Description
In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons for accepting a particular conclusion as evident.[1][2] The general structure of an argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of a claim
White Paper for Argument in Support and Against of Hofstede Work
1. Introduction
This individual paper aims to provide an overview about Hofstede's work of describing the five culture dimensions and discusses both sides of these arguments. Hofstede's work on culture is the most widely cited in existence (Bond 2002; Hofstede 1997). His observations and analysis provide scholars and practitioners with a highly valuable insight into the dynamics of cross-cultural relationships. However, such a groundbreaking body of work does not escape criticism. Hofstede has been dogged by academics discrediting his work in part or whole. On the other side of this contentious argument are academics that support his work. Far more scholars belong on the pro-Hofstede team than do not, most quote Hofstede's work with unabashed confidence, many including his findings as absolute assumptions. "Undoubtedly, the most significant cross-cultural study of work-related values is the one carried out by Hofstede" (Bhagat and McQuaid 1982). Much interest has been placed on culture in business in the last two decades, and it has never been as important in business terms as it is today. The study of the field began in earnest with the work of Hofstede with his landmark study of IBM (Hofstede 1980), and with Peters and Waterman who started the organisation culture sensation with "In Search of Excellence" (Peters and Waterman 1982). Preceding these studies however, was the work of Bartels (1967) who was one of the first to relate the importance of culture, illustrating the concept in decision-making and business ethics. Bartels identifies several criteria for the identification of cultural differences. The paper will first defined the culture meaning and then give an overview about Hofstede study and his culture dimensions. In the same time the paper will review the main criticisms of Hofstede study, then we will conclude by suggesting that the researchers will work more in research like Hofstede to evaluate culture in terms of contemporary standards. Research is
1_ _
also needed to better explore the dimensions proposed by Hofstede and Bond to determine what more can be added.
2. Culture Questionable?
A discussion on culture should first begin with a definition. The quantity of cultural definitions expounded by learned researchers are too numerous to count, each one having a relevant claim to a meaningful understanding of the terms of culture. Olie discusses over 164 different definitions for culture collected up until 1951 (Olie 1995, 128). Hofstede himself also provides equivocal definitions "A collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one group from another" (Hofstede 1980, 25). "Mental programming ? patterns of thinking and feeling and potential acting" (Hofstede 1991a, 4). A key term in these definitions is the word 'programming'. Culture is not something that is easily acquired it is a slow process of growing into a society. It includes:
• Learning values (dominant beliefs and attitudes), • Partaking of rituals (collective activities), • Modelling against heroes (role models), and • Understanding symbols (myths, legends, dress, jargon, lingo?)
These ingredients of culture are acquired from birth. They are influenced by family, school, religion, workplace, friends, television, newspapers and books, and many other sources.
3. Hofstede's Study
Hofstede (1980) asked the question, "Do American theories apply abroad?", after he had surveyed over 116,000 IBM employees from over 50 countries. Hofstede worked with IBM (at the time identified as Hermes) staff over the years 1967 to 1978 to obtain this research. From the data he obtained he provided a factor analysis of 32 questions in 40 countries. From this he identified four bipolar dimensions (Power Distance; Individualism/Collectivism; Uncertainty Avoidance; Masculinity/Femininity), which became the basis of his characterisations of culture for each country. A subsequent study conducted by Hofstede (1991b) and Hofstede and Bond (1984 and 1988) that Hofstede introduced a fifth element 'Confucian Dynamism' or 'Long/Short Term Orientation', which was an attempt to fit the uncertainty avoidance dimension into the Asian culture.
2_ _
4. Hofstede's five cultural dimensions
Power Distance (PD) that is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.
Individualism (IDV) on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word 'collectivism' in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world. Masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity refers to the distribution of roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and
3_ _
security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation: this fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's 'face'. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage.
5. Arguments against Hofstede
Criticised and complemented on the breadth, depth and import of his study into culture ("Culture's Consequences"). Hofstede's work has been nothing short of highly controversial. Like some of the great economists (Keynes, Malthus, Philips) Hofstede is not without his protagonists and antagonists. Many arguments run against Hofstede's work, the discussion which follows endeavours to capture some of the more pertinent issues. Relevancy Many researchers like Galit Ailon, The Academy of Management Review allude a survey is not an appropriate instrument for accurately determining and measuring cultural disparity. This is especially apparent when the variable being measured is a value which culturally sensitive and subjective. Hofstede addresses this criticism saying that surveys are one method, but not the only method that was used. Cultural Homogeneity This criticism is perhaps the most popular. Hofstede's study assumes the domestic population is a homogenous whole, however most nations are groups of ethnic units. Analysis is therefore constrained by the character of the individual being assessed; the outcomes have a possibility of arbitrariness. On the other hand Hofstede tends to ignore the importance of community, and the variations of the community influences. National Divisions
4_ _
Nations are not the proper units of analysis as cultures are not necessarily bounded by borders. Recent research has found that culture is in fact fragmented across group and national lines. Hofstede points out those national identities are the only means we have of identifying and measuring cultural differences. Political Influences The outcomes, particularly those pertaining to Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance, may have been sensitive to the timing of the survey. Europe was in the midst of the cold war and was still haunted by vivid memories of World War Two, similarly was their the communist insurgence in Asia, Africa and Europe. As a result of the political instabilities of the time, the sample lacks data from socialist countries, as well as from the less affluent Third World Countries. One Company Approach A study fixated on only one company cannot possibly provide information on the entire cultural system of a country. Hofstede said he was not making an absolute measure, he was merely gauging differences between cultures and this style of cross-sectional analysis was appropriate. In addition, Hofstede points out that the use of a single multinational employer eliminates the effect of the corporate policy and management practices from different companies influencing behaviour differently, leaving only national culture to explain cultural difference. Out-dated Some researchers like M. L. Jones (2007) have claimed that the study is too old to be of any modern value, particularly with today's rapidly changing global environment, internationalisation and convergence. Hofstede countered saying that the cross-cultural outcomes were based on centuries of indoctrination, recent replications have supported the fact that culture will not change overnight. Too Few Dimensions Four or five dimensions do not give sufficient information about cultural differences. Hofstede agrees and believes additional dimensions should continue to be added to his original work. Statistical integrity Dorfman and Howell (1988) have found that in his analysis, Hofstede has, on occasion, used the same questionnaire item on more than one scale, and several have significant crossloadings. In fact, when closely observed, the analysis comprises 32 questions with only 40
5_ _
cases or subjects (40 data points corresponding to 40 countries). An analysis built on so few 'subjects' takes great advantage of chance and increases the likelihood of sample error.
6. Arguments in support of Hofstede
While the criticisms may be sound, Hofstede's research is one of the most widely used pieces of research among scholars and practitioners, it has many appealing attributes. Sondergaard found that Hofstede's 1980 study received 1,036 citations, while another highly regarded study on strategy by Miles and Snow received only 200 citations. Many researchers agree on the following points which reinforce the value of the study. Relevance During the time of its delivery there was very little work on culture, and at this time many businesses were just entering the international arena and were experiencing difficulties; they were crying out for credible advice. Hofstede's work met and exceeded this demand for guidance. Scholarly attention was also turning toward culture during this period, and Hofstede was considered a pioneer and pathfinder. Rigour The research framework used by Hofstede was based on rigorous design with systematic data collection and coherent theory. This is just what scholars and the marketplace had been asking for. However, many critics claim the sampling was flawed, being sparse and unevenly distributed. Relative Accuracy In Sondergaard's bibliographical analysis he compared the replications (research similar to Hofstede's IBM study, originated to compare his findings) of Hofstede's research. 61 replications were analysed. The majority of the replications confirmed Hofstede's predictions. Four of the replications concurred in their entirety, and 15 showed partial confirmation. The only dimension of Hofstede's that could not be validly confirmed was 'Individualism'; however, Hofstede addressed this issue by predicting that cultures will shift over time. Several studies were developed not as replications, but along similar lines, to test the relevancy of Hofstede's questions. These have also confirmed the accuracy of Hofstede's four dimensions.
6_ _
7. Conclusion
This paper has provided an evaluation of Geert Hofstede's ground-breaking work on cross cultural differences. It has included argument in support of Hofstede as well as against his work. Many researchers like Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) have replicated Hofstede's study and many more continue with other cross-cultural studies. However, although Hofstede does not agree, many researchers find culture to be a dynamic, constantly changing field. Cultures are merging, technology is changing the way we communicate, and globalisation is changing the way we trade and interface. Doubts about the representativeness of the IBM population are the most common criticisms of Hofstede's claims. Sometimes Hofstede claims to have identify differences between national cultures and sometimes that he has identify those cultures. The focus of his analysis of the IBM questionnaire data is on differences. But relying on that analysis he often refers to absolute and not comparative characteristics of specific national cultures. To conclude, more research is needed to evaluate culture in terms of contemporary standards. Research is also needed to better explore the dimensions proposed by Hofstede and Hofstede and Bond to determine whether more can be added. While the level of controversy surrounding this work is still quite high, it remains the most valuable piece of work on culture for both scholars and practitioners.
7_ _
8. REFERENCES
Bartels, R. (1967). "A Model for Ethics in Marketing". Journal of Marketing 31(1): 20-26. Bhagat, R. S. and S. J. McQuaid (1982). "Role of Subjective Culture in Organizations: A review and directions for future research." Journal of Applied Psychology 67(5): 653-685. Bond, M. H. (2002). "Reclaiming the Individual from Hofstede's Ecological Analysis- A 20-Year Odyssey: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002)." Psychological Bulletin 128(1): 73-77. Dorfman, P. W. and J. P. Howell (1988). "Dimensions of National Culture and Effective Leadership Patterns: Hofstede revisited." Advances in International Comparative Management 3: 127-150. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International differences in work related values. Beverly Hill, CA, Sage. Hofstede, G. (1991a). Culture and Organisations. New York, McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (1991b). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. London, McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (1997). The Archimedes effect. Working at the interface of cultures: 18 lives in social science. M. H. Bond. London, Routledge: 47-61. Hofstede, G. and M. H. Bond (1984). "Hofstede's Culture Dimensions: An Independent Validation Using Rokeach's Value Survey." Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 15(4): 417-433 Hofstede, G. and M. H. Bond (1988). "The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth." Organizational Dynamics 16(4): 5-21. Miles, Raymond E. and Snow, Charles C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure, and process. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Olie, R. (1995). The 'Culture' Factor in Personnel and Organization Policies. International Human Resource Management: An integrated approach. A. Harzing and V. R. J. London, Sage Publications: 124-143. Peters, T. J. and R. H. J. Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence. New York, Harper & Row. Søndergaard, M. (1994). "Hofstede's consequences: A study of reviews, citations and replications." Organization Studies 15(3): 447. Jones, M, Hofstede - Culturally questionable?, Oxford Business & Economics Conference. Oxford, UK, 24-26 June, 2007.
24, July 2010
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doc_422834971.docx
In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons for accepting a particular conclusion as evident.[1][2] The general structure of an argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of a claim
White Paper for Argument in Support and Against of Hofstede Work
1. Introduction
This individual paper aims to provide an overview about Hofstede's work of describing the five culture dimensions and discusses both sides of these arguments. Hofstede's work on culture is the most widely cited in existence (Bond 2002; Hofstede 1997). His observations and analysis provide scholars and practitioners with a highly valuable insight into the dynamics of cross-cultural relationships. However, such a groundbreaking body of work does not escape criticism. Hofstede has been dogged by academics discrediting his work in part or whole. On the other side of this contentious argument are academics that support his work. Far more scholars belong on the pro-Hofstede team than do not, most quote Hofstede's work with unabashed confidence, many including his findings as absolute assumptions. "Undoubtedly, the most significant cross-cultural study of work-related values is the one carried out by Hofstede" (Bhagat and McQuaid 1982). Much interest has been placed on culture in business in the last two decades, and it has never been as important in business terms as it is today. The study of the field began in earnest with the work of Hofstede with his landmark study of IBM (Hofstede 1980), and with Peters and Waterman who started the organisation culture sensation with "In Search of Excellence" (Peters and Waterman 1982). Preceding these studies however, was the work of Bartels (1967) who was one of the first to relate the importance of culture, illustrating the concept in decision-making and business ethics. Bartels identifies several criteria for the identification of cultural differences. The paper will first defined the culture meaning and then give an overview about Hofstede study and his culture dimensions. In the same time the paper will review the main criticisms of Hofstede study, then we will conclude by suggesting that the researchers will work more in research like Hofstede to evaluate culture in terms of contemporary standards. Research is
1_ _
also needed to better explore the dimensions proposed by Hofstede and Bond to determine what more can be added.
2. Culture Questionable?
A discussion on culture should first begin with a definition. The quantity of cultural definitions expounded by learned researchers are too numerous to count, each one having a relevant claim to a meaningful understanding of the terms of culture. Olie discusses over 164 different definitions for culture collected up until 1951 (Olie 1995, 128). Hofstede himself also provides equivocal definitions "A collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one group from another" (Hofstede 1980, 25). "Mental programming ? patterns of thinking and feeling and potential acting" (Hofstede 1991a, 4). A key term in these definitions is the word 'programming'. Culture is not something that is easily acquired it is a slow process of growing into a society. It includes:
• Learning values (dominant beliefs and attitudes), • Partaking of rituals (collective activities), • Modelling against heroes (role models), and • Understanding symbols (myths, legends, dress, jargon, lingo?)
These ingredients of culture are acquired from birth. They are influenced by family, school, religion, workplace, friends, television, newspapers and books, and many other sources.
3. Hofstede's Study
Hofstede (1980) asked the question, "Do American theories apply abroad?", after he had surveyed over 116,000 IBM employees from over 50 countries. Hofstede worked with IBM (at the time identified as Hermes) staff over the years 1967 to 1978 to obtain this research. From the data he obtained he provided a factor analysis of 32 questions in 40 countries. From this he identified four bipolar dimensions (Power Distance; Individualism/Collectivism; Uncertainty Avoidance; Masculinity/Femininity), which became the basis of his characterisations of culture for each country. A subsequent study conducted by Hofstede (1991b) and Hofstede and Bond (1984 and 1988) that Hofstede introduced a fifth element 'Confucian Dynamism' or 'Long/Short Term Orientation', which was an attempt to fit the uncertainty avoidance dimension into the Asian culture.
2_ _
4. Hofstede's five cultural dimensions
Power Distance (PD) that is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.
Individualism (IDV) on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word 'collectivism' in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world. Masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity refers to the distribution of roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and
3_ _
security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation: this fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's 'face'. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage.
5. Arguments against Hofstede
Criticised and complemented on the breadth, depth and import of his study into culture ("Culture's Consequences"). Hofstede's work has been nothing short of highly controversial. Like some of the great economists (Keynes, Malthus, Philips) Hofstede is not without his protagonists and antagonists. Many arguments run against Hofstede's work, the discussion which follows endeavours to capture some of the more pertinent issues. Relevancy Many researchers like Galit Ailon, The Academy of Management Review allude a survey is not an appropriate instrument for accurately determining and measuring cultural disparity. This is especially apparent when the variable being measured is a value which culturally sensitive and subjective. Hofstede addresses this criticism saying that surveys are one method, but not the only method that was used. Cultural Homogeneity This criticism is perhaps the most popular. Hofstede's study assumes the domestic population is a homogenous whole, however most nations are groups of ethnic units. Analysis is therefore constrained by the character of the individual being assessed; the outcomes have a possibility of arbitrariness. On the other hand Hofstede tends to ignore the importance of community, and the variations of the community influences. National Divisions
4_ _
Nations are not the proper units of analysis as cultures are not necessarily bounded by borders. Recent research has found that culture is in fact fragmented across group and national lines. Hofstede points out those national identities are the only means we have of identifying and measuring cultural differences. Political Influences The outcomes, particularly those pertaining to Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance, may have been sensitive to the timing of the survey. Europe was in the midst of the cold war and was still haunted by vivid memories of World War Two, similarly was their the communist insurgence in Asia, Africa and Europe. As a result of the political instabilities of the time, the sample lacks data from socialist countries, as well as from the less affluent Third World Countries. One Company Approach A study fixated on only one company cannot possibly provide information on the entire cultural system of a country. Hofstede said he was not making an absolute measure, he was merely gauging differences between cultures and this style of cross-sectional analysis was appropriate. In addition, Hofstede points out that the use of a single multinational employer eliminates the effect of the corporate policy and management practices from different companies influencing behaviour differently, leaving only national culture to explain cultural difference. Out-dated Some researchers like M. L. Jones (2007) have claimed that the study is too old to be of any modern value, particularly with today's rapidly changing global environment, internationalisation and convergence. Hofstede countered saying that the cross-cultural outcomes were based on centuries of indoctrination, recent replications have supported the fact that culture will not change overnight. Too Few Dimensions Four or five dimensions do not give sufficient information about cultural differences. Hofstede agrees and believes additional dimensions should continue to be added to his original work. Statistical integrity Dorfman and Howell (1988) have found that in his analysis, Hofstede has, on occasion, used the same questionnaire item on more than one scale, and several have significant crossloadings. In fact, when closely observed, the analysis comprises 32 questions with only 40
5_ _
cases or subjects (40 data points corresponding to 40 countries). An analysis built on so few 'subjects' takes great advantage of chance and increases the likelihood of sample error.
6. Arguments in support of Hofstede
While the criticisms may be sound, Hofstede's research is one of the most widely used pieces of research among scholars and practitioners, it has many appealing attributes. Sondergaard found that Hofstede's 1980 study received 1,036 citations, while another highly regarded study on strategy by Miles and Snow received only 200 citations. Many researchers agree on the following points which reinforce the value of the study. Relevance During the time of its delivery there was very little work on culture, and at this time many businesses were just entering the international arena and were experiencing difficulties; they were crying out for credible advice. Hofstede's work met and exceeded this demand for guidance. Scholarly attention was also turning toward culture during this period, and Hofstede was considered a pioneer and pathfinder. Rigour The research framework used by Hofstede was based on rigorous design with systematic data collection and coherent theory. This is just what scholars and the marketplace had been asking for. However, many critics claim the sampling was flawed, being sparse and unevenly distributed. Relative Accuracy In Sondergaard's bibliographical analysis he compared the replications (research similar to Hofstede's IBM study, originated to compare his findings) of Hofstede's research. 61 replications were analysed. The majority of the replications confirmed Hofstede's predictions. Four of the replications concurred in their entirety, and 15 showed partial confirmation. The only dimension of Hofstede's that could not be validly confirmed was 'Individualism'; however, Hofstede addressed this issue by predicting that cultures will shift over time. Several studies were developed not as replications, but along similar lines, to test the relevancy of Hofstede's questions. These have also confirmed the accuracy of Hofstede's four dimensions.
6_ _
7. Conclusion
This paper has provided an evaluation of Geert Hofstede's ground-breaking work on cross cultural differences. It has included argument in support of Hofstede as well as against his work. Many researchers like Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) have replicated Hofstede's study and many more continue with other cross-cultural studies. However, although Hofstede does not agree, many researchers find culture to be a dynamic, constantly changing field. Cultures are merging, technology is changing the way we communicate, and globalisation is changing the way we trade and interface. Doubts about the representativeness of the IBM population are the most common criticisms of Hofstede's claims. Sometimes Hofstede claims to have identify differences between national cultures and sometimes that he has identify those cultures. The focus of his analysis of the IBM questionnaire data is on differences. But relying on that analysis he often refers to absolute and not comparative characteristics of specific national cultures. To conclude, more research is needed to evaluate culture in terms of contemporary standards. Research is also needed to better explore the dimensions proposed by Hofstede and Hofstede and Bond to determine whether more can be added. While the level of controversy surrounding this work is still quite high, it remains the most valuable piece of work on culture for both scholars and practitioners.
7_ _
8. REFERENCES
Bartels, R. (1967). "A Model for Ethics in Marketing". Journal of Marketing 31(1): 20-26. Bhagat, R. S. and S. J. McQuaid (1982). "Role of Subjective Culture in Organizations: A review and directions for future research." Journal of Applied Psychology 67(5): 653-685. Bond, M. H. (2002). "Reclaiming the Individual from Hofstede's Ecological Analysis- A 20-Year Odyssey: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002)." Psychological Bulletin 128(1): 73-77. Dorfman, P. W. and J. P. Howell (1988). "Dimensions of National Culture and Effective Leadership Patterns: Hofstede revisited." Advances in International Comparative Management 3: 127-150. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International differences in work related values. Beverly Hill, CA, Sage. Hofstede, G. (1991a). Culture and Organisations. New York, McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (1991b). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. London, McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (1997). The Archimedes effect. Working at the interface of cultures: 18 lives in social science. M. H. Bond. London, Routledge: 47-61. Hofstede, G. and M. H. Bond (1984). "Hofstede's Culture Dimensions: An Independent Validation Using Rokeach's Value Survey." Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 15(4): 417-433 Hofstede, G. and M. H. Bond (1988). "The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth." Organizational Dynamics 16(4): 5-21. Miles, Raymond E. and Snow, Charles C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure, and process. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Olie, R. (1995). The 'Culture' Factor in Personnel and Organization Policies. International Human Resource Management: An integrated approach. A. Harzing and V. R. J. London, Sage Publications: 124-143. Peters, T. J. and R. H. J. Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence. New York, Harper & Row. Søndergaard, M. (1994). "Hofstede's consequences: A study of reviews, citations and replications." Organization Studies 15(3): 447. Jones, M, Hofstede - Culturally questionable?, Oxford Business & Economics Conference. Oxford, UK, 24-26 June, 2007.
24, July 2010
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doc_422834971.docx