Description
In this such a detailed data amplify the effect of an entrepreneurial training programme on entrepreneurial traits.
5
The Effect of an Entrepreneurial Training
Programme on Entrepreneurial Traits and
Intention of Secondary Students
Ricardo Gouveia Rodrigues, Anabela Dinis,
Arminda do Paço, João Ferreira and Mário Raposo
NECE Research Centre, University of Beira Interior
Portugal
1. Introduction
One of the earliest discussions in entrepreneurship literature is whether to be an
entrepreneur can be learned or not. This discussion reflects two extreme positions: in one
side there are those who defend that “entrepreneurs are born”, on the other side there are
those who believe that “entrepreneurs can be made”. In the confront of these positions it
seems to win the line that defends that it is possible to learn to be an entrepreneur making
use of differentiated policies and instruments in education. The support for this view comes
from a widely literature review of entrepreneurship and business creation, which suggest
important links between entrepreneurship education, business creation and entrepreneurial
performance.
Thus, entrepreneurship education arises as a crucial tool in the development of the
competences needed to new business creation and several European governments have
been promoting the creation of courses to teach entrepreneurship. It is believed that the
development of entrepreneurial talent is important to sustain competitive advantages in an
economic system driven by innovation. Therefore, encouragement and support of start-up
new ventures is a major public policy concern because of their impact on economic growth,
particularly job creation (Raposo and Paço, 2011). This concern is especially legitimate in a
crises period where new challenges arise in relation to economic development. In fact, as
stated by Rae (2010) the international financial and economic crisis in 2008 produced a new
economic era with significant implications for enterprise and entrepreneurship education.
These implications affect the outcomes and applications of learning and the power balance
between learners, institutions and educators and one of the difficulties of developing an
integrative process model of entrepreneurship education lies in the fact that lines between
actor roles are not always clear (Wood, 2001).
Furthermore, as stated by Wood (2001), entrepreneurship education is not a single event,
but rather a continuous process comprised of a series of events. In consequence, the role of
education and training in entrepreneurship and in the identification of endowment of
entrepreneurial potential at a young age, are becoming evident for students, politicians and
educators (Rasheed, 2000).
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Entrepreneurship – Born, Made and Educated
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One of the critics in entrepreneurship courses, pointed by Neck and Greene (2011), is the
fact that they are focused in the exploitation of opportunities assuming that the opportunity
has been already identified. Thus, very little time and attention is given to creativity and
idea generation process. Accordingly, Jusoh et al. (2011) in their analysis about training
needs of education in entrepreneurs, found that in entrepreneurial skills training there is a
lack in areas such as how to enhance creativity and innovation.
Several European programmes have been identified as best practices, and presented for
instance at the Oslo Conference “Entrepreneurship Education in Europe: Fostering
Entrepreneurial Mindsets through Education and Learning”, being one of them the student
company programme “Empresa Joven Europea” (EJE, meaning “European Young
Enterprise”). This programme was created and developed in the Spanish region of Asturias,
targeted at youngster from 14 to 16 years old, and consists on the creation of a mini
company in class. This company has real business with real customers (preferentially from
another country) and real money (Rodrigues et al., 2008).
The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the effect that this educational programme has on
the students that attend it.
The chapter is divided in the following major sections. The first section reviews the
literature about entrepreneurship education, specifically in what concerns to the
psychological and behavioural approach. The second section presents the methodology. The
third section discusses the results. Finally, the last section discusses some practical
implications and presents some conclusions.
2. Literature review
Despite the discussion whether entrepreneurs are born or made, most accept that
entrepreneurship, or certain facets on it, can be taught, or at least encouraged, by
entrepreneurship education (Kuratko, 2005).
There is a strong case to be made for the benefits of entrepreneurship education, for a
variety of potential stakeholders (Wood, 2011). In this sense, a number of benefits are
available to those who choose to be directly involved in the process.
According to Rae (2010) education is vital in creating understanding of entrepreneurship,
developing entrepreneurial capabilities, and contributing to entrepreneurial identities and
cultures at individual, collective and social levels. More, the role of education is to shape
ideas of what it means to be an entrepreneur, not to promote an ideology of
entrepreneurship, and to create critical alertness that contributes to the responsibility of
entrepreneurs to society.
To Bakotic and Kruzic (2010), entrepreneurship educational programmes contribute to
increase the perception of important entrepreneurship aspects, as well as create a real vision
of entrepreneurship problems. For this, the authors advocate the need for students’
permanent education which should be focused on additional development of their
competences and required skills needed later in the market context.
Although the alleged benefits of entrepreneurship education have been much celebrated by
researchers and educators, there has been little rigorous research on its effects (Peterman
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The Effect of an Entrepreneurial Training Programme
on Entrepreneurial Traits and Intention of Secondary Students
79
and Kennedy, 2003). In fact, entrepreneurship education ranks high on policy agendas in
Europe and the US, but little research is available to assess its impact and their effects are
still poorly understood. Several previous studies find a positive impact of entrepreneurship
education courses or programmes (Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Fayolle et al., 2006;
Raposo, Paço and Ferreira, 2008; Raposo et al. 2008; Rodrigues et al., 2010). Other studies
find evidence that the effects are negative (Oosterbeek et al., 2010; von Graevenitz et al.,
2010). There may be methodological reasons why the literature has not generated consistent
assessments as of yet.
There is some evidence that entrepreneurship education has a positive role to play in
student entrepreneurial intention (Pittaway and Cope, 2007; Florin et al., 2007; Raposo et al.,
2008; Nabi et al., 2010). Henry et al. (2003) conclude that entrepreneurship programmes can
be effective and yield significant benefits for aspiring entrepreneurs. However, the impact of
university education on entrepreneurship has been questioned, especially with regard to
impact on the transition from intentionality to entrepreneurial behaviour or impact on
entrepreneurial success (Nabi et al., 2010).
According to Pittaway and Cope (2007) entrepreneurship education has had an impact on
student propensity and intentionality. However, what is unclear is the extent to which such
education impacts on the level of graduate entrepreneurship or whether it enables
graduates to become more effective entrepreneurs.
According to Nabi et al. (2010) the entrepreneurial intention research tells us very little
about: (i) the process of personal change in relation to attitudes towards entrepreneurship
brought about by higher education; (ii) the transition from student to entrepreneur; and (iii)
it fails to explain the low follow-up on entrepreneurial intent.
In spite of the fact that there are a number of studies on several aspects of start-up
activities, one aspect that is also not very clear is whether the activities that lead to the
possibility of starting a new business or venture correspond to the content of course work
in entrepreneurship classes. Because of this it is necessary to reflect about the relevance of
what educators are teaching in the classroom, and more particularly, if start-up activities
are effectively reflected in entrepreneurship course content and delivery (Edelman et al.,
2008).
Garavan and Barra (1994) state that the most commonly referred aims of entrepreneurship
education and training programmes are the following: i) to get useful knowledge of
entrepreneurship; ii) to acquire skills in the use of techniques, in the analysis of business
atmospheres, and in the synthesis of action plans; iii) to identify and stimulate
entrepreneurial skills; iv) to develop empathy and support for all aspects of
entrepreneurship; v) to develop attitudes towards change and uncertainty; and vi) to
encourage new start-ups.
These entrepreneurship training programmes will contribute to the stimulation of
entrepreneurial abilities. Hisrich and Peter (1998) say that the various skills required by
entrepreneurs can be categorised as: technical skills, business management skills and
personal entrepreneurial skills. Henry et al. (2005) refer that the development these personal
skills differentiates an entrepreneur from a manager.
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Thus, very different skills, abilities and knowledge may be required to fulfil these different
aims of entrepreneurship education programmes. Therefore, while many of the aspects of
entrepreneurship can be taught, it also needs a certain attitude towards taking risks.
However, some of these programmes only connect the entrepreneurship to new venture
creation and business management and educate about entrepreneurship and enterprise,
rather than educating for entrepreneurship, and only rarely the focus is in the development
of their students’ skills, attributes and behaviours (Kirby, 2004).
Also regarding the pedagogy of practice in the entrepreneurship method, Neck and Greene
(2011) defend real-world venture experiences and suggest games and simulations, designed-
based learning, by observing the world from diverse point of views, and reflective practice
to give students time to think and mature the ideas. These authors proposed the concept of
teaching entrepreneurship as a method that is different from the current way in which it has
been taught, that is, as a process of identifying opportunities and implement the business.
This method is “teachable, learnable, but it is not predictable … is people-dependent but not
dependent on a type of person…goes beyond understanding, knowing and talking and
demands using, applying and acting”. Essentially it requires practice and implies that
educators focus their selves in helping the students to understand, develop and train the
abilities. Thus the assumptions of the method are the following: (i) applied to beginners and
experts; (ii) is inclusive and wide-ranging; (iii) needs constant practice; (iv) can be used for a
volatile environment.
The responsibility for teaching entrepreneurship does not rest wholly with the educational
world. In fact, at public level there is a need for the creation of an environment that will
promote entrepreneurship (Murray and White, 1986).
In this sense Peterman and Kennedy (2003) emphasise that entrepreneurial activities need to
be supported by school culture. These activities should be integrated into the programmes
of the institution from an early stage. Thus, in entrepreneurship education literature,
primary and secondary school has received growing attention and enterprise education
programmes in secondary school were confirmed to be important for later entrepreneurial
intentions. It is believed that the ideal stage to acquire basic knowledge about
entrepreneurship and to foster a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship is during
childhood and adolescence years (Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Paço et al., 2011a; Paço et
al., 2011b).
In fact, some works advance the idea that early formal entrepreneurship education affects
the attitudes of students, influencing them in the direction of their future career, and affect
their propensity for entrepreneurship when they become adults. Florin et al. (2007) stated
that the students need to perceive that the application of the skill is feasible and that an
entrepreneurial approach is desirable and a focus on developing a positive attitude toward
entrepreneurial behaviour appears to be central to entrepreneurship education. The
identification and study of students’ entrepreneurial characteristics assumes special
relevance for the development of adequate educational programmes related with
entrepreneurship and business creation.
To measure the entrepreneurial intention probably it is necessary to incorporate insights
from both psychological and behavioural approaches.
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Several authors agree that psychological traits are good predictors of entrepreneurial
orientation (Park and Ku, 2008)
In general, the main psychological characteristics associated with entrepreneurship in the
literature are: locus of control, propensity to take risk, self-confidence, need for achievement,
tolerance to ambiguity and innovativeness.
For instance, Bygrave (1989) presented a model that includes need for achievement, internal
locus of control, tolerance for ambiguity and risk-taking propensity as determinants of
entrepreneurial intention. Moreover, Robinson et al. (1991), in their research, find that
achievement, innovativeness, locus of control and self-confidence could be predicting
entrepreneurial attitudes.
Robinson et al. (1991) state that internal control leads to a positive entrepreneurial attitude
and most students who receive entrepreneurial formation may develop a higher level of
control and self-efficiency.
Ho and Koh (1992) refer that self-confidence is an entrepreneurial characteristic and that it is
related to other psychological characteristics, such as locus of control, propensity to take risk
and tolerance of ambiguity. Robinson et al. (1991) have found entrepreneurs to have a
higher degree of self-confidence relative to non-entrepreneurs.
According to Koh (1996) these evidences should be expected, given the understanding of
psychological traits that are unique to entrepreneurs.
So, a challenge is to understand if entrepreneurship education can have repercussions both
on the level of cognitive development and on the level of the youngsters' psychological
development.
In what concerns to the behavioural characteristics associated with entrepreneurship, the
literature reinforces the importance of the perceived behavioural control, the personal
attitude and the subjective norm. These constructs were presented by Ajzen (1991) that
defends that any behaviour requires a certain amount of planning and it can be predicted by
the intention to adopt that behaviour (Theory of Planned Behaviour – TPB).
Li (2006) argues that the TPB is very useful and it provides a sound theoretical framework
toward understanding the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions. Also in their research,
Souitaris et al. (2007) used the TPB in order to test the impact of entrepreneurship education
on attitudes and intention of science and engineering students, applying empirically the
theory of planned behaviour.
Subjective norm is defined as an individual's perception of whether people think the
behaviour should be performed. Hence, overall subjective norm can be expressed as the sum
of the individual perception and motivation assessments for all relevant aspects. In other
words is the influence of people in one’s social environment on his/her behavioural
intentions. The people’s beliefs weighted by the importance of site their opinions will
influence one’s behavioural intention (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1973).
In their study Souitaris et al. (2007) present a possible interpretation of the significant raise
of subjective norm after the entrepreneurship educational programme: the small increase in
the “expectations of significant others” could reflect the creation of a new circle of
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Entrepreneurship – Born, Made and Educated
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entrepreneurial-minded friends from the programme. The larger increase in the “motivation
to comply” could be due to a consciousness that their family and friends were right about
this career possibility, or to a feeling that they had to comply with the significant others’
expectations after investing time and effort in the course.
Kolvereid (1996) argues that the greatera person’s perceived behavioural control, the
stronger is that person’s intention to become self-employed. In turn, this perceived control
corresponds to perceived feasibility, one of the key factors of self-efficacy. According to
Fayolle (2005) self-efficacy has been found to significantly influence entrepreneurial
behaviour and supporting entrepreneurship students’ self-efficacy is therefore seen as a key
tool in entrepreneurship education to enhance students’ entrepreneurial intentions (Raposo,
et al., 2008).
Thus, several empirical results in entrepreneurship broadly confirmed the theory's
predictions regarding the relationship between attitudes (attitude towards self-employment,
subjective norm and perceived behavioural control) and intention towards self-employment
(Kolvereid, 1996). However, due the failure in some studies to find a link between subjective
norm and intention, more studies with more reliable measures are needed.
3. Methodology
The study consisted on an experimental design with pre and post treatment inquiries.
We chose the two classes of the 9th grade which were to attend the entrepreneurship
education programme EJE
1
. The sample was composed by 48 students ranging from 14 to 15
years old.
The EJE programme is based on an extensive network of “mini-companies” exchanging
information, catalogues and products. It includes all stages to the creation, development and
dissemination of a firm inside the school, where the students have the opportunity to
interact with another national or foreign school. So, this programme is based on practical
experience where students have the opportunity to display a wide array of social, personal
and business skills.
Using a scale to measure entrepreneurial intention and related constructs (Liñan and Chen,
2007), , and Koh’s (1996) scales to measure psychological traits (Table 1), students were
surveyed before starting the programme.
The constructs included in the questionnaire were Entrepreneurial Intention (EI),
behavioural constructs - Perceived Behaviour Control (PBC), Personal Attitudes (PA),
Subjective Norms (SN) (see table 1) and psychological constructs - Locus of Control (LC),
Propensity to Risk (PR), Self Confidence (SC), Need for Achievement (NA), Tolerance to
Ambiguity (TA) and Innovativeness (IN) (see table2)
One year later, after the completion of the programme, the same students were surveyed
again with the same tool. There was a high mortality rate in the sample for the second data
collection moment. Only 37 of the original 48 completed valid questionnaires, which
represents a mortality rate of 22.9%.
1
http://www.valnaloneduca.com/eje
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The Effect of an Entrepreneurial Training Programme
on Entrepreneurial Traits and Intention of Secondary Students
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Construct Items
EI
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur
My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur
I will make every effort to start and run my own firm
I am determined to create a firm in the future
I have very seriously thought of starting a firm
I have the firm intention to start a firm some day
PBC
To start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me
I am prepared to start a viable firm
I can control the creation process of a new firm
I know the necessary practical details to start a firm
I know how to develop an entrepreneurial project
If I tried to start a firm, I would have a high probability
of succeeding
PA
Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than disadvantages to me
A career as entrepreneur is attractive for me
If I had the opportunity and resources, I’d like to start a firm
Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for me
Among various options, I would rather be an entrepreneur
SN
If you decided to create a firm, would people in your close environment
approve of that decision? Indicate from 1 (total disapproval) to 5 (total
approval).
Your close family
Your friends
Your colleagues
Table 1. Entrepreneurial Intention, Perceived Behaviour Control, Personal Attitudes,
Subjective Norms
Data was analyzed using SPSS software (IBM SPSS, 2010). Descriptive statistics of the
summated scales and indicators and t-test for equality of means were performed, as well as
Levene's Test for the equality of variances, considering both moments: before and after the
training.
The data collected in both moments will be analysed in the next section. It is expected that
scores are higher in the second measurement, revealing that the programme had an effect on
students.
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Construct Items
IN I avoid changing the way things are done.
R
While others see nothing unusual in the surroundings, I am able to perceive
in it opportunities for business.
I am able to beat around difficulties through strokes of ingenuity and
resourcefulness.
I believe there are always new and better ways of doing things.
I find it difficult to come up with new, wild or even crazy ideas.
R
LC People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
R
Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck.
R
I do not enjoy outcomes, no matter how favourable, if they do not stem from
my own efforts.
I am willing to accept both positive and negative consequences of my
decisions and actions.
It is I, not luck nor fate, which influence the outcome of events in my life.
I cannot wait and watch things happen; I prefer to make things happen.
I believe success is a product of luck and fate rather than personal effort.
R
NA I take pleasure in responding to challenges, so competition makes me work
harder.
I do not like a well-paid job if I cannot derive a sense of achievement and
satisfaction from it.
I want to earn only as much as possible to attain a comfortable way of life.
R
I do not mind routine, unchallenging work if the pay is good.
R
When I do something, I see to it that it does not only get done but is done
with excellence.
I hire people on the basis of friendship and other relations (for their loyalty)
rather than on the basis of competence.
PR I do not care if the profit is small so long as it is assured and constant.
R
I am willing to take high risks for high returns.
I do not mind working under conditions of uncertainty as long as there is a
reasonable probability of gains from it for me.
I do not fear investing my money on a venture whose dividends I have
calculated.
I will consider a risk worth taking only if the probability for success is 60% or
more.
R
I fear moving into a new undertaking I know nothing about.
SC I accomplish most when I am alone, under no direct supervision of anyone.
I have confidence in my ability to achieve.
I have weaknesses and fears that are far from being resolved.
R
TA Job security is extremely important to me.
R
A good job is one with clear instructions as to what is to be done and how it
is to be done.
R
I enjoy working in unstructured situations.
I have a work schedule which I try to follow very carefully.
R
It bothers me when several people have over-lapping responsibilities.
R
In unclear situations, I like to make decisions and take the "lead".
Table 2. Locus of Control, Propensity to Risk, Self Confidence, Need for Achievement,
Tolerance to Ambiguity and Innovativeness.
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The Effect of an Entrepreneurial Training Programme
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4. Results
As a first step, descriptive statistics of the summated scales and indicators were produced,
as shown on Table 3 (summated scales), and Table 4 (EI indicators).
Table 3 shows very similar means in the two periods. But in what concerns to data
dispersion, in all constructs there is a rise in standard deviations, which can mean that the
EJE programme made students more different among them. The training programme seems
to have the effect of parting the “weed from the wheat” in terms of entrepreneurial traits,
entrepreneurial intention, and related constructs.
Construct
2
Before the training After the training
n Mean
Std.
Deviation
n Mean
Std.
Deviation
PA 48 3.288 0.573 37 3.205 .745
PBC 48 3.191 0.532 37 3.236 .688
SN 48 3.701 0.608 37 3.820 .612
EI 48 2.840 0.631 37 2.644 .781
LC 48 3.336 0.475 32 3.455 .544
PR 48 2.990 0.388 33 2.778 .467
SC 48 3.382 0.485 33 3.374 .524
NA 48 3.490 0.487 32 3.396 .655
IN 48 3.229 0.454 33 3.364 .513
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics
Before the training After the training
n Mean
Std.
Dev.
n Mean
Std.
Dev.
I am ready to do anything to be
an entrepreneur
48 2.770 0.881 37 2.57 0.899
My professional goal is to be an
entrepreneur
48 2.290 0.798 37 2.35 0.857
I will make every effort to start
and run my own business
48 3.620 0.841 37 2.92 0.894
I am determined to create a
business venture in the future
48 2.600 0.962 37 2.68 0.818
I have serious doubts about ever
starting my own business
3
48 2.920 0.942 37 2.70 1.051
I have a very low intention of
ever starting a business
3
48 2.830 0.996 37 2.65 1.086
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics - EI indicators
2
PA – Personal Attitudes; PBC – Perceived Behaviour Control; SN – Subjective Norms;
EI – Entrepreneurial Intention; LC – Locus of Control; PR – Propensity to Risk; SC – Self Confidence;
NA – Need for Achievement; TA – Tolerance to Ambiguity; IN – Innovativeness.
3
Inverted formulation, rescaled for analysis.
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Entrepreneurship – Born, Made and Educated
86
Indicators of EI, as shown in Table 4, also present similar means in both periods. And again
there is a rise in the majority of standard deviations, pointing to the greater differences
among students after the training programme EJE.
Next step was to test for statistically significant differences from one period to the other.
Table 5 presents the results of that test for the summated scales, while Table 6 does it for EI
indicators.
Considering a confidence level of 95%, Personal Attitudes (PA) and Entrepreneurial
Intention (EI) shows differences in the variances of the two periods. Relating this result with
the ones presented in Table 3, we can conclude that students are more heterogeneous
regarding PA after taking the programme. Students are also more different among thems
regarding EI after the training programme. A possible explanation is that students get more
knowledgeable about what starting up and managing a firm seems to make them more
realistic about their entrepreneurial intentions. This is consistent with the results presented
in Table 6, which presents one single indicator with significant differences in pre and post
programme means: “I will make every effort to start and run my own business”. There is a
diminution in this indicator after the programme ended. Again, it may be the case that the
awareness of the level of effort that an enterprise implies, leads to a discouragement of some
students towards the entrepreneurial process. Contrary to constructs results, in Table 6 it
can be seen that there are no significant differences in pre and post programme variances,
for any of EI indicators.
Mean
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
Cons-
truct
4
Before
the
training
After the
training
Mean
Difference
F Sig. t df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
PA 3.288 3.205 -.082 6.883 .010 .556 65.9 .580
PBC 3.191 3.236 .045 2.534 .115 -.341 83 .734
SN 3.701 3.820 .118 .005 .943 -.888 83 .377
EI 2.84 2.644 -.196 4.109 .046 1.246 68.1 .217
LC 3.336 3.455 .119 .267 .607 -1.037 78 .303
PR 2.99 2.778 -.212 .721 .398 2.220 79 .029
SC 3.382 3.374 -.008 .067 .797 .072 79 .942
NA 3.49 3.396 -.094 1.096 .298 .734 78 .465
IN 3.229 3.364 0.134 .532 .468 -1.242 79 .218
Table 5. Tests for Equality of Means and Variances– Constructs
4
PA – Personal Attitudes; PBC – Perceived Behaviour Control; SN – Subjective Norms; EI –
Entrepreneurial Intention; LC – Locus of Control; PR – Propensity to Risk; SC – Self Confidence; NA –
Need for Achievement; TA – Tolerance to Ambiguity; IN – Innovativeness.
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The Effect of an Entrepreneurial Training Programme
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The only construct that shows a different mean after the educational programme is
Propensity to Risk (PR), which lowers after the programme. Again, this diminution of PR
may have to do with the bigger knowledge that students have of the entrepreneurial
process, being more sensible when considering risk.
Item
Before the
training
After the
training
Mean
Difference
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 2.77 2.57 -0.2 0.29 0.594 1.05 83 0.299
My professional goal is to be an entrepreneur 2.29 2.35 0.06 0.52 0.473 -0.33 83 0.741
I will make every effort to start and run my own business 3.62 2.92 -0.7 0.11 0.742 3.73 83 0,000
I am determined to create a business venture in the future 2.6 2.68 0.08 0.72 0.398 -0.36 83 0.718
I have serious doubts about ever starting my own business
5
2.92 2.7 -0.22 1.53 0.22 0.99 83 0.326
I have a very low intention of ever starting a business
5
2.83 2.65 -0.18 1.04 0.311 0.81 83 0.418
Mean
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
Table 6. Tests for Equality of Means and Variances – EI indicators
5
To access if the training affected awareness of Entrepreneurship as a possible professional
career, the results of the question “Have you ever seriously considered becoming an
entrepreneur?”, before and after the training were analysed (table 7).
Before the training After the training
Yes 29.20% 48.65%
No 70.80% 51.35%
n 48 37
Table 7. Answers to the questions “Have you ever seriously considered becoming an
entrepreneur?”
According to Table 7, more than two thirds of students had never thought of becoming an
entrepreneur before the educational programme, which is consistent with the proposed
unawareness of the entrepreneurial activity. After the programme, almost half the students
had seriously considered becoming an entrepreneur, which is a significant change (?
2
(1)=
3.378, p
In this such a detailed data amplify the effect of an entrepreneurial training programme on entrepreneurial traits.
5
The Effect of an Entrepreneurial Training
Programme on Entrepreneurial Traits and
Intention of Secondary Students
Ricardo Gouveia Rodrigues, Anabela Dinis,
Arminda do Paço, João Ferreira and Mário Raposo
NECE Research Centre, University of Beira Interior
Portugal
1. Introduction
One of the earliest discussions in entrepreneurship literature is whether to be an
entrepreneur can be learned or not. This discussion reflects two extreme positions: in one
side there are those who defend that “entrepreneurs are born”, on the other side there are
those who believe that “entrepreneurs can be made”. In the confront of these positions it
seems to win the line that defends that it is possible to learn to be an entrepreneur making
use of differentiated policies and instruments in education. The support for this view comes
from a widely literature review of entrepreneurship and business creation, which suggest
important links between entrepreneurship education, business creation and entrepreneurial
performance.
Thus, entrepreneurship education arises as a crucial tool in the development of the
competences needed to new business creation and several European governments have
been promoting the creation of courses to teach entrepreneurship. It is believed that the
development of entrepreneurial talent is important to sustain competitive advantages in an
economic system driven by innovation. Therefore, encouragement and support of start-up
new ventures is a major public policy concern because of their impact on economic growth,
particularly job creation (Raposo and Paço, 2011). This concern is especially legitimate in a
crises period where new challenges arise in relation to economic development. In fact, as
stated by Rae (2010) the international financial and economic crisis in 2008 produced a new
economic era with significant implications for enterprise and entrepreneurship education.
These implications affect the outcomes and applications of learning and the power balance
between learners, institutions and educators and one of the difficulties of developing an
integrative process model of entrepreneurship education lies in the fact that lines between
actor roles are not always clear (Wood, 2001).
Furthermore, as stated by Wood (2001), entrepreneurship education is not a single event,
but rather a continuous process comprised of a series of events. In consequence, the role of
education and training in entrepreneurship and in the identification of endowment of
entrepreneurial potential at a young age, are becoming evident for students, politicians and
educators (Rasheed, 2000).
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One of the critics in entrepreneurship courses, pointed by Neck and Greene (2011), is the
fact that they are focused in the exploitation of opportunities assuming that the opportunity
has been already identified. Thus, very little time and attention is given to creativity and
idea generation process. Accordingly, Jusoh et al. (2011) in their analysis about training
needs of education in entrepreneurs, found that in entrepreneurial skills training there is a
lack in areas such as how to enhance creativity and innovation.
Several European programmes have been identified as best practices, and presented for
instance at the Oslo Conference “Entrepreneurship Education in Europe: Fostering
Entrepreneurial Mindsets through Education and Learning”, being one of them the student
company programme “Empresa Joven Europea” (EJE, meaning “European Young
Enterprise”). This programme was created and developed in the Spanish region of Asturias,
targeted at youngster from 14 to 16 years old, and consists on the creation of a mini
company in class. This company has real business with real customers (preferentially from
another country) and real money (Rodrigues et al., 2008).
The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the effect that this educational programme has on
the students that attend it.
The chapter is divided in the following major sections. The first section reviews the
literature about entrepreneurship education, specifically in what concerns to the
psychological and behavioural approach. The second section presents the methodology. The
third section discusses the results. Finally, the last section discusses some practical
implications and presents some conclusions.
2. Literature review
Despite the discussion whether entrepreneurs are born or made, most accept that
entrepreneurship, or certain facets on it, can be taught, or at least encouraged, by
entrepreneurship education (Kuratko, 2005).
There is a strong case to be made for the benefits of entrepreneurship education, for a
variety of potential stakeholders (Wood, 2011). In this sense, a number of benefits are
available to those who choose to be directly involved in the process.
According to Rae (2010) education is vital in creating understanding of entrepreneurship,
developing entrepreneurial capabilities, and contributing to entrepreneurial identities and
cultures at individual, collective and social levels. More, the role of education is to shape
ideas of what it means to be an entrepreneur, not to promote an ideology of
entrepreneurship, and to create critical alertness that contributes to the responsibility of
entrepreneurs to society.
To Bakotic and Kruzic (2010), entrepreneurship educational programmes contribute to
increase the perception of important entrepreneurship aspects, as well as create a real vision
of entrepreneurship problems. For this, the authors advocate the need for students’
permanent education which should be focused on additional development of their
competences and required skills needed later in the market context.
Although the alleged benefits of entrepreneurship education have been much celebrated by
researchers and educators, there has been little rigorous research on its effects (Peterman
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and Kennedy, 2003). In fact, entrepreneurship education ranks high on policy agendas in
Europe and the US, but little research is available to assess its impact and their effects are
still poorly understood. Several previous studies find a positive impact of entrepreneurship
education courses or programmes (Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Fayolle et al., 2006;
Raposo, Paço and Ferreira, 2008; Raposo et al. 2008; Rodrigues et al., 2010). Other studies
find evidence that the effects are negative (Oosterbeek et al., 2010; von Graevenitz et al.,
2010). There may be methodological reasons why the literature has not generated consistent
assessments as of yet.
There is some evidence that entrepreneurship education has a positive role to play in
student entrepreneurial intention (Pittaway and Cope, 2007; Florin et al., 2007; Raposo et al.,
2008; Nabi et al., 2010). Henry et al. (2003) conclude that entrepreneurship programmes can
be effective and yield significant benefits for aspiring entrepreneurs. However, the impact of
university education on entrepreneurship has been questioned, especially with regard to
impact on the transition from intentionality to entrepreneurial behaviour or impact on
entrepreneurial success (Nabi et al., 2010).
According to Pittaway and Cope (2007) entrepreneurship education has had an impact on
student propensity and intentionality. However, what is unclear is the extent to which such
education impacts on the level of graduate entrepreneurship or whether it enables
graduates to become more effective entrepreneurs.
According to Nabi et al. (2010) the entrepreneurial intention research tells us very little
about: (i) the process of personal change in relation to attitudes towards entrepreneurship
brought about by higher education; (ii) the transition from student to entrepreneur; and (iii)
it fails to explain the low follow-up on entrepreneurial intent.
In spite of the fact that there are a number of studies on several aspects of start-up
activities, one aspect that is also not very clear is whether the activities that lead to the
possibility of starting a new business or venture correspond to the content of course work
in entrepreneurship classes. Because of this it is necessary to reflect about the relevance of
what educators are teaching in the classroom, and more particularly, if start-up activities
are effectively reflected in entrepreneurship course content and delivery (Edelman et al.,
2008).
Garavan and Barra (1994) state that the most commonly referred aims of entrepreneurship
education and training programmes are the following: i) to get useful knowledge of
entrepreneurship; ii) to acquire skills in the use of techniques, in the analysis of business
atmospheres, and in the synthesis of action plans; iii) to identify and stimulate
entrepreneurial skills; iv) to develop empathy and support for all aspects of
entrepreneurship; v) to develop attitudes towards change and uncertainty; and vi) to
encourage new start-ups.
These entrepreneurship training programmes will contribute to the stimulation of
entrepreneurial abilities. Hisrich and Peter (1998) say that the various skills required by
entrepreneurs can be categorised as: technical skills, business management skills and
personal entrepreneurial skills. Henry et al. (2005) refer that the development these personal
skills differentiates an entrepreneur from a manager.
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Thus, very different skills, abilities and knowledge may be required to fulfil these different
aims of entrepreneurship education programmes. Therefore, while many of the aspects of
entrepreneurship can be taught, it also needs a certain attitude towards taking risks.
However, some of these programmes only connect the entrepreneurship to new venture
creation and business management and educate about entrepreneurship and enterprise,
rather than educating for entrepreneurship, and only rarely the focus is in the development
of their students’ skills, attributes and behaviours (Kirby, 2004).
Also regarding the pedagogy of practice in the entrepreneurship method, Neck and Greene
(2011) defend real-world venture experiences and suggest games and simulations, designed-
based learning, by observing the world from diverse point of views, and reflective practice
to give students time to think and mature the ideas. These authors proposed the concept of
teaching entrepreneurship as a method that is different from the current way in which it has
been taught, that is, as a process of identifying opportunities and implement the business.
This method is “teachable, learnable, but it is not predictable … is people-dependent but not
dependent on a type of person…goes beyond understanding, knowing and talking and
demands using, applying and acting”. Essentially it requires practice and implies that
educators focus their selves in helping the students to understand, develop and train the
abilities. Thus the assumptions of the method are the following: (i) applied to beginners and
experts; (ii) is inclusive and wide-ranging; (iii) needs constant practice; (iv) can be used for a
volatile environment.
The responsibility for teaching entrepreneurship does not rest wholly with the educational
world. In fact, at public level there is a need for the creation of an environment that will
promote entrepreneurship (Murray and White, 1986).
In this sense Peterman and Kennedy (2003) emphasise that entrepreneurial activities need to
be supported by school culture. These activities should be integrated into the programmes
of the institution from an early stage. Thus, in entrepreneurship education literature,
primary and secondary school has received growing attention and enterprise education
programmes in secondary school were confirmed to be important for later entrepreneurial
intentions. It is believed that the ideal stage to acquire basic knowledge about
entrepreneurship and to foster a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship is during
childhood and adolescence years (Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Paço et al., 2011a; Paço et
al., 2011b).
In fact, some works advance the idea that early formal entrepreneurship education affects
the attitudes of students, influencing them in the direction of their future career, and affect
their propensity for entrepreneurship when they become adults. Florin et al. (2007) stated
that the students need to perceive that the application of the skill is feasible and that an
entrepreneurial approach is desirable and a focus on developing a positive attitude toward
entrepreneurial behaviour appears to be central to entrepreneurship education. The
identification and study of students’ entrepreneurial characteristics assumes special
relevance for the development of adequate educational programmes related with
entrepreneurship and business creation.
To measure the entrepreneurial intention probably it is necessary to incorporate insights
from both psychological and behavioural approaches.
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Several authors agree that psychological traits are good predictors of entrepreneurial
orientation (Park and Ku, 2008)
In general, the main psychological characteristics associated with entrepreneurship in the
literature are: locus of control, propensity to take risk, self-confidence, need for achievement,
tolerance to ambiguity and innovativeness.
For instance, Bygrave (1989) presented a model that includes need for achievement, internal
locus of control, tolerance for ambiguity and risk-taking propensity as determinants of
entrepreneurial intention. Moreover, Robinson et al. (1991), in their research, find that
achievement, innovativeness, locus of control and self-confidence could be predicting
entrepreneurial attitudes.
Robinson et al. (1991) state that internal control leads to a positive entrepreneurial attitude
and most students who receive entrepreneurial formation may develop a higher level of
control and self-efficiency.
Ho and Koh (1992) refer that self-confidence is an entrepreneurial characteristic and that it is
related to other psychological characteristics, such as locus of control, propensity to take risk
and tolerance of ambiguity. Robinson et al. (1991) have found entrepreneurs to have a
higher degree of self-confidence relative to non-entrepreneurs.
According to Koh (1996) these evidences should be expected, given the understanding of
psychological traits that are unique to entrepreneurs.
So, a challenge is to understand if entrepreneurship education can have repercussions both
on the level of cognitive development and on the level of the youngsters' psychological
development.
In what concerns to the behavioural characteristics associated with entrepreneurship, the
literature reinforces the importance of the perceived behavioural control, the personal
attitude and the subjective norm. These constructs were presented by Ajzen (1991) that
defends that any behaviour requires a certain amount of planning and it can be predicted by
the intention to adopt that behaviour (Theory of Planned Behaviour – TPB).
Li (2006) argues that the TPB is very useful and it provides a sound theoretical framework
toward understanding the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions. Also in their research,
Souitaris et al. (2007) used the TPB in order to test the impact of entrepreneurship education
on attitudes and intention of science and engineering students, applying empirically the
theory of planned behaviour.
Subjective norm is defined as an individual's perception of whether people think the
behaviour should be performed. Hence, overall subjective norm can be expressed as the sum
of the individual perception and motivation assessments for all relevant aspects. In other
words is the influence of people in one’s social environment on his/her behavioural
intentions. The people’s beliefs weighted by the importance of site their opinions will
influence one’s behavioural intention (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1973).
In their study Souitaris et al. (2007) present a possible interpretation of the significant raise
of subjective norm after the entrepreneurship educational programme: the small increase in
the “expectations of significant others” could reflect the creation of a new circle of
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entrepreneurial-minded friends from the programme. The larger increase in the “motivation
to comply” could be due to a consciousness that their family and friends were right about
this career possibility, or to a feeling that they had to comply with the significant others’
expectations after investing time and effort in the course.
Kolvereid (1996) argues that the greatera person’s perceived behavioural control, the
stronger is that person’s intention to become self-employed. In turn, this perceived control
corresponds to perceived feasibility, one of the key factors of self-efficacy. According to
Fayolle (2005) self-efficacy has been found to significantly influence entrepreneurial
behaviour and supporting entrepreneurship students’ self-efficacy is therefore seen as a key
tool in entrepreneurship education to enhance students’ entrepreneurial intentions (Raposo,
et al., 2008).
Thus, several empirical results in entrepreneurship broadly confirmed the theory's
predictions regarding the relationship between attitudes (attitude towards self-employment,
subjective norm and perceived behavioural control) and intention towards self-employment
(Kolvereid, 1996). However, due the failure in some studies to find a link between subjective
norm and intention, more studies with more reliable measures are needed.
3. Methodology
The study consisted on an experimental design with pre and post treatment inquiries.
We chose the two classes of the 9th grade which were to attend the entrepreneurship
education programme EJE
1
. The sample was composed by 48 students ranging from 14 to 15
years old.
The EJE programme is based on an extensive network of “mini-companies” exchanging
information, catalogues and products. It includes all stages to the creation, development and
dissemination of a firm inside the school, where the students have the opportunity to
interact with another national or foreign school. So, this programme is based on practical
experience where students have the opportunity to display a wide array of social, personal
and business skills.
Using a scale to measure entrepreneurial intention and related constructs (Liñan and Chen,
2007), , and Koh’s (1996) scales to measure psychological traits (Table 1), students were
surveyed before starting the programme.
The constructs included in the questionnaire were Entrepreneurial Intention (EI),
behavioural constructs - Perceived Behaviour Control (PBC), Personal Attitudes (PA),
Subjective Norms (SN) (see table 1) and psychological constructs - Locus of Control (LC),
Propensity to Risk (PR), Self Confidence (SC), Need for Achievement (NA), Tolerance to
Ambiguity (TA) and Innovativeness (IN) (see table2)
One year later, after the completion of the programme, the same students were surveyed
again with the same tool. There was a high mortality rate in the sample for the second data
collection moment. Only 37 of the original 48 completed valid questionnaires, which
represents a mortality rate of 22.9%.
1
http://www.valnaloneduca.com/eje
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Construct Items
EI
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur
My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur
I will make every effort to start and run my own firm
I am determined to create a firm in the future
I have very seriously thought of starting a firm
I have the firm intention to start a firm some day
PBC
To start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me
I am prepared to start a viable firm
I can control the creation process of a new firm
I know the necessary practical details to start a firm
I know how to develop an entrepreneurial project
If I tried to start a firm, I would have a high probability
of succeeding
PA
Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than disadvantages to me
A career as entrepreneur is attractive for me
If I had the opportunity and resources, I’d like to start a firm
Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for me
Among various options, I would rather be an entrepreneur
SN
If you decided to create a firm, would people in your close environment
approve of that decision? Indicate from 1 (total disapproval) to 5 (total
approval).
Your close family
Your friends
Your colleagues
Table 1. Entrepreneurial Intention, Perceived Behaviour Control, Personal Attitudes,
Subjective Norms
Data was analyzed using SPSS software (IBM SPSS, 2010). Descriptive statistics of the
summated scales and indicators and t-test for equality of means were performed, as well as
Levene's Test for the equality of variances, considering both moments: before and after the
training.
The data collected in both moments will be analysed in the next section. It is expected that
scores are higher in the second measurement, revealing that the programme had an effect on
students.
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Construct Items
IN I avoid changing the way things are done.
R
While others see nothing unusual in the surroundings, I am able to perceive
in it opportunities for business.
I am able to beat around difficulties through strokes of ingenuity and
resourcefulness.
I believe there are always new and better ways of doing things.
I find it difficult to come up with new, wild or even crazy ideas.
R
LC People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
R
Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck.
R
I do not enjoy outcomes, no matter how favourable, if they do not stem from
my own efforts.
I am willing to accept both positive and negative consequences of my
decisions and actions.
It is I, not luck nor fate, which influence the outcome of events in my life.
I cannot wait and watch things happen; I prefer to make things happen.
I believe success is a product of luck and fate rather than personal effort.
R
NA I take pleasure in responding to challenges, so competition makes me work
harder.
I do not like a well-paid job if I cannot derive a sense of achievement and
satisfaction from it.
I want to earn only as much as possible to attain a comfortable way of life.
R
I do not mind routine, unchallenging work if the pay is good.
R
When I do something, I see to it that it does not only get done but is done
with excellence.
I hire people on the basis of friendship and other relations (for their loyalty)
rather than on the basis of competence.
PR I do not care if the profit is small so long as it is assured and constant.
R
I am willing to take high risks for high returns.
I do not mind working under conditions of uncertainty as long as there is a
reasonable probability of gains from it for me.
I do not fear investing my money on a venture whose dividends I have
calculated.
I will consider a risk worth taking only if the probability for success is 60% or
more.
R
I fear moving into a new undertaking I know nothing about.
SC I accomplish most when I am alone, under no direct supervision of anyone.
I have confidence in my ability to achieve.
I have weaknesses and fears that are far from being resolved.
R
TA Job security is extremely important to me.
R
A good job is one with clear instructions as to what is to be done and how it
is to be done.
R
I enjoy working in unstructured situations.
I have a work schedule which I try to follow very carefully.
R
It bothers me when several people have over-lapping responsibilities.
R
In unclear situations, I like to make decisions and take the "lead".
Table 2. Locus of Control, Propensity to Risk, Self Confidence, Need for Achievement,
Tolerance to Ambiguity and Innovativeness.
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4. Results
As a first step, descriptive statistics of the summated scales and indicators were produced,
as shown on Table 3 (summated scales), and Table 4 (EI indicators).
Table 3 shows very similar means in the two periods. But in what concerns to data
dispersion, in all constructs there is a rise in standard deviations, which can mean that the
EJE programme made students more different among them. The training programme seems
to have the effect of parting the “weed from the wheat” in terms of entrepreneurial traits,
entrepreneurial intention, and related constructs.
Construct
2
Before the training After the training
n Mean
Std.
Deviation
n Mean
Std.
Deviation
PA 48 3.288 0.573 37 3.205 .745
PBC 48 3.191 0.532 37 3.236 .688
SN 48 3.701 0.608 37 3.820 .612
EI 48 2.840 0.631 37 2.644 .781
LC 48 3.336 0.475 32 3.455 .544
PR 48 2.990 0.388 33 2.778 .467
SC 48 3.382 0.485 33 3.374 .524
NA 48 3.490 0.487 32 3.396 .655
IN 48 3.229 0.454 33 3.364 .513
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics
Before the training After the training
n Mean
Std.
Dev.
n Mean
Std.
Dev.
I am ready to do anything to be
an entrepreneur
48 2.770 0.881 37 2.57 0.899
My professional goal is to be an
entrepreneur
48 2.290 0.798 37 2.35 0.857
I will make every effort to start
and run my own business
48 3.620 0.841 37 2.92 0.894
I am determined to create a
business venture in the future
48 2.600 0.962 37 2.68 0.818
I have serious doubts about ever
starting my own business
3
48 2.920 0.942 37 2.70 1.051
I have a very low intention of
ever starting a business
3
48 2.830 0.996 37 2.65 1.086
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics - EI indicators
2
PA – Personal Attitudes; PBC – Perceived Behaviour Control; SN – Subjective Norms;
EI – Entrepreneurial Intention; LC – Locus of Control; PR – Propensity to Risk; SC – Self Confidence;
NA – Need for Achievement; TA – Tolerance to Ambiguity; IN – Innovativeness.
3
Inverted formulation, rescaled for analysis.
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Indicators of EI, as shown in Table 4, also present similar means in both periods. And again
there is a rise in the majority of standard deviations, pointing to the greater differences
among students after the training programme EJE.
Next step was to test for statistically significant differences from one period to the other.
Table 5 presents the results of that test for the summated scales, while Table 6 does it for EI
indicators.
Considering a confidence level of 95%, Personal Attitudes (PA) and Entrepreneurial
Intention (EI) shows differences in the variances of the two periods. Relating this result with
the ones presented in Table 3, we can conclude that students are more heterogeneous
regarding PA after taking the programme. Students are also more different among thems
regarding EI after the training programme. A possible explanation is that students get more
knowledgeable about what starting up and managing a firm seems to make them more
realistic about their entrepreneurial intentions. This is consistent with the results presented
in Table 6, which presents one single indicator with significant differences in pre and post
programme means: “I will make every effort to start and run my own business”. There is a
diminution in this indicator after the programme ended. Again, it may be the case that the
awareness of the level of effort that an enterprise implies, leads to a discouragement of some
students towards the entrepreneurial process. Contrary to constructs results, in Table 6 it
can be seen that there are no significant differences in pre and post programme variances,
for any of EI indicators.
Mean
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
Cons-
truct
4
Before
the
training
After the
training
Mean
Difference
F Sig. t df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
PA 3.288 3.205 -.082 6.883 .010 .556 65.9 .580
PBC 3.191 3.236 .045 2.534 .115 -.341 83 .734
SN 3.701 3.820 .118 .005 .943 -.888 83 .377
EI 2.84 2.644 -.196 4.109 .046 1.246 68.1 .217
LC 3.336 3.455 .119 .267 .607 -1.037 78 .303
PR 2.99 2.778 -.212 .721 .398 2.220 79 .029
SC 3.382 3.374 -.008 .067 .797 .072 79 .942
NA 3.49 3.396 -.094 1.096 .298 .734 78 .465
IN 3.229 3.364 0.134 .532 .468 -1.242 79 .218
Table 5. Tests for Equality of Means and Variances– Constructs
4
PA – Personal Attitudes; PBC – Perceived Behaviour Control; SN – Subjective Norms; EI –
Entrepreneurial Intention; LC – Locus of Control; PR – Propensity to Risk; SC – Self Confidence; NA –
Need for Achievement; TA – Tolerance to Ambiguity; IN – Innovativeness.
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The only construct that shows a different mean after the educational programme is
Propensity to Risk (PR), which lowers after the programme. Again, this diminution of PR
may have to do with the bigger knowledge that students have of the entrepreneurial
process, being more sensible when considering risk.
Item
Before the
training
After the
training
Mean
Difference
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur 2.77 2.57 -0.2 0.29 0.594 1.05 83 0.299
My professional goal is to be an entrepreneur 2.29 2.35 0.06 0.52 0.473 -0.33 83 0.741
I will make every effort to start and run my own business 3.62 2.92 -0.7 0.11 0.742 3.73 83 0,000
I am determined to create a business venture in the future 2.6 2.68 0.08 0.72 0.398 -0.36 83 0.718
I have serious doubts about ever starting my own business
5
2.92 2.7 -0.22 1.53 0.22 0.99 83 0.326
I have a very low intention of ever starting a business
5
2.83 2.65 -0.18 1.04 0.311 0.81 83 0.418
Mean
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
Table 6. Tests for Equality of Means and Variances – EI indicators
5
To access if the training affected awareness of Entrepreneurship as a possible professional
career, the results of the question “Have you ever seriously considered becoming an
entrepreneur?”, before and after the training were analysed (table 7).
Before the training After the training
Yes 29.20% 48.65%
No 70.80% 51.35%
n 48 37
Table 7. Answers to the questions “Have you ever seriously considered becoming an
entrepreneur?”
According to Table 7, more than two thirds of students had never thought of becoming an
entrepreneur before the educational programme, which is consistent with the proposed
unawareness of the entrepreneurial activity. After the programme, almost half the students
had seriously considered becoming an entrepreneur, which is a significant change (?
2
(1)=
3.378, p