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Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) model that estimates the current value of the company's expected future cash flows. This value is then compared to the current stock price to assess whether or not the stock is attractively priced.
Southern Cross University
ePublications@SCU
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2010
Employee engagement with a corporate physical
activity program: the global corporate challenge
Pascal Scherrer
Southern Cross University
Lynnaire Sheridan
Edith Cowan University
Ruth Sibson
Edith Cowan University
Maria M. Ryan
Edith Cowan University
Nadine Henley
Edith Cowan University
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EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT WITH A CORPORATE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
PROGRAM: THE GLOBAL CORPORATE CHALLENGE
Pascal Scherrer
*
, Lynnaire Sheridan
**
, Ruth Sibson
**
,
Maria M Ryan
**
and Nadine Henley
**
ABSTRACT
Employers engage with corporate physical activity programs to foster employee
wellbeing with a view to reducing the costs of absence and recruitment. This study
reports on employee engagement with a commercial program, the Global Corporate
Challenge, in terms of motivation, barriers, team dynamics, social aspects and self-
reported physical activity levels. It uses guided introspection to explore how
participation affected employee’s motivation to sustain regular physical activity
within the workplace setting. The program raised awareness of employees’ individual
physical activity levels and fostered social interaction in the workplace. Findings
highlight the importance of employers providing a supportive context, fostering staff-
led team formation and considering motivational readiness of employees. They offer
insights into how programs can be supported and constrained by the workplace
culture.
Keywords: corporate wellbeing programs, health promotion, leisure time physical
activity, workplace health
INTRODUCTION
The health risks posed by physical inactivity in the developed world are at levels
comparable to the risk factors of smoking and alcohol use (Begg et al. 2007; WHO
2008). According to the World Health Organization (2002:60), physical inactivity, the
main contributor to obesity, is estimated to cause, “globally, about 10-16% of cases
each of breast cancer, colon and rectal cancers and diabetes mellitus, and about 22%
of ischaemic heart disease”. The health impacts of physical inactivity thus translate
into significant direct and indirect financial costs to the economy and society.
The costs of employees with poor health can be measured in terms of productivity
losses, sick days and compensation associated with illness. In Australia, illness costs
Australian businesses $37 billion per year (Human Resources 2005), with estimates by
Access Economics (2008) indicating that the financial productivity costs of obesity
alone amount to $3.6 billion, a two-fold rise since 2005 (Access Economics 2008).
These figures clearly show that employee health is increasingly becoming a critical
business issue as improved health could translate to considerable direct cost savings
for employers (Chapman 2005; Haines et al. 2007). Organisations must recognise that
good general health in workers can be encouraged by employers and is good for
business (Human Resources 2005). For example, since implementing free health
*
Corresponding Author - Centre for Tourism, Leisure and Work, School of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW 2480, Australia, Email:
[email protected] (current address); Centre for Ecosystem Management, School of Natural
Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth WA 6027, Australia (former address).
**
School of Marketing, Tourism and Leisure, Faculty of Business and Law, Edith Cowan University,
Perth WA 6027, Australia
2
assessments and workshops for their staff, the Accor hotels group have reported
increasing staff participation in these activities, and increased staff retention within the
company overall (Human Resources 2006). Similarly, the Eastman Chemical
Company in the United States attributes profit gains and a sales increase in part to the
implementation of a charter that includes employee wellbeing (Milliken 1997).
To date, the importance of employee wellbeing at work has been a neglected area of
inquiry in human resource management (Baptiste 2008). Bannister (2005) suggests
that Australian employers are beginning to realise that investment in the health of their
employees can bring real business benefits. However, the workplace is still under-
utilised as a site to promote healthy lifestyles and many workplaces, with their high
level of labour-saving devices, contribute to poor staff health by encouraging
sedentary behaviour (SAPAC 2007; Henley and Redmond 2006; Richmond et al.
1998). Over a lifetime, employees spend more than four times as long in the
workplace compared to engaging in leisure activities, highlighting the importance of
incorporating exercise into the work environment (Get Moving Tasmania 2006).
Urwin (2006:12) proposes that workplaces should actively deliver and facilitate health
promotion because “during working hours, the workforce is more susceptible to health
education programs such as healthy eating, smoking cessation and stress prevention”.
Increasingly, pressure is also coming from employees who expect their company to
promote wellbeing, particularly as workers perceive human resource managers as
guardians of employees’ interests, including their wellbeing (Renwick 2003). This is
reflected in a recent increase in employer support for occupational health and healthy
workplace programs, including physical activity programs (O’Reilly 2006).
Increases in physical activity contribute to individuals’ improvements in health and
wellbeing, reduced stress levels (e.g. Altchiler & Motta, 1994) and, on a population
level, to substantial economic savings. While government campaigns promoting
physical activity guidelines have contributed to an increasing population awareness of
the importance of physical activity, this understanding has so far failed to translate
into more physically active populations (Arora et al. 2006). In Australia, only 29% of
the population regularly, i.e. more than twice a week, engage in sport and physical
recreation activities such as walking and population health is continuing to decrease
(ABS 2007).
Workplace physical activity programs, such as the commercially operated Global
Corporate Challenge (GCC) examined in this study, have recognised the increasing
role of the workplace in slowing these trends by providing at-work opportunities for
employees to be more physically active. They strongly promote the physical and
social health benefits of such initiatives (Scherrer et al. 2008). The workplace may
also provide an opportune framework for social support, which has been identified in
the literature as an important factor to achieving behaviour change (Zimmerman and
Connor 1989).
The GCC is a four-month corporate physical activity-centred wellbeing program that
places participants in a team environment, allied to the workplace, with the aim of
increasing their daily physical fitness and achieving positive long-term behaviour
change. It does this by encouraging a minimum daily step count of 10,000 steps per
day per participant. Participants wear pedometers and enter their step-counts into a
website on a daily basis, contributing to the team total. The combined steps are
compared between teams across Australia in a virtual race using the GCC website and
3
incorporated Google Earth maps. Thus a participant can compare themselves against
other team members, and their team against other teams within and outside the
organisation. Participants also receive regular GCC newsletters via email which are
designed to encourage, motivate and maintain interest and participation.
According to the organisers, the GCC was designed to address three critical
components of long-term exercise sustainability: enjoyment, measurable achievement
and a supportive environment (GCC 2007). Thus achieving sustained positive
behaviour change is, at least notionally, at the core of the GCC and similar workplace
physical activity programs. According to Prochaska et al.’s (1992) change behaviour
theory, there are five common stages through which people progress to achieve
sustained behaviour change: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action
and maintenance. Associated with these stages are a number of processes of change,
ranging from consciousness raising through to self-reevaluation, self-liberation and
stimulus control (Prochaska et al. 1992). More recent studies have demonstrated the
importance of considering participant’s motivational readiness for exercise adoption
in the implementation of workplace physical activity interventions (Marcus et al.
1998, Scherrer et al. 2008). Scherrer et al. (2008) further identified elements of relapse
by participants during various phases of the program, validating the relevance of
Prochaska’s spiral model of behaviour change to the GCC. However, significant gaps
remain in our understanding of people’s motivation for initial and persistent
engagement with such programs. This paper aims to address that gap by specifically
examining participants’ motivation for engagement with the GCC, the barriers to
continuation once engaged and personal benefits to participants to better equip
employers to successfully implement corporate physical activity programs.
METHODOLOGY
Qualitative data was collected in the form of ‘Guided Introspection’. Introspection
was first used and documented in psychology in the late 1800s and early 1900s
(Boring 1953). Boring (1953:170) states that introspection involves “looking into our
own minds and reporting what we there discover”. The essence of introspection is
self-reflection. The technique aims to explore the feelings and emotions associated
with the experiences of the respondent at the time of performing an activity to obtain
rich, in-depth textual data in a timely manner. It is often in the form of verbal reports
or written narratives from respondents, with limited researcher probing or guidance.
The technique aims to uncover the emotions associated with experiences that may not
be overtly apparent to others (Wallendorf & Brucks, 1993).
There are at least five types of introspection used in consumer research as listed by
Wallendorf and Brucks (1993). In research introspection, the researcher provides the
self-introspection and is the only subject of the study. In guided introspection, a
sample (large or small) of subjects are asked to provide their reflections, feelings and
emotions about a specific purchase or event, usually verbally but also via written
questionnaires. The third category is termed ‘interactive introspection’ and is used
when the research and the subject are experiencing the same life experience, whereby
providing a bond that can result in richer more in depth descriptions and insights.
Syncretic combinations of introspection utilise the researcher introspections along
with the other respondents, there is no interaction of researcher and respondents but
the researcher introspections are simply added to the respondent data and analysed
4
accordingly. The final introspection method is reflexivity within the research. This
method involves the use of participant observation and involves the use of journal
recordings of the researcher feelings and experiences as he/she studies the respondents
group.
The application of guided introspection in this study was appropriate as it was deemed
the most effective way to explore emotions and reactions while actually participating
in the GCC event. Respondents were guided by a series of prompts that aimed to
direct them to be self-critical in their reflection process. This provides authentic
insights into the inner experiences of the individual which could not be observed
overtly or detected in other ways (even in-depth interviews may not yield such rich
data) but which could be critical in understanding people’s motivations to behave in
certain ways (Couper and Stinson 1999).
This study was conducted in the workplace setting of a tertiary institution in Western
Australia. A previous study at a comparable organisation had found that physical
activity levels, measured in mean steps per day, were significantly lower (7,605 mean
steps per day) compared to the general population of Western Australia (9,695 mean
steps per day), indicating a higher risk of poor health, mortality and morbidity from
chronic disease in staff members (Woolmer et al. 2005). Participants were from a
single organisation which fielded 56 GCC participants grouped in eight teams. All
GCC participants were invited via email to participate in the study. The invitation
explained that the study would involve four data collection points (diary-rounds).
Entry into the draw of a bottle of wine for each diary-round was offered as
encouragement and participants were reminded that their individual entry fee had been
subsidised by the GCC to support this study. A total of 27 out of the 56 GCC
participants (i.e. 48%) agreed to participate in the study and responded to at least one
of four diary-rounds.
Respondents were asked to provide written reports on how they were feeling at certain
times during the course of the GCC. They were encouraged to write as much (or as
little) as they wanted to and to express how they were feeling generally about their
participation in the challenge. In addition, they were prompted with specific questions
at each stage of the process:
(1) before commencement, the study prompted for feelings of anticipation, mastery
or apprehension;
(2) in the first month, the study prompted for early impressions, team cohesion and
competitive feelings;
(3) in the third month, the study prompted for experiences and feelings towards the
Challenge, and on sustaining or improving early levels of physical activity; and
(4) one week after the finish, the study prompted for assessments of their own levels
of physical activity, the value of being part of a workplace initiative, the value
of being part of a team, and their strategies for being more physically active.
The submitted diary entries were de-identified and entered into the qualitative data
management software NVivo 7 for analysis. The researchers separately reviewed the
transcripts and identified themes which were then cross-referenced by all researchers
to ensure reliability. To protect the identity of the participants, gender identifying
5
pseudonyms were used for each individual. Verbatims are identified according to the
gender pseudonym and from which of the four diary entry dates the verbatim was
obtained (D1 to D4). For example, a female participant aged 18-24 years was given
the pseudonym of ‘Alice’; a male participant aged 25-44 years was given the
pseudonym ‘Bob’ and a female 45-64 years ‘Caitlin’. Diary entries were numbered
and classified as D1- D4. Therefore a typical verbatim in the text following could be
allocated to ‘Alice D2’ which would indicate a verbatim from diary 2 entry for a
female participant aged between 18-24 years.
Limitations
This paper presents a case study examining the impact of a corporate physical activity
program within one workplace setting. Cognisant of this limitation, given varying
workplace populations, cultures and physical activity awareness, the discussion is
presented with reference to appropriate literature to broaden the context relevance of
the findings.
MOTIVATIONS BEHIND ENGAGEMENT WITH THE PROGRAM
Participants enrolled in this corporate wellbeing program for a variety of reasons.
However, there were two key themes which centred broadly on health and fitness
benefits, and the perceived enjoyment and fun of participating in this type of
competition.
Many participants expected general beneficial health and fitness outcomes from
increasing their walking each day: ‘fitness and weight loss’ (Clare D1) and ‘health
benefits, blood sugar, blood pressure, weight loss’ (Caitlin D1) and ‘I want to lose
some of the additional excess before adding variety to my exercise routines’ (Christine
D1). Some participants had high and specific expectations that the Challenge would
increase their weekly activity and general fitness: ‘ would like to increase my
weekly average to five hours plus my monthly bushwalks (around 30 km). Weight loss,
general fitness, enjoyment’ (Colin D1). However most had lesser expectations, merely
looking forward to an increase in their fitness levels and daily exercise. ‘What I hope
is that my activity levels increase…I have been complaining about the weight and the
fitness for ages. This seemed like an opportunity to finally do something about it’
(Brenda D1), or ‘I am not out to lose weight, but I like the idea of improving my fitness
level’ (Clare D1). Some participants entered the GCC in the hope of utilising the
support of the workplace setting to achieve health goals: ‘[It is] an opportunity to
become physically active, all my attempts in the past have failed, and I figured that
this time around with the support of other people I would have a better chance of
succeeding’ (Alice D1). There were also some participants who simply wished to be
more aware of or to quantify their actual physical activity levels: ‘I thought it would
be a great way to find out how many steps I walk and how active I actually am’ (Betty
D1), or ‘I thought it would be good to track my exercise, as I felt that I would average
10,000 steps on a normal day’ (Clare D1).
Aside from the expected health and fitness benefits, participation in the GCC was
expected to be fun and enjoyable: ‘…it seemed like a fun thing to do’ (Cadence D1).
The concept of walking ‘together’ around the globe generated excitement: ‘It is an
unusual competition that sounded like fun – touring the world in a virtual race’
6
(Belinda D1). Combining a global concept, personal monitoring and a team
competition utilising web technology was appealing to those seeking variety in their
exercise regimes: ‘I also look forward to recording the number of steps I take each
day to see how far around the world we will walk’ (Bethany D1), and ‘I thought it
would provide incentive to exercise and be fun’ (Brenda D1).
BARRIERS TO PARTICIPATION
The two critical workplace barriers cited by participants were time and team structure
as outlined below.
Time conflict: Exercise or work?
The perceived lack of time available for exercise was identified as a barrier by
participants even before the GCC commenced. ‘There never seem to be enough hours
in the day to do more exercise!’ (Beatrice D1). Some participants recognised the
importance of priority and commitment to participation in daily exercise. ‘It has to be
a deliberate decision to participate in scheduled exercise, and when other options
arise or work commitments are pressing, exercise often suffers’ (Bart D1). Others
acknowledged that pressures at work and home took precedence over exercise.
‘Getting out and walking seems to be a pain in the butt and secondary to doing work,
cooking dinner etc.’ (Becky D1). Participants were tired from working long hours and
lacked the commitment to exercise regularly. ‘I am spending more time in the office
now than ever. I am tired, and when I do get home, procrastinate on doing anything
active. I am learning to love my couch’ (Brenda D1).
Participating in the GCC did not seem to alleviate any of these pressures, as work
commitments continued to either inhibit time for exercise, or served as a de-motivator
for the Challenge: ‘I don’t have time to increase my training to desired levels due to
work commitments’ (Christopher D2). ‘My motivation for this activity has somewhat
diminished. I am working far longer hours recently – over 10 hours a day and haven’t
been dedicating much time for exercise. I am even not wearing the stepper some
days!!’ (Belinda D3). For many participants, work took precedence over physical
exercise when achieving both was difficult. ‘I am now working full time and I really
cannot be bothered exercising’ (Alice D3).
The effect the Challenge had on productivity at work was both positive and negative.
Some participants recorded that they lost valuable time to exercise that would
normally have been devoted to work: ‘Reduced it considerably. Instead of getting in
by 7am and doing 2 hours solid work before anyone gets in, I was walking, getting in
at 9. I would have lost 10 hours a week but maybe improved my health so I can live
longer, work longer… I felt anxious not getting to work so early’ (Caitlin D4).
However, this was not always viewed as a negative result. ‘Because I’m a workaholic
anyway it reduced my productivity in two ways. Firstly, I was walking in the early
morning – my most productive period. Secondly, I was tired at night, when I usually
catch up on emails. I may have been more effective. I think I was more positive. My
work/life balance was certainly improved!’ (Christine D4). Others expressed the belief
that increasing exercising levels increased productivity at work. ‘Regular exercise
improves my ability to concentrate and do non-physical work. The wearing of a
7
pedometer encouraged me to do more regular activity, though I am uncertain whether
overall the GCC made any difference’ (Bart D4).
Some participants noticed an improvement in their work/life balance and attributed
the Challenge with assisting them to prioritise. ‘While I was committed to this – I think
it helped me focus at work. It enabled me to prioritise the different areas of my life –
work, friends, family, exercise and relaxing time. It helped to put things in perspective
and balance my life better and give 100% during the time that I had dedicated to the
different aspects – which included work’ (Belinda D4).
Team Structure:
Creating the right mix for maximum personal and organisational results
GCC teams in the organisation were assigned by circulating an open email asking for
expressions of interest as well as word-of-mouth invitations to participate. Several
work areas engaged their employees and submitted a group of people and thus some
teams roughly aligned with work areas, with other individuals slotted into teams to
make up the required seven members. This slotting into teams to make up numbers
caused some participants to revisit their commitment to the Challenge. ‘I got shuffled
onto a team of people I don’t know and I was tossing up whether to pull out or not’
(Brenda D1). The method of team formation was seen as a factor in team function. ‘I
don’t think the approach taken in forming the teams was successful. There is no team
motivation, no team focus, so this is really an individual effort’ (Colin D3).
Participants had preconceived ideas of how a team should interact and some were
apprehensive at commencement as to the dynamics of their team and the peer pressure
that may be applied to individuals as they participated in the Challenge. ‘A bit
apprehensive. I never liked team sports at school and have not participated in any
team activity such as this before. Would hate to find myself unable to meet expected
targets and letting the side down’ (Caitlin D1).
This study highlights both the positive and the negative aspects of participating in a
team. Some participants felt that their team members were not committed enough to
the Challenge. ‘I ask other team members, and they are not even worried about
achieving 10,000 steps, which I find quite disappointing’ (Clare D2). Others, for
reasons considered earlier, found the group cohesion of their team to be limited and
this then affected their team members’ commitment. ‘Only one person really made
any kind of contact or effort on my team, which was a shame. But we were the team of
people who didn’t fit on other teams so I guess it was only to be expected and from
water-cooler gossip it wasn’t just my team that had that problem. What was really
frustrating was logging on and seeing that there were people with up to 28 days
missed steps. Either do it or don’t, but if you sign up it is a promise to try at least!!’
(Brenda D4). Some participants believed that at the commencement of the Challenge
specific goals should have been set to outline minimum expectations. ‘It was quite
disappointing to see how little people on our team got involved. It seemed to be much
more of a chore and maybe that was because there was no team goal that was set at
the beginning of the challenge towards which to strive and motivate each other’ (Bart
D4). Other participants took on the role of coach to encourage better participation
from their colleagues. ‘I do feel that some on my team aren’t taking it as seriously.
However, I send weekly pep emails to the team trying to encourage them to walk
more’ (Cathy D3).
8
Communication between individual team members declined as the Challenge
progressed and not entering steps online on a daily basis affected the motivation of
other team members. ‘I keep an eye on the team progress, but don’t feel it is a team
anymore. We have one member who has not lodged steps for over 10 days’ (Colin
D2).
This perceived lack of commitment by some team members began to erode team
communication and created tension among participants. Some participants suspected
their fellow team members were more focused on individual achievement than that of
the combined team effort. ‘My team isn’t working particularly well together on this –
I think we are all measuring ourselves against individual goals’ (Caitlin D3).
Where teams functioned well, positive aspects included: comradeship, motivation,
support, encouragement and a sense of belonging. Team members encouraged each
other to perform better. ‘My team’s great. We encourage each other and I know they
have driven me to walk more’ (Cassie D2). Communication between team members
provided encouragement and a sense of belonging. ‘The main motivation was being a
part of a team and able to share and talk about what happened each day’ (Bob D2).
Developing better social relations and bonding with work colleagues was an important
part of the GCC as further outlined in the following section. Many participants were
motivated to perform at their best. ‘Being in a team (and especially my team!) makes
you feel like you don’t want to let them down and you need to keep doing your part to
help the team’ (Betty D3). Others worried that their poor performance would let their
team members down. ‘I didn’t want to let the team down. I tried to make sure that my
average at least matched the team’s’ (Christine D4). Indeed, feelings of guilt,
disappointment and embarrassment were reported when performing below team
average. ‘I didn’t want to record a low step count as it would be “embarrassing”’
(Bernice D4). This acted as a motivator to increase their performance in the future. ‘I
find that I am looking at my step count and when it is low I feel ‘slack’ and
embarrassed (I don’t want to let the team down) and that is forcing me to exercise
more’ (Bernice D2). However, not all shared the feelings of guilt: ‘I do admire those
dedicated few that get upset when they let their team down’ (Alice D3).
Thus while some groups were unable to harness the potential group dynamic to
improve both the physical activity levels of the group and its individuals, other teams
functioned well and contributed to bonding and social relationships in the workplace.
PERSONAL BENEFITS FROM ENGAGING IN THE
WORKPLACE WELLBEING PROGRAM
Social aspect
Overall, the GCC appeared to have a positive impact on the social relations within the
workplace. It provided a topic for corridor conversations thus facilitating social
interaction. ‘We’ve had heaps to talk about in the corridors and it has broken down
barriers with people I don’t know very well. On a weekend bushwalk [organised by
and for GCC participants], with 12 people from work, I had a long chat with someone
I didn’t know very well before and the conversation carried on the next day’ (Cassie
D2). Team members actively encouraged each other throughout the day and the
Challenge helped develop a sense of community within the workplace that was not
9
present prior to the GCC. ‘I am loving this! It has created a real sense of community
among the participants’ (Cecilia D2).
The interaction between work colleagues facilitated by the GCC created a motivating
element of competition. ‘It’s also certainly given rise to a large number of
conversations between colleagues at work discussing step counts and strategies, but
there has also been quite a large element of competition between colleagues or the
different teams’ (Bernice D2). Some participants together developed strategies to
increase their daily step counts, with one participant noting: ‘Quite a few of us were
getting really creative and enthusiastic – anything a bit social that would increase our
step rate was fair game’ (Brenda D1). GCC participants initiated team or group
activities much enjoyed and popular activities also outside work. ‘It has also
encouraged people to organise group activities such as hikes, which I think are great
for team and workplace bonding’ (Betty D2).
Support from work colleagues and the workplace environment to continue and
achieve step goals played an important role in motivating participants, leaving
participants without at a disadvantage. ‘I’m on a campus that isn’t much involved in
the GCC so I don’t get much tacit support from my direct work environment’
(Christine D2). As the Challenge progressed, however, in some instances support at
work diminished ‘…the initial hype and the novelty has worn off, down the corridor
people are barely talking about it anymore’ (Alice D3).
Increased awareness of physical activity levels
Participants had preconceived ideas of their activity prior to the Challenge. ‘Before I
started to wear the pedometer I thought I would easily make 10,000 steps. This was
not the case. I have realised that you will actually have to make an effort to get to
10,000’ (Bethany D2). As the GCC progressed, some participants realised they were
not as active as they thought they were. ‘I have been surprised at how little exercise I
actually do during some days. I thought I was fairly active but find it a challenge some
days to get to 10,000….the magic number to strive for. I find myself walking at night
to get the steps up’ (Carla D2).
Some participants made determined efforts to meet the minimum step requirements of
the Challenge, increasing their physical activity in order to increase their step counts.
‘I find I haven’t done ‘enough’ steps by mid afternoon, I go for a long walk to up the
count’ (Cathy D2). Participants evaluated their daily activities to facilitate more
physical activity and found creative ways to increase their daily step counts. ‘My
behaviour has definitely changed as a result of the Challenge, I am always looking for
ways to get a few extra steps now, parking the car further away, walking to places I
might have driven to, etc.’ (Betty D3). Those who increased their daily physical
activity experienced a sense of achievement and happiness. ‘It’s amazing how
disappointed I feel when I get a low step count and how good I feel when I improve my
daily average or record a big step count’ (Betty D3).
Generally participants were motivated to increase their daily step counts and in some
cases their physical activity levels increased. They were actively engaged in creating
new ways to increase their physical activity levels and were disappointed when they
failed in their goals and experienced a sense of achievement when they were
successful.
10
DISCUSSION
Corporate physical activity programs such as the GCC can contribute positively to
employee health by increasing staff’s awareness of low personal physical activity
levels and fostering social interaction and engagement in physical activity in the
workplace. As such, the GCC may be a useful tool for organisations to engage their
employees in developing healthy physical activity habits, but is no panacea to the
health challenges associated with many of today’s desk and computer-based
workspaces. As highlighted by this case study, the implementation alone of the
program within an organisation, complete with GCC support through the website and
emails, may not be sufficient to sustainably engage employees for the four month
program period, let alone beyond the challenge.
Indeed, this study highlights the important role of the implementing organisation in
setting a supportive context as well as the importance of ground-up participation in the
team-formation and goal-setting processes by employees. Thus organisations taking
part in the GCC should focus on facilitating the process, such as by encouraging the
self-formation of teams, and linking the program with other employee wellbeing
initiatives, including social events. Such an approach could foster a sense of
ownership and responsibility in team members, likely increasing their motivation,
sustained participation and contribution to team support (Byrne 2005). Providing
organisational support for the program concept and facilitating the positive social
dimensions highlighted by this study could further contribute to the strengthening of
the employee-employer relationship, as employees recognise the organisational
support as being valued. This notion is supported by Boxall et al. (2003) who found
that employees felt valued and supported in organisations that supported social
networks. Job satisfaction was closely linked to “…being happy with co-workers and
having a good relationship with one’s supervisors – the social ties that bind employees
to employers” (Boxall et al. 2003:210).
Support motivates and makes physical activity participation fun as also highlighted by
Zimmermann and Connor (1989) in their paper on the effects of ‘Significant Others’
on health behaviour change. Whether sedentary or highly active, participants
recognised that being physically active would be beneficial for their health. Staff
engaged with the program as they saw it as a motivator and avenue for support, by
adding an element of fun and providing a self- and peer-monitoring tool to benchmark
their performance. This initial engagement is seen to be particularly important to
sedentary people, the most-at-risk group, where even relatively small increases in
physical activity can result in a dramatic reduction of health risk. Two key challenges,
in particular, require further attention:
1. Participation of sedentary people; and
2. Sustaining positive physical activity behaviour for the longer-term.
First, gaps remain to date in our knowledge of program up-take in particular by
sedentary people. The ever increasing achievements of the leading team in the GCC,
averaging 34,286 steps per person per day in 2009, are unlikely to encourage
participation of sedentary people, but rather could act as a further barrier to program
entry. The concept of motivational readiness, as also highlighted by Marcus et al.
(1998) and which links with Prochaska et al.’s (1992) stage model of behaviour
11
change, thus remains neglected in standard one-goal-fits-all programs such as the
GCC. Indeed, workplace physical activity programs may reinforce inequalities and
may contribute to indirect discrimination of non-participants, with less active workers
often avoiding recruitment (McGillivray 2002, Marshall 2004). Second, Prochaska et
al.’s (1992:1104) work on how people change identified that behaviour modification
involves progression through a series of stages in which frequent relapses are “the rule
rather than the exception”. Indeed, the success of program interventions was closely
linked to the people’s readiness for change as reflected by their stage of progression.
These findings were supported by Scherrer et al. (2008) in the context of corporate
physical activity programs who also reported that participants struggled to maintain
the momentum once the novelty had worn off and personal bests had less and less
influence on the overall average of their results.
Findings from a recent study by Craike (2007) further emphasise the difficulty of
achieving regular physical activity participation, indicating that for the behaviour to
become sustained, physical activity has to become a life priority for people. Craike’s
(2007) findings, nevertheless, were in a leisure time context whereas programs such as
the GCC focus on physical activity more broadly, including the work context and
particularly increasing incidental activity, such as for example using the stairs instead
of the lift. Thus in a work context, physical adjustments such as making pedestrian
access-ways safe and pleasant environments, providing attractive outdoor spaces and
encouraging social interaction and networks during work days, could contribute to an
increase in incidental physical activity. This notion is also supported in social
ecological approaches where space and place provide an important link with physical
activity and healthy behaviours (Henderson 2006; Kaczynski and Henderson 2007).
From an organisational perspective, work culture and workload management may also
play important roles in improving employee physical activity participation (Byrne
2005, Smith and Sainfort 1989). Our findings indicate that maintaining a daily level of
physical activity was often one of the first priorities to be dropped by participants
when the workload was high. Where people did adjust their work schedule to
accommodate regular physical activity, some continued to fight an internal conflict of
recognising the health benefits and even reported improvements in effectiveness
versus the loss of actual hours worked. The type of work and nature of the
organisation may contribute to this apparent conflict, though similar results from
studies in the UK and US support our findings, highlighting that a lack of time due to
work commitments was one of the main barriers to implementing healthier lifestyles
(Haines et al. 2007; O’Reilly 2006).
Although participants in all studies were encouraged by their organisations to commit
to the program, they did not perceive support from the organisation to “take time out”
from work for exercise; instead it was considered an additional activity leading to the
stresses associated with time pressures. Thus the shift from relegating physical activity
to leisure time towards a more integrated approach, recognising the value of incidental
physical activity and the role of the workplace in achieving healthy physical activity
behaviour, remains to be achieved in practice. Many studies outline that leisure
environments are not always conducive to exercise, hence organisations can no longer
transfer that responsibility and rely on the leisure environment (Godbey et al. 2005;
Owen et al. 2007). With a growing body of evidence of the importance of place and
space to physical activity behaviour (Henderson 2006; Kaczynski and Henderson
2007), perceived access to facilities is also an important, though yet little understood,
12
factor (Kruger et al. 2007). Organisational measures to reduce these barriers to
participation should include a combination of providing flexible work schedules to
facilitate staff participation in exercise opportunities, senior management leading by
example with active participation in activities and the provision of appropriate places
and facilities, demonstrating the organisation’s commitment to encouraging physical
activity participation with view to a healthy work/life balance.
Physical exercise within the workplace setting encouraged relationship building
between people with whom they would ordinarily have had little contact. Indeed, the
GCC succeeded in stimulating a range of positive actions by participants, with some
taking deliberate steps to incorporate physical activity into their and their colleagues’
working days and arrange special ‘GCC community’ events such as walks on
weekends. Some participants worked with each other to achieve the minimum step
counts each week, appreciating the support and encouragement offered by their
colleagues. In this way, it can be concluded that the ‘community’ within the
workplace was strengthened. Nevertheless, whether the GCC increased productivity at
work was perceived differently by different participants in this study and appears to be
linked to the physical and motivational state of participants at the time of participation
in the program.
Future research
Three key areas for future research are suggested. First, as highlighted in the previous
section, uptake behaviour of the most-at-risk group of sedentary people and the
integration of the motivational readiness concept requires further investigation,
particularly with focus on non-participation. Second, the impact of organisational
interventions to support and facilitate continuing participation through measurement
pre and post support intervention or using a control group could offer organisations
information on how to maximise the benefits of the program. A third area for future
research is the role of organisations in facilitating employee work/life balance and
interventions targeting unhealthy organisational culture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge Justine Nagorski, Ragu Ganeshasundaram, May Carter, Sue
Bahn and the anonymous reviewers for their contributions.
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doc_860933552.pdf
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Employee engagement with a corporate physical
activity program: the global corporate challenge
Pascal Scherrer
Southern Cross University
Lynnaire Sheridan
Edith Cowan University
Ruth Sibson
Edith Cowan University
Maria M. Ryan
Edith Cowan University
Nadine Henley
Edith Cowan University
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EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT WITH A CORPORATE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
PROGRAM: THE GLOBAL CORPORATE CHALLENGE
Pascal Scherrer
*
, Lynnaire Sheridan
**
, Ruth Sibson
**
,
Maria M Ryan
**
and Nadine Henley
**
ABSTRACT
Employers engage with corporate physical activity programs to foster employee
wellbeing with a view to reducing the costs of absence and recruitment. This study
reports on employee engagement with a commercial program, the Global Corporate
Challenge, in terms of motivation, barriers, team dynamics, social aspects and self-
reported physical activity levels. It uses guided introspection to explore how
participation affected employee’s motivation to sustain regular physical activity
within the workplace setting. The program raised awareness of employees’ individual
physical activity levels and fostered social interaction in the workplace. Findings
highlight the importance of employers providing a supportive context, fostering staff-
led team formation and considering motivational readiness of employees. They offer
insights into how programs can be supported and constrained by the workplace
culture.
Keywords: corporate wellbeing programs, health promotion, leisure time physical
activity, workplace health
INTRODUCTION
The health risks posed by physical inactivity in the developed world are at levels
comparable to the risk factors of smoking and alcohol use (Begg et al. 2007; WHO
2008). According to the World Health Organization (2002:60), physical inactivity, the
main contributor to obesity, is estimated to cause, “globally, about 10-16% of cases
each of breast cancer, colon and rectal cancers and diabetes mellitus, and about 22%
of ischaemic heart disease”. The health impacts of physical inactivity thus translate
into significant direct and indirect financial costs to the economy and society.
The costs of employees with poor health can be measured in terms of productivity
losses, sick days and compensation associated with illness. In Australia, illness costs
Australian businesses $37 billion per year (Human Resources 2005), with estimates by
Access Economics (2008) indicating that the financial productivity costs of obesity
alone amount to $3.6 billion, a two-fold rise since 2005 (Access Economics 2008).
These figures clearly show that employee health is increasingly becoming a critical
business issue as improved health could translate to considerable direct cost savings
for employers (Chapman 2005; Haines et al. 2007). Organisations must recognise that
good general health in workers can be encouraged by employers and is good for
business (Human Resources 2005). For example, since implementing free health
*
Corresponding Author - Centre for Tourism, Leisure and Work, School of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW 2480, Australia, Email:
[email protected] (current address); Centre for Ecosystem Management, School of Natural
Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth WA 6027, Australia (former address).
**
School of Marketing, Tourism and Leisure, Faculty of Business and Law, Edith Cowan University,
Perth WA 6027, Australia
2
assessments and workshops for their staff, the Accor hotels group have reported
increasing staff participation in these activities, and increased staff retention within the
company overall (Human Resources 2006). Similarly, the Eastman Chemical
Company in the United States attributes profit gains and a sales increase in part to the
implementation of a charter that includes employee wellbeing (Milliken 1997).
To date, the importance of employee wellbeing at work has been a neglected area of
inquiry in human resource management (Baptiste 2008). Bannister (2005) suggests
that Australian employers are beginning to realise that investment in the health of their
employees can bring real business benefits. However, the workplace is still under-
utilised as a site to promote healthy lifestyles and many workplaces, with their high
level of labour-saving devices, contribute to poor staff health by encouraging
sedentary behaviour (SAPAC 2007; Henley and Redmond 2006; Richmond et al.
1998). Over a lifetime, employees spend more than four times as long in the
workplace compared to engaging in leisure activities, highlighting the importance of
incorporating exercise into the work environment (Get Moving Tasmania 2006).
Urwin (2006:12) proposes that workplaces should actively deliver and facilitate health
promotion because “during working hours, the workforce is more susceptible to health
education programs such as healthy eating, smoking cessation and stress prevention”.
Increasingly, pressure is also coming from employees who expect their company to
promote wellbeing, particularly as workers perceive human resource managers as
guardians of employees’ interests, including their wellbeing (Renwick 2003). This is
reflected in a recent increase in employer support for occupational health and healthy
workplace programs, including physical activity programs (O’Reilly 2006).
Increases in physical activity contribute to individuals’ improvements in health and
wellbeing, reduced stress levels (e.g. Altchiler & Motta, 1994) and, on a population
level, to substantial economic savings. While government campaigns promoting
physical activity guidelines have contributed to an increasing population awareness of
the importance of physical activity, this understanding has so far failed to translate
into more physically active populations (Arora et al. 2006). In Australia, only 29% of
the population regularly, i.e. more than twice a week, engage in sport and physical
recreation activities such as walking and population health is continuing to decrease
(ABS 2007).
Workplace physical activity programs, such as the commercially operated Global
Corporate Challenge (GCC) examined in this study, have recognised the increasing
role of the workplace in slowing these trends by providing at-work opportunities for
employees to be more physically active. They strongly promote the physical and
social health benefits of such initiatives (Scherrer et al. 2008). The workplace may
also provide an opportune framework for social support, which has been identified in
the literature as an important factor to achieving behaviour change (Zimmerman and
Connor 1989).
The GCC is a four-month corporate physical activity-centred wellbeing program that
places participants in a team environment, allied to the workplace, with the aim of
increasing their daily physical fitness and achieving positive long-term behaviour
change. It does this by encouraging a minimum daily step count of 10,000 steps per
day per participant. Participants wear pedometers and enter their step-counts into a
website on a daily basis, contributing to the team total. The combined steps are
compared between teams across Australia in a virtual race using the GCC website and
3
incorporated Google Earth maps. Thus a participant can compare themselves against
other team members, and their team against other teams within and outside the
organisation. Participants also receive regular GCC newsletters via email which are
designed to encourage, motivate and maintain interest and participation.
According to the organisers, the GCC was designed to address three critical
components of long-term exercise sustainability: enjoyment, measurable achievement
and a supportive environment (GCC 2007). Thus achieving sustained positive
behaviour change is, at least notionally, at the core of the GCC and similar workplace
physical activity programs. According to Prochaska et al.’s (1992) change behaviour
theory, there are five common stages through which people progress to achieve
sustained behaviour change: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action
and maintenance. Associated with these stages are a number of processes of change,
ranging from consciousness raising through to self-reevaluation, self-liberation and
stimulus control (Prochaska et al. 1992). More recent studies have demonstrated the
importance of considering participant’s motivational readiness for exercise adoption
in the implementation of workplace physical activity interventions (Marcus et al.
1998, Scherrer et al. 2008). Scherrer et al. (2008) further identified elements of relapse
by participants during various phases of the program, validating the relevance of
Prochaska’s spiral model of behaviour change to the GCC. However, significant gaps
remain in our understanding of people’s motivation for initial and persistent
engagement with such programs. This paper aims to address that gap by specifically
examining participants’ motivation for engagement with the GCC, the barriers to
continuation once engaged and personal benefits to participants to better equip
employers to successfully implement corporate physical activity programs.
METHODOLOGY
Qualitative data was collected in the form of ‘Guided Introspection’. Introspection
was first used and documented in psychology in the late 1800s and early 1900s
(Boring 1953). Boring (1953:170) states that introspection involves “looking into our
own minds and reporting what we there discover”. The essence of introspection is
self-reflection. The technique aims to explore the feelings and emotions associated
with the experiences of the respondent at the time of performing an activity to obtain
rich, in-depth textual data in a timely manner. It is often in the form of verbal reports
or written narratives from respondents, with limited researcher probing or guidance.
The technique aims to uncover the emotions associated with experiences that may not
be overtly apparent to others (Wallendorf & Brucks, 1993).
There are at least five types of introspection used in consumer research as listed by
Wallendorf and Brucks (1993). In research introspection, the researcher provides the
self-introspection and is the only subject of the study. In guided introspection, a
sample (large or small) of subjects are asked to provide their reflections, feelings and
emotions about a specific purchase or event, usually verbally but also via written
questionnaires. The third category is termed ‘interactive introspection’ and is used
when the research and the subject are experiencing the same life experience, whereby
providing a bond that can result in richer more in depth descriptions and insights.
Syncretic combinations of introspection utilise the researcher introspections along
with the other respondents, there is no interaction of researcher and respondents but
the researcher introspections are simply added to the respondent data and analysed
4
accordingly. The final introspection method is reflexivity within the research. This
method involves the use of participant observation and involves the use of journal
recordings of the researcher feelings and experiences as he/she studies the respondents
group.
The application of guided introspection in this study was appropriate as it was deemed
the most effective way to explore emotions and reactions while actually participating
in the GCC event. Respondents were guided by a series of prompts that aimed to
direct them to be self-critical in their reflection process. This provides authentic
insights into the inner experiences of the individual which could not be observed
overtly or detected in other ways (even in-depth interviews may not yield such rich
data) but which could be critical in understanding people’s motivations to behave in
certain ways (Couper and Stinson 1999).
This study was conducted in the workplace setting of a tertiary institution in Western
Australia. A previous study at a comparable organisation had found that physical
activity levels, measured in mean steps per day, were significantly lower (7,605 mean
steps per day) compared to the general population of Western Australia (9,695 mean
steps per day), indicating a higher risk of poor health, mortality and morbidity from
chronic disease in staff members (Woolmer et al. 2005). Participants were from a
single organisation which fielded 56 GCC participants grouped in eight teams. All
GCC participants were invited via email to participate in the study. The invitation
explained that the study would involve four data collection points (diary-rounds).
Entry into the draw of a bottle of wine for each diary-round was offered as
encouragement and participants were reminded that their individual entry fee had been
subsidised by the GCC to support this study. A total of 27 out of the 56 GCC
participants (i.e. 48%) agreed to participate in the study and responded to at least one
of four diary-rounds.
Respondents were asked to provide written reports on how they were feeling at certain
times during the course of the GCC. They were encouraged to write as much (or as
little) as they wanted to and to express how they were feeling generally about their
participation in the challenge. In addition, they were prompted with specific questions
at each stage of the process:
(1) before commencement, the study prompted for feelings of anticipation, mastery
or apprehension;
(2) in the first month, the study prompted for early impressions, team cohesion and
competitive feelings;
(3) in the third month, the study prompted for experiences and feelings towards the
Challenge, and on sustaining or improving early levels of physical activity; and
(4) one week after the finish, the study prompted for assessments of their own levels
of physical activity, the value of being part of a workplace initiative, the value
of being part of a team, and their strategies for being more physically active.
The submitted diary entries were de-identified and entered into the qualitative data
management software NVivo 7 for analysis. The researchers separately reviewed the
transcripts and identified themes which were then cross-referenced by all researchers
to ensure reliability. To protect the identity of the participants, gender identifying
5
pseudonyms were used for each individual. Verbatims are identified according to the
gender pseudonym and from which of the four diary entry dates the verbatim was
obtained (D1 to D4). For example, a female participant aged 18-24 years was given
the pseudonym of ‘Alice’; a male participant aged 25-44 years was given the
pseudonym ‘Bob’ and a female 45-64 years ‘Caitlin’. Diary entries were numbered
and classified as D1- D4. Therefore a typical verbatim in the text following could be
allocated to ‘Alice D2’ which would indicate a verbatim from diary 2 entry for a
female participant aged between 18-24 years.
Limitations
This paper presents a case study examining the impact of a corporate physical activity
program within one workplace setting. Cognisant of this limitation, given varying
workplace populations, cultures and physical activity awareness, the discussion is
presented with reference to appropriate literature to broaden the context relevance of
the findings.
MOTIVATIONS BEHIND ENGAGEMENT WITH THE PROGRAM
Participants enrolled in this corporate wellbeing program for a variety of reasons.
However, there were two key themes which centred broadly on health and fitness
benefits, and the perceived enjoyment and fun of participating in this type of
competition.
Many participants expected general beneficial health and fitness outcomes from
increasing their walking each day: ‘fitness and weight loss’ (Clare D1) and ‘health
benefits, blood sugar, blood pressure, weight loss’ (Caitlin D1) and ‘I want to lose
some of the additional excess before adding variety to my exercise routines’ (Christine
D1). Some participants had high and specific expectations that the Challenge would
increase their weekly activity and general fitness: ‘ would like to increase my
weekly average to five hours plus my monthly bushwalks (around 30 km). Weight loss,
general fitness, enjoyment’ (Colin D1). However most had lesser expectations, merely
looking forward to an increase in their fitness levels and daily exercise. ‘What I hope
is that my activity levels increase…I have been complaining about the weight and the
fitness for ages. This seemed like an opportunity to finally do something about it’
(Brenda D1), or ‘I am not out to lose weight, but I like the idea of improving my fitness
level’ (Clare D1). Some participants entered the GCC in the hope of utilising the
support of the workplace setting to achieve health goals: ‘[It is] an opportunity to
become physically active, all my attempts in the past have failed, and I figured that
this time around with the support of other people I would have a better chance of
succeeding’ (Alice D1). There were also some participants who simply wished to be
more aware of or to quantify their actual physical activity levels: ‘I thought it would
be a great way to find out how many steps I walk and how active I actually am’ (Betty
D1), or ‘I thought it would be good to track my exercise, as I felt that I would average
10,000 steps on a normal day’ (Clare D1).
Aside from the expected health and fitness benefits, participation in the GCC was
expected to be fun and enjoyable: ‘…it seemed like a fun thing to do’ (Cadence D1).
The concept of walking ‘together’ around the globe generated excitement: ‘It is an
unusual competition that sounded like fun – touring the world in a virtual race’
6
(Belinda D1). Combining a global concept, personal monitoring and a team
competition utilising web technology was appealing to those seeking variety in their
exercise regimes: ‘I also look forward to recording the number of steps I take each
day to see how far around the world we will walk’ (Bethany D1), and ‘I thought it
would provide incentive to exercise and be fun’ (Brenda D1).
BARRIERS TO PARTICIPATION
The two critical workplace barriers cited by participants were time and team structure
as outlined below.
Time conflict: Exercise or work?
The perceived lack of time available for exercise was identified as a barrier by
participants even before the GCC commenced. ‘There never seem to be enough hours
in the day to do more exercise!’ (Beatrice D1). Some participants recognised the
importance of priority and commitment to participation in daily exercise. ‘It has to be
a deliberate decision to participate in scheduled exercise, and when other options
arise or work commitments are pressing, exercise often suffers’ (Bart D1). Others
acknowledged that pressures at work and home took precedence over exercise.
‘Getting out and walking seems to be a pain in the butt and secondary to doing work,
cooking dinner etc.’ (Becky D1). Participants were tired from working long hours and
lacked the commitment to exercise regularly. ‘I am spending more time in the office
now than ever. I am tired, and when I do get home, procrastinate on doing anything
active. I am learning to love my couch’ (Brenda D1).
Participating in the GCC did not seem to alleviate any of these pressures, as work
commitments continued to either inhibit time for exercise, or served as a de-motivator
for the Challenge: ‘I don’t have time to increase my training to desired levels due to
work commitments’ (Christopher D2). ‘My motivation for this activity has somewhat
diminished. I am working far longer hours recently – over 10 hours a day and haven’t
been dedicating much time for exercise. I am even not wearing the stepper some
days!!’ (Belinda D3). For many participants, work took precedence over physical
exercise when achieving both was difficult. ‘I am now working full time and I really
cannot be bothered exercising’ (Alice D3).
The effect the Challenge had on productivity at work was both positive and negative.
Some participants recorded that they lost valuable time to exercise that would
normally have been devoted to work: ‘Reduced it considerably. Instead of getting in
by 7am and doing 2 hours solid work before anyone gets in, I was walking, getting in
at 9. I would have lost 10 hours a week but maybe improved my health so I can live
longer, work longer… I felt anxious not getting to work so early’ (Caitlin D4).
However, this was not always viewed as a negative result. ‘Because I’m a workaholic
anyway it reduced my productivity in two ways. Firstly, I was walking in the early
morning – my most productive period. Secondly, I was tired at night, when I usually
catch up on emails. I may have been more effective. I think I was more positive. My
work/life balance was certainly improved!’ (Christine D4). Others expressed the belief
that increasing exercising levels increased productivity at work. ‘Regular exercise
improves my ability to concentrate and do non-physical work. The wearing of a
7
pedometer encouraged me to do more regular activity, though I am uncertain whether
overall the GCC made any difference’ (Bart D4).
Some participants noticed an improvement in their work/life balance and attributed
the Challenge with assisting them to prioritise. ‘While I was committed to this – I think
it helped me focus at work. It enabled me to prioritise the different areas of my life –
work, friends, family, exercise and relaxing time. It helped to put things in perspective
and balance my life better and give 100% during the time that I had dedicated to the
different aspects – which included work’ (Belinda D4).
Team Structure:
Creating the right mix for maximum personal and organisational results
GCC teams in the organisation were assigned by circulating an open email asking for
expressions of interest as well as word-of-mouth invitations to participate. Several
work areas engaged their employees and submitted a group of people and thus some
teams roughly aligned with work areas, with other individuals slotted into teams to
make up the required seven members. This slotting into teams to make up numbers
caused some participants to revisit their commitment to the Challenge. ‘I got shuffled
onto a team of people I don’t know and I was tossing up whether to pull out or not’
(Brenda D1). The method of team formation was seen as a factor in team function. ‘I
don’t think the approach taken in forming the teams was successful. There is no team
motivation, no team focus, so this is really an individual effort’ (Colin D3).
Participants had preconceived ideas of how a team should interact and some were
apprehensive at commencement as to the dynamics of their team and the peer pressure
that may be applied to individuals as they participated in the Challenge. ‘A bit
apprehensive. I never liked team sports at school and have not participated in any
team activity such as this before. Would hate to find myself unable to meet expected
targets and letting the side down’ (Caitlin D1).
This study highlights both the positive and the negative aspects of participating in a
team. Some participants felt that their team members were not committed enough to
the Challenge. ‘I ask other team members, and they are not even worried about
achieving 10,000 steps, which I find quite disappointing’ (Clare D2). Others, for
reasons considered earlier, found the group cohesion of their team to be limited and
this then affected their team members’ commitment. ‘Only one person really made
any kind of contact or effort on my team, which was a shame. But we were the team of
people who didn’t fit on other teams so I guess it was only to be expected and from
water-cooler gossip it wasn’t just my team that had that problem. What was really
frustrating was logging on and seeing that there were people with up to 28 days
missed steps. Either do it or don’t, but if you sign up it is a promise to try at least!!’
(Brenda D4). Some participants believed that at the commencement of the Challenge
specific goals should have been set to outline minimum expectations. ‘It was quite
disappointing to see how little people on our team got involved. It seemed to be much
more of a chore and maybe that was because there was no team goal that was set at
the beginning of the challenge towards which to strive and motivate each other’ (Bart
D4). Other participants took on the role of coach to encourage better participation
from their colleagues. ‘I do feel that some on my team aren’t taking it as seriously.
However, I send weekly pep emails to the team trying to encourage them to walk
more’ (Cathy D3).
8
Communication between individual team members declined as the Challenge
progressed and not entering steps online on a daily basis affected the motivation of
other team members. ‘I keep an eye on the team progress, but don’t feel it is a team
anymore. We have one member who has not lodged steps for over 10 days’ (Colin
D2).
This perceived lack of commitment by some team members began to erode team
communication and created tension among participants. Some participants suspected
their fellow team members were more focused on individual achievement than that of
the combined team effort. ‘My team isn’t working particularly well together on this –
I think we are all measuring ourselves against individual goals’ (Caitlin D3).
Where teams functioned well, positive aspects included: comradeship, motivation,
support, encouragement and a sense of belonging. Team members encouraged each
other to perform better. ‘My team’s great. We encourage each other and I know they
have driven me to walk more’ (Cassie D2). Communication between team members
provided encouragement and a sense of belonging. ‘The main motivation was being a
part of a team and able to share and talk about what happened each day’ (Bob D2).
Developing better social relations and bonding with work colleagues was an important
part of the GCC as further outlined in the following section. Many participants were
motivated to perform at their best. ‘Being in a team (and especially my team!) makes
you feel like you don’t want to let them down and you need to keep doing your part to
help the team’ (Betty D3). Others worried that their poor performance would let their
team members down. ‘I didn’t want to let the team down. I tried to make sure that my
average at least matched the team’s’ (Christine D4). Indeed, feelings of guilt,
disappointment and embarrassment were reported when performing below team
average. ‘I didn’t want to record a low step count as it would be “embarrassing”’
(Bernice D4). This acted as a motivator to increase their performance in the future. ‘I
find that I am looking at my step count and when it is low I feel ‘slack’ and
embarrassed (I don’t want to let the team down) and that is forcing me to exercise
more’ (Bernice D2). However, not all shared the feelings of guilt: ‘I do admire those
dedicated few that get upset when they let their team down’ (Alice D3).
Thus while some groups were unable to harness the potential group dynamic to
improve both the physical activity levels of the group and its individuals, other teams
functioned well and contributed to bonding and social relationships in the workplace.
PERSONAL BENEFITS FROM ENGAGING IN THE
WORKPLACE WELLBEING PROGRAM
Social aspect
Overall, the GCC appeared to have a positive impact on the social relations within the
workplace. It provided a topic for corridor conversations thus facilitating social
interaction. ‘We’ve had heaps to talk about in the corridors and it has broken down
barriers with people I don’t know very well. On a weekend bushwalk [organised by
and for GCC participants], with 12 people from work, I had a long chat with someone
I didn’t know very well before and the conversation carried on the next day’ (Cassie
D2). Team members actively encouraged each other throughout the day and the
Challenge helped develop a sense of community within the workplace that was not
9
present prior to the GCC. ‘I am loving this! It has created a real sense of community
among the participants’ (Cecilia D2).
The interaction between work colleagues facilitated by the GCC created a motivating
element of competition. ‘It’s also certainly given rise to a large number of
conversations between colleagues at work discussing step counts and strategies, but
there has also been quite a large element of competition between colleagues or the
different teams’ (Bernice D2). Some participants together developed strategies to
increase their daily step counts, with one participant noting: ‘Quite a few of us were
getting really creative and enthusiastic – anything a bit social that would increase our
step rate was fair game’ (Brenda D1). GCC participants initiated team or group
activities much enjoyed and popular activities also outside work. ‘It has also
encouraged people to organise group activities such as hikes, which I think are great
for team and workplace bonding’ (Betty D2).
Support from work colleagues and the workplace environment to continue and
achieve step goals played an important role in motivating participants, leaving
participants without at a disadvantage. ‘I’m on a campus that isn’t much involved in
the GCC so I don’t get much tacit support from my direct work environment’
(Christine D2). As the Challenge progressed, however, in some instances support at
work diminished ‘…the initial hype and the novelty has worn off, down the corridor
people are barely talking about it anymore’ (Alice D3).
Increased awareness of physical activity levels
Participants had preconceived ideas of their activity prior to the Challenge. ‘Before I
started to wear the pedometer I thought I would easily make 10,000 steps. This was
not the case. I have realised that you will actually have to make an effort to get to
10,000’ (Bethany D2). As the GCC progressed, some participants realised they were
not as active as they thought they were. ‘I have been surprised at how little exercise I
actually do during some days. I thought I was fairly active but find it a challenge some
days to get to 10,000….the magic number to strive for. I find myself walking at night
to get the steps up’ (Carla D2).
Some participants made determined efforts to meet the minimum step requirements of
the Challenge, increasing their physical activity in order to increase their step counts.
‘I find I haven’t done ‘enough’ steps by mid afternoon, I go for a long walk to up the
count’ (Cathy D2). Participants evaluated their daily activities to facilitate more
physical activity and found creative ways to increase their daily step counts. ‘My
behaviour has definitely changed as a result of the Challenge, I am always looking for
ways to get a few extra steps now, parking the car further away, walking to places I
might have driven to, etc.’ (Betty D3). Those who increased their daily physical
activity experienced a sense of achievement and happiness. ‘It’s amazing how
disappointed I feel when I get a low step count and how good I feel when I improve my
daily average or record a big step count’ (Betty D3).
Generally participants were motivated to increase their daily step counts and in some
cases their physical activity levels increased. They were actively engaged in creating
new ways to increase their physical activity levels and were disappointed when they
failed in their goals and experienced a sense of achievement when they were
successful.
10
DISCUSSION
Corporate physical activity programs such as the GCC can contribute positively to
employee health by increasing staff’s awareness of low personal physical activity
levels and fostering social interaction and engagement in physical activity in the
workplace. As such, the GCC may be a useful tool for organisations to engage their
employees in developing healthy physical activity habits, but is no panacea to the
health challenges associated with many of today’s desk and computer-based
workspaces. As highlighted by this case study, the implementation alone of the
program within an organisation, complete with GCC support through the website and
emails, may not be sufficient to sustainably engage employees for the four month
program period, let alone beyond the challenge.
Indeed, this study highlights the important role of the implementing organisation in
setting a supportive context as well as the importance of ground-up participation in the
team-formation and goal-setting processes by employees. Thus organisations taking
part in the GCC should focus on facilitating the process, such as by encouraging the
self-formation of teams, and linking the program with other employee wellbeing
initiatives, including social events. Such an approach could foster a sense of
ownership and responsibility in team members, likely increasing their motivation,
sustained participation and contribution to team support (Byrne 2005). Providing
organisational support for the program concept and facilitating the positive social
dimensions highlighted by this study could further contribute to the strengthening of
the employee-employer relationship, as employees recognise the organisational
support as being valued. This notion is supported by Boxall et al. (2003) who found
that employees felt valued and supported in organisations that supported social
networks. Job satisfaction was closely linked to “…being happy with co-workers and
having a good relationship with one’s supervisors – the social ties that bind employees
to employers” (Boxall et al. 2003:210).
Support motivates and makes physical activity participation fun as also highlighted by
Zimmermann and Connor (1989) in their paper on the effects of ‘Significant Others’
on health behaviour change. Whether sedentary or highly active, participants
recognised that being physically active would be beneficial for their health. Staff
engaged with the program as they saw it as a motivator and avenue for support, by
adding an element of fun and providing a self- and peer-monitoring tool to benchmark
their performance. This initial engagement is seen to be particularly important to
sedentary people, the most-at-risk group, where even relatively small increases in
physical activity can result in a dramatic reduction of health risk. Two key challenges,
in particular, require further attention:
1. Participation of sedentary people; and
2. Sustaining positive physical activity behaviour for the longer-term.
First, gaps remain to date in our knowledge of program up-take in particular by
sedentary people. The ever increasing achievements of the leading team in the GCC,
averaging 34,286 steps per person per day in 2009, are unlikely to encourage
participation of sedentary people, but rather could act as a further barrier to program
entry. The concept of motivational readiness, as also highlighted by Marcus et al.
(1998) and which links with Prochaska et al.’s (1992) stage model of behaviour
11
change, thus remains neglected in standard one-goal-fits-all programs such as the
GCC. Indeed, workplace physical activity programs may reinforce inequalities and
may contribute to indirect discrimination of non-participants, with less active workers
often avoiding recruitment (McGillivray 2002, Marshall 2004). Second, Prochaska et
al.’s (1992:1104) work on how people change identified that behaviour modification
involves progression through a series of stages in which frequent relapses are “the rule
rather than the exception”. Indeed, the success of program interventions was closely
linked to the people’s readiness for change as reflected by their stage of progression.
These findings were supported by Scherrer et al. (2008) in the context of corporate
physical activity programs who also reported that participants struggled to maintain
the momentum once the novelty had worn off and personal bests had less and less
influence on the overall average of their results.
Findings from a recent study by Craike (2007) further emphasise the difficulty of
achieving regular physical activity participation, indicating that for the behaviour to
become sustained, physical activity has to become a life priority for people. Craike’s
(2007) findings, nevertheless, were in a leisure time context whereas programs such as
the GCC focus on physical activity more broadly, including the work context and
particularly increasing incidental activity, such as for example using the stairs instead
of the lift. Thus in a work context, physical adjustments such as making pedestrian
access-ways safe and pleasant environments, providing attractive outdoor spaces and
encouraging social interaction and networks during work days, could contribute to an
increase in incidental physical activity. This notion is also supported in social
ecological approaches where space and place provide an important link with physical
activity and healthy behaviours (Henderson 2006; Kaczynski and Henderson 2007).
From an organisational perspective, work culture and workload management may also
play important roles in improving employee physical activity participation (Byrne
2005, Smith and Sainfort 1989). Our findings indicate that maintaining a daily level of
physical activity was often one of the first priorities to be dropped by participants
when the workload was high. Where people did adjust their work schedule to
accommodate regular physical activity, some continued to fight an internal conflict of
recognising the health benefits and even reported improvements in effectiveness
versus the loss of actual hours worked. The type of work and nature of the
organisation may contribute to this apparent conflict, though similar results from
studies in the UK and US support our findings, highlighting that a lack of time due to
work commitments was one of the main barriers to implementing healthier lifestyles
(Haines et al. 2007; O’Reilly 2006).
Although participants in all studies were encouraged by their organisations to commit
to the program, they did not perceive support from the organisation to “take time out”
from work for exercise; instead it was considered an additional activity leading to the
stresses associated with time pressures. Thus the shift from relegating physical activity
to leisure time towards a more integrated approach, recognising the value of incidental
physical activity and the role of the workplace in achieving healthy physical activity
behaviour, remains to be achieved in practice. Many studies outline that leisure
environments are not always conducive to exercise, hence organisations can no longer
transfer that responsibility and rely on the leisure environment (Godbey et al. 2005;
Owen et al. 2007). With a growing body of evidence of the importance of place and
space to physical activity behaviour (Henderson 2006; Kaczynski and Henderson
2007), perceived access to facilities is also an important, though yet little understood,
12
factor (Kruger et al. 2007). Organisational measures to reduce these barriers to
participation should include a combination of providing flexible work schedules to
facilitate staff participation in exercise opportunities, senior management leading by
example with active participation in activities and the provision of appropriate places
and facilities, demonstrating the organisation’s commitment to encouraging physical
activity participation with view to a healthy work/life balance.
Physical exercise within the workplace setting encouraged relationship building
between people with whom they would ordinarily have had little contact. Indeed, the
GCC succeeded in stimulating a range of positive actions by participants, with some
taking deliberate steps to incorporate physical activity into their and their colleagues’
working days and arrange special ‘GCC community’ events such as walks on
weekends. Some participants worked with each other to achieve the minimum step
counts each week, appreciating the support and encouragement offered by their
colleagues. In this way, it can be concluded that the ‘community’ within the
workplace was strengthened. Nevertheless, whether the GCC increased productivity at
work was perceived differently by different participants in this study and appears to be
linked to the physical and motivational state of participants at the time of participation
in the program.
Future research
Three key areas for future research are suggested. First, as highlighted in the previous
section, uptake behaviour of the most-at-risk group of sedentary people and the
integration of the motivational readiness concept requires further investigation,
particularly with focus on non-participation. Second, the impact of organisational
interventions to support and facilitate continuing participation through measurement
pre and post support intervention or using a control group could offer organisations
information on how to maximise the benefits of the program. A third area for future
research is the role of organisations in facilitating employee work/life balance and
interventions targeting unhealthy organisational culture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge Justine Nagorski, Ragu Ganeshasundaram, May Carter, Sue
Bahn and the anonymous reviewers for their contributions.
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