Description
Intermediate-level waste has radioactivity levels that are higher than low-level waste (see below) but which do not generate enough heat to require special storage or disposal facilities. However, like other radioactive waste it still needs to be contained to protect workers from the radiation.
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Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
An introduction to the management of higher-level
radioactive waste on nuclear licensed sites
Guidance from the Health and Safety Executive,
the Environment Agency and the
Scottish Environment Protection Agency to nuclear
licensees
December 2007
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Contents
Foreword 3
Fundamentals of the management of radioactive waste 3
What is radioactive waste? 3
Definition of radioactive waste 3
Categories of radioactive waste 3
What happens to radioactive waste? 4
Fundamental principles of radioactive waste management 5
Objective of radioactive waste management 5
Principles of radioactive waste management 6
Policy and regulatory objectives 6
Government policy 6
Regulatory objectives 6
Who is responsible? 7
Licensees 7
HSE/ND 7
The Environment Agency and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency 8
Department for Transport 8
NDA 8
(Potential) disposal site operators 9
How is radioactive waste management regulated? 9
Matters covered by this guidance 9
Safety of workers and the general public 9
Radioactive waste management on nuclear licensed sites 9
Other related legislation 10
Disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear licensed sites 10
Transport of radioactive waste 10
Security 10
Safeguards 10
Appendix 12
References and further reading 13
Glossary 16
Contacts 20
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Foreword
In producing guidance to nuclear licensees on the management of higher-level
radioactive wastes, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), the Environment Agency
and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) (together referred to as
the regulators) received comments that it would be useful to have an introductory
document explaining the context of radioactive waste management.
This introductory document aims to fulfil that role by explaining:
what radioactive waste is;
what happens to radioactive waste;
who is involved in radioactive waste management;
what their roles are; and
how radioactive waste management is regulated.
This introductory document does not form part of the guidance.
The regulators are producing the guidance in a modular format. The appendix
lists those parts of the guidance that are available, together with a list of modules
that will be produced. Where modules have not yet been produced, the appendix
references other existing guidance that can be consulted in the mean time.
Fundamentals of the management of
radioactive waste
What is radioactive waste?
Definition of radioactive waste
Radioactive waste is any material that is either radioactive itself or is contaminated
by radioactivity, for which no further use is envisaged. Government policy means
that certain nuclear materials such as uranium, plutonium and spent nuclear fuel
have not been declared as wastes by their owners.
Categories of radioactive waste
The term ‘radioactive waste’ covers a wide variety of material, ranging from wastes
that can be put safely into a dustbin to items that need remote handling, heavy
shielding and cooling to be managed safely. To be clear, radioactive waste is
considered in different categories. These are:
High-level waste (HLW)
Radioactive waste that is radioactive enough for the decay heat to significantly
increases its temperature and the temperature of its surroundings. This means that
heat generation has to be taken into account when designing storage and disposal
facilities.
This category of waste includes:
the liquid residue that contains most of the radioactivity from the reprocessing of
spent nuclear fuel;
this material following solidi?cation;
spent fuel (if it is declared a waste); or
any other waste with similar radiological characteristics.
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Intermediate-level waste (ILW)
Intermediate-level waste has radioactivity levels that are higher than low-level
waste (see below) but which do not generate enough heat to require special
storage or disposal facilities. However, like other radioactive waste it still needs
to be contained to protect workers from the radiation. ILW arises mainly from the
reprocessing of spent fuel and from general operations and maintenance at nuclear
sites, and can include metal items such as fuel cladding and reactor components,
graphite from reactor cores, and sludges from the treatment of radioactive liquid
effluents.
Low-level waste (LLW)
Most LLW today arises from the operation of nuclear power stations and nuclear
fuel reprocessing facilities, as well as the decommissioning and clean up of
nuclear sites. Operational LLW is principally lightly contaminated miscellaneous
waste arising from maintenance and monitoring, such as plastic, paper and metal.
LLW from decommissioning is mainly soil, building materials and metal plant and
equipment. Most LLW from nuclear licensed sites is currently disposed of at the
Low-Level Waste Repository (LLWR) near Drigg in Cumbria.
Very low-level waste (VLLW)
VLLW is a subset of LLW and falls into two distinct categories:
Low-volume VLLW (‘dustbin disposal’): Radioactive waste that can be
safely disposed of to an unspeci?ed destination with municipal, commercial
or industrial waste. The radioactive risk from such material is low enough that
controls on disposal of this material, after removal from the premises where the
wastes arose, are not necessary.
High-volume VLLW (‘bulk disposal’): Radioactive waste that can be disposed
of to speci?ed land?ll sites. After the waste is removed from its site of origin,
it will be subject to controls on its disposal, which will be speci?ed by the
environmental regulators.
Exempt waste
Some radioactive waste is exempted from regulation by an Exemption Order issued
under the Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (RSA93).
L1
Exempt waste does not
need an authorisation for disposal.
What happens to radioactive waste?
Once created, radioactive waste will undergo some of the following stages
depending on the type of waste and the strategy for its management:
Pretreatment is the initial step that occurs just after waste generation. It may
involve collection, segregation, chemical adjustment and decontamination and may
also include a period of interim storage. The aim of this step is to segregate waste
into streams that will be managed in similar ways, and to isolate non-radioactive
wastes or those materials that can be recycled.
Treatment involves changing the characteristics of the waste by volume reduction,
radionuclide removal or change of composition. Typical treatment operations include:
compaction of dry solid waste or incineration of solid or organic liquid wastes
(volume reduction);
?ltration or ion exchange of liquid waste (radionuclide removal); and
precipitation or ?occulation of chemical species (change of composition).
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Conditioning involves transforming radioactive waste into a form that is suitable for
handling, transportation, storage and disposal. This might involve immobilisation of
radioactive waste, placing waste into containers or providing additional packaging.
Common immobilisation methods include solidification of LLW and ILW liquid
radioactive waste in cement, and vitrification of HLW in a glass matrix. Immobilised
waste may be placed in steel drums or other engineered containers to create a
waste package.
Storage of radioactive waste may take place at any stage in the radioactive waste
management process and aims to isolate the radioactive waste, help protect the
environment and make it easier to control its disposal. Storage may be used to
make the next step in the management process more straightforward or to act as
a buffer between or within steps. Waste might be stored for many years before
it undergoes further processing and disposal. Some storage facilities are located
within a nuclear power plant or a licensed disposal facility, others are separate
facilities.
Retrieval involves recovering waste packages from storage either for inspection, for
disposal or for further storage in new facilities. Some storage facilities are designed
so the equipment that deposits waste can be operated in reverse to retrieve waste
packages. Others may need retrieval equipment to be installed.
Disposal occurs when packages of radioactive waste are deposited in a disposal
facility with no intention of retrieval. Disposal may also include discharging
radioactive wastes such as liquid and gaseous effluent into the environment and
transfer of wastes from one site to another.
These basic steps in radioactive waste management are illustrated in Figure 1.
Which steps are employed in a particular situation depends on the types of
radioactive waste and the methods of radioactive waste management that are to be
used. In some cases individual steps may be closely linked or carried out together.
The whole process needs to take place so that the way wastes are managed at
each step is compatible with the subsequent steps.
On most nuclear licensed sites there are a number of radioactive wastes to
manage, particularly if nuclear facilities are being decommissioned. In all cases, an
integrated approach to managing radioactive wastes and non-radioactive wastes is
required.
Fundamental principles of radioactive waste
management
Objective of radioactive waste management
The objective of radioactive waste management is to control and account for
radioactive waste to protect human health and the environment now, but also to
make sure we do not leave unnecessary burdens for future generations.
The preferred way to do this, where reasonably practical, is to concentrate and
contain the waste and to isolate it from the environment. This allows any releases to
the environment to be restricted and subject to regulatory control.
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Principles of radioactive waste management
The HSE’s Safety Assessment Principles
R1
set out the basic principles of radioactive
waste management:
A strategy should be produced and implemented for managing radioactive
waste on a site. This should be consistent with government policy, including
the government’s overall policy aims on sustainable development, should take
into account the possible consequences for present and future generations and
should consider the environment and non-human species.
Where reasonably practicable, radioactive waste generation should be
prevented or minimised, both in terms of quantity and activity.
The accumulation of radioactive waste on site should be minimised.
Characterisation and segregation of radioactive waste should be used to help
ensure subsequent management is safe and effective.
Radioactive waste should be stored using good engineering practice and in a
passively safe condition.
Radioactive waste should be processed into a passively safe state as soon as is
reasonably practical.
Information that might be required now and in the future for the safe
management of radioactive waste should be recorded and preserved.
Policy and regulatory objectives
Government policy
The last full statement of government policy on radioactive waste management was
in Cm2919.
G1
This has been amended or elaborated as follows:
The Decommissioning of the UK Nuclear Industry’s Facilities September 2004
G2
replaces paragraphs 120–131 of Cm2919;
Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste Substitution December 2004
G3
replaces
paragraphs 140–141 and 186 of Cm2919;
Response to the Report and Recommendations from the Committee on
Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) By the UK Government and the
devolved administrations Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(Defra), National Assembly for Wales (NAW), Department of the Environment for
Northern Ireland and the Scottish Executive, October 2006.
G4
The regulators will take account of any future revision to this policy and amend this
guidance as appropriate.
As stated in Cm2919 paragraph 52(2), the regulators have the duty to ensure
that the government’s policy framework described is properly implemented in
accordance with their statutory powers.
Regulatory objectives
The regulators look to licensees to demonstrate strategic planning for managing all
radioactive material and radioactive waste. This includes developing programmes
for disposing of waste and the long-term management of material that may become
waste at some time in the future. Strategies should be integrated within a single
site and nationally where appropriate, to make sure the overall safety is maintained
while the environmental impact is minimised.
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The regulators will be looking to see that the traditional waste hierarchy is applied in
the strategies. This involves:
avoiding producing radioactive waste where reasonably practicable;
where waste does need to be produced, reducing this as much as reasonably
practicable;
reusing or recycling material that forms radioactive waste where reasonably
practicable;
only disposing of radioactive waste that cannot otherwise be dealt with.
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In terms of practical radioactive waste management, the regulators will be looking
to see that, where reasonably practicable, licensees characterise and segregate
their radioactive waste on the basis of physical and chemical properties and
then store the waste in accordance with the principles of passive safety. The
regulators will also be looking to see that licensees manage radioactive material
and radioactive waste in a manner that is compatible with future potential disposal
requirements.
More details on the regulatory objectives are provided in guidance to inspectors
R2
and in Part II of this guidance.
Who is responsible?
Licensees
Licensees bear the prime responsibility for safety and environmental protection
relating to activities carried out on their sites. Therefore HSE requires that the
licensee has an adequate management structure, capability and resources to
do this before granting a nuclear site licence.
R3
Licensees must produce safety
cases for all operations, including radioactive waste conditioning operations, which
consider safety, radioactive waste management and environmental protection.
In some cases, the licensee’s own requirements or the site licence might mean that
radioactive waste conditioning operations cannot continue without the permission
of HSE.
The cost of regulation is met by licensees through charges made by HSE under
section 24A of the Nuclear Installations Act 1965
L2
(as amended). These costs
include the cost of advice given to HSE by the Environment Agency or SEPA.
HSE/ND
HSE makes sure that the public and workers are protected from radiation by
securing effective control of health, safety, radioactive waste management and
security at nuclear sites. It acts in this area through the Nuclear Installations
Inspectorate (NII), the enforcing part of its Nuclear Directorate (ND). These bodies
enforce the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974
L3
and associated statutory
provisions in Great Britain, including the Nuclear Installations Act 1965
L2
(as
amended) and the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999.
L4
HSE is responsible for regulating radioactive waste management through conditions
attached to the nuclear site licence.
L5
A series of Memoranda of Understanding (MoU)
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ensure that HSE consults the
Environment Agency or SEPA on radioactive waste management activities and
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Licensees bear the prime
responsibility for safety and
environmental protection.
HSE regulates radioactive
waste management
through conditions
attached to the nuclear site
licence.
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means that they will not give permission without taking full and meaningful account
of any environmental issues raised.
The Office for Civil Nuclear Security (OCNS) (part of HSE’s Nuclear Directorate)
is the security regulator for the UK’s civil nuclear industry. It is responsible for
approving security arrangements within the industry and enforcing compliance.
OCNS conducts its regulatory activities on behalf of the Secretary of State for
Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) under the authority of the
Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003 (NISR03).
L6
OCNS also undertakes
vetting of nuclear industry personnel with access to sensitive nuclear material or
information. It works in close conjunction with policy officials in BERR, with other
government departments and agencies, and with overseas counterparts.
The Environment Agency and the Scottish Environment
Protection Agency
The Environment Agency takes a leading role in protecting and improving the
environment in England and Wales while the Scottish Environment Protection
Agency (SEPA) has similar responsibilities in Scotland. These responsibilities include
enforcing the the Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (RSA93)
L1
and the Environment
Act 1995.
L7
This means that these agencies are responsible under RSA93 for authorising any
disposal, discharge or off-site transfer of radioactive waste.
Under section 37(3) of the Environment Act 1995 (EA95), the Environment
Agency or SEPA may provide advice ‘as respects any matter in which they have
skill or experience’. This includes advising HSE on the long-term disposability of
conditioned waste, and ensuring waste is managed in a sustainable way, taking
into account long-term environmental considerations. Under section 37(1) of EA95,
the environment agencies charge HSE for that advice.
In addition, the environment agencies scrutinise the concepts that the Nuclear
Decommissioning Authority’s Radioactive Waste Management Directorate
(NDA(RWMD)) has developed for assessing the disposability of waste packages to
ensure that these concepts are fit for purpose.
Under the terms of the MoU,
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the Environment Agency or SEPA consult HSE
and will not authorise the disposal of radioactive waste without taking full and
meaningful account of any health and safety issues raised.
Department for Transport
The Secretary of State for Transport is responsible for regulating the safe transport
of radioactive materials in the United Kingdom. The Radioactive Materials Transport
Division of the Department for Transport works on behalf of the Secretary of State
to develop regulations, assess and approve package designs and ensure that the
regulations are complied with.
NDA
The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) is responsible for the
decommissioning and clean up of all civil public-sector nuclear sites in the
UK, including the management of radioactive wastes. NDA establishes waste
management plans with its site licensee companies (SLCs), and consults on these
plans with the regulators, as described in the Energy Act 2004.
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In accordance
The Environment Agency
and SEPA regulate any
disposal, discharge
or off-site transfer of
radioactive waste through
authorisations issued
under RSA93.
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with the government announcement of 25 October 2006,
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NDA is also responsible
for implementing the UK’s geological disposal programme.
(Potential) disposal site operators
Operators of radioactive waste disposal sites in the UK are responsible for
operating their sites according to the terms of authorisations granted by either the
Environment Agency or SEPA. As part of this, they must set out conditions for
acceptance of waste, which can be used by nuclear site licensees to demonstrate
in their conditioning proposals that wastes are disposable.
The government has announced
G4
moves towards disposing of a range of
higher-activity radioactive wastes (HLW, ILW and some LLW) in deep geological
repositories. NDA(RWMD) is the body that will advise licensees, through the Letter
of Compliance (LoC) process, on the packaging and conditioning of radioactive
wastes until a repository operating company is set up.
A different policy applies in Scotland, where the preference is for long-term, near-
surface, near-site storage of higher-activity wastes. The regulators consider that
wastes packaged and conditioned in anticipation of deep geological disposal
are also suitable for long-term storage, as required by the government policy in
Scotland.
How is radioactive waste management
regulated?
Matters covered by this guidance
Safety of workers and the general public
The main legislation covering the safety of workers and the general public at nuclear
installations in the UK is the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974
L3
and various
associated pieces of legislation such as the Nuclear Installations Act 1965
L2
(as
amended) and the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999.
L4
These are enforced by
HSE.
Radioactive waste management on nuclear licensed sites
The way in which radioactive waste is managed on licensed nuclear sites is set
out in the conditions
L5
attached to the nuclear site licence and is enforced by HSE.
These conditions include some of particular relevance:
Licence Condition 4 requires that no nuclear matter (which includes radioactive
waste) is brought onto or stored on the site unless adequate arrangements are
made by the licensee.
Licence Condition 25 requires that adequate records are kept of the amount and
location of radioactive waste used, stored or accumulated on site at any time.
Licence Condition 32 requires that the production and total quantity of
radioactive waste stored on the site is minimised.
Licence Condition 33 gives power to HSE to ensure that radioactive waste
is only disposed of in an authorised manner, to comply with the Radioactive
Substances Act 1993.
Licence Condition 34 requires that radioactive waste on the site is adequately
controlled or contained at all times.
Licence Condition 35 requires that adequate arrangements are made for
decommissioning.
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Other related legislation
The legislation described above directly relates to this guidance, however, other
legislation does apply:
Disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear licensed sites
The disposal of radioactive waste, including airborne and liquid discharges from
sites and transfers of waste between sites, is regulated by the Environment Agency
in England and Wales and SEPA in Scotland, under the Radioactive Substances
Act 1993
L1
and the Environment Act 1995.
L7
Transport of radioactive waste
The Competent Authority in the UK for approving packages for transporting
radioactive material is the Radioactive Materials Transport Division of the
Department for Transport (DfT). A guide from DfT
G5
describes the requirements
for applications, based on the requirements set out in International Atomic Energy
Authority (IAEA) guidance.
L9
Security
The Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003
L6
aim to ensure the security
of nuclear material and related equipment and information, and are enforced by
OCNS.
Safeguards
The Euratom Treaty
L10
and agreements between the UK, Euratom and IAEA
I1
contain safeguards provisions for nuclear material contained in certain kinds of
waste in the UK. This includes plutonium (all isotopes), uranium (natural, depleted
and enriched) and thorium. These safeguards are based on nuclear materials
accountancy measures, including nuclear material inventories (ie how much
material there is and where it is) and information about the design of the nuclear
facilities concerned. The safeguards inspectorates of the European Commission
and/or IAEA perform inspections to verify that the facility design and the amounts
of nuclear material present are as declared. The UK’s safeguards agreement
with Euratom and IAEA is now supplemented by an Additional Protocol to that
agreement,
I2
and the application of all safeguards measures in the UK is described
further on the non-proliferation section of the Department of Business, Enterprise
and Regulatory Reform website www.berr.gov.uk/energy/non-proliferation/nuclear/
index.html.
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Figure 1 The basic steps of radioactive waste management
Strategy
Waste generation
Pre-treatment
Treatment
Safety case
Conditioning
Storage
Retrieval
Disposal
Passive
safety
Exemption
re-use
Minimisation
characterisation
segregation
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Appendix
This appendix is a temporary part of the documentation, aimed at indicating the
proposed scope of the guidance and indicating where advice or guidance can be
obtained until the revised guidance is complete.
The guidance is in two parts with an introduction that is not part of the guidance.
This introduction sets out the scope, aims and context of the guidance. We have
produced it in response to comments received on the draft of Part I indicating that
members of the public would find it useful to have a general description of what
radioactive waste is, what happens to it, who is responsible and how it is regulated,
to help them understand the guidance itself.
Part I gives guidance on the regulatory process and is now published.
Part II gives technical guidance on a number of relevant topics. This part is modular
covering the following:
Part IIA The radioactive waste management case
Part IIB Conditioning and disposability
Part IIC Radioactive waste management strategies
Part IID Waste minimisation, characterisation and segregation
Part IIE Control, accountancy and records
Part IIF Storage of radioactive waste
The Part II guidance will be issued as each module is completed. Until these
modules are available, licensees should refer to the following documents for advice:
Radioactive waste management case
Guidance on the Purpose, Scope and Content of Nuclear Safety Cases Technical
Assessment Guide T/AST/051 NSD, HSE
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/TAST051.pdf
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 3 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Conditioning and disposability
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 4 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Radioactive waste management strategies
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 2 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
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Waste minimisation, characterisation and segregation
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 5 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Control accountancy and records
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 7 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Storage of radioactive waste
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendices 4&6 T/AST/024 NSD,
HSE March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
References and further reading
(References to websites were current in October 2007)
Legislation
L1 Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (c.12) The Stationery Office 1993
ISBN 978 0 10 541293 9
L2 Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (c.57) The Stationery Office 1965
ISBN 978 0 10 850216 3
L3 Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 (c.37) The Stationery Office 1974
ISBN 978 0 10 543774 1
L4 Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999 SI 1999/3232 The Stationery Office 1999
ISBN 978 0 11 085614 8
L5 Nuclear site licence conditions HSE www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/silicon.pdf
L6 Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003 SI 2003/403 The Stationery Office
2003 ISBN 978 0 11 045397 2
L7 Environment Act 1995 (c.25) The Stationery Office 1995
ISBN 978 0 10 542595 3
L8 Energy Act 2004 (c.20) The Stationery Office 2004 ISBN 978 0 10 542004 8
L9 Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material IAEA Safety
Standard Series No. TS-R-1 (ST-1 Revised) 1996 Edition
L10 Chapter 7 of the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community
(Euratom) and ‘Commission Regulation (Euratom) No 302/2005 of 8 February 2005
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of radioactive waste
on the application of Euratom safeguards – Council/Commission statement’ Official
Journal 28.02.2005 L54 1–71
L11 ‘Council Directive 96/29/EURATOM of 13 May 1996 laying down basic safety
standards for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the
dangers of ionising radiation’ (The Basic Safety Standards Directive (BSS))http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/radioprotection/doc/legislation/9629_en.pdf
Government policy and publications
G1 Review of Radioactive Waste Management Policy: Final Conclusions
Cm2919 The Stationery Office July 1995
G2 The decommissioning of the UK nuclear industry’s facilities DTI September
2004 www.dti.gov.uk/files/file30124.pdf
G3 Intermediate level radioactive waste substitution DTI December 2004
www.dti.gov.uk/files/file30058.pdf
G4 Response to the Report and Recommendations from the Committee
on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) by the UK Government and the
devolved administrations Defra, National Assembly for Wales (NAW), Department
of the Environment for Northern Ireland and the Scottish Executive, October 2006
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/radioactivity/waste/pdf/corwm-govresponse.pdf
G5 Guide to an Application for UK Competent Authority Approval of Radioactive
Material in Transport (IAEA 1996 Regulations) DETR/RMTD/0003 Radioactive
Materials Transport Division, DfT January 2001
www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/freight/dgt1/guidance/guidance7class/applicantsguide
G6 Managing Radioactive Waste Safely. Proposals for Developing a Policy for
Managing Solid Radioactive Waste in the UK Defra, National Assembly for Wales
(NAW), Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland and the Scottish
Executive, September 2001
G7 Managing the Nuclear Legacy. A Strategy for Action DTI July 2002
G8 RWPG Sponsored Workshops on Interim Safe Storage Report DEFRA/
RAS/04.001 28 November 2003 Commission Regulation (Euratom) No 302/2005 of
8 February 2005 on the application of Euratom safeguards – Council/Commission
statement
Official Journal 28.02.2005 L54 1–71 www.defra.gov.uk/environment/radioactivity/
publications/complete/pdf/defra_ras-04.001.pdf
G9 Report on RWPG Sponsored Compatibility Workshop Report DEFRA/
RAS/04.007 11 February 2004 www.defra.gov.uk/environment/radioactivity/
publications/complete/pdf/defra_ras-04.007.pdf
G10 Managing our Radioactive Waste Safely: CoRWM’s recommendations to
Government Committee on Radioactive Waste Management 31 July 2006
www.corwm.org.uk/pdf/FullReport.pdf
Guidance and documents from the regulators and NDA
R1 Safety Assessment Principles for Nuclear Facilities HSE
www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/saps/index.htm
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R2 Guidance for inspectors on the management of radioactive materials and
radioactive waste on nuclear licensed sites NSD, HSE March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/waste1.pdf
R3 The licensing of nuclear installations HSE 2007
www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/notesforapplicants.pdf
R4 Memorandum of Understanding between the Health and Safety Executive
and the Environment Agency on Matters of Mutual Concern at Nuclear Sites
Licensed by HSE in England and Wales www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/nucmou.pdf
R5 Memorandum of Understanding between the Health and Safety Executive
and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency on Matters of Mutual Concern at
Licensed Nuclear Sites in Scotland
www.hse.gov.uk/aboutus/framework/mou/sepa-nuclear.pdf
R6 Guidance on the purpose, scope and content of nuclear safety cases
Technical Assessment Guide T/AST/051 NSD, HSE
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/TAST051.pdf
R7 Radioactive Substances Regulation Environmental Principles (Interim)
Environment Agencyhttp://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0606BLSO-e-e.pdf
R8 Guidance for the Environment Agencies’ Assessment of Best Practicable
Environmental Option Studies at Nuclear Sites Environment Agency and SEPA 2004http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/PMHO0204BKHK-e-e.pdf
R9 Specification for the Content and Format of a Site Integrated Waste Strategy
Document ENG01 NDA
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/upload/eng01_specfication_for_content_and_format_
of_site_integrated_waste_strategy_document_revision_2.pdf
R10 Companion Document to Integrated Waste Strategy Specification ENG02 NDA
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/upload/eng02_companion_document_to_integrated_
waste_strategy_specification_revision_2.pdf
R11 Memorandum of Understanding Between the Nuclear Decommissioning
Authority and the Environment Agency
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.
cfm&pageid=3107
R12 Memorandum of Understanding between the Nuclear Decommissioning
Authority and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.
cfm&pageid=3122
International
I1 Agreement of 6 September 1976 Between the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland, the European Atomic Energy Community and the
Agency [IAEA] in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons the text of which is published by the IAEA as Information Circular
(INFCIRC) number 263
I2 Protocol Additional to the Agreement between the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland, the European Atomic Energy Community and the
International Atomic Energy Agency for the application of safeguards in the United
16 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in connection with the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Vienna, 22 September 1998 [Cm 4282]
I3 Predisposal Management of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste
IAEA Safety Standard Series Safety Guide No WS-G-2.5 2003
www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1150_web.pdf
I4 Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety
of Radioactive Waste Management INFCIRC/546 IAEA 24 December 1997
I5 Predisposal Management of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste
Including Decommissioning Requirements IAEA Safety Standard Series Safety
Guide No. WS-R-2 www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/P089_scr.pdf
I6 Storage of Radioactive Waste IAEA Safety Standard Series Guide No WS-G-
6.1 December 2006 www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1254_web.pdf
Glossary
characterisation characterisation of radioactive waste involves determining its
physical, chemical and radiological properties. It may be carried out in association
with several of the other basic steps. It may be required for record keeping, moving
waste between steps and also to determine the best method of managing waste.
clearance clearance is where radioactive materials and their management are
removed from within a process of regulatory control. It is particularly relevant to the
management of wastes produced in decommissioning. Article 5 of the Euratom
Basic Safety Standards (BSS)
L11
provides guidance on which materials can be
removed from regulation.
conditioning conditioning involves transforming radioactive waste into a form
suitable for handling, transportation, storage and disposal. This may include
immobilisation of radioactive waste, placing waste into containers and providing
additional packaging. Common immobilisation methods include solidification of
LLW and ILW liquid radioactive waste, for example in cement, and vitrification of
HLW in a glass matrix. Immobilised waste may be placed in steel drums or other
engineered containers to create a waste package.
disposal disposal is the authorised emplacement of packages of radioactive waste
in a disposal facility without the primary intention of retrieval. Disposal may also
include discharging radioactive wastes such as liquid and gaseous effluent into the
environment and transfer from one site to another.
exemption radioactive waste can be exempted from specific regulatory control if:
for certain natural radionuclides in the uranium and thorium decay chains, levels
are below those speci?ed in Schedule 1 of RSA93; or
for other arti?cial or man-made radionuclides, the levels are below those laid
down in the current suite of Exemption Orders issued under RSA93, and they
meet the controls speci?ed in the Exemption Order.
The most notable of these is the Substances of Low Activity (SoLA) Exemption
Order. This specifies a level for exemption from regulatory control of 0.4 Becquerel
(Bq)/g for wastes that are substantially insoluble in water.
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of radioactive waste
exempt waste waste exempt from regulation as radioactive waste (see
exemption).
high-level or heat-generating wastes (HLW) wastes in which the temperature
may rise significantly as a result of their radioactivity, meaning that heat generation
has to be taken into account when designing storage or disposal facilities. IAEA
I3
guidance is that HLW thermal power exceeds about 2 kW/m
3
.
intermediate-level wastes (ILW) wastes with radioactivity levels exceeding the
upper boundaries for low-level wastes, but which do not require heating to be
taken into account in the design of storage or disposal facilities. IAEA guidance
I3
is
that ILW thermal power is below about 2 kW/m
3
.
Letter of Compliance (LoC) documentation provided by NDA(RWMD) to a
licensee (or anyone producing conditioned waste packages) indicating how well the
proposed waste package would fit in the anticipated safety case for a repository.
This information can be used by licensees to demonstrate to the regulators that the
proposed packages should be disposable.
low-level wastes (LLW) radioactive waste having a radioactive content not exceeding
four Gigabecquerels per tonne (GBq/te) of alpha or 12 GBq/te of beta/gamma activity.*
The lower activity limit for LLW, below which waste is not required to be subject to
specific regulatory control, is covered by exemption orders under RSA93.
very low-level radioactive waste (VLLW) is a subset of LLW (see VLLW).
minimisation minimisation of waste is fundamental good practice in radioactive
waste management. It should be considered during the design of facilities
and applied during all of the basic steps. Effective methods of minimising the
accumulation of radioactive waste include the clearance of waste that is exempt
from regulatory control and the reuse or recycling of radioactive material.
NDA (Nuclear Decommissioning Authority) a non-departmental public body set
up, under the Energy Act 2004, by the government in 2005 with a vision to ensure
the safe, accelerated and affordable clean up of the UK’s civil nuclear legacy.
NDA(RWMD) the Radioactive Waste Management Directorate of NDA.
nuclear matter includes radioactive materials and radioactive waste, as defined in
section 26 of the Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (as amended):
(a) any fissile material in the form of uranium metal, alloy or chemical compound
(including natural uranium), or of plutonium metal, alloy or chemical compound,
and any other fissile material which may be prescribed;
(b) any radioactive material produced in, or made radioactive by exposure to the
radiation incidental to, the process of producing or utilising any such fissile
material as aforesaid;
(c) any substance which meets the definition of radioactive waste in the
Radioactive Substances Act.
passive safety providing and maintaining a safety function by minimising the need
for active safety systems, monitoring or prompt human intervention.
*Policy for the Long Term Management of Solid Low Level Radioactive Waste in the United Kingdom
Defra, DTI and Devolved Administrations 26 March 2007
18 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
pretreatment the initial step that occurs just after generation. It may consist of
collection, segregation, chemical adjustment and decontamination and may include
a period of interim storage. This step provides the best opportunity for segregating
waste streams according to how they will be managed and to isolate those non-
radioactive or recyclable wastes.
radioactive material defined in section 1 of RSA93 as a substance, not being
waste, falling within either or both of the following descriptions:
(a) a naturally occurring substance containing an element specified in Schedule 1
of the Act which is present at specific activity levels greater than those given in that
Schedule;
(b) any substances which are not naturally occurring, whose radioactivity is wholly
or partly due to nuclear fission, neutron or ionising radiation.
radioactive waste defined in section 2 of RSA93 as waste which consists wholly
or partly of:
(a) a substance or article which, if it were not waste, would be radioactive material,
or
(b) a substance or article which has been contaminated in the course of the
production, keeping or use of radioactive material, or by contact with or
proximity to other waste falling within paragraph (a) or this paragraph.
Section 14(4) of RSA93 states that:
‘... where radioactive material is produced, kept or used on any premises, and
any substance arising from the production, keeping or use of that material is
accumulated in a part of the premises appropriated for the purpose, and is retained
there for a period of not less than three months, that substance shall, unless the
contrary is proved, be presumed –
(a) to be radioactive waste, and
(b) to be accumulated on the premises with a view to subsequent disposal of the
substance.’
retrieval retrieval is the recovery of waste packages from storage either for
inspection purposes, for subsequent disposal or further storage in new facilities.
Storage facilities may be designed so the original emplacement equipment may be
operated in reverse to retrieve waste packages. Others may require the installation
of retrieval equipment at the appropriate time.
segregation segregation of radioactive waste involves accumulating wastes with
similar physical, chemical and radiological properties and that will be subject to similar
methods or options for future management. Mixing together radioactive wastes that
have different properties and different methods of future management is avoided. It is
most effectively carried out during the early steps of radioactive waste management.
storage storage of radioactive waste may take place at any stage in the
radioactive waste management process and aims to isolate the radioactive
waste, help protect the environment and make it easier to control its disposal.
Storage may be used to make the next step in the management process more
straightforward, or to act as a buffer between or within steps. Waste might be
stored for many years before it undergoes further processing and disposal. Some
storage facilities are located with a nuclear power plant or a licensed disposal
facility, others are separate facilities.
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of radioactive waste
treatment treatment involves changing the characteristics of the waste. Basic
treatment concepts are volume reduction, radionuclide removal and change of
composition. Typical treatment operations include incineration or compaction of dry
solid waste or organic liquid wastes (volume reduction), filtration or ion exchange
of liquid waste (radionuclide removal) and precipitation or flocculation of chemical
species (change of composition).
very low-level wastes (VLLW) a sub-category of LLW. In the case of low volumes
(‘dustbin disposal’), this is categorised as low volume VLLW:
Radioactive waste which can be safely disposed of to an unspecified destination
with municipal, commercial or industrial waste (‘dustbin disposal’), each 0.1 m
3
of
waste containing less than 400 kilobecquerels (kBq) of total activity or single items
containing less than 40 kBq of total activity. For wastes containing carbon-14 or
hydrogen-3 (tritium):
in each 0.1 m
3
, the activity limit is 4000 kBq for carbon-14 and hydrogen-3
(tritium) taken together; and
for any single item, the activity limit is 400 kBq for carbon-14 and hydrogen-3
(tritium) taken together.
Controls on disposal of this material, after removal from the premises where the
wastes arose, are not necessary.
Bulk disposals are categorised as high volume VLLW:
Radioactive waste with maximum concentrations of 4 Megabecquerels per
tonne (MBq/te) of total activity which can be disposed of to speci?ed land?ll
sites. For waste containing hydrogen-3 (tritium), the concentration limit for
tritium is 40 MBq/te. Controls on disposal of this material, after removal from the
premises where the wastes arose, will be necessary in a manner speci?ed by
the environmental regulators.
waste generation occurs during the operation and decommissioning of nuclear
facilities. Waste generation can give rise to solid, liquid and/or gaseous wastes.
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Contacts
Health and Safety Executive
HSE Nuclear Directorate
Redgrave Court
Merton Road
Bootle
Merseyside
L20 7HS
www.hse.gov.uk
Environment Agency
Nuclear Waste Assessment Team
Environment Agency
Ghyll Mount
Gillan Way
Penrith 40 Business Park
Penrith
Cumbria
CA11 9BP
www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
SEPA Corporate Office
Erskine Court
Castle Business Park
Stirling
FK9 4TR
www.sepa.org.uk
© Crown copyright This publication may be freely reproduced, except for
advertising, endorsement or commercial purposes. First published 12/07.
Published by the Health and Safety Executive,
the Environment Agency and the
Scottish Environment Protection Agency 12/07
NRW02
doc_429583462.pdf
Intermediate-level waste has radioactivity levels that are higher than low-level waste (see below) but which do not generate enough heat to require special storage or disposal facilities. However, like other radioactive waste it still needs to be contained to protect workers from the radiation.
1 of 20 pages
Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
An introduction to the management of higher-level
radioactive waste on nuclear licensed sites
Guidance from the Health and Safety Executive,
the Environment Agency and the
Scottish Environment Protection Agency to nuclear
licensees
December 2007
2 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
Contents
Foreword 3
Fundamentals of the management of radioactive waste 3
What is radioactive waste? 3
Definition of radioactive waste 3
Categories of radioactive waste 3
What happens to radioactive waste? 4
Fundamental principles of radioactive waste management 5
Objective of radioactive waste management 5
Principles of radioactive waste management 6
Policy and regulatory objectives 6
Government policy 6
Regulatory objectives 6
Who is responsible? 7
Licensees 7
HSE/ND 7
The Environment Agency and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency 8
Department for Transport 8
NDA 8
(Potential) disposal site operators 9
How is radioactive waste management regulated? 9
Matters covered by this guidance 9
Safety of workers and the general public 9
Radioactive waste management on nuclear licensed sites 9
Other related legislation 10
Disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear licensed sites 10
Transport of radioactive waste 10
Security 10
Safeguards 10
Appendix 12
References and further reading 13
Glossary 16
Contacts 20
3 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
Foreword
In producing guidance to nuclear licensees on the management of higher-level
radioactive wastes, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), the Environment Agency
and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) (together referred to as
the regulators) received comments that it would be useful to have an introductory
document explaining the context of radioactive waste management.
This introductory document aims to fulfil that role by explaining:
what radioactive waste is;
what happens to radioactive waste;
who is involved in radioactive waste management;
what their roles are; and
how radioactive waste management is regulated.
This introductory document does not form part of the guidance.
The regulators are producing the guidance in a modular format. The appendix
lists those parts of the guidance that are available, together with a list of modules
that will be produced. Where modules have not yet been produced, the appendix
references other existing guidance that can be consulted in the mean time.
Fundamentals of the management of
radioactive waste
What is radioactive waste?
Definition of radioactive waste
Radioactive waste is any material that is either radioactive itself or is contaminated
by radioactivity, for which no further use is envisaged. Government policy means
that certain nuclear materials such as uranium, plutonium and spent nuclear fuel
have not been declared as wastes by their owners.
Categories of radioactive waste
The term ‘radioactive waste’ covers a wide variety of material, ranging from wastes
that can be put safely into a dustbin to items that need remote handling, heavy
shielding and cooling to be managed safely. To be clear, radioactive waste is
considered in different categories. These are:
High-level waste (HLW)
Radioactive waste that is radioactive enough for the decay heat to significantly
increases its temperature and the temperature of its surroundings. This means that
heat generation has to be taken into account when designing storage and disposal
facilities.
This category of waste includes:
the liquid residue that contains most of the radioactivity from the reprocessing of
spent nuclear fuel;
this material following solidi?cation;
spent fuel (if it is declared a waste); or
any other waste with similar radiological characteristics.
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Intermediate-level waste (ILW)
Intermediate-level waste has radioactivity levels that are higher than low-level
waste (see below) but which do not generate enough heat to require special
storage or disposal facilities. However, like other radioactive waste it still needs
to be contained to protect workers from the radiation. ILW arises mainly from the
reprocessing of spent fuel and from general operations and maintenance at nuclear
sites, and can include metal items such as fuel cladding and reactor components,
graphite from reactor cores, and sludges from the treatment of radioactive liquid
effluents.
Low-level waste (LLW)
Most LLW today arises from the operation of nuclear power stations and nuclear
fuel reprocessing facilities, as well as the decommissioning and clean up of
nuclear sites. Operational LLW is principally lightly contaminated miscellaneous
waste arising from maintenance and monitoring, such as plastic, paper and metal.
LLW from decommissioning is mainly soil, building materials and metal plant and
equipment. Most LLW from nuclear licensed sites is currently disposed of at the
Low-Level Waste Repository (LLWR) near Drigg in Cumbria.
Very low-level waste (VLLW)
VLLW is a subset of LLW and falls into two distinct categories:
Low-volume VLLW (‘dustbin disposal’): Radioactive waste that can be
safely disposed of to an unspeci?ed destination with municipal, commercial
or industrial waste. The radioactive risk from such material is low enough that
controls on disposal of this material, after removal from the premises where the
wastes arose, are not necessary.
High-volume VLLW (‘bulk disposal’): Radioactive waste that can be disposed
of to speci?ed land?ll sites. After the waste is removed from its site of origin,
it will be subject to controls on its disposal, which will be speci?ed by the
environmental regulators.
Exempt waste
Some radioactive waste is exempted from regulation by an Exemption Order issued
under the Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (RSA93).
L1
Exempt waste does not
need an authorisation for disposal.
What happens to radioactive waste?
Once created, radioactive waste will undergo some of the following stages
depending on the type of waste and the strategy for its management:
Pretreatment is the initial step that occurs just after waste generation. It may
involve collection, segregation, chemical adjustment and decontamination and may
also include a period of interim storage. The aim of this step is to segregate waste
into streams that will be managed in similar ways, and to isolate non-radioactive
wastes or those materials that can be recycled.
Treatment involves changing the characteristics of the waste by volume reduction,
radionuclide removal or change of composition. Typical treatment operations include:
compaction of dry solid waste or incineration of solid or organic liquid wastes
(volume reduction);
?ltration or ion exchange of liquid waste (radionuclide removal); and
precipitation or ?occulation of chemical species (change of composition).
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Conditioning involves transforming radioactive waste into a form that is suitable for
handling, transportation, storage and disposal. This might involve immobilisation of
radioactive waste, placing waste into containers or providing additional packaging.
Common immobilisation methods include solidification of LLW and ILW liquid
radioactive waste in cement, and vitrification of HLW in a glass matrix. Immobilised
waste may be placed in steel drums or other engineered containers to create a
waste package.
Storage of radioactive waste may take place at any stage in the radioactive waste
management process and aims to isolate the radioactive waste, help protect the
environment and make it easier to control its disposal. Storage may be used to
make the next step in the management process more straightforward or to act as
a buffer between or within steps. Waste might be stored for many years before
it undergoes further processing and disposal. Some storage facilities are located
within a nuclear power plant or a licensed disposal facility, others are separate
facilities.
Retrieval involves recovering waste packages from storage either for inspection, for
disposal or for further storage in new facilities. Some storage facilities are designed
so the equipment that deposits waste can be operated in reverse to retrieve waste
packages. Others may need retrieval equipment to be installed.
Disposal occurs when packages of radioactive waste are deposited in a disposal
facility with no intention of retrieval. Disposal may also include discharging
radioactive wastes such as liquid and gaseous effluent into the environment and
transfer of wastes from one site to another.
These basic steps in radioactive waste management are illustrated in Figure 1.
Which steps are employed in a particular situation depends on the types of
radioactive waste and the methods of radioactive waste management that are to be
used. In some cases individual steps may be closely linked or carried out together.
The whole process needs to take place so that the way wastes are managed at
each step is compatible with the subsequent steps.
On most nuclear licensed sites there are a number of radioactive wastes to
manage, particularly if nuclear facilities are being decommissioned. In all cases, an
integrated approach to managing radioactive wastes and non-radioactive wastes is
required.
Fundamental principles of radioactive waste
management
Objective of radioactive waste management
The objective of radioactive waste management is to control and account for
radioactive waste to protect human health and the environment now, but also to
make sure we do not leave unnecessary burdens for future generations.
The preferred way to do this, where reasonably practical, is to concentrate and
contain the waste and to isolate it from the environment. This allows any releases to
the environment to be restricted and subject to regulatory control.
6 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
Principles of radioactive waste management
The HSE’s Safety Assessment Principles
R1
set out the basic principles of radioactive
waste management:
A strategy should be produced and implemented for managing radioactive
waste on a site. This should be consistent with government policy, including
the government’s overall policy aims on sustainable development, should take
into account the possible consequences for present and future generations and
should consider the environment and non-human species.
Where reasonably practicable, radioactive waste generation should be
prevented or minimised, both in terms of quantity and activity.
The accumulation of radioactive waste on site should be minimised.
Characterisation and segregation of radioactive waste should be used to help
ensure subsequent management is safe and effective.
Radioactive waste should be stored using good engineering practice and in a
passively safe condition.
Radioactive waste should be processed into a passively safe state as soon as is
reasonably practical.
Information that might be required now and in the future for the safe
management of radioactive waste should be recorded and preserved.
Policy and regulatory objectives
Government policy
The last full statement of government policy on radioactive waste management was
in Cm2919.
G1
This has been amended or elaborated as follows:
The Decommissioning of the UK Nuclear Industry’s Facilities September 2004
G2
replaces paragraphs 120–131 of Cm2919;
Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste Substitution December 2004
G3
replaces
paragraphs 140–141 and 186 of Cm2919;
Response to the Report and Recommendations from the Committee on
Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) By the UK Government and the
devolved administrations Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(Defra), National Assembly for Wales (NAW), Department of the Environment for
Northern Ireland and the Scottish Executive, October 2006.
G4
The regulators will take account of any future revision to this policy and amend this
guidance as appropriate.
As stated in Cm2919 paragraph 52(2), the regulators have the duty to ensure
that the government’s policy framework described is properly implemented in
accordance with their statutory powers.
Regulatory objectives
The regulators look to licensees to demonstrate strategic planning for managing all
radioactive material and radioactive waste. This includes developing programmes
for disposing of waste and the long-term management of material that may become
waste at some time in the future. Strategies should be integrated within a single
site and nationally where appropriate, to make sure the overall safety is maintained
while the environmental impact is minimised.
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The regulators will be looking to see that the traditional waste hierarchy is applied in
the strategies. This involves:
avoiding producing radioactive waste where reasonably practicable;
where waste does need to be produced, reducing this as much as reasonably
practicable;
reusing or recycling material that forms radioactive waste where reasonably
practicable;
only disposing of radioactive waste that cannot otherwise be dealt with.
.
In terms of practical radioactive waste management, the regulators will be looking
to see that, where reasonably practicable, licensees characterise and segregate
their radioactive waste on the basis of physical and chemical properties and
then store the waste in accordance with the principles of passive safety. The
regulators will also be looking to see that licensees manage radioactive material
and radioactive waste in a manner that is compatible with future potential disposal
requirements.
More details on the regulatory objectives are provided in guidance to inspectors
R2
and in Part II of this guidance.
Who is responsible?
Licensees
Licensees bear the prime responsibility for safety and environmental protection
relating to activities carried out on their sites. Therefore HSE requires that the
licensee has an adequate management structure, capability and resources to
do this before granting a nuclear site licence.
R3
Licensees must produce safety
cases for all operations, including radioactive waste conditioning operations, which
consider safety, radioactive waste management and environmental protection.
In some cases, the licensee’s own requirements or the site licence might mean that
radioactive waste conditioning operations cannot continue without the permission
of HSE.
The cost of regulation is met by licensees through charges made by HSE under
section 24A of the Nuclear Installations Act 1965
L2
(as amended). These costs
include the cost of advice given to HSE by the Environment Agency or SEPA.
HSE/ND
HSE makes sure that the public and workers are protected from radiation by
securing effective control of health, safety, radioactive waste management and
security at nuclear sites. It acts in this area through the Nuclear Installations
Inspectorate (NII), the enforcing part of its Nuclear Directorate (ND). These bodies
enforce the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974
L3
and associated statutory
provisions in Great Britain, including the Nuclear Installations Act 1965
L2
(as
amended) and the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999.
L4
HSE is responsible for regulating radioactive waste management through conditions
attached to the nuclear site licence.
L5
A series of Memoranda of Understanding (MoU)
R4,R5
ensure that HSE consults the
Environment Agency or SEPA on radioactive waste management activities and
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Licensees bear the prime
responsibility for safety and
environmental protection.
HSE regulates radioactive
waste management
through conditions
attached to the nuclear site
licence.
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of radioactive waste
means that they will not give permission without taking full and meaningful account
of any environmental issues raised.
The Office for Civil Nuclear Security (OCNS) (part of HSE’s Nuclear Directorate)
is the security regulator for the UK’s civil nuclear industry. It is responsible for
approving security arrangements within the industry and enforcing compliance.
OCNS conducts its regulatory activities on behalf of the Secretary of State for
Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) under the authority of the
Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003 (NISR03).
L6
OCNS also undertakes
vetting of nuclear industry personnel with access to sensitive nuclear material or
information. It works in close conjunction with policy officials in BERR, with other
government departments and agencies, and with overseas counterparts.
The Environment Agency and the Scottish Environment
Protection Agency
The Environment Agency takes a leading role in protecting and improving the
environment in England and Wales while the Scottish Environment Protection
Agency (SEPA) has similar responsibilities in Scotland. These responsibilities include
enforcing the the Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (RSA93)
L1
and the Environment
Act 1995.
L7
This means that these agencies are responsible under RSA93 for authorising any
disposal, discharge or off-site transfer of radioactive waste.
Under section 37(3) of the Environment Act 1995 (EA95), the Environment
Agency or SEPA may provide advice ‘as respects any matter in which they have
skill or experience’. This includes advising HSE on the long-term disposability of
conditioned waste, and ensuring waste is managed in a sustainable way, taking
into account long-term environmental considerations. Under section 37(1) of EA95,
the environment agencies charge HSE for that advice.
In addition, the environment agencies scrutinise the concepts that the Nuclear
Decommissioning Authority’s Radioactive Waste Management Directorate
(NDA(RWMD)) has developed for assessing the disposability of waste packages to
ensure that these concepts are fit for purpose.
Under the terms of the MoU,
R4,R5
the Environment Agency or SEPA consult HSE
and will not authorise the disposal of radioactive waste without taking full and
meaningful account of any health and safety issues raised.
Department for Transport
The Secretary of State for Transport is responsible for regulating the safe transport
of radioactive materials in the United Kingdom. The Radioactive Materials Transport
Division of the Department for Transport works on behalf of the Secretary of State
to develop regulations, assess and approve package designs and ensure that the
regulations are complied with.
NDA
The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) is responsible for the
decommissioning and clean up of all civil public-sector nuclear sites in the
UK, including the management of radioactive wastes. NDA establishes waste
management plans with its site licensee companies (SLCs), and consults on these
plans with the regulators, as described in the Energy Act 2004.
L8
In accordance
The Environment Agency
and SEPA regulate any
disposal, discharge
or off-site transfer of
radioactive waste through
authorisations issued
under RSA93.
9 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
with the government announcement of 25 October 2006,
G4
NDA is also responsible
for implementing the UK’s geological disposal programme.
(Potential) disposal site operators
Operators of radioactive waste disposal sites in the UK are responsible for
operating their sites according to the terms of authorisations granted by either the
Environment Agency or SEPA. As part of this, they must set out conditions for
acceptance of waste, which can be used by nuclear site licensees to demonstrate
in their conditioning proposals that wastes are disposable.
The government has announced
G4
moves towards disposing of a range of
higher-activity radioactive wastes (HLW, ILW and some LLW) in deep geological
repositories. NDA(RWMD) is the body that will advise licensees, through the Letter
of Compliance (LoC) process, on the packaging and conditioning of radioactive
wastes until a repository operating company is set up.
A different policy applies in Scotland, where the preference is for long-term, near-
surface, near-site storage of higher-activity wastes. The regulators consider that
wastes packaged and conditioned in anticipation of deep geological disposal
are also suitable for long-term storage, as required by the government policy in
Scotland.
How is radioactive waste management
regulated?
Matters covered by this guidance
Safety of workers and the general public
The main legislation covering the safety of workers and the general public at nuclear
installations in the UK is the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974
L3
and various
associated pieces of legislation such as the Nuclear Installations Act 1965
L2
(as
amended) and the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999.
L4
These are enforced by
HSE.
Radioactive waste management on nuclear licensed sites
The way in which radioactive waste is managed on licensed nuclear sites is set
out in the conditions
L5
attached to the nuclear site licence and is enforced by HSE.
These conditions include some of particular relevance:
Licence Condition 4 requires that no nuclear matter (which includes radioactive
waste) is brought onto or stored on the site unless adequate arrangements are
made by the licensee.
Licence Condition 25 requires that adequate records are kept of the amount and
location of radioactive waste used, stored or accumulated on site at any time.
Licence Condition 32 requires that the production and total quantity of
radioactive waste stored on the site is minimised.
Licence Condition 33 gives power to HSE to ensure that radioactive waste
is only disposed of in an authorised manner, to comply with the Radioactive
Substances Act 1993.
Licence Condition 34 requires that radioactive waste on the site is adequately
controlled or contained at all times.
Licence Condition 35 requires that adequate arrangements are made for
decommissioning.
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Other related legislation
The legislation described above directly relates to this guidance, however, other
legislation does apply:
Disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear licensed sites
The disposal of radioactive waste, including airborne and liquid discharges from
sites and transfers of waste between sites, is regulated by the Environment Agency
in England and Wales and SEPA in Scotland, under the Radioactive Substances
Act 1993
L1
and the Environment Act 1995.
L7
Transport of radioactive waste
The Competent Authority in the UK for approving packages for transporting
radioactive material is the Radioactive Materials Transport Division of the
Department for Transport (DfT). A guide from DfT
G5
describes the requirements
for applications, based on the requirements set out in International Atomic Energy
Authority (IAEA) guidance.
L9
Security
The Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003
L6
aim to ensure the security
of nuclear material and related equipment and information, and are enforced by
OCNS.
Safeguards
The Euratom Treaty
L10
and agreements between the UK, Euratom and IAEA
I1
contain safeguards provisions for nuclear material contained in certain kinds of
waste in the UK. This includes plutonium (all isotopes), uranium (natural, depleted
and enriched) and thorium. These safeguards are based on nuclear materials
accountancy measures, including nuclear material inventories (ie how much
material there is and where it is) and information about the design of the nuclear
facilities concerned. The safeguards inspectorates of the European Commission
and/or IAEA perform inspections to verify that the facility design and the amounts
of nuclear material present are as declared. The UK’s safeguards agreement
with Euratom and IAEA is now supplemented by an Additional Protocol to that
agreement,
I2
and the application of all safeguards measures in the UK is described
further on the non-proliferation section of the Department of Business, Enterprise
and Regulatory Reform website www.berr.gov.uk/energy/non-proliferation/nuclear/
index.html.
11 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
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Figure 1 The basic steps of radioactive waste management
Strategy
Waste generation
Pre-treatment
Treatment
Safety case
Conditioning
Storage
Retrieval
Disposal
Passive
safety
Exemption
re-use
Minimisation
characterisation
segregation
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of radioactive waste
Appendix
This appendix is a temporary part of the documentation, aimed at indicating the
proposed scope of the guidance and indicating where advice or guidance can be
obtained until the revised guidance is complete.
The guidance is in two parts with an introduction that is not part of the guidance.
This introduction sets out the scope, aims and context of the guidance. We have
produced it in response to comments received on the draft of Part I indicating that
members of the public would find it useful to have a general description of what
radioactive waste is, what happens to it, who is responsible and how it is regulated,
to help them understand the guidance itself.
Part I gives guidance on the regulatory process and is now published.
Part II gives technical guidance on a number of relevant topics. This part is modular
covering the following:
Part IIA The radioactive waste management case
Part IIB Conditioning and disposability
Part IIC Radioactive waste management strategies
Part IID Waste minimisation, characterisation and segregation
Part IIE Control, accountancy and records
Part IIF Storage of radioactive waste
The Part II guidance will be issued as each module is completed. Until these
modules are available, licensees should refer to the following documents for advice:
Radioactive waste management case
Guidance on the Purpose, Scope and Content of Nuclear Safety Cases Technical
Assessment Guide T/AST/051 NSD, HSE
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/TAST051.pdf
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 3 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Conditioning and disposability
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 4 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Radioactive waste management strategies
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 2 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
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Waste minimisation, characterisation and segregation
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 5 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Control accountancy and records
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendix 7 T/AST/024 NSD, HSE
March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
Storage of radioactive waste
Guidance for Inspectors on the Management of Radioactive Materials and
Radioactive Waste on Nuclear Licensed Sites Appendices 4&6 T/AST/024 NSD,
HSE March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/tast024.pdf
References and further reading
(References to websites were current in October 2007)
Legislation
L1 Radioactive Substances Act 1993 (c.12) The Stationery Office 1993
ISBN 978 0 10 541293 9
L2 Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (c.57) The Stationery Office 1965
ISBN 978 0 10 850216 3
L3 Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 (c.37) The Stationery Office 1974
ISBN 978 0 10 543774 1
L4 Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999 SI 1999/3232 The Stationery Office 1999
ISBN 978 0 11 085614 8
L5 Nuclear site licence conditions HSE www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/silicon.pdf
L6 Nuclear Industries Security Regulations 2003 SI 2003/403 The Stationery Office
2003 ISBN 978 0 11 045397 2
L7 Environment Act 1995 (c.25) The Stationery Office 1995
ISBN 978 0 10 542595 3
L8 Energy Act 2004 (c.20) The Stationery Office 2004 ISBN 978 0 10 542004 8
L9 Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material IAEA Safety
Standard Series No. TS-R-1 (ST-1 Revised) 1996 Edition
L10 Chapter 7 of the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community
(Euratom) and ‘Commission Regulation (Euratom) No 302/2005 of 8 February 2005
14 of 20 pages Fundamentals of the management
of radioactive waste
on the application of Euratom safeguards – Council/Commission statement’ Official
Journal 28.02.2005 L54 1–71
L11 ‘Council Directive 96/29/EURATOM of 13 May 1996 laying down basic safety
standards for the protection of the health of workers and the general public against the
dangers of ionising radiation’ (The Basic Safety Standards Directive (BSS))http://ec.europa.eu/energy/nuclear/radioprotection/doc/legislation/9629_en.pdf
Government policy and publications
G1 Review of Radioactive Waste Management Policy: Final Conclusions
Cm2919 The Stationery Office July 1995
G2 The decommissioning of the UK nuclear industry’s facilities DTI September
2004 www.dti.gov.uk/files/file30124.pdf
G3 Intermediate level radioactive waste substitution DTI December 2004
www.dti.gov.uk/files/file30058.pdf
G4 Response to the Report and Recommendations from the Committee
on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) by the UK Government and the
devolved administrations Defra, National Assembly for Wales (NAW), Department
of the Environment for Northern Ireland and the Scottish Executive, October 2006
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/radioactivity/waste/pdf/corwm-govresponse.pdf
G5 Guide to an Application for UK Competent Authority Approval of Radioactive
Material in Transport (IAEA 1996 Regulations) DETR/RMTD/0003 Radioactive
Materials Transport Division, DfT January 2001
www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/freight/dgt1/guidance/guidance7class/applicantsguide
G6 Managing Radioactive Waste Safely. Proposals for Developing a Policy for
Managing Solid Radioactive Waste in the UK Defra, National Assembly for Wales
(NAW), Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland and the Scottish
Executive, September 2001
G7 Managing the Nuclear Legacy. A Strategy for Action DTI July 2002
G8 RWPG Sponsored Workshops on Interim Safe Storage Report DEFRA/
RAS/04.001 28 November 2003 Commission Regulation (Euratom) No 302/2005 of
8 February 2005 on the application of Euratom safeguards – Council/Commission
statement
Official Journal 28.02.2005 L54 1–71 www.defra.gov.uk/environment/radioactivity/
publications/complete/pdf/defra_ras-04.001.pdf
G9 Report on RWPG Sponsored Compatibility Workshop Report DEFRA/
RAS/04.007 11 February 2004 www.defra.gov.uk/environment/radioactivity/
publications/complete/pdf/defra_ras-04.007.pdf
G10 Managing our Radioactive Waste Safely: CoRWM’s recommendations to
Government Committee on Radioactive Waste Management 31 July 2006
www.corwm.org.uk/pdf/FullReport.pdf
Guidance and documents from the regulators and NDA
R1 Safety Assessment Principles for Nuclear Facilities HSE
www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/saps/index.htm
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of radioactive waste
R2 Guidance for inspectors on the management of radioactive materials and
radioactive waste on nuclear licensed sites NSD, HSE March 2001
www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/waste1.pdf
R3 The licensing of nuclear installations HSE 2007
www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/notesforapplicants.pdf
R4 Memorandum of Understanding between the Health and Safety Executive
and the Environment Agency on Matters of Mutual Concern at Nuclear Sites
Licensed by HSE in England and Wales www.hse.gov.uk/nuclear/nucmou.pdf
R5 Memorandum of Understanding between the Health and Safety Executive
and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency on Matters of Mutual Concern at
Licensed Nuclear Sites in Scotland
www.hse.gov.uk/aboutus/framework/mou/sepa-nuclear.pdf
R6 Guidance on the purpose, scope and content of nuclear safety cases
Technical Assessment Guide T/AST/051 NSD, HSE
www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/TAST051.pdf
R7 Radioactive Substances Regulation Environmental Principles (Interim)
Environment Agencyhttp://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0606BLSO-e-e.pdf
R8 Guidance for the Environment Agencies’ Assessment of Best Practicable
Environmental Option Studies at Nuclear Sites Environment Agency and SEPA 2004http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/PMHO0204BKHK-e-e.pdf
R9 Specification for the Content and Format of a Site Integrated Waste Strategy
Document ENG01 NDA
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/upload/eng01_specfication_for_content_and_format_
of_site_integrated_waste_strategy_document_revision_2.pdf
R10 Companion Document to Integrated Waste Strategy Specification ENG02 NDA
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/upload/eng02_companion_document_to_integrated_
waste_strategy_specification_revision_2.pdf
R11 Memorandum of Understanding Between the Nuclear Decommissioning
Authority and the Environment Agency
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.
cfm&pageid=3107
R12 Memorandum of Understanding between the Nuclear Decommissioning
Authority and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency
www.nda.gov.uk/documents/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.
cfm&pageid=3122
International
I1 Agreement of 6 September 1976 Between the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland, the European Atomic Energy Community and the
Agency [IAEA] in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons the text of which is published by the IAEA as Information Circular
(INFCIRC) number 263
I2 Protocol Additional to the Agreement between the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland, the European Atomic Energy Community and the
International Atomic Energy Agency for the application of safeguards in the United
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Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in connection with the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Vienna, 22 September 1998 [Cm 4282]
I3 Predisposal Management of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste
IAEA Safety Standard Series Safety Guide No WS-G-2.5 2003
www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1150_web.pdf
I4 Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety
of Radioactive Waste Management INFCIRC/546 IAEA 24 December 1997
I5 Predisposal Management of Low and Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste
Including Decommissioning Requirements IAEA Safety Standard Series Safety
Guide No. WS-R-2 www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/P089_scr.pdf
I6 Storage of Radioactive Waste IAEA Safety Standard Series Guide No WS-G-
6.1 December 2006 www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1254_web.pdf
Glossary
characterisation characterisation of radioactive waste involves determining its
physical, chemical and radiological properties. It may be carried out in association
with several of the other basic steps. It may be required for record keeping, moving
waste between steps and also to determine the best method of managing waste.
clearance clearance is where radioactive materials and their management are
removed from within a process of regulatory control. It is particularly relevant to the
management of wastes produced in decommissioning. Article 5 of the Euratom
Basic Safety Standards (BSS)
L11
provides guidance on which materials can be
removed from regulation.
conditioning conditioning involves transforming radioactive waste into a form
suitable for handling, transportation, storage and disposal. This may include
immobilisation of radioactive waste, placing waste into containers and providing
additional packaging. Common immobilisation methods include solidification of
LLW and ILW liquid radioactive waste, for example in cement, and vitrification of
HLW in a glass matrix. Immobilised waste may be placed in steel drums or other
engineered containers to create a waste package.
disposal disposal is the authorised emplacement of packages of radioactive waste
in a disposal facility without the primary intention of retrieval. Disposal may also
include discharging radioactive wastes such as liquid and gaseous effluent into the
environment and transfer from one site to another.
exemption radioactive waste can be exempted from specific regulatory control if:
for certain natural radionuclides in the uranium and thorium decay chains, levels
are below those speci?ed in Schedule 1 of RSA93; or
for other arti?cial or man-made radionuclides, the levels are below those laid
down in the current suite of Exemption Orders issued under RSA93, and they
meet the controls speci?ed in the Exemption Order.
The most notable of these is the Substances of Low Activity (SoLA) Exemption
Order. This specifies a level for exemption from regulatory control of 0.4 Becquerel
(Bq)/g for wastes that are substantially insoluble in water.
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exempt waste waste exempt from regulation as radioactive waste (see
exemption).
high-level or heat-generating wastes (HLW) wastes in which the temperature
may rise significantly as a result of their radioactivity, meaning that heat generation
has to be taken into account when designing storage or disposal facilities. IAEA
I3
guidance is that HLW thermal power exceeds about 2 kW/m
3
.
intermediate-level wastes (ILW) wastes with radioactivity levels exceeding the
upper boundaries for low-level wastes, but which do not require heating to be
taken into account in the design of storage or disposal facilities. IAEA guidance
I3
is
that ILW thermal power is below about 2 kW/m
3
.
Letter of Compliance (LoC) documentation provided by NDA(RWMD) to a
licensee (or anyone producing conditioned waste packages) indicating how well the
proposed waste package would fit in the anticipated safety case for a repository.
This information can be used by licensees to demonstrate to the regulators that the
proposed packages should be disposable.
low-level wastes (LLW) radioactive waste having a radioactive content not exceeding
four Gigabecquerels per tonne (GBq/te) of alpha or 12 GBq/te of beta/gamma activity.*
The lower activity limit for LLW, below which waste is not required to be subject to
specific regulatory control, is covered by exemption orders under RSA93.
very low-level radioactive waste (VLLW) is a subset of LLW (see VLLW).
minimisation minimisation of waste is fundamental good practice in radioactive
waste management. It should be considered during the design of facilities
and applied during all of the basic steps. Effective methods of minimising the
accumulation of radioactive waste include the clearance of waste that is exempt
from regulatory control and the reuse or recycling of radioactive material.
NDA (Nuclear Decommissioning Authority) a non-departmental public body set
up, under the Energy Act 2004, by the government in 2005 with a vision to ensure
the safe, accelerated and affordable clean up of the UK’s civil nuclear legacy.
NDA(RWMD) the Radioactive Waste Management Directorate of NDA.
nuclear matter includes radioactive materials and radioactive waste, as defined in
section 26 of the Nuclear Installations Act 1965 (as amended):
(a) any fissile material in the form of uranium metal, alloy or chemical compound
(including natural uranium), or of plutonium metal, alloy or chemical compound,
and any other fissile material which may be prescribed;
(b) any radioactive material produced in, or made radioactive by exposure to the
radiation incidental to, the process of producing or utilising any such fissile
material as aforesaid;
(c) any substance which meets the definition of radioactive waste in the
Radioactive Substances Act.
passive safety providing and maintaining a safety function by minimising the need
for active safety systems, monitoring or prompt human intervention.
*Policy for the Long Term Management of Solid Low Level Radioactive Waste in the United Kingdom
Defra, DTI and Devolved Administrations 26 March 2007
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pretreatment the initial step that occurs just after generation. It may consist of
collection, segregation, chemical adjustment and decontamination and may include
a period of interim storage. This step provides the best opportunity for segregating
waste streams according to how they will be managed and to isolate those non-
radioactive or recyclable wastes.
radioactive material defined in section 1 of RSA93 as a substance, not being
waste, falling within either or both of the following descriptions:
(a) a naturally occurring substance containing an element specified in Schedule 1
of the Act which is present at specific activity levels greater than those given in that
Schedule;
(b) any substances which are not naturally occurring, whose radioactivity is wholly
or partly due to nuclear fission, neutron or ionising radiation.
radioactive waste defined in section 2 of RSA93 as waste which consists wholly
or partly of:
(a) a substance or article which, if it were not waste, would be radioactive material,
or
(b) a substance or article which has been contaminated in the course of the
production, keeping or use of radioactive material, or by contact with or
proximity to other waste falling within paragraph (a) or this paragraph.
Section 14(4) of RSA93 states that:
‘... where radioactive material is produced, kept or used on any premises, and
any substance arising from the production, keeping or use of that material is
accumulated in a part of the premises appropriated for the purpose, and is retained
there for a period of not less than three months, that substance shall, unless the
contrary is proved, be presumed –
(a) to be radioactive waste, and
(b) to be accumulated on the premises with a view to subsequent disposal of the
substance.’
retrieval retrieval is the recovery of waste packages from storage either for
inspection purposes, for subsequent disposal or further storage in new facilities.
Storage facilities may be designed so the original emplacement equipment may be
operated in reverse to retrieve waste packages. Others may require the installation
of retrieval equipment at the appropriate time.
segregation segregation of radioactive waste involves accumulating wastes with
similar physical, chemical and radiological properties and that will be subject to similar
methods or options for future management. Mixing together radioactive wastes that
have different properties and different methods of future management is avoided. It is
most effectively carried out during the early steps of radioactive waste management.
storage storage of radioactive waste may take place at any stage in the
radioactive waste management process and aims to isolate the radioactive
waste, help protect the environment and make it easier to control its disposal.
Storage may be used to make the next step in the management process more
straightforward, or to act as a buffer between or within steps. Waste might be
stored for many years before it undergoes further processing and disposal. Some
storage facilities are located with a nuclear power plant or a licensed disposal
facility, others are separate facilities.
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treatment treatment involves changing the characteristics of the waste. Basic
treatment concepts are volume reduction, radionuclide removal and change of
composition. Typical treatment operations include incineration or compaction of dry
solid waste or organic liquid wastes (volume reduction), filtration or ion exchange
of liquid waste (radionuclide removal) and precipitation or flocculation of chemical
species (change of composition).
very low-level wastes (VLLW) a sub-category of LLW. In the case of low volumes
(‘dustbin disposal’), this is categorised as low volume VLLW:
Radioactive waste which can be safely disposed of to an unspecified destination
with municipal, commercial or industrial waste (‘dustbin disposal’), each 0.1 m
3
of
waste containing less than 400 kilobecquerels (kBq) of total activity or single items
containing less than 40 kBq of total activity. For wastes containing carbon-14 or
hydrogen-3 (tritium):
in each 0.1 m
3
, the activity limit is 4000 kBq for carbon-14 and hydrogen-3
(tritium) taken together; and
for any single item, the activity limit is 400 kBq for carbon-14 and hydrogen-3
(tritium) taken together.
Controls on disposal of this material, after removal from the premises where the
wastes arose, are not necessary.
Bulk disposals are categorised as high volume VLLW:
Radioactive waste with maximum concentrations of 4 Megabecquerels per
tonne (MBq/te) of total activity which can be disposed of to speci?ed land?ll
sites. For waste containing hydrogen-3 (tritium), the concentration limit for
tritium is 40 MBq/te. Controls on disposal of this material, after removal from the
premises where the wastes arose, will be necessary in a manner speci?ed by
the environmental regulators.
waste generation occurs during the operation and decommissioning of nuclear
facilities. Waste generation can give rise to solid, liquid and/or gaseous wastes.
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Contacts
Health and Safety Executive
HSE Nuclear Directorate
Redgrave Court
Merton Road
Bootle
Merseyside
L20 7HS
www.hse.gov.uk
Environment Agency
Nuclear Waste Assessment Team
Environment Agency
Ghyll Mount
Gillan Way
Penrith 40 Business Park
Penrith
Cumbria
CA11 9BP
www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
SEPA Corporate Office
Erskine Court
Castle Business Park
Stirling
FK9 4TR
www.sepa.org.uk
© Crown copyright This publication may be freely reproduced, except for
advertising, endorsement or commercial purposes. First published 12/07.
Published by the Health and Safety Executive,
the Environment Agency and the
Scottish Environment Protection Agency 12/07
NRW02
doc_429583462.pdf