Description
Coral reefs are biological hotspots despite the lack of nutrients in the ambient waters. They provide a wide array of ecosystem benefits such as fisheries, tourism, and physical protection against strong wave action (Wabnitz et al., 2003). Although habitat"forming corals are able to support a diverse and abundant biome, this delicate ecosystem has rapidly degraded over the past century due to anthropogenic activities.
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unlLed SLaLes pollcy and demand ......................................................................................................... 9
lmpacL on coral reef ecosysLems ........................................................................................................ 10
CurrenL socloeconomlc sLaLe of producers ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle ....................................................... 13
ÞasL reform aLLempLs .......................................................................................................................... 13
8esL pracLlces ......................................................................................................................................18
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1he coral reef wlldllfe Lrade ls a mulLlmllllon"dollar luxury lndusLry LhaL serves malnly Lhe uS,
Lurope, and Chlna. 1he sale of coral reef organlsms provldes lncome for communlLles ln
developlng naLlons ln Lhe Þaclflc lslands. Many of Lhe pracLlces for collecLlon, handllng and
LransporL are unsusLalnable and harmful Lo boLh Lhe reef envlronmenL and Lhe collecLed
specles. 1he Lrade's supply chaln ls compllcaLed and lnefflclenL. Plgh morLallLy raLes for Lraded
specles aL each level of collecLlon and LransporL have led Lo overharvesLlng. Þrlor research has
shown LhaL collecLors ofLen lack Lhe lncenLlve, equlpmenL and knowledge Lo lmprove
desLrucLlve collecLlon pracLlces. 1he Lwo maln ob[ecLlves of Lhls pro[ecL are Lo ldenLlfy Lhe
economlc drlvers behlnd Lhe Lrade and analyze Lhe socloeconomlc and ecologlcal beneflLs of
alLernaLlve sLraLegles for collecLlon by uslng case sLudles. Cne of Lhe pro[ecL's goals ls Lo
consLrucL supply and demand curves for Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade Lo beLLer predlcL Lhe
effecLs of markeL changes on boLh producers and consumers. Speclflcally, we wlll focus on Lhe
vlablllLy of comblnlng susLalnable marlculLure and markeL conLracL programs as a sLraLegy Lo
help producers ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle meeL and buffer agalnsL changlng demands. upon
compleLlon of our marlculLure feaslblllLy analyses, we wlll provlde recommendaLlons and
lnformaLlon Lo our cllenL, Clazul, a nonproflL organlzaLlon focused on promoLlng susLalnablllLy
wlLhln coasLal communlLles. AddlLlonally, we alm Lo lnform pollcy"makers abouL how Lhe coral
reef wlldllfe Lrade may be alLered by lndusLry reform lnlLlaLlves. 1hls pro[ecL has Lhe poLenLlal
Lo beLLer lnform fuLure reform lnlLlaLlves Lo proLecL naLural resources whlle malnLalnlng Lhe
collecLor's llvellhoods for Lhe long Lerm.
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lor decades, lL has been an appeallng hobby Lo develop a
coral reef aquarlum LhaL adequaLely represenLs Lhe beauLy
of a naLural reef. Powever, Lhe average aquarlum hobbylsL ls
mosL llkely unaware of Lhe back"sLory for each marlne
organlsm ln hls/her Lank. 1ake :&%#"*(+() $"85%#)2, Lhe
8anggal cardlnal flsh, as an example (llg. 1). 1hls ornaLe flsh,
endemlc Lo Lhe 8anggal lslands of lndonesla, was hlghly
coveLed by hobbylsLs ln norLh Amerlcan and Lurope due Lo
lLs unlque reproducLlve behavlor of males broodlng Lhe eggs ln
Lhelr mouLhs (Lunn & Moreau, 2004). WlLhouL any collecLlng
regulaLlons, lL was rapldly overharvesLed by Lhe laLe 1990s, and ls now consldered a LhreaLened
specles. uesplLe Lhe need Lo regulaLe collecLlon, efforLs Lo proLecL Lhe 8anggal Cardlnalflsh
under lnLernaLlonal LreaLles, such as Lhe ConvenLlon of lnLernaLlonal 1rade of Lndangered
Specles (Cl1LS), have falled.
1here are many coral reef specles LhaL share a slmllar sLory as Lhe 8anggal cardlnal flsh, and lL ls
noL [usL Lhe coral reef ecosysLem aL rlsk. llshermen who collecL ornamenLal specles are also
under pressure Lo meeL lndusLry demand whlle carvlng ouL a llvellhood based upon mlnlmal
reLurns. ln lndonesla, a flsherman may only recelve Lhe equlvalenL of $0.10 uSu for Lhe
clownflsh specles (;,*<2*#2() *%#'86"= LhaL wlll be sold ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes for $12.00
(WabnlLz, 1aylor, Creen, & 8azak, 2003). 1he marlne aquarlum Lrade ls fllled wlLh lnefflclencles
sLemmlng from unsusLalnable pracLlces aL many sLeps LhroughouL Lhe supply chaln. llxlng Lhese
lnefflclencles provldes a poLenLlal paLh Lo soluLlons LhaL beneflL boLh flsh conservaLlon and
flshermen proflLs.
Þroblems begln aL Lhe producer level where many flshermen are forced by economlc pressures
Lo resorL Lo rlsky, unsusLalnable, and someLlmes lllegal capLure meLhods Lo lncrease Lhelr
caLches. llshermen dlsperse sodlum cyanlde lnLo Lhe waLer sLun Lhe flsh for easler collecLlon
(WabnlLz eL al. 2003). 1hey also endanger Lhelr own llves wlLh unsafe dlvlng pracLlces such as
uslng Llre alr compressors lnsLead of SCu8A Lanks as an alr supply. MosL of Lhe producers ln Lhe
marlne aquarlum Lrade are based ln lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, where Lhere ls llLLle effecLlve
governmenL conLrol over Lhe aquarlum Lrade. Lven where laws do exlsL bannlng cyanlde,
corrupLlon ln Lhe governmenL and lack of enforcemenL provlde llLLle lncenLlve for collecLors Lo
LranslLlon Lo more susLalnable pracLlces. ln boLh lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, many local reefs
have become degraded, and collecLors ofLen ºrove" or Lravel beyond overflshed reefs ln hopes
of maklng more money or Lo collecL rare specles (e.g. 8anggal cardlnal flshes).
Þroblems also exlsL wlLh Lhe supply and demand sLrucLure for coral reef specles. 8esearch has
shown LhaL mosL flshermen collecL whaLever specles posslble, and Lhen bargaln wlLh
mlddlemen Lo sell Lhelr LoLal caLches, regardless of Lhe deslrablllLy of Lhe lndlvldual specles
caughL. CfLen, Lhls leads Lo many of Lhe common, low"value flsh belng dlscarded because of a
llgure 1. 8anggal cardlnal flsh,
:&%#"*(+() $"85%#)2
lack of demand. A ºflsh Lo order" sysLem would lncrease efflclency for flshermen and reduce
Lhe unnecessary Lake of many flsh.
1he marlne aquarlum supply chaln ls generally boLh lnefflclenL and hlghly fragmenLed (Amos &
Clauseen, 2009). Cnce ornamenLal flsh enLer Lhe supply chaln, Lhere ls currenLly no way Lo
dlsLlngulsh susLalnably caughL flsh from flsh caughL uslng cyanlde. 1he laLLer flsh have an
exLremely hlgh morLallLy raLe from Lhe sLress of capLure, whlch only fuels lncreased demand on
flshermen Lo replace Lhe hlgh numbers of flsh LhaL dle. 1here ls a clear need Lo reform boLh
collecLor pracLlces and supply chaln regulaLlons ln Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade. lf effecLlve
conservaLlon measures are noL Laken ln Lhe very near fuLure, Lhe coral reef ecosysLem and
Lhose who depend upon lLs resources have a grlm faLe ahead.
1he 8ren Coral 8eef Croup ls noL Lhe flrsL Lo aLLempL Lo address susLalnablllLy lssues ln Lhe
marlne aquarlum Lrade. lnformaLlon has been publlshed abouL Lhe successes and fallures of
pasL reform sLraLegles, whlch are lmporLanL Lo conslder ln order Lo avold repeaLlng mlsLakes
and Lo learn from reform lnlLlaLlves LhaL have been successful. 1he Marlne Aquarlum Councll
(MAC) launched a mulLlmllllon"dollar pro[ecL ln 1998 (Amos & Claussen, 2009) Lo seL up a
cerLlflcaLlon program for susLalnably caughL aquarlum flsh. 1he efforL falled parLlally because
Lhere were no lncenLlves wlLhln Lhe supply chaln Lo pay a premlum for cerLlfled flsh. ln Lerms of
leglslaLlve efforLs, Lhe unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce has [urlsdlcLlon over Lhe Lrade and
lmporL of wlldllfe under Lhe Lndangered Specles AcL (LSA) and Lhe unlLed naLlons ConvenLlon
on 1rade ln Lndangered Specles (Cl1LS), buL mosL reef specles are noL covered by LSA or Cl1LS
(Lndangered Specles AcL, 2010). ln general, a lack of undersLandlng of Lhe socloeconomlc
complexlLy drlvlng Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade supply chaln has LhwarLed many efforLs ln boLh
leglslaLlve regulaLlon and cerLlflcaLlon lnlLlaLlves.
CrganlzaLlons lncludlng MAC have publlshed suggesLlons for fuLure dlrecLlons Lowards
lncreaslng Lhe susLalnablllLy of Lhe lndusLry. We plan Lo explore Lhe comblnaLlon of susLalnable
flshlng and capLlve breedlng Lechnlques wlLh markeL based conLracL agreemenLs beLween
producers and reLallers as a mulLlfaceLed approach Lo reform Lhe Lrade. ln addlLlon Lo analyzlng
Lhe lmpacLs of posslble grassrooLs and markeL"based reform, we are also lnLeresLed ln analyzlng
poLenLlal leglslaLlon LhaL wlll regulaLe Lhe lmporL of reef flsh. 1here ls greaL uncerLalnLy over Lhe
effecLs of leglslaLlon on Lhe aquarlum Lrade markeL, buL our work alms Lo provlde key analyses
explorlng Lhese dynamlcs and Lhe poLenLlal consequences.
8efore any such sLraLegles can be assessed, lL ls lmporLanL Lo undersLand Lhe drlvers for Lhe
demand for ornamenLal specles. undersLandlng demand and elasLlclLy for Lhese specles wlll
help us predlcL how changes ln supply, such as new lmporL regulaLlons or lncreased capLlve
breedlng efforLs, wlll affecL Lhe markeL for Lhls luxury good. 1herefore, one of Lhe pro[ecL's
ob[ecLlves ls Lo consLrucL coral reef wlldllfe supply and demand curves for Lhe unlLed SLaLes.
undersLandlng u.S. demand and how lL wlll respond Lo changes ln prlce or pollcy ls essenLlal,
glven LhaL Lhe u.S. markeL represenLs around 80° of global demand.
1he many lnefflclencles ln Lhe currenL aquarlum Lrade sysLem offer a wlde range of
%
&
opporLunlLles for reform LhaL can noL only be susLalnable alLernaLlves Lo Lhe sLaLus quo, buL
also offer greaLer flnanclal reLurns. WlLh a demand sLrucLure ln mlnd, we can begln Lo Lhlnk
abouL ways Lo lncorporaLe susLalnablllLy and lncreased supply chaln efflclency. MarlculLure of
coral reef wlldllfe specles ls one promlslng alLernaLlve Lo relleve harvesLlng pressures on marlne
populaLlons. MarlculLure for mosL ornamenLal specles ls sLlll ln lLs lnfancy wlLh boLLlenecks ln
boLh lnfrasLrucLure and research, however, meLhods such as flsh larval capLure and capLlve
rearlng, and coral fragmenLaLlon and farmlng have shown promlse.
We reallze LhaL many producer communlLles lack Lhe lnlLlal caplLal and resources Lo lnsLall
marlculLure faclllLles, so we have ldenLlfled a sLraLegy for fundlng and supporL. MarkeL conLracL
programs LhaL dlrecLly connecL a producer and markeL reLaller, such as Lhe 8ooL CaplLal model,
have been able Lo promoLe boLh susLalnablllLy and economlc galns by securlng llvellhoods for
producers and a sLeady supply of goods for reLallers. Such agreemenLs allow for collecLor
communlLles Lo manage resources and Lrade aL Lhelr end of Lhe supply chaln, whlle creaLlng an
economlc lncenLlve Lo conLlnue Lo do so.
uslng case sLudles focused on speclflc producer communlLles ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes and lndonesla,
we wlll analyze Lhe vlablllLy of comblnlng oLher sLraLegles such as communlLy"based
managemenL Lo enhance ecologlcal susLalnablllLy, sLrengLhen Lhe supply chaln, and ensure
producer llvellhoods ln Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade.
1he coral reef wlldllfe Lrade presenLs a unlque opporLunlLy for analysls as a case where
lncreaslng ecologlcal susLalnablllLy can drlve hlgher supply chaln efflclency and proflLablllLy,
resulLlng ln boLh economlc and ecologlcal beneflLs. We anLlclpaLe LhaL Lhe pro[ecL's flndlngs wlll
noL only beneflL our cllenL, Clazul, buL wlll also shed llghL on sLraLegles LhaL oLher sLakeholders
and pollcy makers can use Lo lnform declslons abouL leglslaLlon and markeL lncenLlves ln Lhe
coral reef wlldllfe Lrade.
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1he harvesL of marlne organlsms from coral reefs for Lhe aquarlum Lrade provldes lncome for
coasLal communlLles around Lhe world. Clobal Lrade ln marlne ornamenLal flsh accounLs for
abouL $28"44 mllllon uSu per year (8ruckner, 2006), wlLh Lhe unlLed SLaLes accounLlng for
approxlmaLely 80° of lmporLs from over 40 counLrles (Wood, 2001). 1oday, Lhe collecLors, and
by exLenslon, Lhe enLlre lndusLry, face slgnlflcanL envlronmenLal and economlc challenges. MosL
collecLors rely on unsusLalnable exLracLlon meLhods whlch are depleLlng Lhe resources Lhey rely
on. AlLernaLe meLhods of harvesL, collecLlon, LransporL are needed lf Lhe Lrade ls golng Lo
conLlnue Lo be a proflLable endeavor.
Some currenL harvesLlng meLhods of coral reef specles are devasLaLlng Lo reef ecosysLems as
well as wlldllfe. CollecLors use exploslves and cyanlde Lo exLracL flsh, resulLlng ln exLenslve reef
damage and hlgh morLallLy raLes of collecLed flsh (McManus & 8eyes, 1997). 1hese
unsusLalnable collecLlon meLhods depleLe boLh corals LhaL provlde hablLaL for LargeL specles
and Lhe flsh Lhemselves aL raLes LhaL wlll evenLually lead Lo populaLlon collapse (1lmoLlus eL al.,
2009). 8eLween capLure and reLall, Lhe flsh suffer up Lo a 90° morLallLy raLe due Lo sLress, poor
LransporL faclllLles, lack of care, and Lhe resldual effecLs of Lhe cyanlde used Lo sLun and caLch
Lhe organlsms (8ubec, Cruz, ÞraLL, Cellers, & Lallo, 2000). 1o compensaLe for Lhe hlgh morLallLy
raLes LhroughouL Lhe supply chaln, many more flsh are harvesLed Lhan are demanded, whlch
resulLs ln severe overflshlng.
1here have been conslderable efforLs Lo lnLroduce more susLalnable meLhods Lo collecLors ln
Lhe pasL. Some suppller counLrles developed leglslaLlon regulaLlng coral specles exporL and
resLrlcLlng desLrucLlve flshlng pracLlces, buL Lhe lack of governmenL resources coupled wlLh Lhe
naLure of collecLlon make enforcemenL of such laws exLremely dlfflculL. 1he mosL noLable
global efforL was Lhe Marlne Aquarlum Councll (MAC) cerLlflcaLlon program, a volunLary
cerLlflcaLlon scheme LhaL aLLempLed Lo creaLe a markeL for ºpremlum" susLalnably"caughL
specles. 1he cerLlflcaLlon program falled Lo caLch on wlLh elLher suppllers or collecLors, boLh
due Lo overly"sLrlcL sLandards for suppllers Lo meeL and because consumers were unwllllng Lo
pay prlce premlums (Amos & Claussen, 2009). ln order Lo be successful, a soluLlon wlll have Lo
be feaslble Lo lmplemenL and resulL ln compeLlLlve prlces for collecLors as an lncenLlve Lo
change pracLlces.
AnoLher poLenLlal challenge Lo Lhe sLaLus quo of Lhe marlne ornamenLals Lrade ls changlng Lhe
u.S. demand. uemand for luxury goods may be hlghly elasLlc, whlch could resulL ln dramaLlc
drops ln demand lf u.S. lmporL laws change or prlces for flsh lncrease, elLher as a resulL of
lnLernaLlonal accord or a change ln domesLlc pollcy. 1here ls conslderable pressure from
envlronmenLal groups Lo LlghLen lmporL laws and bolsLer enforcemenL capablllLles. As Lhe
blggesL lmporLer, a shlfL ln u.S. pollcy Lowards more susLalnable collecLlon requlremenLs wlll
have slgnlflcanL ramlflcaLlons for Lhe lndusLry (1lssoL eL al., 2010). uesplLe lnLended poslLlve
ecologlcal effecLs, Lhe pollcy changes could have negaLlve effecLs for collecLors farLher down
Lhe supply chaln. lf a new uS lmporL pollcy slmply demands dlfferenL collecLlon meLhods, Lhen
small collecLors who are noL equlpped Lo upgrade Lhelr meLhods could lose Lhelr source of
(
lncome. lmplemenLlng an alLernaLe, susLalnable, meLhod of producLlon wlll provlde
envlronmenLal and economlc securlLy by ensurlng LhaL Lhere wlll sLlll be corals and reef flsh Lo
collecL lf regulaLlons change, and LhaL communlLles won'L lose Lhelr source of lncome Lo larger
scale and beLLer"equlpped collecLors.
1he moLlvaLlon for Lhls pro[ecL ls Lwo"fold. llrsL, coral reef ecosysLems LhaL are sources of
organlsms for Lhe marlne ornamenLals Lrade are vulnerable Lo over"explolLaLlon and
degradaLlon lf proLecLlve measures are noL Laken. Second, Lhe blggesL LhreaL Lo Lhese reefs
sLems from lnLernaLlonal demand, buL Lhe lmmedlaLe lmpacL comes dlrecLly from communlLles
whose lncome relles on Lhls rapldly dlmlnlshlng resource. Whlle Lhere have been many
suggesLlons and lnlLlaLlves Lo address one or Lhe oLher of Lhese problems, we belleve
addresslng boLh wlll be cruclal lf boLh Lhe communlLles and Lhe ecosysLems are Lo survlve.
)
6*.+,-# .'+,-#%Z,!
MarkeL Analysls
Cne of Lhe pro[ecL ob[ecLlves ls Lo analyze how changes ln lndusLry sLrucLure or lmporL
sLandards (for example, vla leglslaLlon) could change Lhe coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe markeL.
llrsL, we wlll consLrucL supply and demand curves for Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade, focuslng on
Lhe largesL lmporLer, Lhe u.S. 8y collecLlng and analyzlng preexlsLlng daLa on prlces and
quanLlLles sold as well as uslng surveys Lo deLermlne wllllngness Lo pay, Lhe demand curve for
coral reef wlldllfe ln Lhe uS can be derlved and lLs elasLlclLy can be esLlmaLed. uaLa on Lhe cosL
of producLlon aL each level of Lhe supply chaln from producer counLrles wlll allow us Lo
consLrucL Lhe supply curve. We wlll Lhen quanLlLaLlvely assess how changes such as lmporL
leglslaLlon mlghL cause Lhe supply and demand curves Lo change. 1hls analysls wlll show Lhe
overall sLrucLure of Lhe markeL and Lhe effecL of Lhls change on producer welfare.
uryland feaslblllLy analysls
We wlll analyze Lhe ecologlcal and economlc vlablllLy of comblnlng susLalnable marlculLure and
markeL conLracL programs for producers aL several slLes ln Lhe coral Lrlangle. Speclflcally, we
wlll assess Lhe ablllLy of Lhls sLraLegy Lo help producers ln Lhe coral Lrlangle become and remaln
proflLable desplLe Lhe poLenLlal changes ln Lhe markeL explored above. uependlng on Lhe cosL
of changlng producer pracLlces, dlfferenL markeL scenarlos could make new Lechnologles or
sLraLegles vlable.
8ecommendaLlons
upon compleLlon of our analyses, recommendaLlons and lnformaLlon wlll be glven Lo our cllenL,
Clazul, on Lhe economlc feaslblllLy of marlculLure comblned wlLh markeL conLracLs as an
alLernaLlve llvellhood Lo currenL unsusLalnable coral reef wlldllfe collecLlon pracLlces.
AddlLlonally, Lhe pro[ecL alms Lo lnform pollcy"makers abouL Lhe lmpacLs of changes ln lmporL
leglslaLlon on Lhe aquarlum Lrade markeL.
*
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CurrenL unlLed SLaLes leglslaLlon lncludes very llLLle regulaLlon and lnfrasLrucLure Lo manage Lhe
marlne ornamenLals Lrade. 1he Lacey AcL sLaLes LhaL Lrade ln any specles proLecLed by
domesLlc, lnLernaLlonal, or Lrlbal law ls prohlblLed (unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce
[uSlWS], 2011). 1he unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce has [urlsdlcLlon over Lhe Lrade and
lmporL of wlldllfe, and commerclal lmporLers requlre a permlL. lmporLers musL have Lhelr
shlpmenLs lnspecLed aL one of Lhe 14 deslgnaLed uS porLs (uSlWS, 2000), and Lhe lmporLaLlon
of specles llsLed on elLher Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lndangered Specles AcL (LSA) or Lhe unlLed naLlons
ConvenLlon on 1rade ln Lndangered Specles (Cl1LS) ls prohlblLed. Aslde from Lhese
requlremenLs, Lhere ls llLLle Lo ensure LhaL Lhe supply of flsh comes from susLalnable sources.
uesplLe Lhe clear LhreaL faclng lnLernaLlonal coral reefs, only a few specles are llsLed under
elLher Cl1LS or Lhe LSA (Lndangered Specles AcL, 2010). Leadlng domesLlc and lnLernaLlonal
envlronmenLal groups, lncludlng ConservaLlon lnLernaLlonal and Lhe CenLer for 8lologlcal
ulverslLy, advocaLe a shlfL Loward coral reef conservaLlon. Whlle Lhe process of legally
proLecLlng lnLernaLlonal specles of lnLeresL ls hlghly pollLlclzed, lncreaslng LhreaLs Lo Lrade from
coral bleachlng mlghL provlde Lhe caLalysL for elLher Lhe uS or unLÞ Lo acL.
1he uS ls home Lo coral reefs off Lhe coasLs of Pawall and llorlda, and currenL leglslaLlon
enables Lhe governmenL Lo enforce sLrlcL conservaLlon laws lncludlng marlne proLecLed areas
(MÞAs) and exLenslve monlLorlng programs by Lhe naLlonal Cceanlc ALmospherlc
AdmlnlsLraLlon (nCAA). ln 1998, ÞresldenL CllnLon slgned LxecuLlve Crder 13089, formlng a
Coral 8eef 1ask lorce Lo proLecL coral reef ecosysLems and prevenL Lhelr degradaLlon.
Commerclal harvesL ls sLlll allowed, buL sLrlcLly regulaLed. As a resulL, coral reefs ln norLh
Amerlca are noL consldered ºaL rlsk," from human acLlvlLles (nellemann & Corcoran, 2006).
Cn Lhe domesLlc slde, Lhe unlLed SLaLes can lmpose sLandards on lmporLed flshes Lo requlre
LhaL Lhelr harvesLlng be ln compllance wlLh sLandards slmllar Lo Lhose seL by domesLlc pollcy.
1hls would requlre a large overhaul on Lhe parL of Lhe suppllers and lncreased monlLorlng by
Lhe uS Lo ensure LhaL Lhe more sLrlngenL sLandards are meL. 1wo specles of coral are already
llsLed as ºLhreaLened" under Lhe LSA, meanlng Lhey cannoL be harvesLed, lmporLed, or
exporLed (naLlonal Cceanlc ALmospherlc AdmlnlsLraLlon [nCAA], n.d.). ln 2009, Lhe CenLer for
8lologlcal ulverslLy (C8u) peLlLloned nCAA Lo llsL an addlLlonal 83 corals as LhreaLened or
endangered and Lo deslgnaLe crlLlcal hablLaL for Lhem. 1he peLlLlon ls currenLly under revlew
(l873"6616). ueslgnaLlng crlLlcal hablLaL does noL necessarlly mean flsh harvesLlng would be
prohlblLed, buL would be a slgnlflcanL sLep ln ensurlng LhaL harvesLlng wlll be done a more
cauLlous and susLalnable manner.
!+
1he uS has a legal precedenL for creaLlng lnLernaLlonal sLandards, found ln Lhe uolphln"Safe
1una lnlLlaLlve of Lhe 1980s and 90s, whlch has lowered dolphln morLallLy from Luna flshlng by
98° slnce 1990. 1here were slgnlflcanL pollcy lssues Lo overcome before such an acLlon could
be lmplemenLed, as Lhe World 1rade CrganlzaLlon (W1C) would noL allow Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo
declare an embargo on unsusLalnably harvesLed flsh. 1he unlLed SLaLes aLLempLed an embargo
on several counLrles as a parL of Lhe uolphln"Safe 1una lnlLlaLlve, buL lL was sLruck down by Lhe
W1C as belng conLrary Lo Ceneral AgreemenL on 1rade and 1arlffs (CA11) (SkllLon, 1993). ln Lhe
end, Lhe uS had Lo wlLhdraw Lhe embargo and rely on Lhe ºuolphln"Safe" labellng scheme,
whlch evenLually had Lremendous success ln reduclng demand for Luna caughL uslng
desLrucLlve pracLlces. 1he lesson from Lhls example ls LhaL unllaLeral pollcy acLlon by Lhe uS, lf lL
even occurs, may noL hold up ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal arena. 1o be successful, a soluLlon wlll have
Lo lnclude boLh leglslaLlve and markeL"based approaches.
lnLernaLlonal conservaLlon pollcy represenLs a parallel Lrack Lo LhaL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes. Whlle
Lhere appears Lo be wldespread supporL for addlng proLecLlon measures Lo coral reefs, Lhe lasL
meeLlng of Lhe governlng bodles of Cl1LS ln 2010 voLed agalnsL lmposlng Lrade regulaLlons on
addlLlonal coral specles (LnvlronmenLal news Servlce, 2010). AL Lhls meeLlng Lhe unlLed SLaLes
advocaLed more sLrlngenL regulaLlons, clLlng lnLernaLlonal Lrade as Lhe greaLesL LhreaL Lo coral
reef ecosysLems. 8oLh uS pollcy and Cl1LS face lnLense commerclal lobbylng for ellmlnaLlon or
relaxlng of Lrade regulaLlons, along wlLh Lhe LhreaL of Lhe W1C sLrlklng down any regulaLlons
LhaL are passed. 1he World 1rade CrganlzaLlon can preempL declslons made by unLÞ, so pollcy
makers musL Lread carefully before resLrlcLlng global Lrade. lf Lhe change ln Lhe marlne
ornamenLal lndusLry ls golng Lo come from Lop"down leglslaLlon, a concerLed push by
envlronmenLal and Lrade groups ls needed, along wlLh a balance of regulaLlon LhaL encourages,
raLher Lhan lnhlblLs Lrade.
%9S8?@ =E ?=;8F ;77G 7?=<L<@79<
Coral reefs are blologlcal hoLspoLs desplLe Lhe lack of nuLrlenLs ln Lhe amblenL waLers. 1hey
provlde a wlde array of ecosysLem beneflLs such as flsherles, Lourlsm, and physlcal proLecLlon
agalnsL sLrong wave acLlon (WabnlLz eL al., 2003). AlLhough hablLaL"formlng corals are able Lo
supporL a dlverse and abundanL blome, Lhls dellcaLe ecosysLem has rapldly degraded over Lhe
pasL cenLury due Lo anLhropogenlc acLlvlLles. Whlle a greaL deal of emphasls has been placed on
damage Lo Lhe reef ecosysLem from Lhe food flsh lndusLry, less ls known abouL lmpacLs from
Lhe ornamenLal aquarlum Lrade. Powever, because mosL ornamenLals are harvesLed from coral
reefs, Lhe probablllLy for slgnlflcanL ecologlcal damage ls hlgh (WabnlLz eL al., 2003).
Maln Lcologlcal lmpacLs of Lhe Aquarlum 1rade:
! Chemlcals affecLlng organlsms' healLh
o Sodlum cyanlde and qulnaldlne mosL uLlllzed
! Plgh morLallLy raLes for flsh and lnverLebraLes
! Parm Lo boLh LargeL and non"LargeL specles
! Lxposure damage Lo hlghly suscepLlble corals
!!
! Loss of zooxanLhellae (º8leachlng")
! Coral deaLh aL hlgh doses
! PablLaL uamage
o 8reaklng off of coral pleces
! 8oaL anchorlng
! neLs caughL on coral
! Cverflshlng
o uepleLlon of wlld sLocks
o Large decreases ln abundance
o uecreases ln blodlverslLy
o AlLeraLlon of communlLy sLrucLure
! negaLlve effecLs on Lhe food web and Lrophlc levels
! lnvaslve Specles
1
o CfLen robusL populaLlons LhaL ouLcompeLe naLlves
o ulsease lnLroducLlon
1he mosL lmmedlaLe negaLlve lmpacLs of ornamenLal aquarlum harvesLlng relaLe Lo harmful
pracLlces such as cyanlde use and Lhe physlcal desLrucLlon of coral reef hablLaL. Sodlum cyanlde
used Lo sLun LargeL specles can affecL boLh LargeL and non"LargeL specles, decreaslng Lhelr
healLh and lncreaslng Lhe probablllLy of morLallLy (WabnlLz eL al., 2003). Coral can be especlally
vulnerable, even Lo low doses of cyanlde. lnLermlLLenL buL concenLraLed doses of sodlum
cyanlde may have a range of effecLs on coral - some zooxanLhellae loss aL low doses, mosL Lo all
of zooxanLhellae loss (slgnlfylng a ºbleachlng evenL") aL medlum doses, and coral deaLh aL Lhe
hlghesL doses (!ones & SLevens, 1997). unforLunaLely, whlle Lhe effecLs of Lhese harmful
pracLlces are vlvldly apparenL, Lhe use of cyanlde ls common ln underdeveloped locaLlons
where educaLlon and flshery managemenL enforcemenL are boLh lacklng (WabnlLz eL al., 2003).
Lqually LhreaLenlng Lo Lhe coral reef ecosysLem ls Lhe depleLlon of coral reef ornamenLals from
overharvesLlng. CrnamenLal reef flsh experlence slmllar overharvesLlng effecLs Lo LhaL of reef
food flsh. 1here are dlrecL effecLs on Lhe ecosysLem such as decreased specles abundance, buL
addlLlonal lndlrecL effecLs such as dlsLorLlng communlLy sLrucLure, are exLremely llkely. CfLen
flshlng pracLlces are nondlscrlmlnaLory, and many dlfferenL flsh specles ln hlgh abundance are
harvesLed (unLÞ"WCMC, 2008). CLher Llmes, collecLors LargeL hlgh"demand specles, whlch are
usually rare, endemlc specles (WabnlLz eL al., 2003). !uvenlles are also LargeLed slnce Lhey Lend
Lo be more colorful and easler Lo LransporL Lhan adulLs (8ruckner, 2003). ParvesLlng [uvenlles
can resulL ln fewer lndlvlduals lefL ln Lhe populaLlon Lo reach reproducLlve maLurlLy. Males are
also ofLen preferred over females due Lo Lhelr coloraLlon, whlch can llmlL reproducLlve opLlons
for many specles. 8oLh nondlscrlmlnaLory and specles"LargeLed meLhods lncrease Lhe
probablllLy of severely and permanenLly alLerlng Lhe communlLy sLrucLure.
!
f
1he effecL of lnvaslve specles ls prlmarlly concerned wlLh Lhe consumer slde of Lhe aquarlum Lrade. Powever,
uLure managemenL sLraLegles need Lo conslder specles lnvaslons Lo avold exacerbaLlng Lhe problem.
!#
1he overharvesL of reef specles alLers communlLy sLrucLure dlrecLly, buL Lhe aquarlum Lrade can
also affecL Lhe coral reef ecosysLem by dlsLorLlng blologlcal relaLlonshlps (unLÞ"WCMC, 2008).
Coral reefs have some of Lhe mosL lnLrlcaLe lnLerspeclflc relaLlonshlps lncludlng muLuallsLlc,
symbloLlc, compeLlLlve, and predaLory (8ellwood, Pughes, lolke, & nysLrom, 2004). 1he
phoLosynLheLlc zooxanLhellae ln coral polyps provlde much of Lhe prlmary producLlvlLy LhaL
supporLs Lhe coral ecosysLem. Many specles rely on Lhe corals slmply as a hablLaL, whlle oLhers,
such as 1<"%&(5() spp. and oLher coralllvores, need llve corals as a food source. AlLered
communlLy sLrucLure and phase shlfLs, such as a shlfL from llve coral" Lo algal"domlnanL
hablLaLs, can resulL when key members of Lrophlc groups are harvesLed wlLhouL conslderaLlon
for Lhe food web and communlLy ramlflcaLlons. Perblvores, whlch are Lhe greaLesL ln demand
for collecLlon, are lnLegral Lo sLemmlng algal growLh. CLher lmporLanL Lrophlc groups LhaL hold
hlgh value ln Lhe aquarlum markeL lnclude plankLlvores (e.g., 1<#(,2- spp.), coralllvores
(1<"%&(5() spp.), plsclvores (>*2)%*<%68- spp.), and cleaner flshes (?(42(-(," spp.) (8ruckner,
2003).
MuLuallsLlc relaLlonshlps ln parLlcular are vulnerable Lo unresLralned harvesLlng. Cleaner
specles such as some ?(42(-(," spp. and @"4#(25%- spp. remove ecLoparaslLes and dead Llssue
from cllenL flshes (CruLLer, 1999), and Lhe healLh of Lhe reef communlLy may suffer lf cleaner
specles are removed. 1he effecLs of lnLerferlng wlLh co"dependenL specles was also observed ln
overexplolLed slLes ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes, where one sLudy found 80° of Lhe reduced numbers of
anemoneflsh were slgnlflcanLly aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe low denslLy of anemones (Shuman, Podgson,
& Ambrose, 2003). SclenLlsLs have only recenLly begun Lo undersLand some of Lhe complex
blologlcal relaLlonshlps wlLhln Lhe lasL cenLury, and research may noL be able Lo keep up wlLh
unsusLalnable flshlng pracLlces.
ÞredlcLlng Lhe effecLs on communlLy sLrucLure ls dlfflculL due Lo Lhe dlverse and compllcaLed llfe
hlsLorles of marlne specles. unllke freshwaLer specles, marlne organlsms ofLen have complex
llfe sLages such as a pelaglc larval sLage or sequenLlal hermaphrodlLlsm (Adams, MapsLone,
8uss, & uavles, 2000, unLÞ"WCMC, 2008). 1hls can vary from specles Lo specles and can be
conLrolled by envlronmenLal slgnals such as season, moonllghL, and Lldes. lor many wrasses
and groupers, Lhe communlLy sLrucLure ls deLermlned by Lhe absence or presence of Lhe
domlnanL sex (mosL ofLen Lhe largesL lndlvldual ln Lhe local populaLlon). lf Lhls pracLlce
conLlnues, and Lhe largesL lndlvlduals are removed from an area, a shlfL ln Lhe slze classes can
occur. ln essence, harvesLlng coral reef specles wlLhouL knowledge of Lhelr speclflc llfe hlsLorles
can easlly lead Lo shlfLs ln slze, age, sex, and specles.
AnoLher example of Lhe negaLlve effecLs LhaL can resulL from a lack of knowledge and
managemenL has been Lhe lnLroducLlon and esLabllshmenL of non"naLlve specles. lnvaslve
llonflsh specles have become a concern ln Lhe souLheasLern parL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes (Morrls &
WhlLfleld, 2009). 1here are no naLlve predaLors Lo llmlL Lhe llonflsh populaLlon, so Lhelr
geographlc range qulckly spread from Lhe Culf of Mexlco up Lhe easLern coasL of Lhe unlLed
SLaLes. lL ls esLlmaLed LhaL over $1 mllllon wlll be needed Lo conLrol Lhe llonflsh populaLlon over
a 3"year perlod. Whlle Lhls lssue ls more perLlnenL Lo Lhe consumer end of Lhe supply"chaln, lL
offers an example of lnadverLenL negllgence havlng drasLlc effecLs on Lhe ecosysLem. lf fuLure
!$
sLraLegles such as marlculLure lnvolve ralslng specles ln Lhelr non"naLlve envlronmenLs,
managers need Lo be aware of Lhe posslble escape and lnLroducLlon rlsks.
1he dynamlcs of Lhe aquarlum Lrade are dlfflculL Lo predlcL due Lo Lhe lack of knowledge on Lhe
acLual sLaLus of Lhe ecosysLem. WlLh such hlgh specles dlverslLy, complex blologlcal
lnLeracLlons, and a vasL array of remoLe locaLlons, gaLherlng accuraLe and robusL daLa has
posed a serlous obsLacle. 1hls challenge only adds Lo Lhe urgenL call for gaLherlng more
lnformaLlon and developlng more accuraLe models Lo compensaLe for currenL lack of
knowledge. Cne of Lhe greaLesL challenges for Lhe aquarlum Lrade, however, ls movlng forward
and developlng susLalnable managemenL sLraLegles desplLe Lhese many sclenLlflc uncerLalnLles.
-D;;7E@ !=?C=7?=E=9C? !@8@7 =G 6;=AD?7;< CE @T7 -=;8F #;C8EQF7
ln order Lo reform Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle, lL ls cruclal Lo undersLand
Lhe socloeconomlc conLexL of Lhe lssue. ManagemenL sLraLegles for arLlsanal flsherles ofLen fall
lf Lhe parLlcular socloeconomlc characLerlsLlcs of Lhe communlLy are noL Laken lnLo
conslderaLlon (Alllson & Lllls, 2001). A soluLlon LhaL lmproves Lhe ecologlcal and economlc
susLalnablllLy of Lhe coral reef aquarlum Lrade should Lherefore be based on Lhe socloeconomlc
condlLlons of collecLors ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle.
lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes are Lhe Lwo maln naLlons LhaL comprlse Lhe Coral 1rlangle
ornamenLal producer lndusLry, and governmenL pracLlces ln each counLry do noL effecLlvely
regulaLe Lhe coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe harvesL. lndonesla has a free access pollcy Loward
flsherles (Analysls of desLrucLlve reef flshlng, 2001), whlch resulLs ln a large number of
flshermen flghLlng Lo caLch fewer and fewer flsh on already degraded coral reefs. 1he
Þhlllpplnes employ more communlLy"based flshery managemenL sLraLegles Lhan lndonesla
(Analysls of desLrucLlve reef flshlng, 2001), whlch may lncrease Lhelr chances of malnLalnlng
susLalnable coral reef ecosysLems over Llme. unforLunaLely, corrupLlon ls wldespread
LhroughouL Lhe Coral 1rlangle aL many levels of socleLy, and governmenL conLrol over Lhls lssue
ls weak (LC Þrep Þro[ecL, 2003). AL Lhls polnL, any aLLempL by Lhe governmenLs Lo lmplemenL
pollcy Lo lmprove Lhe ornamenLal wlldllfe Lrade ls llkely Lo be unsuccessful wlLhouL lmproved
enforcemenL from a naLlonal Lo a local scale.
1he people who collecL anlmals from reefs ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle generally llve ln poverLy. 1he
collecLors ofLen do noL have hlgh levels of educaLlon and mosL ofLen llve ln poor vlllages LhaL
commonly do noL have rellable fresh waLer supplles or sufflclenL sanlLaLlon servlces (LC Þrep
Þro[ecL, 2003). 1he mlddlemen, who supply collecLors wlLh flshlng equlpmenL and LransporL Lhe
flsh Lo exporLers, are noL much beLLer off. 1hey usually have a llLLle educaLlon and mlnlmal
buslness skllls ln addlLlon Lo collecLlng experlence (8eksodlhard[o"Lllley & Lllley, 2007). ln splLe
of Lhese advanLages, mlddlemen generally survlve under Lhe same llvlng condlLlons as Lhe
collecLors. 8aslc llvlng needs ln lndonesla cosL abouL lu8 800,000 per monLh, more Lhan many
collecLors earn (LC Þrep Þro[ecL, 2003). Some collecLors work ln Lhe marlne ornamenLal Lrade
full Llme and some use Lhls Lrade as a second [ob Lo earn exLra money ln order Lo send chlldren
!%
Lo school, Lo purchase non"essenLlal foods llke mllk, or Lo pay for medlcal bllls (LC Þrep Þro[ecL,
2003).
CollecLors ofLen do noL have proper equlpmenL and commonly use unsafe collecLlng pracLlces
LhaL rlsk Lhelr healLh. 8oaLs are generally poorly malnLalned and ofLen break down. 1here ls
usually no safeLy equlpmenL on board (MAM1l, 2006). Many collecLors do noL own Lyplcal
snorkellng equlpmenL, and some creaLe Lhelr own flns ouL of pleces of plywood or plasLlc
(MAM1l, 2006). ºPookah dlvlng" ls a common pracLlce ln collecLlng ornamenLal flsh, where Lhe
alr ls supplled Lo dlvers uslng an unsafe, low LhroughpuL compressor (MAM1l, 2006). 1he lack of
proper dlvlng and safeLy equlpmenL greaLly lncreases Lhe rlsk of ln[ury for collecLors. lor
example, ln Lhe 8anngal Archlpelago, lndonesla, collecLors are sub[ecL Lo skln dlseases, ear
damage, Lhe bends, and decompresslon slckness, healLh care ls lnadequaLe and generally noL
avallable Lo Lhe poor (LC Þrep Þro[ecL, 2003).
1he currenL sLrucLure of Lhe aquarlum Lrade's supply chaln perpeLuaLes socloeconomlc
hardshlp for producers. CollecLors do noL recelve sLeady wages and lnsLead are pald per flsh
collecLed (MAM1l, 2006). CollecLors barely earn enough lncome Lo meeL Lhe dally needs of Lhelr
famllles. lurLhermore, Lhls paymenL meLhod encourages collecLors Lo caLch as many flsh as
posslble, whlch puLs lncreased pressure on coral reef ecosysLems. Mlddlemen are ofLen ln no
beLLer an economlc poslLlon, as Lhey recelve low prlces for flsh from exporLers, who wlll ofLen
wlLhhold paymenL unLll Lhelr flsh are sold Lo lmporLlng counLrles (8eksodlhard[o"Lllley & Lllley,
2007). under Lhese clrcumsLances, collecLors and many mlddlemen are barely able Lo make a
llvlng.
CollecLors ofLen fall lnLo a paLLern of perpeLual debL Lo mlddlemen, so LhaL Lhey are unable Lo
make a proflL and lncrease Lhelr sLandard of llvlng. ln new 8usuanga, Lhe Þhlllpplnes,
mlddlemen allow collecLors Lo use boaLs, food, fuel, and cyanlde, and Lhen requlre LhaL Lhe
collecLors repay Lhem. lf collecLors do noL have Lhe money Lo repay Lhem, Lhey wlll end up
paylng Lhe mlddlemen wlLh Lhe very flsh caughL uslng Lhe borrowed provlslons (Shuman,
Podgson, & Ambrose, 2004). CollecLors ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes also borrow money from mlddlemen
Lo supporL Lhelr famllles, Lhe mlddlemen ofLen hold Lhem Lo Lhese debLs aL exLraordlnary
lnLeresL raLes (Shuman, Podgson, & Ambrose, 2004). Cnce Lhe collecLors sLarL borrowlng from
mlddlemen, Lhere ls llLLle chance LhaL Lhey wlll ever be able Lo repay Lhelr debL. ln boLh
lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, local reefs have become degraded and collecLors wlll ºrove" or
Lravel beyond Lhe local reefs ln hopes of maklng more money. 8ovlng Lakes days aL a Llme and
lnvolves borrowlng boaLs, food, and equlpmenL from suppllers, whlch cuLs lnLo Lhe proflL LhaL
collecLors should make from lncreased efforL (MAM1l, 2006). Some mlddlemen do noL accepL
flsh from collecLors unless Lhe collecLors buy cyanlde from Lhem, collecLors depend on
mlddlemen for Lhelr lncome and so have no cholce buL Lo use cyanlde (Wood, 2001). 1hls
forced dependence noL only affecLs Lhe collecLors buL also furLher exacerbaLes Lhe pressure puL
on coral reef ecosysLems. As long as Lhese collecLors remaln ln poverLy, Lhey have no cholce buL
Lo conLlnue degradlng Lhe coral reefs.
!&
ConservaLlon of coral reefs and Lhe wlldllfe Lhey susLaln ls lnexLrlcably llnked Lo, and dependenL
on, Lhe socloeconomlc slLuaLlon of Lhe people who manage Lhem. Any managemenL sLraLegy
LhaL dlsregards Lhe welfare and llvellhoods of collecLors wlll mosL llkely fall. 1herefore, any
economlc soluLlon Lo lmprove Lhe susLalnablllLy of Lhe coral reef aquarlum Lrade musL also llfL
collecLors above Lhelr currenL sLaLe of poverLy.
68<@ *7G=;9 $@@79S@<
1he 8ren Coral 8eef Croup ls far from Lhe flrsL Lo Lry Lo Lackle Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade.
lnformaLlon has been publlshed abouL Lhe successes and fallures of pasL reform sLraLegles,
whlch are lmporLanL Lo conslder ln order Lo avold repeaLlng mlsLakes and also Lo avold
repeaLlng reform lnlLlaLlves LhaL have already been successful. 1he Lwo maln programs wlLh
comprehenslve reporLs are Lhe CommunlLy 8ased 8esource ManagemenL (C88M) lnlLlaLlve,
whlch focuses on llmlLlng cyanlde use, and Lhe MAM1l lnlLlaLlve, whlch was a large scale, mulLl"
dlmenslonal reform aLLempL. ln boLh of Lhese reform aLLempLs, a common source of error
sLems from a lack of undersLandlng and underesLlmaLlon of Lhe economlc complexlLy drlvlng
Lhe supply chaln.
1he C88M program's maln goal ls Lo use communlLy resources Lo reduce Lhe use of cyanlde ln
marlne flsh collecLlon, whlch ln Lurn should decrease Lhe hlgh flsh morLallLy raLes assoclaLed
wlLh reef flsh collecLlon. C88M ls supporLed by varlous nCCs, lncludlng Lhe lnLernaLlonal
Marlne llfe Alllance (lMA) and Lhe uesLrucLlve llshlng 8eform lnlLlaLlve (ul8l) (8ubec eL al.,
2000). C88M uses communlLy"based educaLlon and supporL Lo lower cyanlde use and lncrease
survlvorshlp of collecLed flshes. 8eform aLLempLs lnclude Leachlng communlLles how Lo use
barrler neLs and hook and llne flshlng, how Lo properly care for collecLed flshes, and how Lo
llmlL sLress Lo lower posL"collecLlon morLallLy raLes (8ubec eL al., 2000). AddlLlonally, Lhe C88M
program malnLalns slx cyanlde deLecLlon labs ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes. 1he labs faclllLaLe LesLlng for
cyanlde use on boaLs, aL vlllage collecLlon slLes, aL alrporLs, and aL faclllLles held by mlddlemen
(8ubec eL al., 2000).
1he maln lnlLlaLlves encouraged by Lhe C88M program have been shown Lo be effecLlve aL
reduclng morLallLy raLes. Accordlng Lo 8ubec eL al. (2000) neL caughL flsh have less Lhan a 10°
morLallLy raLe LhroughouL Lhe supply chaln (ln comparlson wlLh 90° morLallLy raLes assoclaLed
wlLh cyanlde"caughL flsh) (8ubec eL al., 2000, SchmldL & kunzmann, 2003). uesplLe Lhe hlgher
flsh survlvorshlp, 8ubec eL al. found LhaL 30° of flshermen who have been Lralned and have
access Lo neLs sLlll use cyanlde because flshermen geL pald per flsh and lL ls easler Lo collecL
greaLer quanLlLles of flsh wlLh cyanlde Lhan wlLh neLs (8ubec eL al., 2000). Accordlng Lo 8ubec
eL al. (2000), Lhe soluLlon Lo Lhls problem should lle wlLh hlgher prlces pald for neL"caughL flsh,
buL Lhus far lL has noL been shown LhaL consumers are wllllng Lo pay more for healLhler flsh.
AddlLlonally, Lhe C88M program encourages flshermen Lo llmlL Lhe sLress on collecLed flsh
before LransporLlng Lhe organlsms. SLress can be caused by exposure Lo cyanlde, sLarvaLlon,
paraslLes, meLabollLe burn from polluLed waLer, low dlssolved oxygen, and rapldly changlng pP
!'
and LemperaLures (8ubec eL al., 2000). 8y holdlng Lhe flsh for 24 hours ln clean waLer wlLh
approprlaLe pP and LemperaLure, morLallLy raLes for cyanlde"caughL flsh are reduced Lo less
Lhan 30° morLallLy (8ubec eL al., 2000). 1he C88M has been helpful ln mapplng ouL concreLe
Lechnlques Lo reduce morLallLy raLes, buL Lhe communlLy"based lnlLlaLlves alone have noL been
sufflclenL Lo shlfL Lhe markeLs Lo place a hlgher value on healLhler flsh. AddlLlonally, Lhe C88M
pro[ecL suggesLs LhaL ln order for Lhe reform measures Lo be lmplemenLed successfully, Lhere
needs Lo be lncreased cooperaLlon beLween Lhe governmenL and local communlLles (8ubec eL
al., 2000).
Cn a much larger scale, Lhe nongovernmenLal organlzaLlons MAC (Lhe Marlne Aquarlum
Councll), 8Cl (8eef Check loundaLlon) and Lhe CCll (ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL
lorum) collaboraLed on MAM1l, Lhe Marlne Aquarlum MarkeL 1ransformaLlon lnlLlaLlve
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). MAM1l was a flve"year pro[ecL LhaL lasLed from 2003 Lo 2009
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). 1he pro[ecL was funded wlLh $13.3 mllllon from an llC/CLl granL
and addlLlonal prlvaLe and publlc fundlng (8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). 1he goal of MAM1l was Lo
Lransform Lhe markeL for Lhe aquarlum Lrade by focuslng on Lhe creaLlon of a cerLlflcaLlon
program for marlne aquarlum specles and by lncreaslng consumer awareness. 1he lnlLlal goals
for Lhe pro[ecL were Lo Lransform 17° of Lhe aquarlum Lrade lnLo cerLlfled producL and Lo
esLabllsh over 24 marlne managemenL areas Lo be run by local governmenLs and collecLors
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). 1he meLhods proposed by MAM1l Lo Lransform Lhe lndusLry lnclude:
! 8ulld Lhe capaclLy for communlLy sLakeholders Lo cerLlfy managemenL of Lhe marlne
aquarlum Lrade
! Þerform reef specles sLock assessmenLs
! CreaLe no Lake zones
! ÞarLlclpaLe ln reef specles sLock resLoraLlon
! CreaLe a cerLlflcaLlon sysLem for collecLors
! lncrease parLlclpaLlon of reLallers ln Lhe cerLlflcaLlon process
! lncrease flnanclal resources for collecLors
! 8alse consumer awareness
! Þubllsh ºbesL pracLlces" reporLs on CulLurlng, llshery ManagemenL and Pandllng and
1ransporL
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008)
Cverall, MAM1l was raLed as ºmarglnally saLlsfacLory", buL Lhe lnlLlaLlve falled Lo meeL Lhe
ma[orlLy of lLs sLaLed goals. Some of Lhe problems faced by Lhe lnlLlaLlve were unlque Lo Lhe
MAM1l pro[ecL, oLher lssues are wlLh Lhe cerLlflcaLlon program lLself, whlle oLher problems are
faced by all acLors worklng Lo reform Lhe aquarlum Lrade. Þroblems unlque Lo MAM1l lnclude
problems wlLh sLafflng, budgeL concerns, and Lhe llmlLed porLlon of a global lndusLry LhaL
MAM1l could lmpacL (8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008).
1here were mulLlple problems wlLh Lhe cerLlflcaLlon program proposed by MAM1l. 1he goal
was Lo cerLlfy every level of Lhe supply chaln as followlng ºbesL pracLlces," so LhaL consumers ln
!(
Some of Lhe lessons learned from Lhe fallure of Lhe MAM1l program lnclude:
! CerLlflcaLlon sLandards were Loo uS drlven, wlLhouL sufflclenL local lnvolvemenL
! A cerLlflcaLlon scheme needs Lo be fleld LesLed on a smaller scale
! 1he lndusLry needs Lo supporL cerLlflcaLlon on all levels
! lorelgn leglslaLlon needs Lo supporL cerLlflcaLlon
! 1he lndusLry needs sLandards for self regulaLlon and an organlzaLlon Lo provlde
supporL
! Local governmenLs need Lo be lnvolved and supporL cerLlflcaLlon
! !usL one pro[ecL wlll noL reform Lhe whole lndusLry
! 1here ls no markeL lncenLlve for cerLlflcaLlon because consumers are noL wllllng
Lo pay more for cerLlfled flshes
! AfLer Lhree years of sLudy, Lhe paLhs of Lrade wlLhln Lhe lndusLry are sLlll noL very
well undersLood, so furLher sLudy ls needed
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008)
uesplLe Lhe overall lneffecLlveness of Lhe MAM1l cerLlflcaLlon pro[ecL, Lhe lnformaLlon from Lhe
flnal reporL provldes clear lnformaLlon abouL where Lhe problems lle, and where more work
needs Lo be done. AddlLlonally, MAM1l dld have some successes, lncludlng creaLlng a small"
scale ºcommunlLy based LransformaLlon model" LhaL lncludes a ºflsh Lo order" sysLem LhaL can
be repllcaLed lnLernaLlonally. MAM1l lnlLlaLed successful mlcroflnance programs and was able
Lo conLrlbuLe Lo communlLy educaLlon by Leachlng beLLer flshlng Lechnlques (8ellamy &
Wlnsby, 2008).
noL undersLandlng Lhe economlc drlvers behlnd Lhe marlne ornamenLals markeL has been a
source of error for boLh Lhe C88M pro[ecL and Lhe MAM1l pro[ecL. Þubllshed analyses of Lhe
!)
supply chaln show LhaL lL ls exLremely complex and lacks sufflclenL daLa. lL has become clear
Lhrough Lrlal and error LhaL Lhe lndusLry ls noL drlven by a demand for quallLy flshes. lL ls sLlll
unclear as Lo whaL Lhe Lrue markeL drlvers are, and how decreaslng morLallLy aL varlous polnLs
wlLhln Lhe collecLlon, LransporL and sales of ornamenLals wlll lmpacL Lhe supply and demand of
marlne aquarlum organlsms.
'7<@ 6;8?@C?7<
ln analyzlng Lhe poLenLlal Lo reform Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade susLalnablllLy, Wood (2001) and
8eksodlhard[o"Lllley and Lllley (2007) boLh recommended Lhe developmenL of marlculLure ln
producer counLrles as a susLalnable alLernaLlve Lo relleve Lhe ecologlcal pressure of wlld
harvesL. ln lndonesla, 8eksodlhard[o"Lllley and Lllley promoLed wrlLLen conLracLs beLween
buyers and producers Lo ºencourage greaLer muLual loyalLy", whlle uslng Lhe ecologlcal and
soclal susLalnablllLy of Lhelr producLs as a markeLlng sLraLegy (2007). 1hese conLracLs glve Lhe
opporLunlLy Lo and Lhe lncenLlve for collecLor communlLles Lo manage Lhe resources and Lrade
aL Lhelr end of Lhe supply chaln (8eksodlhard[o"Lllley & Lllley, 2007).
MarkeL conLracL programs
ln order Lo successfully lmplemenL susLalnablllLy measures, an lnlLlal lnvesLmenL of caplLal may
be requlred aL Lhe base of Lhe supply chaln. 1hls pro[ecL wlll look lnLo Lhe feaslblllLy of dlfferenL
flnanclng opLlons Lo help moLlvaLe changes ln producer and exporLer behavlor. AfLer
conslderlng feaslblllLy facLors aL our pro[ecL slLes, recommendaLlons wlll be made Lo Clazul on
how Lo move forward on Lhe flnanclng of susLalnable marlculLure.
Soclal funds are lnvesLmenL funds wlLh Lhe ob[ecLlve of conLrlbuLlng aL Lhe local level Lo Lhe
soclal caplLal and developmenL of developlng counLrles. 1he advanLages of soclal funds lnclude
Lhe ablllLy Lo supporL poorer counLrles, Lhe poLenLlal Lo reduce corrupLlon by lncreaslng
Lransparency, and Lhe opporLunlLy Lo lnLroduce and flnance lnnovaLlons. Powever, soclal funds
have been crlLlclzed for dlsplaclng exlsLlng lnsLlLuLlons and for lacklng exlL sLraLegles Lo phase
ouL Lemporary pro[ecLs.
AddlLlonally, soclal fundlng has supporLed communlLy"drlven developmenL (Cuu). Cuu pro[ecLs
are enLlrely communlLy based, and local organlzaLlons make declslons abouL how Lo admlnlsLer
and lnvesL funds. 1he goal of Lhls approach ls Lo bulld confldence, ensure LhaL Lhe speclflc needs
of a communlLy are meL ln a culLurally approprlaLe manner, and Lo lncrease Lhe Lransparency
and accounLablllLy of Lhe fundlng (Morley eL al., 1998). 1hus, soclal lnvesLmenL fundlng allgns
wlLh Lhe susLalnablllLy goals of ma[or producers of Lhe coral reef aquarlum Lrade.
8ooL CaplLal ls a speclflc soclal lnvesLmenL fund focused on grassrooLs buslnesses ln rural areas
of developlng counLrles. WlLh a 99° repaymenL raLe from borrowers and a 100° repaymenL
raLe Lo lnvesLors, 8ooL CaplLal has dlspersed 893 loans slnce Lhe company began ln 1999
(8ooLCaplLal.org). ln addlLlon Lo provldlng caplLal, Lhe fund also works wlLh small/local
!*
buslnesses Lo provlde Lhem wlLh flnanclal Lralnlng and Lo help Lhem develop markeL
connecLlons LhaL Lhey would oLherwlse noL be able Lo access due Lo Lhelr slze and lack of
resources. A markeL fallure exlsLs because many remoLe grassrooLs buslnesses are Loo small
and rlsky for malnsLream buslness Lo lnvesLmenL ln, yeL Loo large for mlcroflnance lendlng. ln
order Lo address Lhls markeL fallure, 8ooL CaplLal was creaLed as a lendlng model Lo serve such
buslnesses wlLh a new class of caplLal LhaL ls beLween mlcrocredlL and commerclal lendlng.
Conslderlng Lhe varlable slze and buslness sLrucLure of boLh Lhe producers and exporLers ln
lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, Lhls pro[ecL wlll deLermlne wheLher a flnanclng scheme such as
8ooL CaplLal ls approprlaLe.
1he 8eef ÞroducL Alllance (8ÞA) was a for"proflL llmlLed llablllLy lnvesLmenL corporaLlon creaLed
by ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum (CCll) ln 2001. 8ÞA's mlsslon was Lo
flnance Lhe ºconverslon of leadlng companles ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal aquarlum flsh and marlne
ornamenLals Lrade Lo fully susLalnable pracLlces" (8eef ÞroducL Alllance, n.d.). 8ÞA was creaLed
Lo dellver debL and equlLy flnanclng Lo selecL exlsLlng lmporLers and ma[or exporLers Lo supporL
efforLs Lo lnLegraLe Lhe supply chaln ln order Lo lncrease lLs economlc and ecologlcal efflclency.
ln addlLlon, Lhe moLlvaLlon for Lhe 8ÞA buslness plan deslgn was Lhe dlscrepancy beLween Lhe
demand and Lhe supply of susLalnably harvesLed aquarlum flsh. Accordlng Lo research done by
8ÞA, a growlng demand for susLalnable and healLhy flsh has been documenLed ln boLh Lurope
and Lhe unlLed SLaLes. 1he cause of Lhe currenL dlscrepancy and resulLlng supply chaln
lnefflclencles ls a supply shorLage. Accordlng Lo research done by CCll ln developmenL of 8ÞA,
Lhe supply shorLage ls a resulL of Lhe followlng clrcumsLances of producer naLlons:
! ulsorganlzed value chaln
! Lack of local conLrol
! CaplLal consLralnLs
! 8elaLlvely low cosL of morLallLy
! Lack of regulaLory lncenLlve
(8eef ÞroducL Alllance, n.d.).
1he pro[ecL wlll furLher lnvesLlgaLe Lhe 8ÞA buslness model, conLacL CCll Lo undersLand why lL
ended, and assess any synerglsLlc poLenLlal wlLh our pro[ecL.
CapLlve 8reedlng and Marlne CrnamenLals AquaculLure
u
led Lo an lnLeresL ln aquaculLure for ornamenLal specles. AquaculLure of marlne ornamenLal
specles has Lhe poLenLlal Lo beneflL Lhe lndusLry and envlronmenL ln several ways" by lncreas
economlc developmenL, rellevlng lmpacL on wlld sLocks, lncreaslng producLlon efflclency,
conservlng specles, and conLrlbuLlng Lo blologlcal research (1lusLy, 2002). Powever, Lhere
also lnherenL rlsks ln relylng on marlne aquaculLure for supply Lo Lhe lndusLry, lncludlng shlfLln
of economlc bases lf developlng counLrles cannoL lnvesL ln Lhe necessary lnfrasLrucLure,
negaLlve lmpacLs on wlld sLocks lf repeaLed collecLlon of wlld lndlvlduals ls requlred for
esLrucLlve flshlng pracLlces and lnefflclenL supply chalns ln Lhe aquarlum Lrade lndusLry have
lng
are
g
#+
breedlng, lncreased lnLroducLlon of lnvaslve specles by producLlon faclllLles and hobbylsLs, and
lncreased use of flsh meal for feedlng purposes (1lusLy, 2002). 1able 1 ouLllnes approprlaLe and
lnapproprlaLe cases Lo lnlLlaLe aquaculLure producLlon of ornamenLal specles.
AquaculLure for freshwaLer aquarlum specles ls wldely pracLlced" ln Lhe u.S., ornamenLal flsh
producLlon ls Lhe fourLh largesL aquaculLure secLor behlnd caLflsh, LrouL, and salmon (1lusLy,
2002). MarlculLure (aquaculLure and breedlng of marlne specles), however, ls much less
common ln Lhe ornamenLal lndusLry because capLlve breedlng and culLure Lechnlques are less
advanced (1lusLy, 2002). CrnamenLal marlculLure ls sLlll ln lLs lnfancy parLlally due Lo less
fundlng and lnLeresL compared Lo aquaculLure for food purposes. 1he llfe cycles of many
marlne flsh specles are also more compllcaLed Lhan freshwaLer specles, maklng esLabllshlng
successful breedlng pracLlces a dlfflculL process. As a resulL, Lhere are several boLLlenecks
lmpedlng Lhe progress of Lhe ornamenLal aquaculLure lndusLry, such as broodsLock
managemenL, larval rearlng, and knowledge of gameLe physlology and larval morphology.
(Moorhead and Zeng, 2010).
1he mosL promlslng aquaculLure meLhod for many specles of reef flsh ls larval capLure and
capLlve rearlng. CapLurlng flsh aL Lhe larval sLage appears Lo ellmlnaLe boLh overflshlng and
food accllmaLlzaLlon lssues. ln Lhe wlld, up Lo 90° of larvae ln pelaglc spawnlng specles dle
wlLhln Lhe flrsL Lhree monLhs of recrulLmenL (lorresLer, 1993). 1herefore, capLurlng a fracLlon of
larvae from Lhe waLer column would LheoreLlcally noL conLrlbuLe Lo populaLlon decllnes ln Lhe
adulL breedlng sLock (Lecchlnl eL al., 2006), especlally lf meLhods are used Lo capLure laLe sLage
larvae ln areas where Lhere ls llLLle seLLlemenL subsLraLe. lood accllmaLlzaLlon ls Lhe number
one cause of flsh morLallLy ln aquarla (Lecchlnl eL al., 2006). 8ecause larvae are ln a
meLamorphosls llfe sLage, Lhey can easlly adapL Lo new forms of food ln capLlvlLy, and can
Lherefore be lmmedlaLely LranslLloned Lo arLlflclal feed afLer Lransfer Lo farmed baslns. 1hls
ellmlnaLes Lhe dlfflculL Lask of LranslLlonlng adulL flshes onLo arLlflclal feed.
A case sLudy conducLed ln lrench Þolynesla (Lecchlnl eL al., 2006) showed LhaL capLurlng flsh aL
Lhe larval sLage and Lhen lmmedlaLely Lransferrlng Lhe larvae Lo farmed baslns enabled a
hypoLheLlcal flsh"exporLlng flrm Lo produce a proflL, whlle capLurlng flsh aL Lhe adulL sLage
malnLalned an economlc loss over Llme. 1he sLudy also showed LhaL cresL neLs (see flgure 2)
were Lhe mosL efflclenL capLure meLhod and capLured Lhe mosL varleLy of specles (Lecchlnl eL
al., 2006). CLher meLhods used Lo collecL larvae lnclude llghL Lraps and a varleLy of oLher neLs
LhaL are elLher Lowed or dropped ln Lhe waLer column.
Coral farmlng ls a vlable way Lo reproduce coral wlLhouL collecLlng large amounLs of wlld sLock,
and some governmenLs ln ma[or coral exporLlng counLrles are beglnnlng Lo requlre coral
breedlng as an alLernaLlve Lo wlld capLure. Slnce 2002 Lhe lndoneslan governmenL has creaLed
regulaLlons and parLnershlps wlLh companles Lo acceleraLe coral culLure programs (1lmoLlus eL
al., 2009) and Lo allevlaLe pressure on wlld coral. ÞropagaLlon of corals by fragmenLaLlon ls Lhe
mosL currenLly used meLhod, whlch ls successful malnly on branchlng corals wlLh fasL growLh
raLes. 1here are fewer cases of successful propagaLlon of slow growlng corals (1lmoLlus eL al.,
2009), (See Lable 3 for culLured specles).
#!
AlLhough blologlcal knowledge and resources llmlL advances ln marlculLure Lechnology, capLlve
breedlng of marlne organlsms presenLs a promlslng meLhod of supplylng Lhe marlne
ornamenLal Lrade ln Lhe fuLure. Plgher demand for capLlve bred ornamenLal aquarlum flsh and
lnverLebraLes may spur a leap ln Lechnology LhaL wlll make marlculLure an easy opLlon for
supplylng many specles.
##
/CQD;7<
1
(1lusLy, 2002)
2
(Lecchlnl eL al., 2006)
3.
1lmoLlus eL al., 2009) (
#$
$66*.$-1
1he group wlll use a Lwo"pronged approach Lo deLermlne Lhe socloeconomlc feaslblllLy of
susLalnable producLlon pracLlces, such as marlculLure, ln Lhe coral reef wlldllfe aquarlum Lrade.
As explalned ln deLall below, Lhe flrsL goal ls Lo analyze Lhe coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe markeL,
and Lhe second ls Lo perform a feaslblllLy analysls of uslng marlculLure coupled wlLh markeL
conLracLs for speclflc slLes ln Lhe coral Lrlangle.
MeLhods[
A. 1
sL
Cb[ecLlve - MarkeL Lrends:
Cur goal ls Lo creaLe a quanLlLaLlve basellne LhaL demonsLraLes Lhe overall supply and
demand Lrends ln Lhe markeL. ur. Pugo Salgado and ur. Chrls CosLello have agreed Lo
asslsL wlLh Lhls porLlon.
A. ConsLrucL demand curves
1. lor Lhe uS demand curve, creaLe a survey Lo deLermlne how wllllngness
Lo pay changes ln response Lo changes ln prlce.
2. AdmlnlsLer survey Lo a random sample of aquarlum wlldllfe reLallers,
lncludlng lndependenL sLores, large chalns, and onllne sLores.
3. use Lhls lnformaLlon Lo consLrucL uS demand curve.
4. ConsLrucL demand curve for Lhe global markeL uslng slmllar meLhods.
8. ConsLrucL supply curve
1. CaLher daLa on Lhe cosL of produclng coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe for
each sLep of Lhe supply chaln ln lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes.
2. use Lhls lnformaLlon Lo consLrucL Lhe supply curve for Lhe Coral 1rlangle.
C. LvaluaLe how markeL wlll respond Lo poLenLlal forces such as new leglslaLlon LhaL
may resLrlcL uS lmporLs Lo susLalnably produced anlmals.
1. ueLermlne how such leglslaLlon wlll change Lhe supply curve (how lL wlll
change Lhe cosL of produclng wlldllfe for Lhe Lrade). use Lhls lnformaLlon
Lo consLrucL a second supply curve.
2. uslng Lhe quanLlLaLlvely derlved supply and demand curves, use a
concepLual model llke Lhe one plcLured below Lo undersLand how new
leglslaLlon could affecL Lhe markeL:
#%
#&
ll. 2
nd
Cb[ecLlve - MarlculLure dryland feaslblllLy analysls:
A. ueslgn a LesL LemplaLe (Lo be compleLed by Clazul summer lnLern SLephanle
Porll wlLh help of lrank Purd), wlLh Lhe varlous componenLs deplcLed ln Lhe
dlagram below.
8. Apply feaslblllLy analysls Lo a slLe near La Þaz, Mexlco as a LesL run Lo measure
model's effecLlveness (also Lo be compleLed by summer lnLern SLephanle Porll).
C. Apply feaslblllLy analysls Lo chosen case sLudy slLes. ÞoLenLlal slLes lnclude norLh
8all, 8a[a AmpaL, and one or more locaLlons ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes.
ln addlLlon, group member nlkl Mazaroll wlll research and gaLher lnformaLlon on Pawall's
role ln lmporLlng and exporLlng coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe, as well Lhe currenL sLaLe of
Pawall's coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe producLlon. 1hls ºwlLhln Lhe uS" example wlll provlde
a socloeconomlc basellne Lo compare Lo producLlon ln oLher naLlons.
lll. 8ecommendaLlons: Applylng our undersLandlng of markeL Lrends and lnslghL galned
from Lhe feaslblllLy analyses, we wlll make recommendaLlons Lo our cllenL, Clazul, as Lo Lhe
feaslblllLy of marlculLure coupled wlLh markeL conLracLs wlLhln Lhe aquarlum Lrade under
varlous markeL scenarlos.
#'
#(
5*."6 !#*"-#"*, $&4 0$&$5,0,&#
8oles
6;=>7?@ 08E8Q7; " Arladne 8eynolds
"Þrlmary conLacL for exLernal advlsors
"Speaks on behalf of Lhe group ln response Lo advlsor and cllenL e"malls
"AcLs as a prlmary conLacL for resolvlng confllcL wlLhln Lhe group
"keeps pro[ecL Llmellne on Lrack
/CE8E?C8F 08E8Q7; " Clara CarLwrlghL
"Manages pro[ecL budgeL spendlng
"ÞrlnLs CÞ llLeraLure and documenLs from Lhe group prlnLlng allowance
"llnal auLhorlLy on lnLernshlp salarles and slLe vlslL expenses
48@8 08E8Q7; " nlkl Mazaroll
"Crganlzes llLeraLure and clLaLlons ln elecLronlc form
"AppolnLs llLeraLure readlng, clLaLlons, and oLher daLa asslgnmenLs Lo group
"uownloads any sofLware necessary for CÞ
"ALLends daLa manager lnformaLlon and sklll sesslons
37: 08E8Q7;< " Amanda nelson and kaLe nlxon
"CreaLes and malnLalns pro[ecL webslLe
"ALLends web manager lnformaLlon and sklll sesslons
%E@7;E<TCS -==;ACE8@=; " SLephanle Porll
"ueflnes Lhe acLlvlLles and responslblllLles of Lhe summer lnLern
"Lnsures LhaL lnLernshlps achleve professlonal developmenL of Lhe lnLern and group
pro[ecL summer goals
077@CEQ /8?CFC@8@=; " SLephanle Porll
"1akes meeLlng mlnuLes and sends Lhem Lo Lhe group
"CreaLes meeLlng agendas and sends Lhem Lo all aLLendees 24 hours prlor Lo planned
meeLlng
Croup meeLlngs are held every 1hursday aL 11:00 am, and addlLlonally as needed. MeeLlngs
lnclude all sLudenL group members, and advlsors when posslble and necessary. MeeLlngs follow
Lhe agendas declded on by group members and senL Lo all aLLendees 24 hours ln advance of Lhe
meeLlng. MeeLlng mlnuLes are Laken by SLephanle Porll and senL Lo Lhe enLlre group.
ConfllcL resoluLlon
1he group has agreed upon a dlrecL approach Lo confllcL resoluLlon. lf Lhere ls a personal lssue
wlLhln Lhe group, Lhe parLles lnvolved are expecLed Lo address Lhe lssue wlLh each oLher flrsL. lf
#)
one parLy feels uncomforLable or Lhe lssue cannoL be resolved, Lhey can go Lo Lhe pro[ecL
manager who wlll acL as a moderaLor Lo resolve Lhe lssue.
Work ls dlvlded among Lhe group and each person ls expecLed Lo compleLe Lhelr asslgned Lasks
on Llme and ln excepLlonal quallLy. AfLer Lhe compleLlon of a flrsL drafL, Lhe group commences
an edlLlng clrcle, ln whlch Lhe drafL ls senL Lo group members ln a speclflc order for edlLs, Lhen
Lo Lhe whole group for flnal commenLs. lor each asslgnmenL, one person ls ulLlmaLely
responslble for Lurnlng ln Lhe flnal asslgnmenL. ºSlacklng" ls noL expecLed Lo be a problem due
Lo our sysLem of appolnLlng Lasks, early group deadllnes Lo allow for edlLlng, and Lhe general
hlgh morale and exclLemenL for our group Loplc.
uocumenLlng/ CaLaloglng lnformaLlon
Þro[ecL llLeraLure ls organlzed elecLronlcally on uropbox, a flle sharlng webslLe
(www.dropbox.com). 1he group has creaLed a llLeraLure charL for caLaloglng llLeraLure based on
subLoplcs wlLhln our pro[ecL Loplc for easy access and reLrleval. MeeLlng mlnuLes, agendas,
documenLs, and budgeL pro[ecLlons are also locaLed on uropbox for access Lo Lhe enLlre group.
A calendar of Lhe enLlre group's weekly avallablllLy ls locaLed wlLhln Lhe meeLlng noLes Lo
schedule addlLlonal meeLlngs as Lhe need arlses.
lnLeracLlon wlLh Advlsors and CllenLs
Cur prlmary advlsor, uean Calnes, wlll aLLend weekly meeLlngs when posslble. lor deadllnes
and oLher speclal clrcumsLances, we wlll schedule meeLlngs dlrecLly wlLh Lhe uean when he ls
avallable. We are lucky enough Lo have a secondary advlsor, Þhu candldaLe Laura uee, who
helped Lo propose our pro[ecL. Laura wlll serve as a menLor Lo help wlLh Lhe focus of Lhe
pro[ecL, puL us ln conLacL wlLh exLernal advlsors, and edlL drafLs of our pro[ecL. Cur flnlshed
asslgnmenLs wlll be submlLLed Lo our advlsor and cllenL elecLronlcally. Cur cllenL prefers Lo be
updaLed on our progress elecLronlcally and ln person when posslble. lrank Purd, a former 8ren
sLudenL now employed by Clazul, wlll be our prlmary conLacL wlLhln Lhe organlzaLlon.
LxpecLaLlons of Croup Members and laculLy Advlsors
As group members, we expecL our faculLy advlsor Lo be avallable for lmporLanL mllesLones ln
Lhe pro[ecL Llmellne. We are expecLed Lo lnform our advlsor of Lhese lmporLanL deadllnes as far
ln advance as posslble Lo provlde ample Llme for schedullng. We expecL our advlsor Lo glve
consLrucLlve feedback durlng Lhe gradlng process so LhaL we can work Lo lmprove our flnal
producL for our cllenL.
#*
4,(%Z,*$'(,!W #%0,(%&,:
+DE7 JY\\
! Coral 8eef WebslLe publlshed
08;?T JY\J:
! llnal reporL for Clazul and Lhe CoallLlon on Lhe aquarlum Lrade LhaL provldes an
assessmenL of Lhe cosL effecLlveness and conservaLlon/socloeconomlc beneflLs of
lmplemenLlng ºlmproved pracLlces" for Lhe aquarlum Lrade. 1he reporL wlll lnclude a
markeL assessmenL of avallable Lechnologles and recommendaLlons for besL pracLlces
based on Lhe approaches revlewed for Lhe pro[ecL. 1hls pro[ecL represenLs an lmporLanL
sLep for Clazul, lnfluenclng Lhelr prlorlLles for fuLure pro[ecLs relaLed Lo culLurlng
aquarlum flshes.
! 2" Lo 6"page educaLlon gulde for parLlclpanLs ln Lhe Lrade (e.g. nCCs, communlLles, and
buslnesses lnLeresLed ln reformlng pracLlces) abouL managemenL pracLlces ldenLlfled by
Lhe pro[ecL Lo be Lhe mosL cosL effecLlve and susLalnable. 1hls dellverable can be
conducLed ln parLnershlp wlLh Lhe 8ren communlcaLlons offlce, Lo provlde sLudenLs wlLh
experlence communlcaLlng sclence and research resulLs Lo broader audlences.
.66.*#"&%#%,! /.* (%&]! 3%#1 6*./,!!%.&$(![
! uan 1hornhlll" LnvlronmenLal uefense lund
! Cara Cooper" uefenders of Wlldllfe
! Pugo Salgado" llsherles LconomlsL, unlverslLy of Concepclon
! 8arry CosLa Þlerce" unlverslLy of 8hode lsland
! kaLe SmlLh" 8rown unlverslLy
&5.<
! 8lslng 1lde
! ?ayasan ALam lndonesla LesLar (Llnl)
! ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum (CCll)
$+
'"45,#
+D<@CGC?8@C=E:
lunds from Lhe 8ren School conslsL of $1300, of whlch $200 wlll be allocaLed Lo prlnLlng needs.
1he flnal posLer and presenLaLlon wlll cosL abouL $300, whlch wlll be broken up Lo $230 for
produclng Lhe flnal posLer and $30 for addlLlonal presenLaLlon expenses. 1he group may aLLend
a conference Lo share Lhelr research, $300 wlll be seL aslde Lo cover cosLs of aLLendance. An
amounL of $200 wlll be used for Lravel Lo meeL wlLh varlous lndusLry professlonals and
sLakeholders ln Callfornla. 1he flnal $300 wlll be used for phone calls and oLher necessary
expenses.
+D<@CGC?8@C=E[
lnLernshlp: $13/hr x $40hr/week = $320/wk x 4weeks = $2800 + Lravel expenses = $3300
AddlLlonal summer research expenses: 1ravel Lo Ponolulu (from Lhe 8lg lsland) by nlkl Mazaroll
Lhls summer for supply chaln research. LsLlmaLed cosL: $330 Lravel expenses plus addlLlonal
compensaLlon for research.
';7E /DEA<[ ^\_`YY
Lxpense AmounL
ÞrlnLlng 200
llnal posLer producLlon 230
ÞresenLaLlon expenses 30
Conference aLLendance 300
Local Lravel 200
Þhone cosLs 13
Mlscellaneous supplles 283
1oLal \_`YY
.F8aDF /DEA<[ ^\`_YYY
Lxpense AmounL
Summer lnLernshlp $3,300
AddlLlonal research and Lravel
over summer wlLhln uS
$1,000
Survey and meLhodology cosLs $1,000
AddlLlonal cosLs $9,300
1oLal ^\`_YYY
Survey and meLhodology cosLs: 1hls wlll cover needs for creaLlng surveys or any oLher cosLs for
our pro[ecL's meLhodology. lunds from Lhe 8ren school wlll also be used Lo cover Lhese cosLs.
AddlLlonal cosLs: used for any oLher expense deemed necessary Lo faclllLaLe pro[ecL
compleLlon. lunds may also be used for a slLe vlslL, lf necessary for our pro[ecL. Þosslble
desLlnaLlons lnclude lndonesla or Mexlco. 1hese funds are ln addlLlon Lo Lhe Lravel expenses
provlded for Lhe summer lnLernshlp. AddlLlonally, $1300 has been seL aslde as a buffer Lo
provlde for any unexpecLed addlLlonal expenses.
$!
$#
*,/,*,&-,!
Adams, S., MapsLone, 8.u., 8uss, C.8., and uavles, C.8.. (2000). Ceographlc varlaLlon and Lhe
sex raLlo, sex speclflc slze, and age sLrucLure of :6%'&(*(,8- 6%(*"#58- (Serranldae)
beLween reefs open and closed Lo flshlng on Lhe CreaL 8arrler 8eef. Canadlan !ournal of
llsherles and AquaLlc Sclences. 37: 1448"1438.
Alllson L. & Lllls l. (2001). 1he llvellhoods approach and managemenL of small"scale flsherles.
Marlne Þollcy 23: 377"388.
Analysls of desLrucLlve reef flshlng pracLlces ln Lhe lndo"Þaclflc. (2001). ConservaLlon and
CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum Marlne Þrogram. 8eLrleved from
hLLp://www.cclforum.org/pdfs/uesLrucLlve_ÞracLlces.pdf
Amos, A.M. & Claussen, !.u. (2009). CerLlflcaLlon as a ConservaLlon 1ool ln Lhe Marlne
Aquarlum 1rade: Challenges Lo LffecLlveness. 1urnsLone ConsulLlng and SLarllng
8esources. 31 pp.
Andrews, C. (1990). 1he ornamenLal flsh Lrade and flsh conservaLlon. !ournal of llsh 8lology, 37,
33"39.
8ellamy, !., & Wlnsby, M. (2008). Marlne Aquarlum MarkeL 1ransformaLlon lnlLlaLlve.
lnLernaLlonal llnance CorporaLlon: WashlngLon. 73 pp.
8ellwood, u.8., 1.Þ. Pughes, C. lolke, & M. nysLrom. (2004). 8evlew: ConfronLlng Lhe coral reef
crlsls. naLure. 429: 827"833.
8ruckner, A.W. (2003). 1he lmporLance of Lhe marlne ornamenLal reef flsh Lrade ln Lhe wlder
Carlbbean. lnLernaLlonal !ournal of 1roplcal 8lology, 33, 127"138
CenLer for 8lologlcal ulverslLy. (2011). Coral ConservaLlon. Þrograms: lnverLebraLes. 8eLrleved
May 13, 2011, from
hLLp://www.blologlcaldlverslLy.org/campalgns/coral_conservaLlon/lndex.hLml
LC Þrep Þro[ecL LÞ/8C3/814. (2003) lndoneslan CrnamenLal llsh 1rade: Case sLudles and
opLlons for lmprovlng llvellhoods whlle promoLlng susLalnablllLy ln 8anggal and
8anyuwangl.
Lndangered Specles AcL. (2010). Lndangered specles program. unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe
Servlce. 8eLrleved from: hLLp://www.fws.gov/endangered/specles/us"specles.hLml
$$
LnvlronmenLal news Servlce. (2010) Cl1LS Leaves 1rade ln Þreclous Corals unresLrlcLed.
lnLernaLlonal ually news Wlre. uoha: CaLar. 8eLrleved May 10, 2011, from
hLLp://www.ens"newswlre.com/ens/mar2010/2010"03"22"01.hLml
lorresLer, CL. (1993). SLrong denslLy"dependenL survlval and recrulLmenL regulaLe Lhe
abundance of a coral reef flsh. Cecologla, 103, 273-282.
CruLLer, A.S. (1999). Cleaner flsh really do clean. naLure, 398, 672"673.
Lecchlnl eL al. (2006) new perspecLlves on aquarlum flsh Lrade. llsherles Sclence, 72, 40"47
MAM1l. (2006). 8eporL on 8ovlng CollecLors: Case SLudles from lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes.
100 pp.
McManus, !.W. & 8eyes, 8.8. (1997). LffecLs of Some uesLrucLlve llshlng MeLhods on Coral
Cover and ÞoLenLlal 8aLes of 8ecovery. LnvlronmenLal ManagemenL. 21:69"78. uol:
10.1007/s++#'(**++++'
Moorhead, !onaLhan A. & Zeng, Chaoshu. (2010). uevelopmenL of CapLlve 8reedlng 1echnlques
for Marlne CrnamenLal llsh: A 8evlew. 8evlews ln llsherles Sclence, 18(4), 313"343.
Morrls, !.A., !r., & WhlLfleld, Þ.L.. (2009). 8lology, Lcology, ConLrol and ManagemenL of Lhe
lnvaslve lndo"Þaclflc Llonflsh: An updaLed lnLegraLed AssessmenL. nCAA 1echnlcal
Memorandum nCS nCCCS 99. 37 pp.
Morley, S. eL al. (1998). 1he use of Soclal lnvesLmenL lunds as an lnsLrumenL for CombaLlng
ÞoverLy: SLraLegy Þaper. ÞoverLy and lnequallLy Advlsory unlL, SuS. WashlngLon, u.C.
8eLrleved from <hLLp://ldbdocs.ladb.org/wsdocs/geLdocumenL.aspx?docnum=1481779>
nellemann, C. & Corcoran, L. (2006). Cur preclous coasLs - Marlne polluLlon, cllmaLe change
and Lhe reslllence of coasLal ecosysLems. unlLed naLlons LnvlronmenL Þrogramme,
C8lu"Arendal, norway. 8eLrleved from hLLp://www.grlda.no/graphlc.aspx?f=serles/rr"
our"preclous"coasLs/flgure03.[pg
nCAA llsherles. (n.d.) Marlne lnverLebraLe and ÞlanL Specles under Lhe Lndangered Specles AcL
(LSA). Cfflce of ÞroLecLed 8esources. 8eLrleved from
hLLp://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/specles/esa/lnverLebraLes.hLm
8eef ÞroducL Alllance. (n.d.). ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum. CCll webslLe.
8eLrleved from <hLLp://www.cclforum.org/pdfs/8ÞA_plan_sumary.pdf>
8eksodlhard[o"Lllley, C. & Lllley, 8. (2007). 1owards a susLalnable marlne aquarlum Lrade: An
lndoneslan perspecLlve. SÞC Llve 8eef llsh lnformaLlon 8ulleLln #17. nov 2007: 11"19.
$%
8ubec, Þ.!., Cruz, l., ÞraLL, v., Cellers, 8., & Lallo, l. (2000). Cyanlde"free, neL"caughL flsh for Lhe
Marlne Aquarlum 1rade. SÞC 8eef llsh lnformaLlon 8ulleLln, #7. 7 pp.
SchmldL, C. & kunzmann, A. (2003). ÞosL"harvesL morLallLy ln Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade: A
case sLudy of an lndoneslan exporL faclllLy. SÞC Llve 8eef llsh lnformaLlon 8ulleLln #13.
!an 2003:3"12.
Shuman, C.S., Podgson, C., & Ambrose, 8.l. (2004). Managlng Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade: ls
eco"cerLlflcaLlon Lhe answer? LnvlronmenLal ConservaLlon, 31(4), 339"348.
SkllLon, 1. (1993). CA11 and Lhe envlronmenL ln confllcL: Lhe Luna"dolphln dlspuLe and Lhe quesL
for an lnLernaLlonal conservaLlon sLraLegy. Cornell lnLernaLlonal Law !ournal, 26(2), 436.
1lmoLlus, S., eL al. (2009). A revlew on ornamenLal coral farmlng efforL ln lndonesla. Þaper
presenLed aL Lhe lnLernaLlonal Ccean Sclence, 1echnology, and Þollcy Symposlum May
12"14
1lssoL eL al. (2010). Pow u.S. ocean pollcy and markeL power can reform Lhe coral reef wlldllfe
Lrade. Marlne Þollcy, 34(6), 1383"1388.
1lusLy, M. (2002). 1he beneflLs and rlsks of aquaculLural producLlon for Lhe aquarlum Lrade.
AquaculLure, 203: 203"219.
unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce. (2000). lacLs abouL federal wlldllfe laws. unlLed SLaLes
ueparLmenL of Lhe lnLerlor. 8eLrleved
from hLLp://llbrary.fws.gov/Þubs9/wlldllfe_laws.pdf
unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce. (2011) 1he Lacey AcL. llsherles and PablLaL
ConservaLlon. 8eLrleved from hLLp://www.fws.gov/flsherles/ans/AnSln[urlous.cfm
unLÞ"WCMC. (2008). naLlonal and 8eglonal neLworks of Marlne ÞroLecLed Areas: A 8evlew of
Þrogress. unLÞ"WCMC, Cambrldge, uk.
WabnlLz, C., M. 1aylor, L. Creen, & 1. 8azak. (2003). lrom ocean Lo aquarlum: Lhe global Lrade
ln marlne ornamenLal specles. unLÞ"WCMC, Cambrldge, uk.
Wood, L.M. (2001). CollecLlon of coral reef flsh for aquarla: global Lrade, conservaLlon lssues
and managemenL sLraLegles. Marlne ConservaLlon SocleLy, uk.
doc_236072780.pdf
Coral reefs are biological hotspots despite the lack of nutrients in the ambient waters. They provide a wide array of ecosystem benefits such as fisheries, tourism, and physical protection against strong wave action (Wabnitz et al., 2003). Although habitat"forming corals are able to support a diverse and abundant biome, this delicate ecosystem has rapidly degraded over the past century due to anthropogenic activities.
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1he coral reef wlldllfe Lrade ls a mulLlmllllon"dollar luxury lndusLry LhaL serves malnly Lhe uS,
Lurope, and Chlna. 1he sale of coral reef organlsms provldes lncome for communlLles ln
developlng naLlons ln Lhe Þaclflc lslands. Many of Lhe pracLlces for collecLlon, handllng and
LransporL are unsusLalnable and harmful Lo boLh Lhe reef envlronmenL and Lhe collecLed
specles. 1he Lrade's supply chaln ls compllcaLed and lnefflclenL. Plgh morLallLy raLes for Lraded
specles aL each level of collecLlon and LransporL have led Lo overharvesLlng. Þrlor research has
shown LhaL collecLors ofLen lack Lhe lncenLlve, equlpmenL and knowledge Lo lmprove
desLrucLlve collecLlon pracLlces. 1he Lwo maln ob[ecLlves of Lhls pro[ecL are Lo ldenLlfy Lhe
economlc drlvers behlnd Lhe Lrade and analyze Lhe socloeconomlc and ecologlcal beneflLs of
alLernaLlve sLraLegles for collecLlon by uslng case sLudles. Cne of Lhe pro[ecL's goals ls Lo
consLrucL supply and demand curves for Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade Lo beLLer predlcL Lhe
effecLs of markeL changes on boLh producers and consumers. Speclflcally, we wlll focus on Lhe
vlablllLy of comblnlng susLalnable marlculLure and markeL conLracL programs as a sLraLegy Lo
help producers ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle meeL and buffer agalnsL changlng demands. upon
compleLlon of our marlculLure feaslblllLy analyses, we wlll provlde recommendaLlons and
lnformaLlon Lo our cllenL, Clazul, a nonproflL organlzaLlon focused on promoLlng susLalnablllLy
wlLhln coasLal communlLles. AddlLlonally, we alm Lo lnform pollcy"makers abouL how Lhe coral
reef wlldllfe Lrade may be alLered by lndusLry reform lnlLlaLlves. 1hls pro[ecL has Lhe poLenLlal
Lo beLLer lnform fuLure reform lnlLlaLlves Lo proLecL naLural resources whlle malnLalnlng Lhe
collecLor's llvellhoods for Lhe long Lerm.
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,K7?D@CB7 !D998;L
lor decades, lL has been an appeallng hobby Lo develop a
coral reef aquarlum LhaL adequaLely represenLs Lhe beauLy
of a naLural reef. Powever, Lhe average aquarlum hobbylsL ls
mosL llkely unaware of Lhe back"sLory for each marlne
organlsm ln hls/her Lank. 1ake :&%#"*(+() $"85%#)2, Lhe
8anggal cardlnal flsh, as an example (llg. 1). 1hls ornaLe flsh,
endemlc Lo Lhe 8anggal lslands of lndonesla, was hlghly
coveLed by hobbylsLs ln norLh Amerlcan and Lurope due Lo
lLs unlque reproducLlve behavlor of males broodlng Lhe eggs ln
Lhelr mouLhs (Lunn & Moreau, 2004). WlLhouL any collecLlng
regulaLlons, lL was rapldly overharvesLed by Lhe laLe 1990s, and ls now consldered a LhreaLened
specles. uesplLe Lhe need Lo regulaLe collecLlon, efforLs Lo proLecL Lhe 8anggal Cardlnalflsh
under lnLernaLlonal LreaLles, such as Lhe ConvenLlon of lnLernaLlonal 1rade of Lndangered
Specles (Cl1LS), have falled.
1here are many coral reef specles LhaL share a slmllar sLory as Lhe 8anggal cardlnal flsh, and lL ls
noL [usL Lhe coral reef ecosysLem aL rlsk. llshermen who collecL ornamenLal specles are also
under pressure Lo meeL lndusLry demand whlle carvlng ouL a llvellhood based upon mlnlmal
reLurns. ln lndonesla, a flsherman may only recelve Lhe equlvalenL of $0.10 uSu for Lhe
clownflsh specles (;,*<2*#2() *%#'86"= LhaL wlll be sold ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes for $12.00
(WabnlLz, 1aylor, Creen, & 8azak, 2003). 1he marlne aquarlum Lrade ls fllled wlLh lnefflclencles
sLemmlng from unsusLalnable pracLlces aL many sLeps LhroughouL Lhe supply chaln. llxlng Lhese
lnefflclencles provldes a poLenLlal paLh Lo soluLlons LhaL beneflL boLh flsh conservaLlon and
flshermen proflLs.
Þroblems begln aL Lhe producer level where many flshermen are forced by economlc pressures
Lo resorL Lo rlsky, unsusLalnable, and someLlmes lllegal capLure meLhods Lo lncrease Lhelr
caLches. llshermen dlsperse sodlum cyanlde lnLo Lhe waLer sLun Lhe flsh for easler collecLlon
(WabnlLz eL al. 2003). 1hey also endanger Lhelr own llves wlLh unsafe dlvlng pracLlces such as
uslng Llre alr compressors lnsLead of SCu8A Lanks as an alr supply. MosL of Lhe producers ln Lhe
marlne aquarlum Lrade are based ln lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, where Lhere ls llLLle effecLlve
governmenL conLrol over Lhe aquarlum Lrade. Lven where laws do exlsL bannlng cyanlde,
corrupLlon ln Lhe governmenL and lack of enforcemenL provlde llLLle lncenLlve for collecLors Lo
LranslLlon Lo more susLalnable pracLlces. ln boLh lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, many local reefs
have become degraded, and collecLors ofLen ºrove" or Lravel beyond overflshed reefs ln hopes
of maklng more money or Lo collecL rare specles (e.g. 8anggal cardlnal flshes).
Þroblems also exlsL wlLh Lhe supply and demand sLrucLure for coral reef specles. 8esearch has
shown LhaL mosL flshermen collecL whaLever specles posslble, and Lhen bargaln wlLh
mlddlemen Lo sell Lhelr LoLal caLches, regardless of Lhe deslrablllLy of Lhe lndlvldual specles
caughL. CfLen, Lhls leads Lo many of Lhe common, low"value flsh belng dlscarded because of a
llgure 1. 8anggal cardlnal flsh,
:&%#"*(+() $"85%#)2
lack of demand. A ºflsh Lo order" sysLem would lncrease efflclency for flshermen and reduce
Lhe unnecessary Lake of many flsh.
1he marlne aquarlum supply chaln ls generally boLh lnefflclenL and hlghly fragmenLed (Amos &
Clauseen, 2009). Cnce ornamenLal flsh enLer Lhe supply chaln, Lhere ls currenLly no way Lo
dlsLlngulsh susLalnably caughL flsh from flsh caughL uslng cyanlde. 1he laLLer flsh have an
exLremely hlgh morLallLy raLe from Lhe sLress of capLure, whlch only fuels lncreased demand on
flshermen Lo replace Lhe hlgh numbers of flsh LhaL dle. 1here ls a clear need Lo reform boLh
collecLor pracLlces and supply chaln regulaLlons ln Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade. lf effecLlve
conservaLlon measures are noL Laken ln Lhe very near fuLure, Lhe coral reef ecosysLem and
Lhose who depend upon lLs resources have a grlm faLe ahead.
1he 8ren Coral 8eef Croup ls noL Lhe flrsL Lo aLLempL Lo address susLalnablllLy lssues ln Lhe
marlne aquarlum Lrade. lnformaLlon has been publlshed abouL Lhe successes and fallures of
pasL reform sLraLegles, whlch are lmporLanL Lo conslder ln order Lo avold repeaLlng mlsLakes
and Lo learn from reform lnlLlaLlves LhaL have been successful. 1he Marlne Aquarlum Councll
(MAC) launched a mulLlmllllon"dollar pro[ecL ln 1998 (Amos & Claussen, 2009) Lo seL up a
cerLlflcaLlon program for susLalnably caughL aquarlum flsh. 1he efforL falled parLlally because
Lhere were no lncenLlves wlLhln Lhe supply chaln Lo pay a premlum for cerLlfled flsh. ln Lerms of
leglslaLlve efforLs, Lhe unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce has [urlsdlcLlon over Lhe Lrade and
lmporL of wlldllfe under Lhe Lndangered Specles AcL (LSA) and Lhe unlLed naLlons ConvenLlon
on 1rade ln Lndangered Specles (Cl1LS), buL mosL reef specles are noL covered by LSA or Cl1LS
(Lndangered Specles AcL, 2010). ln general, a lack of undersLandlng of Lhe socloeconomlc
complexlLy drlvlng Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade supply chaln has LhwarLed many efforLs ln boLh
leglslaLlve regulaLlon and cerLlflcaLlon lnlLlaLlves.
CrganlzaLlons lncludlng MAC have publlshed suggesLlons for fuLure dlrecLlons Lowards
lncreaslng Lhe susLalnablllLy of Lhe lndusLry. We plan Lo explore Lhe comblnaLlon of susLalnable
flshlng and capLlve breedlng Lechnlques wlLh markeL based conLracL agreemenLs beLween
producers and reLallers as a mulLlfaceLed approach Lo reform Lhe Lrade. ln addlLlon Lo analyzlng
Lhe lmpacLs of posslble grassrooLs and markeL"based reform, we are also lnLeresLed ln analyzlng
poLenLlal leglslaLlon LhaL wlll regulaLe Lhe lmporL of reef flsh. 1here ls greaL uncerLalnLy over Lhe
effecLs of leglslaLlon on Lhe aquarlum Lrade markeL, buL our work alms Lo provlde key analyses
explorlng Lhese dynamlcs and Lhe poLenLlal consequences.
8efore any such sLraLegles can be assessed, lL ls lmporLanL Lo undersLand Lhe drlvers for Lhe
demand for ornamenLal specles. undersLandlng demand and elasLlclLy for Lhese specles wlll
help us predlcL how changes ln supply, such as new lmporL regulaLlons or lncreased capLlve
breedlng efforLs, wlll affecL Lhe markeL for Lhls luxury good. 1herefore, one of Lhe pro[ecL's
ob[ecLlves ls Lo consLrucL coral reef wlldllfe supply and demand curves for Lhe unlLed SLaLes.
undersLandlng u.S. demand and how lL wlll respond Lo changes ln prlce or pollcy ls essenLlal,
glven LhaL Lhe u.S. markeL represenLs around 80° of global demand.
1he many lnefflclencles ln Lhe currenL aquarlum Lrade sysLem offer a wlde range of
%
&
opporLunlLles for reform LhaL can noL only be susLalnable alLernaLlves Lo Lhe sLaLus quo, buL
also offer greaLer flnanclal reLurns. WlLh a demand sLrucLure ln mlnd, we can begln Lo Lhlnk
abouL ways Lo lncorporaLe susLalnablllLy and lncreased supply chaln efflclency. MarlculLure of
coral reef wlldllfe specles ls one promlslng alLernaLlve Lo relleve harvesLlng pressures on marlne
populaLlons. MarlculLure for mosL ornamenLal specles ls sLlll ln lLs lnfancy wlLh boLLlenecks ln
boLh lnfrasLrucLure and research, however, meLhods such as flsh larval capLure and capLlve
rearlng, and coral fragmenLaLlon and farmlng have shown promlse.
We reallze LhaL many producer communlLles lack Lhe lnlLlal caplLal and resources Lo lnsLall
marlculLure faclllLles, so we have ldenLlfled a sLraLegy for fundlng and supporL. MarkeL conLracL
programs LhaL dlrecLly connecL a producer and markeL reLaller, such as Lhe 8ooL CaplLal model,
have been able Lo promoLe boLh susLalnablllLy and economlc galns by securlng llvellhoods for
producers and a sLeady supply of goods for reLallers. Such agreemenLs allow for collecLor
communlLles Lo manage resources and Lrade aL Lhelr end of Lhe supply chaln, whlle creaLlng an
economlc lncenLlve Lo conLlnue Lo do so.
uslng case sLudles focused on speclflc producer communlLles ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes and lndonesla,
we wlll analyze Lhe vlablllLy of comblnlng oLher sLraLegles such as communlLy"based
managemenL Lo enhance ecologlcal susLalnablllLy, sLrengLhen Lhe supply chaln, and ensure
producer llvellhoods ln Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade.
1he coral reef wlldllfe Lrade presenLs a unlque opporLunlLy for analysls as a case where
lncreaslng ecologlcal susLalnablllLy can drlve hlgher supply chaln efflclency and proflLablllLy,
resulLlng ln boLh economlc and ecologlcal beneflLs. We anLlclpaLe LhaL Lhe pro[ecL's flndlngs wlll
noL only beneflL our cllenL, Clazul, buL wlll also shed llghL on sLraLegles LhaL oLher sLakeholders
and pollcy makers can use Lo lnform declslons abouL leglslaLlon and markeL lncenLlves ln Lhe
coral reef wlldllfe Lrade.
'
6*.'(,0 !#$#,0,&#
1he harvesL of marlne organlsms from coral reefs for Lhe aquarlum Lrade provldes lncome for
coasLal communlLles around Lhe world. Clobal Lrade ln marlne ornamenLal flsh accounLs for
abouL $28"44 mllllon uSu per year (8ruckner, 2006), wlLh Lhe unlLed SLaLes accounLlng for
approxlmaLely 80° of lmporLs from over 40 counLrles (Wood, 2001). 1oday, Lhe collecLors, and
by exLenslon, Lhe enLlre lndusLry, face slgnlflcanL envlronmenLal and economlc challenges. MosL
collecLors rely on unsusLalnable exLracLlon meLhods whlch are depleLlng Lhe resources Lhey rely
on. AlLernaLe meLhods of harvesL, collecLlon, LransporL are needed lf Lhe Lrade ls golng Lo
conLlnue Lo be a proflLable endeavor.
Some currenL harvesLlng meLhods of coral reef specles are devasLaLlng Lo reef ecosysLems as
well as wlldllfe. CollecLors use exploslves and cyanlde Lo exLracL flsh, resulLlng ln exLenslve reef
damage and hlgh morLallLy raLes of collecLed flsh (McManus & 8eyes, 1997). 1hese
unsusLalnable collecLlon meLhods depleLe boLh corals LhaL provlde hablLaL for LargeL specles
and Lhe flsh Lhemselves aL raLes LhaL wlll evenLually lead Lo populaLlon collapse (1lmoLlus eL al.,
2009). 8eLween capLure and reLall, Lhe flsh suffer up Lo a 90° morLallLy raLe due Lo sLress, poor
LransporL faclllLles, lack of care, and Lhe resldual effecLs of Lhe cyanlde used Lo sLun and caLch
Lhe organlsms (8ubec, Cruz, ÞraLL, Cellers, & Lallo, 2000). 1o compensaLe for Lhe hlgh morLallLy
raLes LhroughouL Lhe supply chaln, many more flsh are harvesLed Lhan are demanded, whlch
resulLs ln severe overflshlng.
1here have been conslderable efforLs Lo lnLroduce more susLalnable meLhods Lo collecLors ln
Lhe pasL. Some suppller counLrles developed leglslaLlon regulaLlng coral specles exporL and
resLrlcLlng desLrucLlve flshlng pracLlces, buL Lhe lack of governmenL resources coupled wlLh Lhe
naLure of collecLlon make enforcemenL of such laws exLremely dlfflculL. 1he mosL noLable
global efforL was Lhe Marlne Aquarlum Councll (MAC) cerLlflcaLlon program, a volunLary
cerLlflcaLlon scheme LhaL aLLempLed Lo creaLe a markeL for ºpremlum" susLalnably"caughL
specles. 1he cerLlflcaLlon program falled Lo caLch on wlLh elLher suppllers or collecLors, boLh
due Lo overly"sLrlcL sLandards for suppllers Lo meeL and because consumers were unwllllng Lo
pay prlce premlums (Amos & Claussen, 2009). ln order Lo be successful, a soluLlon wlll have Lo
be feaslble Lo lmplemenL and resulL ln compeLlLlve prlces for collecLors as an lncenLlve Lo
change pracLlces.
AnoLher poLenLlal challenge Lo Lhe sLaLus quo of Lhe marlne ornamenLals Lrade ls changlng Lhe
u.S. demand. uemand for luxury goods may be hlghly elasLlc, whlch could resulL ln dramaLlc
drops ln demand lf u.S. lmporL laws change or prlces for flsh lncrease, elLher as a resulL of
lnLernaLlonal accord or a change ln domesLlc pollcy. 1here ls conslderable pressure from
envlronmenLal groups Lo LlghLen lmporL laws and bolsLer enforcemenL capablllLles. As Lhe
blggesL lmporLer, a shlfL ln u.S. pollcy Lowards more susLalnable collecLlon requlremenLs wlll
have slgnlflcanL ramlflcaLlons for Lhe lndusLry (1lssoL eL al., 2010). uesplLe lnLended poslLlve
ecologlcal effecLs, Lhe pollcy changes could have negaLlve effecLs for collecLors farLher down
Lhe supply chaln. lf a new uS lmporL pollcy slmply demands dlfferenL collecLlon meLhods, Lhen
small collecLors who are noL equlpped Lo upgrade Lhelr meLhods could lose Lhelr source of
(
lncome. lmplemenLlng an alLernaLe, susLalnable, meLhod of producLlon wlll provlde
envlronmenLal and economlc securlLy by ensurlng LhaL Lhere wlll sLlll be corals and reef flsh Lo
collecL lf regulaLlons change, and LhaL communlLles won'L lose Lhelr source of lncome Lo larger
scale and beLLer"equlpped collecLors.
1he moLlvaLlon for Lhls pro[ecL ls Lwo"fold. llrsL, coral reef ecosysLems LhaL are sources of
organlsms for Lhe marlne ornamenLals Lrade are vulnerable Lo over"explolLaLlon and
degradaLlon lf proLecLlve measures are noL Laken. Second, Lhe blggesL LhreaL Lo Lhese reefs
sLems from lnLernaLlonal demand, buL Lhe lmmedlaLe lmpacL comes dlrecLly from communlLles
whose lncome relles on Lhls rapldly dlmlnlshlng resource. Whlle Lhere have been many
suggesLlons and lnlLlaLlves Lo address one or Lhe oLher of Lhese problems, we belleve
addresslng boLh wlll be cruclal lf boLh Lhe communlLles and Lhe ecosysLems are Lo survlve.
)
6*.+,-# .'+,-#%Z,!
MarkeL Analysls
Cne of Lhe pro[ecL ob[ecLlves ls Lo analyze how changes ln lndusLry sLrucLure or lmporL
sLandards (for example, vla leglslaLlon) could change Lhe coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe markeL.
llrsL, we wlll consLrucL supply and demand curves for Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade, focuslng on
Lhe largesL lmporLer, Lhe u.S. 8y collecLlng and analyzlng preexlsLlng daLa on prlces and
quanLlLles sold as well as uslng surveys Lo deLermlne wllllngness Lo pay, Lhe demand curve for
coral reef wlldllfe ln Lhe uS can be derlved and lLs elasLlclLy can be esLlmaLed. uaLa on Lhe cosL
of producLlon aL each level of Lhe supply chaln from producer counLrles wlll allow us Lo
consLrucL Lhe supply curve. We wlll Lhen quanLlLaLlvely assess how changes such as lmporL
leglslaLlon mlghL cause Lhe supply and demand curves Lo change. 1hls analysls wlll show Lhe
overall sLrucLure of Lhe markeL and Lhe effecL of Lhls change on producer welfare.
uryland feaslblllLy analysls
We wlll analyze Lhe ecologlcal and economlc vlablllLy of comblnlng susLalnable marlculLure and
markeL conLracL programs for producers aL several slLes ln Lhe coral Lrlangle. Speclflcally, we
wlll assess Lhe ablllLy of Lhls sLraLegy Lo help producers ln Lhe coral Lrlangle become and remaln
proflLable desplLe Lhe poLenLlal changes ln Lhe markeL explored above. uependlng on Lhe cosL
of changlng producer pracLlces, dlfferenL markeL scenarlos could make new Lechnologles or
sLraLegles vlable.
8ecommendaLlons
upon compleLlon of our analyses, recommendaLlons and lnformaLlon wlll be glven Lo our cllenL,
Clazul, on Lhe economlc feaslblllLy of marlculLure comblned wlLh markeL conLracLs as an
alLernaLlve llvellhood Lo currenL unsusLalnable coral reef wlldllfe collecLlon pracLlces.
AddlLlonally, Lhe pro[ecL alms Lo lnform pollcy"makers abouL Lhe lmpacLs of changes ln lmporL
leglslaLlon on Lhe aquarlum Lrade markeL.
*
'8?PQ;=DEA
"! 6=FC?L
CurrenL unlLed SLaLes leglslaLlon lncludes very llLLle regulaLlon and lnfrasLrucLure Lo manage Lhe
marlne ornamenLals Lrade. 1he Lacey AcL sLaLes LhaL Lrade ln any specles proLecLed by
domesLlc, lnLernaLlonal, or Lrlbal law ls prohlblLed (unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce
[uSlWS], 2011). 1he unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce has [urlsdlcLlon over Lhe Lrade and
lmporL of wlldllfe, and commerclal lmporLers requlre a permlL. lmporLers musL have Lhelr
shlpmenLs lnspecLed aL one of Lhe 14 deslgnaLed uS porLs (uSlWS, 2000), and Lhe lmporLaLlon
of specles llsLed on elLher Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lndangered Specles AcL (LSA) or Lhe unlLed naLlons
ConvenLlon on 1rade ln Lndangered Specles (Cl1LS) ls prohlblLed. Aslde from Lhese
requlremenLs, Lhere ls llLLle Lo ensure LhaL Lhe supply of flsh comes from susLalnable sources.
uesplLe Lhe clear LhreaL faclng lnLernaLlonal coral reefs, only a few specles are llsLed under
elLher Cl1LS or Lhe LSA (Lndangered Specles AcL, 2010). Leadlng domesLlc and lnLernaLlonal
envlronmenLal groups, lncludlng ConservaLlon lnLernaLlonal and Lhe CenLer for 8lologlcal
ulverslLy, advocaLe a shlfL Loward coral reef conservaLlon. Whlle Lhe process of legally
proLecLlng lnLernaLlonal specles of lnLeresL ls hlghly pollLlclzed, lncreaslng LhreaLs Lo Lrade from
coral bleachlng mlghL provlde Lhe caLalysL for elLher Lhe uS or unLÞ Lo acL.
1he uS ls home Lo coral reefs off Lhe coasLs of Pawall and llorlda, and currenL leglslaLlon
enables Lhe governmenL Lo enforce sLrlcL conservaLlon laws lncludlng marlne proLecLed areas
(MÞAs) and exLenslve monlLorlng programs by Lhe naLlonal Cceanlc ALmospherlc
AdmlnlsLraLlon (nCAA). ln 1998, ÞresldenL CllnLon slgned LxecuLlve Crder 13089, formlng a
Coral 8eef 1ask lorce Lo proLecL coral reef ecosysLems and prevenL Lhelr degradaLlon.
Commerclal harvesL ls sLlll allowed, buL sLrlcLly regulaLed. As a resulL, coral reefs ln norLh
Amerlca are noL consldered ºaL rlsk," from human acLlvlLles (nellemann & Corcoran, 2006).
Cn Lhe domesLlc slde, Lhe unlLed SLaLes can lmpose sLandards on lmporLed flshes Lo requlre
LhaL Lhelr harvesLlng be ln compllance wlLh sLandards slmllar Lo Lhose seL by domesLlc pollcy.
1hls would requlre a large overhaul on Lhe parL of Lhe suppllers and lncreased monlLorlng by
Lhe uS Lo ensure LhaL Lhe more sLrlngenL sLandards are meL. 1wo specles of coral are already
llsLed as ºLhreaLened" under Lhe LSA, meanlng Lhey cannoL be harvesLed, lmporLed, or
exporLed (naLlonal Cceanlc ALmospherlc AdmlnlsLraLlon [nCAA], n.d.). ln 2009, Lhe CenLer for
8lologlcal ulverslLy (C8u) peLlLloned nCAA Lo llsL an addlLlonal 83 corals as LhreaLened or
endangered and Lo deslgnaLe crlLlcal hablLaL for Lhem. 1he peLlLlon ls currenLly under revlew
(l873"6616). ueslgnaLlng crlLlcal hablLaL does noL necessarlly mean flsh harvesLlng would be
prohlblLed, buL would be a slgnlflcanL sLep ln ensurlng LhaL harvesLlng wlll be done a more
cauLlous and susLalnable manner.
!+
1he uS has a legal precedenL for creaLlng lnLernaLlonal sLandards, found ln Lhe uolphln"Safe
1una lnlLlaLlve of Lhe 1980s and 90s, whlch has lowered dolphln morLallLy from Luna flshlng by
98° slnce 1990. 1here were slgnlflcanL pollcy lssues Lo overcome before such an acLlon could
be lmplemenLed, as Lhe World 1rade CrganlzaLlon (W1C) would noL allow Lhe unlLed SLaLes Lo
declare an embargo on unsusLalnably harvesLed flsh. 1he unlLed SLaLes aLLempLed an embargo
on several counLrles as a parL of Lhe uolphln"Safe 1una lnlLlaLlve, buL lL was sLruck down by Lhe
W1C as belng conLrary Lo Ceneral AgreemenL on 1rade and 1arlffs (CA11) (SkllLon, 1993). ln Lhe
end, Lhe uS had Lo wlLhdraw Lhe embargo and rely on Lhe ºuolphln"Safe" labellng scheme,
whlch evenLually had Lremendous success ln reduclng demand for Luna caughL uslng
desLrucLlve pracLlces. 1he lesson from Lhls example ls LhaL unllaLeral pollcy acLlon by Lhe uS, lf lL
even occurs, may noL hold up ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal arena. 1o be successful, a soluLlon wlll have
Lo lnclude boLh leglslaLlve and markeL"based approaches.
lnLernaLlonal conservaLlon pollcy represenLs a parallel Lrack Lo LhaL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes. Whlle
Lhere appears Lo be wldespread supporL for addlng proLecLlon measures Lo coral reefs, Lhe lasL
meeLlng of Lhe governlng bodles of Cl1LS ln 2010 voLed agalnsL lmposlng Lrade regulaLlons on
addlLlonal coral specles (LnvlronmenLal news Servlce, 2010). AL Lhls meeLlng Lhe unlLed SLaLes
advocaLed more sLrlngenL regulaLlons, clLlng lnLernaLlonal Lrade as Lhe greaLesL LhreaL Lo coral
reef ecosysLems. 8oLh uS pollcy and Cl1LS face lnLense commerclal lobbylng for ellmlnaLlon or
relaxlng of Lrade regulaLlons, along wlLh Lhe LhreaL of Lhe W1C sLrlklng down any regulaLlons
LhaL are passed. 1he World 1rade CrganlzaLlon can preempL declslons made by unLÞ, so pollcy
makers musL Lread carefully before resLrlcLlng global Lrade. lf Lhe change ln Lhe marlne
ornamenLal lndusLry ls golng Lo come from Lop"down leglslaLlon, a concerLed push by
envlronmenLal and Lrade groups ls needed, along wlLh a balance of regulaLlon LhaL encourages,
raLher Lhan lnhlblLs Lrade.
%9S8?@ =E ?=;8F ;77G 7?=<L<@79<
Coral reefs are blologlcal hoLspoLs desplLe Lhe lack of nuLrlenLs ln Lhe amblenL waLers. 1hey
provlde a wlde array of ecosysLem beneflLs such as flsherles, Lourlsm, and physlcal proLecLlon
agalnsL sLrong wave acLlon (WabnlLz eL al., 2003). AlLhough hablLaL"formlng corals are able Lo
supporL a dlverse and abundanL blome, Lhls dellcaLe ecosysLem has rapldly degraded over Lhe
pasL cenLury due Lo anLhropogenlc acLlvlLles. Whlle a greaL deal of emphasls has been placed on
damage Lo Lhe reef ecosysLem from Lhe food flsh lndusLry, less ls known abouL lmpacLs from
Lhe ornamenLal aquarlum Lrade. Powever, because mosL ornamenLals are harvesLed from coral
reefs, Lhe probablllLy for slgnlflcanL ecologlcal damage ls hlgh (WabnlLz eL al., 2003).
Maln Lcologlcal lmpacLs of Lhe Aquarlum 1rade:
! Chemlcals affecLlng organlsms' healLh
o Sodlum cyanlde and qulnaldlne mosL uLlllzed
! Plgh morLallLy raLes for flsh and lnverLebraLes
! Parm Lo boLh LargeL and non"LargeL specles
! Lxposure damage Lo hlghly suscepLlble corals
!!
! Loss of zooxanLhellae (º8leachlng")
! Coral deaLh aL hlgh doses
! PablLaL uamage
o 8reaklng off of coral pleces
! 8oaL anchorlng
! neLs caughL on coral
! Cverflshlng
o uepleLlon of wlld sLocks
o Large decreases ln abundance
o uecreases ln blodlverslLy
o AlLeraLlon of communlLy sLrucLure
! negaLlve effecLs on Lhe food web and Lrophlc levels
! lnvaslve Specles
1
o CfLen robusL populaLlons LhaL ouLcompeLe naLlves
o ulsease lnLroducLlon
1he mosL lmmedlaLe negaLlve lmpacLs of ornamenLal aquarlum harvesLlng relaLe Lo harmful
pracLlces such as cyanlde use and Lhe physlcal desLrucLlon of coral reef hablLaL. Sodlum cyanlde
used Lo sLun LargeL specles can affecL boLh LargeL and non"LargeL specles, decreaslng Lhelr
healLh and lncreaslng Lhe probablllLy of morLallLy (WabnlLz eL al., 2003). Coral can be especlally
vulnerable, even Lo low doses of cyanlde. lnLermlLLenL buL concenLraLed doses of sodlum
cyanlde may have a range of effecLs on coral - some zooxanLhellae loss aL low doses, mosL Lo all
of zooxanLhellae loss (slgnlfylng a ºbleachlng evenL") aL medlum doses, and coral deaLh aL Lhe
hlghesL doses (!ones & SLevens, 1997). unforLunaLely, whlle Lhe effecLs of Lhese harmful
pracLlces are vlvldly apparenL, Lhe use of cyanlde ls common ln underdeveloped locaLlons
where educaLlon and flshery managemenL enforcemenL are boLh lacklng (WabnlLz eL al., 2003).
Lqually LhreaLenlng Lo Lhe coral reef ecosysLem ls Lhe depleLlon of coral reef ornamenLals from
overharvesLlng. CrnamenLal reef flsh experlence slmllar overharvesLlng effecLs Lo LhaL of reef
food flsh. 1here are dlrecL effecLs on Lhe ecosysLem such as decreased specles abundance, buL
addlLlonal lndlrecL effecLs such as dlsLorLlng communlLy sLrucLure, are exLremely llkely. CfLen
flshlng pracLlces are nondlscrlmlnaLory, and many dlfferenL flsh specles ln hlgh abundance are
harvesLed (unLÞ"WCMC, 2008). CLher Llmes, collecLors LargeL hlgh"demand specles, whlch are
usually rare, endemlc specles (WabnlLz eL al., 2003). !uvenlles are also LargeLed slnce Lhey Lend
Lo be more colorful and easler Lo LransporL Lhan adulLs (8ruckner, 2003). ParvesLlng [uvenlles
can resulL ln fewer lndlvlduals lefL ln Lhe populaLlon Lo reach reproducLlve maLurlLy. Males are
also ofLen preferred over females due Lo Lhelr coloraLlon, whlch can llmlL reproducLlve opLlons
for many specles. 8oLh nondlscrlmlnaLory and specles"LargeLed meLhods lncrease Lhe
probablllLy of severely and permanenLly alLerlng Lhe communlLy sLrucLure.
!
f
1he effecL of lnvaslve specles ls prlmarlly concerned wlLh Lhe consumer slde of Lhe aquarlum Lrade. Powever,
uLure managemenL sLraLegles need Lo conslder specles lnvaslons Lo avold exacerbaLlng Lhe problem.
!#
1he overharvesL of reef specles alLers communlLy sLrucLure dlrecLly, buL Lhe aquarlum Lrade can
also affecL Lhe coral reef ecosysLem by dlsLorLlng blologlcal relaLlonshlps (unLÞ"WCMC, 2008).
Coral reefs have some of Lhe mosL lnLrlcaLe lnLerspeclflc relaLlonshlps lncludlng muLuallsLlc,
symbloLlc, compeLlLlve, and predaLory (8ellwood, Pughes, lolke, & nysLrom, 2004). 1he
phoLosynLheLlc zooxanLhellae ln coral polyps provlde much of Lhe prlmary producLlvlLy LhaL
supporLs Lhe coral ecosysLem. Many specles rely on Lhe corals slmply as a hablLaL, whlle oLhers,
such as 1<"%&(5() spp. and oLher coralllvores, need llve corals as a food source. AlLered
communlLy sLrucLure and phase shlfLs, such as a shlfL from llve coral" Lo algal"domlnanL
hablLaLs, can resulL when key members of Lrophlc groups are harvesLed wlLhouL conslderaLlon
for Lhe food web and communlLy ramlflcaLlons. Perblvores, whlch are Lhe greaLesL ln demand
for collecLlon, are lnLegral Lo sLemmlng algal growLh. CLher lmporLanL Lrophlc groups LhaL hold
hlgh value ln Lhe aquarlum markeL lnclude plankLlvores (e.g., 1<#(,2- spp.), coralllvores
(1<"%&(5() spp.), plsclvores (>*2)%*<%68- spp.), and cleaner flshes (?(42(-(," spp.) (8ruckner,
2003).
MuLuallsLlc relaLlonshlps ln parLlcular are vulnerable Lo unresLralned harvesLlng. Cleaner
specles such as some ?(42(-(," spp. and @"4#(25%- spp. remove ecLoparaslLes and dead Llssue
from cllenL flshes (CruLLer, 1999), and Lhe healLh of Lhe reef communlLy may suffer lf cleaner
specles are removed. 1he effecLs of lnLerferlng wlLh co"dependenL specles was also observed ln
overexplolLed slLes ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes, where one sLudy found 80° of Lhe reduced numbers of
anemoneflsh were slgnlflcanLly aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe low denslLy of anemones (Shuman, Podgson,
& Ambrose, 2003). SclenLlsLs have only recenLly begun Lo undersLand some of Lhe complex
blologlcal relaLlonshlps wlLhln Lhe lasL cenLury, and research may noL be able Lo keep up wlLh
unsusLalnable flshlng pracLlces.
ÞredlcLlng Lhe effecLs on communlLy sLrucLure ls dlfflculL due Lo Lhe dlverse and compllcaLed llfe
hlsLorles of marlne specles. unllke freshwaLer specles, marlne organlsms ofLen have complex
llfe sLages such as a pelaglc larval sLage or sequenLlal hermaphrodlLlsm (Adams, MapsLone,
8uss, & uavles, 2000, unLÞ"WCMC, 2008). 1hls can vary from specles Lo specles and can be
conLrolled by envlronmenLal slgnals such as season, moonllghL, and Lldes. lor many wrasses
and groupers, Lhe communlLy sLrucLure ls deLermlned by Lhe absence or presence of Lhe
domlnanL sex (mosL ofLen Lhe largesL lndlvldual ln Lhe local populaLlon). lf Lhls pracLlce
conLlnues, and Lhe largesL lndlvlduals are removed from an area, a shlfL ln Lhe slze classes can
occur. ln essence, harvesLlng coral reef specles wlLhouL knowledge of Lhelr speclflc llfe hlsLorles
can easlly lead Lo shlfLs ln slze, age, sex, and specles.
AnoLher example of Lhe negaLlve effecLs LhaL can resulL from a lack of knowledge and
managemenL has been Lhe lnLroducLlon and esLabllshmenL of non"naLlve specles. lnvaslve
llonflsh specles have become a concern ln Lhe souLheasLern parL of Lhe unlLed SLaLes (Morrls &
WhlLfleld, 2009). 1here are no naLlve predaLors Lo llmlL Lhe llonflsh populaLlon, so Lhelr
geographlc range qulckly spread from Lhe Culf of Mexlco up Lhe easLern coasL of Lhe unlLed
SLaLes. lL ls esLlmaLed LhaL over $1 mllllon wlll be needed Lo conLrol Lhe llonflsh populaLlon over
a 3"year perlod. Whlle Lhls lssue ls more perLlnenL Lo Lhe consumer end of Lhe supply"chaln, lL
offers an example of lnadverLenL negllgence havlng drasLlc effecLs on Lhe ecosysLem. lf fuLure
!$
sLraLegles such as marlculLure lnvolve ralslng specles ln Lhelr non"naLlve envlronmenLs,
managers need Lo be aware of Lhe posslble escape and lnLroducLlon rlsks.
1he dynamlcs of Lhe aquarlum Lrade are dlfflculL Lo predlcL due Lo Lhe lack of knowledge on Lhe
acLual sLaLus of Lhe ecosysLem. WlLh such hlgh specles dlverslLy, complex blologlcal
lnLeracLlons, and a vasL array of remoLe locaLlons, gaLherlng accuraLe and robusL daLa has
posed a serlous obsLacle. 1hls challenge only adds Lo Lhe urgenL call for gaLherlng more
lnformaLlon and developlng more accuraLe models Lo compensaLe for currenL lack of
knowledge. Cne of Lhe greaLesL challenges for Lhe aquarlum Lrade, however, ls movlng forward
and developlng susLalnable managemenL sLraLegles desplLe Lhese many sclenLlflc uncerLalnLles.
-D;;7E@ !=?C=7?=E=9C? !@8@7 =G 6;=AD?7;< CE @T7 -=;8F #;C8EQF7
ln order Lo reform Lhe coral reef wlldllfe Lrade ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle, lL ls cruclal Lo undersLand
Lhe socloeconomlc conLexL of Lhe lssue. ManagemenL sLraLegles for arLlsanal flsherles ofLen fall
lf Lhe parLlcular socloeconomlc characLerlsLlcs of Lhe communlLy are noL Laken lnLo
conslderaLlon (Alllson & Lllls, 2001). A soluLlon LhaL lmproves Lhe ecologlcal and economlc
susLalnablllLy of Lhe coral reef aquarlum Lrade should Lherefore be based on Lhe socloeconomlc
condlLlons of collecLors ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle.
lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes are Lhe Lwo maln naLlons LhaL comprlse Lhe Coral 1rlangle
ornamenLal producer lndusLry, and governmenL pracLlces ln each counLry do noL effecLlvely
regulaLe Lhe coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe harvesL. lndonesla has a free access pollcy Loward
flsherles (Analysls of desLrucLlve reef flshlng, 2001), whlch resulLs ln a large number of
flshermen flghLlng Lo caLch fewer and fewer flsh on already degraded coral reefs. 1he
Þhlllpplnes employ more communlLy"based flshery managemenL sLraLegles Lhan lndonesla
(Analysls of desLrucLlve reef flshlng, 2001), whlch may lncrease Lhelr chances of malnLalnlng
susLalnable coral reef ecosysLems over Llme. unforLunaLely, corrupLlon ls wldespread
LhroughouL Lhe Coral 1rlangle aL many levels of socleLy, and governmenL conLrol over Lhls lssue
ls weak (LC Þrep Þro[ecL, 2003). AL Lhls polnL, any aLLempL by Lhe governmenLs Lo lmplemenL
pollcy Lo lmprove Lhe ornamenLal wlldllfe Lrade ls llkely Lo be unsuccessful wlLhouL lmproved
enforcemenL from a naLlonal Lo a local scale.
1he people who collecL anlmals from reefs ln Lhe Coral 1rlangle generally llve ln poverLy. 1he
collecLors ofLen do noL have hlgh levels of educaLlon and mosL ofLen llve ln poor vlllages LhaL
commonly do noL have rellable fresh waLer supplles or sufflclenL sanlLaLlon servlces (LC Þrep
Þro[ecL, 2003). 1he mlddlemen, who supply collecLors wlLh flshlng equlpmenL and LransporL Lhe
flsh Lo exporLers, are noL much beLLer off. 1hey usually have a llLLle educaLlon and mlnlmal
buslness skllls ln addlLlon Lo collecLlng experlence (8eksodlhard[o"Lllley & Lllley, 2007). ln splLe
of Lhese advanLages, mlddlemen generally survlve under Lhe same llvlng condlLlons as Lhe
collecLors. 8aslc llvlng needs ln lndonesla cosL abouL lu8 800,000 per monLh, more Lhan many
collecLors earn (LC Þrep Þro[ecL, 2003). Some collecLors work ln Lhe marlne ornamenLal Lrade
full Llme and some use Lhls Lrade as a second [ob Lo earn exLra money ln order Lo send chlldren
!%
Lo school, Lo purchase non"essenLlal foods llke mllk, or Lo pay for medlcal bllls (LC Þrep Þro[ecL,
2003).
CollecLors ofLen do noL have proper equlpmenL and commonly use unsafe collecLlng pracLlces
LhaL rlsk Lhelr healLh. 8oaLs are generally poorly malnLalned and ofLen break down. 1here ls
usually no safeLy equlpmenL on board (MAM1l, 2006). Many collecLors do noL own Lyplcal
snorkellng equlpmenL, and some creaLe Lhelr own flns ouL of pleces of plywood or plasLlc
(MAM1l, 2006). ºPookah dlvlng" ls a common pracLlce ln collecLlng ornamenLal flsh, where Lhe
alr ls supplled Lo dlvers uslng an unsafe, low LhroughpuL compressor (MAM1l, 2006). 1he lack of
proper dlvlng and safeLy equlpmenL greaLly lncreases Lhe rlsk of ln[ury for collecLors. lor
example, ln Lhe 8anngal Archlpelago, lndonesla, collecLors are sub[ecL Lo skln dlseases, ear
damage, Lhe bends, and decompresslon slckness, healLh care ls lnadequaLe and generally noL
avallable Lo Lhe poor (LC Þrep Þro[ecL, 2003).
1he currenL sLrucLure of Lhe aquarlum Lrade's supply chaln perpeLuaLes socloeconomlc
hardshlp for producers. CollecLors do noL recelve sLeady wages and lnsLead are pald per flsh
collecLed (MAM1l, 2006). CollecLors barely earn enough lncome Lo meeL Lhe dally needs of Lhelr
famllles. lurLhermore, Lhls paymenL meLhod encourages collecLors Lo caLch as many flsh as
posslble, whlch puLs lncreased pressure on coral reef ecosysLems. Mlddlemen are ofLen ln no
beLLer an economlc poslLlon, as Lhey recelve low prlces for flsh from exporLers, who wlll ofLen
wlLhhold paymenL unLll Lhelr flsh are sold Lo lmporLlng counLrles (8eksodlhard[o"Lllley & Lllley,
2007). under Lhese clrcumsLances, collecLors and many mlddlemen are barely able Lo make a
llvlng.
CollecLors ofLen fall lnLo a paLLern of perpeLual debL Lo mlddlemen, so LhaL Lhey are unable Lo
make a proflL and lncrease Lhelr sLandard of llvlng. ln new 8usuanga, Lhe Þhlllpplnes,
mlddlemen allow collecLors Lo use boaLs, food, fuel, and cyanlde, and Lhen requlre LhaL Lhe
collecLors repay Lhem. lf collecLors do noL have Lhe money Lo repay Lhem, Lhey wlll end up
paylng Lhe mlddlemen wlLh Lhe very flsh caughL uslng Lhe borrowed provlslons (Shuman,
Podgson, & Ambrose, 2004). CollecLors ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes also borrow money from mlddlemen
Lo supporL Lhelr famllles, Lhe mlddlemen ofLen hold Lhem Lo Lhese debLs aL exLraordlnary
lnLeresL raLes (Shuman, Podgson, & Ambrose, 2004). Cnce Lhe collecLors sLarL borrowlng from
mlddlemen, Lhere ls llLLle chance LhaL Lhey wlll ever be able Lo repay Lhelr debL. ln boLh
lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, local reefs have become degraded and collecLors wlll ºrove" or
Lravel beyond Lhe local reefs ln hopes of maklng more money. 8ovlng Lakes days aL a Llme and
lnvolves borrowlng boaLs, food, and equlpmenL from suppllers, whlch cuLs lnLo Lhe proflL LhaL
collecLors should make from lncreased efforL (MAM1l, 2006). Some mlddlemen do noL accepL
flsh from collecLors unless Lhe collecLors buy cyanlde from Lhem, collecLors depend on
mlddlemen for Lhelr lncome and so have no cholce buL Lo use cyanlde (Wood, 2001). 1hls
forced dependence noL only affecLs Lhe collecLors buL also furLher exacerbaLes Lhe pressure puL
on coral reef ecosysLems. As long as Lhese collecLors remaln ln poverLy, Lhey have no cholce buL
Lo conLlnue degradlng Lhe coral reefs.
!&
ConservaLlon of coral reefs and Lhe wlldllfe Lhey susLaln ls lnexLrlcably llnked Lo, and dependenL
on, Lhe socloeconomlc slLuaLlon of Lhe people who manage Lhem. Any managemenL sLraLegy
LhaL dlsregards Lhe welfare and llvellhoods of collecLors wlll mosL llkely fall. 1herefore, any
economlc soluLlon Lo lmprove Lhe susLalnablllLy of Lhe coral reef aquarlum Lrade musL also llfL
collecLors above Lhelr currenL sLaLe of poverLy.
68<@ *7G=;9 $@@79S@<
1he 8ren Coral 8eef Croup ls far from Lhe flrsL Lo Lry Lo Lackle Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade.
lnformaLlon has been publlshed abouL Lhe successes and fallures of pasL reform sLraLegles,
whlch are lmporLanL Lo conslder ln order Lo avold repeaLlng mlsLakes and also Lo avold
repeaLlng reform lnlLlaLlves LhaL have already been successful. 1he Lwo maln programs wlLh
comprehenslve reporLs are Lhe CommunlLy 8ased 8esource ManagemenL (C88M) lnlLlaLlve,
whlch focuses on llmlLlng cyanlde use, and Lhe MAM1l lnlLlaLlve, whlch was a large scale, mulLl"
dlmenslonal reform aLLempL. ln boLh of Lhese reform aLLempLs, a common source of error
sLems from a lack of undersLandlng and underesLlmaLlon of Lhe economlc complexlLy drlvlng
Lhe supply chaln.
1he C88M program's maln goal ls Lo use communlLy resources Lo reduce Lhe use of cyanlde ln
marlne flsh collecLlon, whlch ln Lurn should decrease Lhe hlgh flsh morLallLy raLes assoclaLed
wlLh reef flsh collecLlon. C88M ls supporLed by varlous nCCs, lncludlng Lhe lnLernaLlonal
Marlne llfe Alllance (lMA) and Lhe uesLrucLlve llshlng 8eform lnlLlaLlve (ul8l) (8ubec eL al.,
2000). C88M uses communlLy"based educaLlon and supporL Lo lower cyanlde use and lncrease
survlvorshlp of collecLed flshes. 8eform aLLempLs lnclude Leachlng communlLles how Lo use
barrler neLs and hook and llne flshlng, how Lo properly care for collecLed flshes, and how Lo
llmlL sLress Lo lower posL"collecLlon morLallLy raLes (8ubec eL al., 2000). AddlLlonally, Lhe C88M
program malnLalns slx cyanlde deLecLlon labs ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes. 1he labs faclllLaLe LesLlng for
cyanlde use on boaLs, aL vlllage collecLlon slLes, aL alrporLs, and aL faclllLles held by mlddlemen
(8ubec eL al., 2000).
1he maln lnlLlaLlves encouraged by Lhe C88M program have been shown Lo be effecLlve aL
reduclng morLallLy raLes. Accordlng Lo 8ubec eL al. (2000) neL caughL flsh have less Lhan a 10°
morLallLy raLe LhroughouL Lhe supply chaln (ln comparlson wlLh 90° morLallLy raLes assoclaLed
wlLh cyanlde"caughL flsh) (8ubec eL al., 2000, SchmldL & kunzmann, 2003). uesplLe Lhe hlgher
flsh survlvorshlp, 8ubec eL al. found LhaL 30° of flshermen who have been Lralned and have
access Lo neLs sLlll use cyanlde because flshermen geL pald per flsh and lL ls easler Lo collecL
greaLer quanLlLles of flsh wlLh cyanlde Lhan wlLh neLs (8ubec eL al., 2000). Accordlng Lo 8ubec
eL al. (2000), Lhe soluLlon Lo Lhls problem should lle wlLh hlgher prlces pald for neL"caughL flsh,
buL Lhus far lL has noL been shown LhaL consumers are wllllng Lo pay more for healLhler flsh.
AddlLlonally, Lhe C88M program encourages flshermen Lo llmlL Lhe sLress on collecLed flsh
before LransporLlng Lhe organlsms. SLress can be caused by exposure Lo cyanlde, sLarvaLlon,
paraslLes, meLabollLe burn from polluLed waLer, low dlssolved oxygen, and rapldly changlng pP
!'
and LemperaLures (8ubec eL al., 2000). 8y holdlng Lhe flsh for 24 hours ln clean waLer wlLh
approprlaLe pP and LemperaLure, morLallLy raLes for cyanlde"caughL flsh are reduced Lo less
Lhan 30° morLallLy (8ubec eL al., 2000). 1he C88M has been helpful ln mapplng ouL concreLe
Lechnlques Lo reduce morLallLy raLes, buL Lhe communlLy"based lnlLlaLlves alone have noL been
sufflclenL Lo shlfL Lhe markeLs Lo place a hlgher value on healLhler flsh. AddlLlonally, Lhe C88M
pro[ecL suggesLs LhaL ln order for Lhe reform measures Lo be lmplemenLed successfully, Lhere
needs Lo be lncreased cooperaLlon beLween Lhe governmenL and local communlLles (8ubec eL
al., 2000).
Cn a much larger scale, Lhe nongovernmenLal organlzaLlons MAC (Lhe Marlne Aquarlum
Councll), 8Cl (8eef Check loundaLlon) and Lhe CCll (ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL
lorum) collaboraLed on MAM1l, Lhe Marlne Aquarlum MarkeL 1ransformaLlon lnlLlaLlve
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). MAM1l was a flve"year pro[ecL LhaL lasLed from 2003 Lo 2009
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). 1he pro[ecL was funded wlLh $13.3 mllllon from an llC/CLl granL
and addlLlonal prlvaLe and publlc fundlng (8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). 1he goal of MAM1l was Lo
Lransform Lhe markeL for Lhe aquarlum Lrade by focuslng on Lhe creaLlon of a cerLlflcaLlon
program for marlne aquarlum specles and by lncreaslng consumer awareness. 1he lnlLlal goals
for Lhe pro[ecL were Lo Lransform 17° of Lhe aquarlum Lrade lnLo cerLlfled producL and Lo
esLabllsh over 24 marlne managemenL areas Lo be run by local governmenLs and collecLors
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008). 1he meLhods proposed by MAM1l Lo Lransform Lhe lndusLry lnclude:
! 8ulld Lhe capaclLy for communlLy sLakeholders Lo cerLlfy managemenL of Lhe marlne
aquarlum Lrade
! Þerform reef specles sLock assessmenLs
! CreaLe no Lake zones
! ÞarLlclpaLe ln reef specles sLock resLoraLlon
! CreaLe a cerLlflcaLlon sysLem for collecLors
! lncrease parLlclpaLlon of reLallers ln Lhe cerLlflcaLlon process
! lncrease flnanclal resources for collecLors
! 8alse consumer awareness
! Þubllsh ºbesL pracLlces" reporLs on CulLurlng, llshery ManagemenL and Pandllng and
1ransporL
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008)
Cverall, MAM1l was raLed as ºmarglnally saLlsfacLory", buL Lhe lnlLlaLlve falled Lo meeL Lhe
ma[orlLy of lLs sLaLed goals. Some of Lhe problems faced by Lhe lnlLlaLlve were unlque Lo Lhe
MAM1l pro[ecL, oLher lssues are wlLh Lhe cerLlflcaLlon program lLself, whlle oLher problems are
faced by all acLors worklng Lo reform Lhe aquarlum Lrade. Þroblems unlque Lo MAM1l lnclude
problems wlLh sLafflng, budgeL concerns, and Lhe llmlLed porLlon of a global lndusLry LhaL
MAM1l could lmpacL (8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008).
1here were mulLlple problems wlLh Lhe cerLlflcaLlon program proposed by MAM1l. 1he goal
was Lo cerLlfy every level of Lhe supply chaln as followlng ºbesL pracLlces," so LhaL consumers ln
!(
Some of Lhe lessons learned from Lhe fallure of Lhe MAM1l program lnclude:
! CerLlflcaLlon sLandards were Loo uS drlven, wlLhouL sufflclenL local lnvolvemenL
! A cerLlflcaLlon scheme needs Lo be fleld LesLed on a smaller scale
! 1he lndusLry needs Lo supporL cerLlflcaLlon on all levels
! lorelgn leglslaLlon needs Lo supporL cerLlflcaLlon
! 1he lndusLry needs sLandards for self regulaLlon and an organlzaLlon Lo provlde
supporL
! Local governmenLs need Lo be lnvolved and supporL cerLlflcaLlon
! !usL one pro[ecL wlll noL reform Lhe whole lndusLry
! 1here ls no markeL lncenLlve for cerLlflcaLlon because consumers are noL wllllng
Lo pay more for cerLlfled flshes
! AfLer Lhree years of sLudy, Lhe paLhs of Lrade wlLhln Lhe lndusLry are sLlll noL very
well undersLood, so furLher sLudy ls needed
(8ellamy & Wlnsby, 2008)
uesplLe Lhe overall lneffecLlveness of Lhe MAM1l cerLlflcaLlon pro[ecL, Lhe lnformaLlon from Lhe
flnal reporL provldes clear lnformaLlon abouL where Lhe problems lle, and where more work
needs Lo be done. AddlLlonally, MAM1l dld have some successes, lncludlng creaLlng a small"
scale ºcommunlLy based LransformaLlon model" LhaL lncludes a ºflsh Lo order" sysLem LhaL can
be repllcaLed lnLernaLlonally. MAM1l lnlLlaLed successful mlcroflnance programs and was able
Lo conLrlbuLe Lo communlLy educaLlon by Leachlng beLLer flshlng Lechnlques (8ellamy &
Wlnsby, 2008).
noL undersLandlng Lhe economlc drlvers behlnd Lhe marlne ornamenLals markeL has been a
source of error for boLh Lhe C88M pro[ecL and Lhe MAM1l pro[ecL. Þubllshed analyses of Lhe
!)
supply chaln show LhaL lL ls exLremely complex and lacks sufflclenL daLa. lL has become clear
Lhrough Lrlal and error LhaL Lhe lndusLry ls noL drlven by a demand for quallLy flshes. lL ls sLlll
unclear as Lo whaL Lhe Lrue markeL drlvers are, and how decreaslng morLallLy aL varlous polnLs
wlLhln Lhe collecLlon, LransporL and sales of ornamenLals wlll lmpacL Lhe supply and demand of
marlne aquarlum organlsms.
'7<@ 6;8?@C?7<
ln analyzlng Lhe poLenLlal Lo reform Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade susLalnablllLy, Wood (2001) and
8eksodlhard[o"Lllley and Lllley (2007) boLh recommended Lhe developmenL of marlculLure ln
producer counLrles as a susLalnable alLernaLlve Lo relleve Lhe ecologlcal pressure of wlld
harvesL. ln lndonesla, 8eksodlhard[o"Lllley and Lllley promoLed wrlLLen conLracLs beLween
buyers and producers Lo ºencourage greaLer muLual loyalLy", whlle uslng Lhe ecologlcal and
soclal susLalnablllLy of Lhelr producLs as a markeLlng sLraLegy (2007). 1hese conLracLs glve Lhe
opporLunlLy Lo and Lhe lncenLlve for collecLor communlLles Lo manage Lhe resources and Lrade
aL Lhelr end of Lhe supply chaln (8eksodlhard[o"Lllley & Lllley, 2007).
MarkeL conLracL programs
ln order Lo successfully lmplemenL susLalnablllLy measures, an lnlLlal lnvesLmenL of caplLal may
be requlred aL Lhe base of Lhe supply chaln. 1hls pro[ecL wlll look lnLo Lhe feaslblllLy of dlfferenL
flnanclng opLlons Lo help moLlvaLe changes ln producer and exporLer behavlor. AfLer
conslderlng feaslblllLy facLors aL our pro[ecL slLes, recommendaLlons wlll be made Lo Clazul on
how Lo move forward on Lhe flnanclng of susLalnable marlculLure.
Soclal funds are lnvesLmenL funds wlLh Lhe ob[ecLlve of conLrlbuLlng aL Lhe local level Lo Lhe
soclal caplLal and developmenL of developlng counLrles. 1he advanLages of soclal funds lnclude
Lhe ablllLy Lo supporL poorer counLrles, Lhe poLenLlal Lo reduce corrupLlon by lncreaslng
Lransparency, and Lhe opporLunlLy Lo lnLroduce and flnance lnnovaLlons. Powever, soclal funds
have been crlLlclzed for dlsplaclng exlsLlng lnsLlLuLlons and for lacklng exlL sLraLegles Lo phase
ouL Lemporary pro[ecLs.
AddlLlonally, soclal fundlng has supporLed communlLy"drlven developmenL (Cuu). Cuu pro[ecLs
are enLlrely communlLy based, and local organlzaLlons make declslons abouL how Lo admlnlsLer
and lnvesL funds. 1he goal of Lhls approach ls Lo bulld confldence, ensure LhaL Lhe speclflc needs
of a communlLy are meL ln a culLurally approprlaLe manner, and Lo lncrease Lhe Lransparency
and accounLablllLy of Lhe fundlng (Morley eL al., 1998). 1hus, soclal lnvesLmenL fundlng allgns
wlLh Lhe susLalnablllLy goals of ma[or producers of Lhe coral reef aquarlum Lrade.
8ooL CaplLal ls a speclflc soclal lnvesLmenL fund focused on grassrooLs buslnesses ln rural areas
of developlng counLrles. WlLh a 99° repaymenL raLe from borrowers and a 100° repaymenL
raLe Lo lnvesLors, 8ooL CaplLal has dlspersed 893 loans slnce Lhe company began ln 1999
(8ooLCaplLal.org). ln addlLlon Lo provldlng caplLal, Lhe fund also works wlLh small/local
!*
buslnesses Lo provlde Lhem wlLh flnanclal Lralnlng and Lo help Lhem develop markeL
connecLlons LhaL Lhey would oLherwlse noL be able Lo access due Lo Lhelr slze and lack of
resources. A markeL fallure exlsLs because many remoLe grassrooLs buslnesses are Loo small
and rlsky for malnsLream buslness Lo lnvesLmenL ln, yeL Loo large for mlcroflnance lendlng. ln
order Lo address Lhls markeL fallure, 8ooL CaplLal was creaLed as a lendlng model Lo serve such
buslnesses wlLh a new class of caplLal LhaL ls beLween mlcrocredlL and commerclal lendlng.
Conslderlng Lhe varlable slze and buslness sLrucLure of boLh Lhe producers and exporLers ln
lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes, Lhls pro[ecL wlll deLermlne wheLher a flnanclng scheme such as
8ooL CaplLal ls approprlaLe.
1he 8eef ÞroducL Alllance (8ÞA) was a for"proflL llmlLed llablllLy lnvesLmenL corporaLlon creaLed
by ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum (CCll) ln 2001. 8ÞA's mlsslon was Lo
flnance Lhe ºconverslon of leadlng companles ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal aquarlum flsh and marlne
ornamenLals Lrade Lo fully susLalnable pracLlces" (8eef ÞroducL Alllance, n.d.). 8ÞA was creaLed
Lo dellver debL and equlLy flnanclng Lo selecL exlsLlng lmporLers and ma[or exporLers Lo supporL
efforLs Lo lnLegraLe Lhe supply chaln ln order Lo lncrease lLs economlc and ecologlcal efflclency.
ln addlLlon, Lhe moLlvaLlon for Lhe 8ÞA buslness plan deslgn was Lhe dlscrepancy beLween Lhe
demand and Lhe supply of susLalnably harvesLed aquarlum flsh. Accordlng Lo research done by
8ÞA, a growlng demand for susLalnable and healLhy flsh has been documenLed ln boLh Lurope
and Lhe unlLed SLaLes. 1he cause of Lhe currenL dlscrepancy and resulLlng supply chaln
lnefflclencles ls a supply shorLage. Accordlng Lo research done by CCll ln developmenL of 8ÞA,
Lhe supply shorLage ls a resulL of Lhe followlng clrcumsLances of producer naLlons:
! ulsorganlzed value chaln
! Lack of local conLrol
! CaplLal consLralnLs
! 8elaLlvely low cosL of morLallLy
! Lack of regulaLory lncenLlve
(8eef ÞroducL Alllance, n.d.).
1he pro[ecL wlll furLher lnvesLlgaLe Lhe 8ÞA buslness model, conLacL CCll Lo undersLand why lL
ended, and assess any synerglsLlc poLenLlal wlLh our pro[ecL.
CapLlve 8reedlng and Marlne CrnamenLals AquaculLure
u
led Lo an lnLeresL ln aquaculLure for ornamenLal specles. AquaculLure of marlne ornamenLal
specles has Lhe poLenLlal Lo beneflL Lhe lndusLry and envlronmenL ln several ways" by lncreas
economlc developmenL, rellevlng lmpacL on wlld sLocks, lncreaslng producLlon efflclency,
conservlng specles, and conLrlbuLlng Lo blologlcal research (1lusLy, 2002). Powever, Lhere
also lnherenL rlsks ln relylng on marlne aquaculLure for supply Lo Lhe lndusLry, lncludlng shlfLln
of economlc bases lf developlng counLrles cannoL lnvesL ln Lhe necessary lnfrasLrucLure,
negaLlve lmpacLs on wlld sLocks lf repeaLed collecLlon of wlld lndlvlduals ls requlred for
esLrucLlve flshlng pracLlces and lnefflclenL supply chalns ln Lhe aquarlum Lrade lndusLry have
lng
are
g
#+
breedlng, lncreased lnLroducLlon of lnvaslve specles by producLlon faclllLles and hobbylsLs, and
lncreased use of flsh meal for feedlng purposes (1lusLy, 2002). 1able 1 ouLllnes approprlaLe and
lnapproprlaLe cases Lo lnlLlaLe aquaculLure producLlon of ornamenLal specles.
AquaculLure for freshwaLer aquarlum specles ls wldely pracLlced" ln Lhe u.S., ornamenLal flsh
producLlon ls Lhe fourLh largesL aquaculLure secLor behlnd caLflsh, LrouL, and salmon (1lusLy,
2002). MarlculLure (aquaculLure and breedlng of marlne specles), however, ls much less
common ln Lhe ornamenLal lndusLry because capLlve breedlng and culLure Lechnlques are less
advanced (1lusLy, 2002). CrnamenLal marlculLure ls sLlll ln lLs lnfancy parLlally due Lo less
fundlng and lnLeresL compared Lo aquaculLure for food purposes. 1he llfe cycles of many
marlne flsh specles are also more compllcaLed Lhan freshwaLer specles, maklng esLabllshlng
successful breedlng pracLlces a dlfflculL process. As a resulL, Lhere are several boLLlenecks
lmpedlng Lhe progress of Lhe ornamenLal aquaculLure lndusLry, such as broodsLock
managemenL, larval rearlng, and knowledge of gameLe physlology and larval morphology.
(Moorhead and Zeng, 2010).
1he mosL promlslng aquaculLure meLhod for many specles of reef flsh ls larval capLure and
capLlve rearlng. CapLurlng flsh aL Lhe larval sLage appears Lo ellmlnaLe boLh overflshlng and
food accllmaLlzaLlon lssues. ln Lhe wlld, up Lo 90° of larvae ln pelaglc spawnlng specles dle
wlLhln Lhe flrsL Lhree monLhs of recrulLmenL (lorresLer, 1993). 1herefore, capLurlng a fracLlon of
larvae from Lhe waLer column would LheoreLlcally noL conLrlbuLe Lo populaLlon decllnes ln Lhe
adulL breedlng sLock (Lecchlnl eL al., 2006), especlally lf meLhods are used Lo capLure laLe sLage
larvae ln areas where Lhere ls llLLle seLLlemenL subsLraLe. lood accllmaLlzaLlon ls Lhe number
one cause of flsh morLallLy ln aquarla (Lecchlnl eL al., 2006). 8ecause larvae are ln a
meLamorphosls llfe sLage, Lhey can easlly adapL Lo new forms of food ln capLlvlLy, and can
Lherefore be lmmedlaLely LranslLloned Lo arLlflclal feed afLer Lransfer Lo farmed baslns. 1hls
ellmlnaLes Lhe dlfflculL Lask of LranslLlonlng adulL flshes onLo arLlflclal feed.
A case sLudy conducLed ln lrench Þolynesla (Lecchlnl eL al., 2006) showed LhaL capLurlng flsh aL
Lhe larval sLage and Lhen lmmedlaLely Lransferrlng Lhe larvae Lo farmed baslns enabled a
hypoLheLlcal flsh"exporLlng flrm Lo produce a proflL, whlle capLurlng flsh aL Lhe adulL sLage
malnLalned an economlc loss over Llme. 1he sLudy also showed LhaL cresL neLs (see flgure 2)
were Lhe mosL efflclenL capLure meLhod and capLured Lhe mosL varleLy of specles (Lecchlnl eL
al., 2006). CLher meLhods used Lo collecL larvae lnclude llghL Lraps and a varleLy of oLher neLs
LhaL are elLher Lowed or dropped ln Lhe waLer column.
Coral farmlng ls a vlable way Lo reproduce coral wlLhouL collecLlng large amounLs of wlld sLock,
and some governmenLs ln ma[or coral exporLlng counLrles are beglnnlng Lo requlre coral
breedlng as an alLernaLlve Lo wlld capLure. Slnce 2002 Lhe lndoneslan governmenL has creaLed
regulaLlons and parLnershlps wlLh companles Lo acceleraLe coral culLure programs (1lmoLlus eL
al., 2009) and Lo allevlaLe pressure on wlld coral. ÞropagaLlon of corals by fragmenLaLlon ls Lhe
mosL currenLly used meLhod, whlch ls successful malnly on branchlng corals wlLh fasL growLh
raLes. 1here are fewer cases of successful propagaLlon of slow growlng corals (1lmoLlus eL al.,
2009), (See Lable 3 for culLured specles).
#!
AlLhough blologlcal knowledge and resources llmlL advances ln marlculLure Lechnology, capLlve
breedlng of marlne organlsms presenLs a promlslng meLhod of supplylng Lhe marlne
ornamenLal Lrade ln Lhe fuLure. Plgher demand for capLlve bred ornamenLal aquarlum flsh and
lnverLebraLes may spur a leap ln Lechnology LhaL wlll make marlculLure an easy opLlon for
supplylng many specles.
##
/CQD;7<
1
(1lusLy, 2002)
2
(Lecchlnl eL al., 2006)
3.
1lmoLlus eL al., 2009) (
#$
$66*.$-1
1he group wlll use a Lwo"pronged approach Lo deLermlne Lhe socloeconomlc feaslblllLy of
susLalnable producLlon pracLlces, such as marlculLure, ln Lhe coral reef wlldllfe aquarlum Lrade.
As explalned ln deLall below, Lhe flrsL goal ls Lo analyze Lhe coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe markeL,
and Lhe second ls Lo perform a feaslblllLy analysls of uslng marlculLure coupled wlLh markeL
conLracLs for speclflc slLes ln Lhe coral Lrlangle.
MeLhods[
A. 1
sL
Cb[ecLlve - MarkeL Lrends:
Cur goal ls Lo creaLe a quanLlLaLlve basellne LhaL demonsLraLes Lhe overall supply and
demand Lrends ln Lhe markeL. ur. Pugo Salgado and ur. Chrls CosLello have agreed Lo
asslsL wlLh Lhls porLlon.
A. ConsLrucL demand curves
1. lor Lhe uS demand curve, creaLe a survey Lo deLermlne how wllllngness
Lo pay changes ln response Lo changes ln prlce.
2. AdmlnlsLer survey Lo a random sample of aquarlum wlldllfe reLallers,
lncludlng lndependenL sLores, large chalns, and onllne sLores.
3. use Lhls lnformaLlon Lo consLrucL uS demand curve.
4. ConsLrucL demand curve for Lhe global markeL uslng slmllar meLhods.
8. ConsLrucL supply curve
1. CaLher daLa on Lhe cosL of produclng coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe for
each sLep of Lhe supply chaln ln lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes.
2. use Lhls lnformaLlon Lo consLrucL Lhe supply curve for Lhe Coral 1rlangle.
C. LvaluaLe how markeL wlll respond Lo poLenLlal forces such as new leglslaLlon LhaL
may resLrlcL uS lmporLs Lo susLalnably produced anlmals.
1. ueLermlne how such leglslaLlon wlll change Lhe supply curve (how lL wlll
change Lhe cosL of produclng wlldllfe for Lhe Lrade). use Lhls lnformaLlon
Lo consLrucL a second supply curve.
2. uslng Lhe quanLlLaLlvely derlved supply and demand curves, use a
concepLual model llke Lhe one plcLured below Lo undersLand how new
leglslaLlon could affecL Lhe markeL:
#%
#&
ll. 2
nd
Cb[ecLlve - MarlculLure dryland feaslblllLy analysls:
A. ueslgn a LesL LemplaLe (Lo be compleLed by Clazul summer lnLern SLephanle
Porll wlLh help of lrank Purd), wlLh Lhe varlous componenLs deplcLed ln Lhe
dlagram below.
8. Apply feaslblllLy analysls Lo a slLe near La Þaz, Mexlco as a LesL run Lo measure
model's effecLlveness (also Lo be compleLed by summer lnLern SLephanle Porll).
C. Apply feaslblllLy analysls Lo chosen case sLudy slLes. ÞoLenLlal slLes lnclude norLh
8all, 8a[a AmpaL, and one or more locaLlons ln Lhe Þhlllpplnes.
ln addlLlon, group member nlkl Mazaroll wlll research and gaLher lnformaLlon on Pawall's
role ln lmporLlng and exporLlng coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe, as well Lhe currenL sLaLe of
Pawall's coral reef aquarlum wlldllfe producLlon. 1hls ºwlLhln Lhe uS" example wlll provlde
a socloeconomlc basellne Lo compare Lo producLlon ln oLher naLlons.
lll. 8ecommendaLlons: Applylng our undersLandlng of markeL Lrends and lnslghL galned
from Lhe feaslblllLy analyses, we wlll make recommendaLlons Lo our cllenL, Clazul, as Lo Lhe
feaslblllLy of marlculLure coupled wlLh markeL conLracLs wlLhln Lhe aquarlum Lrade under
varlous markeL scenarlos.
#'
#(
5*."6 !#*"-#"*, $&4 0$&$5,0,&#
8oles
6;=>7?@ 08E8Q7; " Arladne 8eynolds
"Þrlmary conLacL for exLernal advlsors
"Speaks on behalf of Lhe group ln response Lo advlsor and cllenL e"malls
"AcLs as a prlmary conLacL for resolvlng confllcL wlLhln Lhe group
"keeps pro[ecL Llmellne on Lrack
/CE8E?C8F 08E8Q7; " Clara CarLwrlghL
"Manages pro[ecL budgeL spendlng
"ÞrlnLs CÞ llLeraLure and documenLs from Lhe group prlnLlng allowance
"llnal auLhorlLy on lnLernshlp salarles and slLe vlslL expenses
48@8 08E8Q7; " nlkl Mazaroll
"Crganlzes llLeraLure and clLaLlons ln elecLronlc form
"AppolnLs llLeraLure readlng, clLaLlons, and oLher daLa asslgnmenLs Lo group
"uownloads any sofLware necessary for CÞ
"ALLends daLa manager lnformaLlon and sklll sesslons
37: 08E8Q7;< " Amanda nelson and kaLe nlxon
"CreaLes and malnLalns pro[ecL webslLe
"ALLends web manager lnformaLlon and sklll sesslons
%E@7;E<TCS -==;ACE8@=; " SLephanle Porll
"ueflnes Lhe acLlvlLles and responslblllLles of Lhe summer lnLern
"Lnsures LhaL lnLernshlps achleve professlonal developmenL of Lhe lnLern and group
pro[ecL summer goals
077@CEQ /8?CFC@8@=; " SLephanle Porll
"1akes meeLlng mlnuLes and sends Lhem Lo Lhe group
"CreaLes meeLlng agendas and sends Lhem Lo all aLLendees 24 hours prlor Lo planned
meeLlng
Croup meeLlngs are held every 1hursday aL 11:00 am, and addlLlonally as needed. MeeLlngs
lnclude all sLudenL group members, and advlsors when posslble and necessary. MeeLlngs follow
Lhe agendas declded on by group members and senL Lo all aLLendees 24 hours ln advance of Lhe
meeLlng. MeeLlng mlnuLes are Laken by SLephanle Porll and senL Lo Lhe enLlre group.
ConfllcL resoluLlon
1he group has agreed upon a dlrecL approach Lo confllcL resoluLlon. lf Lhere ls a personal lssue
wlLhln Lhe group, Lhe parLles lnvolved are expecLed Lo address Lhe lssue wlLh each oLher flrsL. lf
#)
one parLy feels uncomforLable or Lhe lssue cannoL be resolved, Lhey can go Lo Lhe pro[ecL
manager who wlll acL as a moderaLor Lo resolve Lhe lssue.
Work ls dlvlded among Lhe group and each person ls expecLed Lo compleLe Lhelr asslgned Lasks
on Llme and ln excepLlonal quallLy. AfLer Lhe compleLlon of a flrsL drafL, Lhe group commences
an edlLlng clrcle, ln whlch Lhe drafL ls senL Lo group members ln a speclflc order for edlLs, Lhen
Lo Lhe whole group for flnal commenLs. lor each asslgnmenL, one person ls ulLlmaLely
responslble for Lurnlng ln Lhe flnal asslgnmenL. ºSlacklng" ls noL expecLed Lo be a problem due
Lo our sysLem of appolnLlng Lasks, early group deadllnes Lo allow for edlLlng, and Lhe general
hlgh morale and exclLemenL for our group Loplc.
uocumenLlng/ CaLaloglng lnformaLlon
Þro[ecL llLeraLure ls organlzed elecLronlcally on uropbox, a flle sharlng webslLe
(www.dropbox.com). 1he group has creaLed a llLeraLure charL for caLaloglng llLeraLure based on
subLoplcs wlLhln our pro[ecL Loplc for easy access and reLrleval. MeeLlng mlnuLes, agendas,
documenLs, and budgeL pro[ecLlons are also locaLed on uropbox for access Lo Lhe enLlre group.
A calendar of Lhe enLlre group's weekly avallablllLy ls locaLed wlLhln Lhe meeLlng noLes Lo
schedule addlLlonal meeLlngs as Lhe need arlses.
lnLeracLlon wlLh Advlsors and CllenLs
Cur prlmary advlsor, uean Calnes, wlll aLLend weekly meeLlngs when posslble. lor deadllnes
and oLher speclal clrcumsLances, we wlll schedule meeLlngs dlrecLly wlLh Lhe uean when he ls
avallable. We are lucky enough Lo have a secondary advlsor, Þhu candldaLe Laura uee, who
helped Lo propose our pro[ecL. Laura wlll serve as a menLor Lo help wlLh Lhe focus of Lhe
pro[ecL, puL us ln conLacL wlLh exLernal advlsors, and edlL drafLs of our pro[ecL. Cur flnlshed
asslgnmenLs wlll be submlLLed Lo our advlsor and cllenL elecLronlcally. Cur cllenL prefers Lo be
updaLed on our progress elecLronlcally and ln person when posslble. lrank Purd, a former 8ren
sLudenL now employed by Clazul, wlll be our prlmary conLacL wlLhln Lhe organlzaLlon.
LxpecLaLlons of Croup Members and laculLy Advlsors
As group members, we expecL our faculLy advlsor Lo be avallable for lmporLanL mllesLones ln
Lhe pro[ecL Llmellne. We are expecLed Lo lnform our advlsor of Lhese lmporLanL deadllnes as far
ln advance as posslble Lo provlde ample Llme for schedullng. We expecL our advlsor Lo glve
consLrucLlve feedback durlng Lhe gradlng process so LhaL we can work Lo lmprove our flnal
producL for our cllenL.
#*
4,(%Z,*$'(,!W #%0,(%&,:
+DE7 JY\\
! Coral 8eef WebslLe publlshed
08;?T JY\J:
! llnal reporL for Clazul and Lhe CoallLlon on Lhe aquarlum Lrade LhaL provldes an
assessmenL of Lhe cosL effecLlveness and conservaLlon/socloeconomlc beneflLs of
lmplemenLlng ºlmproved pracLlces" for Lhe aquarlum Lrade. 1he reporL wlll lnclude a
markeL assessmenL of avallable Lechnologles and recommendaLlons for besL pracLlces
based on Lhe approaches revlewed for Lhe pro[ecL. 1hls pro[ecL represenLs an lmporLanL
sLep for Clazul, lnfluenclng Lhelr prlorlLles for fuLure pro[ecLs relaLed Lo culLurlng
aquarlum flshes.
! 2" Lo 6"page educaLlon gulde for parLlclpanLs ln Lhe Lrade (e.g. nCCs, communlLles, and
buslnesses lnLeresLed ln reformlng pracLlces) abouL managemenL pracLlces ldenLlfled by
Lhe pro[ecL Lo be Lhe mosL cosL effecLlve and susLalnable. 1hls dellverable can be
conducLed ln parLnershlp wlLh Lhe 8ren communlcaLlons offlce, Lo provlde sLudenLs wlLh
experlence communlcaLlng sclence and research resulLs Lo broader audlences.
.66.*#"&%#%,! /.* (%&]! 3%#1 6*./,!!%.&$(![
! uan 1hornhlll" LnvlronmenLal uefense lund
! Cara Cooper" uefenders of Wlldllfe
! Pugo Salgado" llsherles LconomlsL, unlverslLy of Concepclon
! 8arry CosLa Þlerce" unlverslLy of 8hode lsland
! kaLe SmlLh" 8rown unlverslLy
&5.<
! 8lslng 1lde
! ?ayasan ALam lndonesla LesLar (Llnl)
! ConservaLlon and CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum (CCll)
$+
'"45,#
+D<@CGC?8@C=E:
lunds from Lhe 8ren School conslsL of $1300, of whlch $200 wlll be allocaLed Lo prlnLlng needs.
1he flnal posLer and presenLaLlon wlll cosL abouL $300, whlch wlll be broken up Lo $230 for
produclng Lhe flnal posLer and $30 for addlLlonal presenLaLlon expenses. 1he group may aLLend
a conference Lo share Lhelr research, $300 wlll be seL aslde Lo cover cosLs of aLLendance. An
amounL of $200 wlll be used for Lravel Lo meeL wlLh varlous lndusLry professlonals and
sLakeholders ln Callfornla. 1he flnal $300 wlll be used for phone calls and oLher necessary
expenses.
+D<@CGC?8@C=E[
lnLernshlp: $13/hr x $40hr/week = $320/wk x 4weeks = $2800 + Lravel expenses = $3300
AddlLlonal summer research expenses: 1ravel Lo Ponolulu (from Lhe 8lg lsland) by nlkl Mazaroll
Lhls summer for supply chaln research. LsLlmaLed cosL: $330 Lravel expenses plus addlLlonal
compensaLlon for research.
';7E /DEA<[ ^\_`YY
Lxpense AmounL
ÞrlnLlng 200
llnal posLer producLlon 230
ÞresenLaLlon expenses 30
Conference aLLendance 300
Local Lravel 200
Þhone cosLs 13
Mlscellaneous supplles 283
1oLal \_`YY
.F8aDF /DEA<[ ^\`_YYY
Lxpense AmounL
Summer lnLernshlp $3,300
AddlLlonal research and Lravel
over summer wlLhln uS
$1,000
Survey and meLhodology cosLs $1,000
AddlLlonal cosLs $9,300
1oLal ^\`_YYY
Survey and meLhodology cosLs: 1hls wlll cover needs for creaLlng surveys or any oLher cosLs for
our pro[ecL's meLhodology. lunds from Lhe 8ren school wlll also be used Lo cover Lhese cosLs.
AddlLlonal cosLs: used for any oLher expense deemed necessary Lo faclllLaLe pro[ecL
compleLlon. lunds may also be used for a slLe vlslL, lf necessary for our pro[ecL. Þosslble
desLlnaLlons lnclude lndonesla or Mexlco. 1hese funds are ln addlLlon Lo Lhe Lravel expenses
provlded for Lhe summer lnLernshlp. AddlLlonally, $1300 has been seL aslde as a buffer Lo
provlde for any unexpecLed addlLlonal expenses.
$!
$#
*,/,*,&-,!
Adams, S., MapsLone, 8.u., 8uss, C.8., and uavles, C.8.. (2000). Ceographlc varlaLlon and Lhe
sex raLlo, sex speclflc slze, and age sLrucLure of :6%'&(*(,8- 6%(*"#58- (Serranldae)
beLween reefs open and closed Lo flshlng on Lhe CreaL 8arrler 8eef. Canadlan !ournal of
llsherles and AquaLlc Sclences. 37: 1448"1438.
Alllson L. & Lllls l. (2001). 1he llvellhoods approach and managemenL of small"scale flsherles.
Marlne Þollcy 23: 377"388.
Analysls of desLrucLlve reef flshlng pracLlces ln Lhe lndo"Þaclflc. (2001). ConservaLlon and
CommunlLy lnvesLmenL lorum Marlne Þrogram. 8eLrleved from
hLLp://www.cclforum.org/pdfs/uesLrucLlve_ÞracLlces.pdf
Amos, A.M. & Claussen, !.u. (2009). CerLlflcaLlon as a ConservaLlon 1ool ln Lhe Marlne
Aquarlum 1rade: Challenges Lo LffecLlveness. 1urnsLone ConsulLlng and SLarllng
8esources. 31 pp.
Andrews, C. (1990). 1he ornamenLal flsh Lrade and flsh conservaLlon. !ournal of llsh 8lology, 37,
33"39.
8ellamy, !., & Wlnsby, M. (2008). Marlne Aquarlum MarkeL 1ransformaLlon lnlLlaLlve.
lnLernaLlonal llnance CorporaLlon: WashlngLon. 73 pp.
8ellwood, u.8., 1.Þ. Pughes, C. lolke, & M. nysLrom. (2004). 8evlew: ConfronLlng Lhe coral reef
crlsls. naLure. 429: 827"833.
8ruckner, A.W. (2003). 1he lmporLance of Lhe marlne ornamenLal reef flsh Lrade ln Lhe wlder
Carlbbean. lnLernaLlonal !ournal of 1roplcal 8lology, 33, 127"138
CenLer for 8lologlcal ulverslLy. (2011). Coral ConservaLlon. Þrograms: lnverLebraLes. 8eLrleved
May 13, 2011, from
hLLp://www.blologlcaldlverslLy.org/campalgns/coral_conservaLlon/lndex.hLml
LC Þrep Þro[ecL LÞ/8C3/814. (2003) lndoneslan CrnamenLal llsh 1rade: Case sLudles and
opLlons for lmprovlng llvellhoods whlle promoLlng susLalnablllLy ln 8anggal and
8anyuwangl.
Lndangered Specles AcL. (2010). Lndangered specles program. unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe
Servlce. 8eLrleved from: hLLp://www.fws.gov/endangered/specles/us"specles.hLml
$$
LnvlronmenLal news Servlce. (2010) Cl1LS Leaves 1rade ln Þreclous Corals unresLrlcLed.
lnLernaLlonal ually news Wlre. uoha: CaLar. 8eLrleved May 10, 2011, from
hLLp://www.ens"newswlre.com/ens/mar2010/2010"03"22"01.hLml
lorresLer, CL. (1993). SLrong denslLy"dependenL survlval and recrulLmenL regulaLe Lhe
abundance of a coral reef flsh. Cecologla, 103, 273-282.
CruLLer, A.S. (1999). Cleaner flsh really do clean. naLure, 398, 672"673.
Lecchlnl eL al. (2006) new perspecLlves on aquarlum flsh Lrade. llsherles Sclence, 72, 40"47
MAM1l. (2006). 8eporL on 8ovlng CollecLors: Case SLudles from lndonesla and Lhe Þhlllpplnes.
100 pp.
McManus, !.W. & 8eyes, 8.8. (1997). LffecLs of Some uesLrucLlve llshlng MeLhods on Coral
Cover and ÞoLenLlal 8aLes of 8ecovery. LnvlronmenLal ManagemenL. 21:69"78. uol:
10.1007/s++#'(**++++'
Moorhead, !onaLhan A. & Zeng, Chaoshu. (2010). uevelopmenL of CapLlve 8reedlng 1echnlques
for Marlne CrnamenLal llsh: A 8evlew. 8evlews ln llsherles Sclence, 18(4), 313"343.
Morrls, !.A., !r., & WhlLfleld, Þ.L.. (2009). 8lology, Lcology, ConLrol and ManagemenL of Lhe
lnvaslve lndo"Þaclflc Llonflsh: An updaLed lnLegraLed AssessmenL. nCAA 1echnlcal
Memorandum nCS nCCCS 99. 37 pp.
Morley, S. eL al. (1998). 1he use of Soclal lnvesLmenL lunds as an lnsLrumenL for CombaLlng
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nellemann, C. & Corcoran, L. (2006). Cur preclous coasLs - Marlne polluLlon, cllmaLe change
and Lhe reslllence of coasLal ecosysLems. unlLed naLlons LnvlronmenL Þrogramme,
C8lu"Arendal, norway. 8eLrleved from hLLp://www.grlda.no/graphlc.aspx?f=serles/rr"
our"preclous"coasLs/flgure03.[pg
nCAA llsherles. (n.d.) Marlne lnverLebraLe and ÞlanL Specles under Lhe Lndangered Specles AcL
(LSA). Cfflce of ÞroLecLed 8esources. 8eLrleved from
hLLp://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/specles/esa/lnverLebraLes.hLm
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8eksodlhard[o"Lllley, C. & Lllley, 8. (2007). 1owards a susLalnable marlne aquarlum Lrade: An
lndoneslan perspecLlve. SÞC Llve 8eef llsh lnformaLlon 8ulleLln #17. nov 2007: 11"19.
$%
8ubec, Þ.!., Cruz, l., ÞraLL, v., Cellers, 8., & Lallo, l. (2000). Cyanlde"free, neL"caughL flsh for Lhe
Marlne Aquarlum 1rade. SÞC 8eef llsh lnformaLlon 8ulleLln, #7. 7 pp.
SchmldL, C. & kunzmann, A. (2003). ÞosL"harvesL morLallLy ln Lhe marlne aquarlum Lrade: A
case sLudy of an lndoneslan exporL faclllLy. SÞC Llve 8eef llsh lnformaLlon 8ulleLln #13.
!an 2003:3"12.
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eco"cerLlflcaLlon Lhe answer? LnvlronmenLal ConservaLlon, 31(4), 339"348.
SkllLon, 1. (1993). CA11 and Lhe envlronmenL ln confllcL: Lhe Luna"dolphln dlspuLe and Lhe quesL
for an lnLernaLlonal conservaLlon sLraLegy. Cornell lnLernaLlonal Law !ournal, 26(2), 436.
1lmoLlus, S., eL al. (2009). A revlew on ornamenLal coral farmlng efforL ln lndonesla. Þaper
presenLed aL Lhe lnLernaLlonal Ccean Sclence, 1echnology, and Þollcy Symposlum May
12"14
1lssoL eL al. (2010). Pow u.S. ocean pollcy and markeL power can reform Lhe coral reef wlldllfe
Lrade. Marlne Þollcy, 34(6), 1383"1388.
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AquaculLure, 203: 203"219.
unlLed SLaLes llsh and Wlldllfe Servlce. (2000). lacLs abouL federal wlldllfe laws. unlLed SLaLes
ueparLmenL of Lhe lnLerlor. 8eLrleved
from hLLp://llbrary.fws.gov/Þubs9/wlldllfe_laws.pdf
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ConservaLlon. 8eLrleved from hLLp://www.fws.gov/flsherles/ans/AnSln[urlous.cfm
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doc_236072780.pdf