the island, houses the main administrative and
commercial centre. Langkawi Island’s gateway consists of Kuah Jetty and Langkawi
International Airport as the two main entry points; while marinas serve the yachts and
sailboats docking purpose. Other than connecting the main settlements, the circular road
network meets the physical mobility needs of both private and public transportation.
Islanders are predominantly Malay (90 per cent), followed by Chinese (7 per cent) and
Indians and others (including Thai) (3 per cent). Before the development of tourism on the
island, Langkawi Island was one of the least developed districts in Kedah (Din, 1990),
where the majority of the islanders worked in ?shing and agriculture such as rubber
tapping, rice farming and gardening (Bird, 1989). High poverty incidence and
out-migration rates among locals were reported during this time due to a lack of job
opportunities and a dependency on these less-productive basic sectors (Carsten and
Tenku, Idris as cited in Salleh and Abdul Halim, 2005). When the local economy was
of?cially geared toward tourism in the mid-1980s, the local populace joined the tourism
bandwagon by discarding their ?shing nets and farming tools. At that time, tourism was
perceived as opportunities to escape from economic hardship (Kayat, 2002). In 1987, 63
per cent of local populace worked in agricultural and ?shery sector (Langkawi District
Council, 1992). Whereas in 1999, the number has reduced tremendously to only 19 and
33.8 per cent of the residents involved in wholesaling and retailing sector (Langkawi
Development Authority, 1999), where the bulk of tourism businesses included under this
sector. In other words, tourism industry has engineered the economic growth by providing
employment opportunities and in?uencing the foreign exchange activities, which resulted
in population in?ux of 155,262 people in 2010 (mostly consists of newcomers) compared to
24,266 in 1970 (Table II; Langkawi Development Authority, 1999).
Tourism, on the other hand, has caused rapid changes in land usage. Samat (2010) agreed
that tourism activities and urban development played vital role in shaping and transforming
the land use pattern in the island. The urban built-up area in Langkawi Island has increased
from 133.38 to 3,137.2 ha in 2005; indicating an increase of 23 times larger than in 1974
Figure 2 Geographical location of Langkawi Island
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(Table III). Moreover, some agriculture lands have been cleared and reclaimed, especially
in Kuah, to give ways for urban development.
3.2 Data collection
One of the issues with the life cycle, as noted by Bao and Zhang (2006), was that the theory
is dif?cult to calibrate because of the lack of long-term data, e.g. visitor numbers and sales.
Since the data on tourist numbers on Langkawi Island were only of?cially collected from
1986, the unavailability of such data prior to 1986 is considered as the main constraint to
the study. In an attempt to overcome the limitation, secondary data derived from of?cial
statistical data, government archives, non-government reports, tourism books, as well as
articles in newspapers, magazines and online sources, were used to gauge the
progression of the tourism sector in Langkawi Island from 1642 to the present. The
information was then analyzed by reference to the TALC model. Political–legal decisions
were also considered in the analysis to complement the model.
4. The tourism life cycle of Langkawi Island
4.1 Exploration stage (1642-1947)
The exploration stage of Langkawi Island began as early as the 17th century. According to
Din (1993), the island became a destination for recuperating Dutch soldiers that served in
the region in 1642. However, due to a lack of information or written history, the type of
visitors and their visitation patterns to the island in subsequent centuries are dif?cult to
identify.
4.2 Involvement stage (1948-1983)
The involvement stage of tourism in Langkawi Island began in 1948, when the ?rst hotel on
the island called Fairwinds Hotel was established (Din, 1993). The provision of local
accommodation and facilities continued on the island, re?ected by the number of rest
houses built in the 1950s and 1960s. Local tourists have consistently visited beach
attractions such as Cenang, Kok, Tengah and Tanjung Rhu for recreation (Bird, 1989). In
response, local families opted to establish small businesses by selling food and drinks to
local tourists. At this stage, the tourists had extensive contact with the local populace but
their presence had minimal impact on the economic and social life of Langkawi locals.
Table II Population in langkawi island, 1970-2010
Langkawi 1970 1980 1991 2000 2010
Population 24,266 28,340 42,938 73,091 99,841
Source: Langkawi District Council (1990), Pejabat Daerah Langkawi (2011)
Table III Land use categories in Langkawi island, 1974-2005
Category 1974 (ha) 1985 (ha) 1992 (ha) 2005 (ha) Changes 1974-2005 (hectare) Per cent of change
Built-up area 133.38 1192.65 1285.62 3137.24 3003.86 2252.11
Mixed agriculture 57.47 34.75 34.75 34.75 ?22.72 39.53
Rubber 3681.12 5685.49 4597.91 4327.91 646.79 17.57
Paddy 3576.49 2872.88 3902.21 3522.22 ?54.27 1.52
Forest 24543.57 22315.22 22322.48 21383.56 ?3160.01 12.88
Water body 644.27 623.22 632.22 529.28 ?114.99 17.85
Village 3672.88 3609.05 3593.05 3407.30 ?265.58 7.23
Total 36309.17 36333.26 36368.25 36342.26 33.09 0.09
Notes: Built-up area ? residential, urban built-up, others; Mixed agriculture ? oil palm, coconut and mix agriculture activities;
Forest ? forest, shrubs, mangroves; Water body ? reservoir, beach and shores, streams and rivers, lakes; Village ? unplanned
residential area
Source: Samat (2010)
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In the subsequent decade, general facilities to accommodate the increasing number of
domestic travelers were constructed (Din, 1993). The government realized that tourism
could generate huge economic gains, both locally and regionally, so in 1968, Malaysia’s
?rst Prime Minister urged the Public Works Department to clear a rubber plantation for a
nine-hole golf course (Bahrin and Sa, 2000). The course was completed and declared open
in 1970, but was later abandoned due to a lack of funds for maintenance and lack of public
interest. In 1989, it was eventually redesigned and upgraded into an 18-hole facility, in line
with the government’s objective of developing Langkawi into a major tourist destination
(Bahrin and Sa, 2000). The following hotel began in 1977, when the government authorized
a Chinese entrepreneur, Low Yat, to build a small hotel named Langkawi Country Club
(Bird, 1989). The hotel was upgraded and expanded into an international standard hotel in
1986 at the cost of MYR 26 million.
With the establishment of the country’s tourism development authority in 1972, the Tourism
Development Corporation (TDC), the tourism sector in Malaysia was geared up. Primarily,
Langkawi was identi?ed as a potential tourism destination in the 1975 Malaysia Tourism
Master Plan (Marzuki, 2009). In 1976, the federal government required the Tourist
Development Corporation (TDC) to prepare a tourism master plan for Langkawi Island
(Government of Malaysia, 1976). Although the plan was completed in 1977 by Peat,
Marwick Mitchell & Company, none of the proposals in the plan were implemented
(Marzuki, 2009). This was possibly due to the disinclination of private investors. They
expressed no interest in the island’s development, citing its isolation, poor infrastructure
and accessibility facilities as barriers to development (Bird, 1989).
4.3 Development stage (1984-1999)
During this stage, Langkawi Island was intensively promoted as a holiday destination
(Government of Malaysia, 1986). The island ?ourished with ambitious governmental tourism
development plans to support the island. Development was conducted on an intensive
scale, with both federal and local governments as primary catalysts. As noted by Bird
(1989), tourism development on the island was characterized by the extent of direct
government involvement and lack of initiative and entrepreneurial activity from the private
sector. Development projects have been “actively initiated and pushed by the federal and
state governments, rather than due to responses by local and foreign investors to the
demands of increasing number of tourists” (Bird, 1989 p. 12). The ?rst mega project
launched by the federal government was in 1984, comprising a USD 1 billion resort
development in Tanjung Rhu (Bird, 1989; Din, 1993). The resort included proposals of
seven international hotels with a total of 2,500 rooms on 405 ha of land by Promet Berhad
(Marzuki, 2009), with an 18-hole golf course, an arti?cial wave lagoon, a 4.4-ha swimming
pool and a chamber aquarium (Bird, 1989). Over 70 families in nearby villages were
displaced and received low compensation from state government to give way to the project
(Bird, 1989). The displacement destroyed the anchovy industry and many villagers lost
their livelihoods. Owing to the ?nancial crisis in the years that followed, the project was
subsequently scaled down to a 135-room hotel (Wong, 1993). As a result, Tanjung Rhu was
left with some initial construction work, e.g. ugly grey pilings, concrete slabs and murky
water until 1988 (Bird, 1989). This failure illustrates one of the ?rst examples of
environmental degradation caused by tourism development on the island. To avoid the
embarrassment of having the devastation exposed by the international media, the area was
cleaned up in 1989, prior to the 10th Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
(CHOGM) held on the island (Bird, 1989).
Despite the failure of Tanjung Rhu’s project, the federal government continued to provide
supportive infrastructure on the island such as a cargo jetty in 1982, an international airport
in 1985 and a ferry terminal in 1988, making the island more accessible to visitors arriving
fromacross the country. Approximately MYR1.2 billion in investments were spent from1984
to 1992 on various development capacities. Speci?cally, over MYR 200 million was
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expended on building road networks around the island, improving the water supply and
expanding the airport. The remaining MYR 1 billion was allocated for 106 projects
conducted by private companies between 1988 and 1992 on the establishment of various
residential, recreational and commercial projects such as hotels, resorts and marinas as
well as the development of tourism products (Langkawi District Council, 1992). Also during
this stage, more lodging facilities were built within the island in response to tax incentives
given by the federal government to both accommodation and non-accommodation projects
(Government of Malaysia, 1986), as well as to accommodate the in?ux of domestic and
international arrivals in Langkawi Island. The endowment of tax incentives inevitably
encouraged more local initiatives to establish budget accommodation for
budget-conscious visitors to Pantai Tengah, Pantai Kok and Pantai Chenang (Bird, 1989).
This has resulted in a tremendous increase of resort rooms, witnessed more chalets, motels
and inns that have gradually dotted the beachfront with simple, low-cost and village style
lodging units.
The declaration of duty-free port status in 1987 was positive for Langkawi Island, as the
status has changed the socioeconomic pattern in the island through employment creation,
business generation and investment opportunities. For tourists, the status provides them
with the luxury to enjoy exemptions from excise, taxes and import and export duties on
sales, services and goods. Kuah Town has become a main commercial district in the island
apart from being an administrative centre and a main gateway via the sea. The town and
surrounding areas were increasingly modernized. Under the duty-free status, the living
standards of the locals thrived, mainly through the generation of business opportunities. As
af?rmed by Langkawi Municipal Council in a study by Marzuki (2009), the unemployment
rate on the island decreased from 9.7 per cent in 1980 to 9.2 per cent in 1990. To better
administer the island, the federal government in 1990 established the Langkawi
Development Authority (LADA) whose main responsibility was to stimulate, implement,
expedite and execute socioeconomic development on the island. Placed under the
authority of the Ministry of Finance, LADA is the government’s main agent of development
of the island.
During this stage, two golf courses were built on the island. The Datai bay golf resort was
developed in 1992 on undulating hilly-forested terrain in Langkawi, while Gunung Raya Golf
Resort was built in 1998; both with 18 holes. The lack of mitigation measures during
construction of Datai Bay golf resort, however, resulted in augmentation of sediments and
nutrients in the stream and choking of corals nearby (Bahrin and Sa, 2000).
Original attractions supplemented by man-made facilities were evident during this stage. In
the late 1990s, the government developed several arti?cial attractions, including
Underwater World, CHOGM Park, Galeria Perdana, Eagle Square, Rice Museum, Atma
Alam and Craft Complex, to diversify its tourism products and services. However, certain
developed attractions failed, e.g. Malaysia Book Village, while others are in the process of
being re-invented to boost tourism (Ling, 2010). It has been argued that The Malaysia Book
Village failed because it was ill-conceived and unnecessary and was hardly visited by
tourists (Puteh Cahaya, 2007).
The government took tourism a step further by going outside the region to market the island
and tap a wider market of tourists. During the Visit Malaysia Year promotional campaigns
of 1990 and 1994, Langkawi Island was marketed rigorously. Hosting the 10th
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), in which the Langkawi
Declaration on the Environment was delivered, brought suf?cient media attention to the
island and provided the signi?cant boost necessary to push Langkawi onto the international
tourist map (Bird, 1989). A series of international events held in subsequent years, such as
the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition (LIMA), Langkawi
International Motor Show, Tour de Langkawi and Ironman Langkawi, have managed to
draw the huge Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions (MICE) tourist market.
Prior to these events, the federal government built the Mahsuri International Exhibition
PAGE 280 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014
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Centre (MIEC) in Padang Matsirat in 1991, which is the only exhibit and convention facility
on the island. The Langkawi International Airport has undergone two major renovations
within eight years since it was built, to cater to high visitor traf?c, particularly during these
events.
Parallel with the rapid development of the island was the rapid increase in visitors. In 1986,
the island received 209,763 tourists. Ten years later, the number jumped to 1,795,406;
approximately 8.4 times higher to a point that the number of tourists had surpassed the
local population. Notwithstanding, the island has experienced a few unprecedented
declines since 1996 (Figure 3). The fall in visitor arrivals, mainly from the international tourist
market, have been intensi?ed by global disruptions, and threats such as the 1997 Asian
?nancial crisis, the 2003 terror bombings in Jakarta and Bali and the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake and tsunami, have deterred international tourists from visiting Southeast Asia
countries.
4.4 Consolidation stage (2000-present)
In 2000, Langkawi Island entered the consolidation stage. This stage, according to
(Agarwal, 1997), is marked by a period of prosperity. During this stage, 28,567,239 tourists
visited the island (from 2000 to 2012) with an annual average of 2,197,480 tourists,
approximately 1.9 times as many as in the development stage. The majority of visitors
appear to be domestic tourists, that is, visitors from other part of Malaysia. Ling (2006) also
notes that domestic tourists outnumber international visitors considerably. In addition,
visitor numbers exceeded the size of the resident population; in 2010, the number of
tourists was 26 times higher than the local population. In the same year, the gross national
income for tourism and tourism-related industries in the island was recorded at MYR 0.8
billion (Langkawi Municipal Council, 2013).
The island’s economy was largely tied to tourism and as a result, marketing and advertising
was extensive. The government continued its efforts to market and advertize the island to
an international audience especially through the Visit Malaysia Year 2007 promotional
campaigns. The island continued to extend the market season of MICE tourists by
organizing the biennial LIMA. In addition, the island also hosted ?ve other festivals and
international forums among other events during this period to attract a larger market of
visitors. The increase in air passengers and aircraft movements during these particular
events were evident (Table IV).
Figure 3 Tourist arrivals to Langkawi Island, 1986-2012
0.21
0.31
0.43
0.66
0.78
0.88
1.05
1.32
1.60
1.80
1.71
1.62
1.30
1.56
1.81
1.92
1.53
1.79
2.18
1.84
2.16
2.30
2.30
2.38
2.45
2.82
3.06
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
1
9
8
6
1
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8
7
1
9
8
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1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
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8
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9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
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0
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2
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0
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Year
T
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t

a
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s

(
‘
0
0
0
,
0
0
0
)
Malaysia political crisis,
JE virus, water crisis
Bali bombing,
SARS, Iraq war
Sumatra-Andaman
earthquake & tsunami
Global financial
crisis, H1N1
Visit Malaysia
Year 1990
Visit Malaysia
Year 1994
Visit Malaysia
Year 2007
Asian financial crisis,
Southeast Asian haze,
Coxsackie virus
Source: Langkawi Development Authority (2000; 2013b)
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As Butler’s model had forecast, a well-de?ned recreational business district was evident in
the island. In 2001, Langkawi Island was declared as the ?rst tourism city in the country.
Despite this declaration, facility development in the island slowed down, and priorities were
placed on the refurbishment of tourist attractions (e.g. Oriental Village, Cable Car theme
park, Air Hangat Village and Fort of Mahsuri), transportation expansion (e.g. Telaga
Harbour Park) and lodging growth. These efforts certainly have drawn larger crowds to
tourist attractions and visitor numbers are growing considerably (Table V). Approximately,
60 new lodging establishments were built during this period.
In 2007, Langkawi Island enhanced its international reputation by being listed as a World
Geopark site by United Nations Educational Scienti?c and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). The listing has long-term effects on the sustainable development of the island.
It also signi?es the government’s interests in the preservation and conservation of its
tourism products. The three main areas that have been included in the listing are
Machincang Cambrian Geoforest Park, Kilim Karst Geoforest Park and Dayang Bunting
Marble Geoforest Park. To further propel the island’s competitive advantage, the Malaysian
Prime Minister in 2012 launched the Langkawi Tourism Blueprint, which aims to position the
island among the world’s top ten best islands and eco-tourism destinations by 2015. This
short-term action plan contains 14 initiatives across three themes, namely, product,
infrastructure and enablers, and is expected to boost the island’s tourism sector via income
and job generation (Table VI).
5. Discussion and implications
The TALC model provides a basis for generalized theory of tourism development based on
the observed trends and qualitative evidences. Testing the model in the context of
Table IV Volume of traf?cs at Langkawi international airport, 2003-2012
Year
Volume of traf?cs
Passengers Aircraft movements
2003 726,817 8,913
2004 845,276 8,711
2005 830,334 8,964
2006 934,024 27,622
2007 1,122.911 43,234
2008 1,196,956 41,837
2009 1,539,271 39,815
2010 1,374,729 33,064
2011 1,504,697 31,482
2012 1,594,106 33,056
Source: Malaysia Airports Berhad (2013)
Table V Visitor arrivals to selected attractions, 2005-2012
Year
Galeria
perdana
Underwater
world
Craft
complex
Rice
museum Cable car
Air hangat
village
Fort of
mahsuri
2003 275,250 477,640 102,892 23,009 385,934 70,220 267.150
2005 151,111 384,325 66,069 74,398 440,128 64,882 364,377
2006 157,336 435,680 82,742 94,049 570,215 126,641 n.a
2007 157,830 439,732 93,983 64,400 666,176 138,383 n.a
2008 136,900 450,029 98,562 101,108 638,852 84,438 n.a
2009 111,190 453,682 102,149 103,120 614,547 60,146 n.a
2011 131,562 403,428 108,443 96,721 788,123 67,733 294,826
2012 245,040* 807,016** 135,131*** 138,176** 1,332,570** 150,448* 409,888***
Notes: No information available for year 2004 and 2010; *Data available for January-November 2012; **Data available for
January-October 2012;
***
Data available for January-September 2012
Source: Langkawi Development Authority (2013a)
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Langkawi Island provides a better understanding of how tourism and its market has
evolved in the island and at what stage of development the island is in today. In addition,
the major causes and conditions and its accompanying transitions in the stages were also
addressed. Findings indicated that the island has consistently experienced the ?rst four
stages of TALC model (i.e. exploration, involvement, development and consolidation
stages), as described by Butler in his seminal article. Numerous characteristics suggested
by Butler (1980) for each stage are clearly discernible in the island’s tourism progression.
For example, in the exploration stage, the island was visited by pioneers (i.e. the Dutch
soldiers that served the region) who came to the island seeking recuperation. At the
involvement stage, the domestic tourist market began to emerge and the government
started to initiate a few tourism projects for visitors, although some of them, e.g. the golf
course, were abandoned because of lack of public interest. Due to the conditions of
isolated geography and poor accessibility and infrastructure at that time, private investors
were disinclined to invest in the island. After that, the island entered a development stage
characterized by a rapid development of tourism infrastructure and amenities as well as the
increase of tourists. In addition, changes in the physical appearance of the island became
noticeable. Finally, at the consolidation stage, the island’s economy became largely tied to
tourism. Marketing and advertising were extensive and wide reaching, while efforts were
made to attract international tourists and to tap into other tourist markets such as MICE
visitors.
Each stage possessed a different time scale. The length of the stages was determined by
the occurrence of those characteristics and further con?rmed by comparing tourist
numbers from one stage to the next. Due to unavailability of data prior to 1986, such
comparisons were only applied to development and consolidation stages. At the
consolidation stage, the island received 28.5 million tourists, where the annual average
arrivals equate to 1.9 times that of the development stage. Although tourist numbers have
increased during the consolidation stage, the rate of increase was relatively low when
compared to the previous stage. In addition, during these two stages, it was obvious that
Table VI A portfolio of 14 initiatives in Langkawi tourism blueprint
Theme Initiative
Product Improve the heritage Geopark icons value by developing a comprehensive
conservation plan that enforced by Park Ranger force at Langkawi
Development Authority
Turning Chenang into a premier recreational beach for family and tourist
alike
Redevelop Rice Museum and Fort of Mahsuri as living museums to
showcase Malay’s culture and village life
Facilitate the private development of ?ve 5-star and above accommodations
Invest in North West part of the island to accommodate the high-end
tourists
Position Langkawi as a MICE destination
Introduce endorsement program to set higher quality standards for all
tourism products
Infrastructure Improvement in air and ferry transport network and connectivity
Enhancement of land transport services and mobility
Provide a clean, safe and tourist-friendly environment particularly at the
tourist spots
Upgrading the Langkawi’s gateway in order to meliorate tourists’ ?rst
impression on the island
Enablers Strengthen Langkawi’s branding and marketing campaigns
Establish tourism academy in order to produce ’f graduates that meet the
industry’s requirements
Increase the locals income gained from agricultural and ?shery activities
and diversify income sources through a closer involvement with tourism
sector
Source: Langkawi Development Authority (2011)
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visitors outnumbered the island’s population; this characteristic conformed to our usual
understanding of the TALC model.
Although the governments at all levels, private sector, entrepreneurs and local residents
were seen playing essential roles as catalysts in the island’s rapid transformation, the
governments have notably been the major players from the very beginning in planning,
regulating and directing where and how tourism development in the island should go,
through provision of tourist supporting infrastructures, enhancing accessibility, funding the
tourism projects, granting duty-free status and domestic and international marketing.
Under the federal government’s policy, the Langkawi tourism master plan was prepared
during the involvement stage and envisioned the future roles and potentials the island
could achieve as the country’s leading tourist destination. The establishment of the LADA
as the main agent of development in the latter stage indicated the full commitment of the
government to foster island development. Furthermore, the designation of the island as a
UNESCO World Geopark Site during the consolidation stage was seen to be the prospect
for a long-term sustainable agenda led by the government. The implementation of the
Langkawi Tourism Blueprint in recent years appears to be a catalyst in propelling the
island’s position, especially on the global tourist map.
Applying the TALC model, this study identi?ed that tourism development in the island has
contributed to both bene?ts and costs. Thus, the question arises, who earns the bene?t and
who owns the cost? While tourism may be regarded as a panacea to the island economy,
tourism development is perceived to contribute more bene?ts to the island’s local residents
than costs. Marzuki (2009) asserted that local residents accepted tourism positively
because the developments have brought in more bene?ts to them, especially in improving
the residents’ quality of life, such as the improvements of basic infrastructure and facilities
(Sharif, 2000) as well as income generation from tourist activities. Despite improving the
quality of life, the cost owned by the tourism sector is substantial. For example, the rapid
tourism development has harmed the island’s environment and affected social and cultural
values of local residents. Physical developments that are conducted without proper
judgment, such as land reclamation, have damaged the mangrove and beach areas in
Tanjung Rhu, thus contributing to serious environmental degradation as well as dilapidation
of the island’s aesthetic appeal. Similarly, intensive development of tourist accommodation
and tourism businesses on the beach stretches of Chenang has, generally, neglected the
water pollution and soil erosion at sites adjacent to the beaches (Ibrahim et al., 2012).
Therefore, who wins and who loses in this development?
6. Conclusion
Langkawi Island has been a dynamic tourist destination in its long existence. Although
initial development was evident in 1948, yet the momentum for tourism development was
only geared up in mid-1980s. The island has progressed rapidly over the past four
decades, with a shift from an idyllic tropical island that predominantly featured ?shing and
agricultural activities to a modernized island geared for tourism. Tourism life cycle in
Langkawi Island, so far, was substantially conformed to Butler’s TALC model and has
undergone the four stages speci?ed in the model. Because the island has not completed
its cycle of development, thus, it may too early to say that the model entirely applies to
Langkawi Island. This fact becomes the main limitation for this study.
Although, theoretically, the island will enter a stage of stagnation sooner or later, a
number of signs of the stagnation stage have begun to appear on the island. To be
speci?c, signs include the reliance of Langkawi in repeat visitations among domestic
tourists, as well as in the MICE market for events like LIMA. Moreover, the existing
properties are experiencing frequent changes in ownership, particularly in the
accommodation sector due to discontinuance of business or cease of operation (Hazmi
et al., 2012). With this said, the island should consider the TALC as a warning; by which
constant adjustment, corrections and pre-emptive measures should be taken at the
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earliest opportunity by various stakeholders (e.g. the governments and private sectors)
to prolong the consolidation stage as well as prevent its stagnation so that long-term
sustainable development can be achieved and enhanced. Langkawi Island as one of
the country’s leading tourist destinations should be a reference to other destinations in
the aspect of sustainability.
Hence, future development should be directed toward environmental, economic and social
sustainability by adopting a “bottom-up” approach rather than “top-down” approach, with
involvement of more local residents in the decision making process. The philosophy
underlying the prospective tourism agenda should be based on increasing the economic
bene?ts and reducing the environmental cost, which could pave the way for a truly
meaningful travel experience for visitors.
Apart from that, Langkawi Island should exercise pragmatic sustainable tourism practices,
for example, Tenerife, for self improvement and to prolong its consolidation stage. Tenerife
acts on sustainability to overcome its maturity and stagnation of tourism arrivals (Rodriguez
et al., 2008). Strategies, including the improvement of supply in various tourism zones,
adapting to tourismsector evolution and re?ecting the attracted customer and market, have
been employed to rede?ne its tourism. Additionally, Of?cial Tenerife Tourist Board (SPET)
is promoting tourism through brands and zones including Tenerife Golf, Tenerife Select,
Tenerife Natural, Tenerife and the Sea, Tenerife Convention Bureau and Tenerife Film
Commission. Tenerife Golf seeks to attain the island’s golf courses supply market image
as well as the hotels and apartments associated with the brands, in building the
customer loyalty. While Tenerife Select offers the island’s most exclusive tourism
facilities, Tenerife Natural promotes rural areas and nature activities. Tenerife and the
Seas portray the island as destination for maritime leisure, whereas Tenerife Convention
Bureau promotes the island as destination for congresses, conventions, product
presentations and incentive holidays. Tenerife Film Commission promotes the island as
a location for audiovisual goods production. In terms of zoning, each zone provides a
distinctive supply within the overall destination of Tenerife. The implementation of
“Improvement Plan” sought to improve the established resources and infrastructure in
the zones (Rodriguez et al., 2008). Valle de La Orotava’s tourism zone status, for
instance, serves the purpose of image/brand creation as well as reinforcing the
multi-destination position in addition to developing the main segments of its supply. In
light of these strategies and practices, Langkawi could possibly be de?ning its zones
based on resources, supply and brand, accordingly, to type of tourists attracted and
market segment. In accordance to Tenerife Select and Tenerife and the Sea, the
Langkawi Tourism Blueprint has structured the north-west part for luxury tourist stay,
dining, retail and entertainment zone, whereas Chenang area is planned for premier
beach for family and tourist fun. More importantly, the need for an appropriately
comprehensive zoning concept that applies to the entire Langkawi Island is
increasingly pressing. The island’s resources which are comparable to Tenerife
suggest consideration toward relative “Improvement Plan” on top of employing the
brands and zones strategies.
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About the authors
Shida Irwana Omar is currently a Research Of?cer at the Sustainable Tourism Research
Cluster, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. She is also a PhD student at the same
university. She received her MSc in Town Planning in 2003 and her BSc in Housing,
Building and Planning in 2002, both from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. Shida Irwana
Omar is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Abdul Ghapar Othman is a senior lecturer at the School of Housing, Building and Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. Before joining the university in 2004, he served as
coordinator for the PEGIS Centre, a Geographic Information System (GIS) unit under the
administration of the State Government of Penang. His main interests are GIS, land use
planning, tourism and transportation planning.
Badaruddin Mohamed is currently a Professor at the School of Housing Building and
Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. Being specialized in Tourism Development
and Urban Planning, he received his PhD in 1997 and his MA in 1994, both from Rikkyo
University, Japan. His bachelor’s degree was in Environmental Planning from University of
Northern Iowa, the USA, in 1988.
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
VOL. 8 NO. 3 2014 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 289
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This article has been cited by:
1. Mohd Fadil Mohd Yusof, Hairul Nizam Ismail, Raja Norliana Raja Omar. 2014. A Critical Analysis on Evolution of Branding
Destination in Langkawi Island. SHS Web of Conferences 12, 01002. [CrossRef]
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