Description
Fish and fish products constitute a major source of income, food and recreation in the global economy. Fish products originate from two main modes of production: harvesting of wild fish (marine and freshwater) and aquaculture. The latter is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as "the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants"
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Fisheries &
Aquaculture
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Chapter outline
3 Fisheries & Aquaculture ............................................................................................. 89
List of Boxes and Figures .......................................................................................... 91
Acronyms .............................................................................................................. 92
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 93
3.2 Environmental and economic context for greening the economy .................................. 93
3.2.1 Current state of world ?sheries and aquaculture ............................................. 93
3.2.2 Trade and ?sheries ................................................................................... 97
3.2.3 Greening the ?sheries and aquaculture sectors .............................................. 98
3.3 Green economy measures ........................................................................................ 99
3.3.1 Trade-related technical regulations ............................................................... 99
3.3.2 Phasing out harmful subsidies ................................................................... 100
3.3.3 Conforming with certi?cation criteria for wild-caught ?sh ............................... 101
3.3.4 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquaculture ............................. 103
3.3.5 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquarium ?sh........................... 104
3.3.6 Sustainability certi?cation from a supply chain perspective ............................. 104
3.4 Trends and trade opportunities ............................................................................... 105
3.4.1 Sustainable management of wild-capture ?sheries ........................................ 105
3.4.2 Eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated ?shing .................................. 106
3.4.3 Certi?ed wild-capture ?sh and processed ?sh products .................................. 107
3.4.4 Certi?ed aquaculture and processed aquaculture products ............................. 110
3.4.5 Sustainable aquarium ?sh trade ................................................................ 111
3.4.6 Marine and coastal tourism ..................................................................... 112
3.5 Enabling conditions ............................................................................................... 112
3.5.1 Public investment and spending ................................................................ 112
3.5.2 Market-based instruments ........................................................................ 113
3.5.3 National regulatory frameworks ................................................................ 113
3.5.4 International frameworks ......................................................................... 114
3.5.5 Enhancing dialogue and capacity building ................................................. 114
3.6 Further resources ................................................................................................... 116
3.6.1 Websites for additional information ........................................................... 116
3.6.2 References ............................................................................................ 117
Copyright @United Nations Environment Programme, 2013
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List of Boxes
Box 1. Key ?ndings of the Green Economy Report
Box 2. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Box 3. Sanitary measures for ?sh trade - a variety of actions involved in Senegal
Box 4. Examples of wild-capture ?sh standards
Box 5. Examples of costs of certi?cation
Box 6. Examples of aquaculture sustainability standards
Box 7. Concerted management of the sea bream ?shery in Kayar, Senegal
Box 8. Eliminating IUU in the Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery
Box 9. Ben Tre clam ?sheries certi?cation in Viet Nam
Box 10. Trends in organic aquaculture production
Box 11. Trade in aquarium ?sh in Indonesia — use of environmentally-friendly capture techniques
List of Figures
Figure 1. World capture ?sheries and aquaculture production, 1950-2010
Figure 2. Global trends in the state of global marine ?sh stocks since 1974
Figure 3. World ?sheries production and quantities destined for export
Figure 4. Impact of eight categories of ?sheries subsidies on ?sh stocks
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Acronyms
ACP
ASC
BAP
CoC
CGPL
CITES
DARD
ECOWAS
FAO
FoS
FIP
GER
GDP
IATA
IFOAM
IUU
JICA
LABOMAR
LAR
MAC
MSC
MSY
NGO
OIE
RFMO
R&D
SFP
TEEB
UN
UNEP
UNCLOS
US
US$
WTO
WWF
African Caribbean and Paci?c
Aquaculture Stewardship Council
Best Aquaculture Practices
Chain of Custody
Lobster Management Commission
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
Economic Community of West African States
Food and Agriculture Organization
Friend of the Sea
Fisheries Improvement Project
Green Economy Report
Gross Domestic Product
International Air Transport Association
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
Illegal, unreported and unregulated
Japanese International Cooperation Agency
Institute of Marine Sciences
Live Animals Regulations
Marine Aquarium Council
Marine Stewardship Council
Maximum Sustainable Yield
Non-governmental Organization
World Organisation for Animal Health
Regional Fisheries Management Organisations
Research and Development
Sustainable Fisheries Partnership
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
United Nations
United Nations Environment Programme
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
United States
United States Dollar
World Trade Organization
World Wildlife Fund
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3 Fisheries & Aquaculture
3.1 Introduction
Enhancing the welfare of ?shing communities, achieving sustainable management of ?sh resources, and
sustainable trade in ?sh and ?sh products are critical development goals reaf?rmed in the Rio+20 Outcome
Document (UN 2012, paragraphs 52, 111, 113-115, and 168-176). By transitioning to a green economy,
through measures such as the elimination of harmful subsidies and the use of greener production and
processing methods, ?sheries resources will be managed more sustainably for the bene?t of present and future
generations. In addition, better information management and conservation measures, including monitoring,
control and surveillance systems need to be developed and implemented with a view to changing awareness
and incentives for economic operators with regard to the exploitation of ?shery resources.
In this context, trade can both support and bene?t from the transition to a green economy by encouraging
better long-term management of global ?sh resources and improved sustainability along the supply chain.
This chapter identi?es general trends and trade opportunities associated with the transition to a green
economy in the ?sheries and aquaculture sectors. It explores ways of responding to the international
demand for sustainable ?sh and ?sh products and how they could be better integrated into relevant markets.
Growing international demand for the integration of sustainability considerations offers increased trade
opportunities in:
• Exports of sustainably and legally produced ?sh and ?sh products;
• Exports of certi?ed wild-capture ?sh and processed ?sh products;
• Exports of certi?ed aquaculture and processed aquaculture products;
• Exports of sustainable aquarium ?sh; and
• Promotion of non-consumptive uses such as tourism.
3.2 Environmental and economic context for greening the economy
3.2.1 Current state of world ?sheries and aquaculture
Fish and ?sh products constitute a major source of income, food and recreation in the global economy. Fish
products originate from two main modes of production: harvesting of wild ?sh (marine and freshwater) and
aquaculture. The latter is de?ned by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as
“the farming of aquatic organisms including ?sh, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants” (FAO 2012b).
1
In 2010, wild capture ?sheries and aquaculture supplied the world with about 148 million tonnes of ?sh,
worth US$ 217.5 billion. Approximately 128 million tonnes - or 86 per cent - were used for human
consumption. Preliminary data for 2011 indicates that production has increased to 154 million tonnes, of
which about 131 million tonnes, or 85 per cent, were consumed as food (FAO 2012a, World Bank 2010).
Even though wild ?sh capture represented 60 per cent of total ?sh production in 2010, total catch from wild
?sheries has remained relatively stable throughout the last three decades. The source of signi?cant growth
in the global production of ?sh since the late 1980s has been aquaculture (see Figure 1); since then, it
has increased almost twelvefold, at an average annual rate of 8.8 per cent. Aquaculture now accounts
for almost half of total ?sh supply for human consumption (FAO 2010a). In 2010, global production of
farmed ?sh was 59.9 million tonnes, compared to 55.7 million tonnes in 2009 and 32.4 million tonnes
in 2000. When farmed aquatic plants and non-food products are included, world aquaculture production
in 2010 was 79 million tonnes, with a market value of US$ 125 billion. Aquaculture is also the world’s
fastest-growing food production activity based on animal protein (FAO 2012a).
1. The de?nition goes on to explain that “farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular
stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.”
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Aquaculture production
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10
Capture production
Million tonnes
Figure 1. World capture ?sheries and aquaculture production, 1950-2010
Source: FAO 2012a
Fish products are essential to food security, providing over 1 billion people with their main source of protein
and more than 4.3 billion people with about 15 per cent of their average per capita animal protein intake
(FAO 2012a). Fish proteins are particularly important for preschool-aged children and pregnant women
(World Fish Centre 2011).
World ?sh resources also have a key role in maintaining and expanding employment levels. Over 140
countries have marine ?sheries that provide employment for local and foreign workers. In 2010, wild
?sheries and aquaculture provided incomes and livelihoods for an estimated 54.8 million people engaged
in the primary sector of ?sh production. Artisanal ?sheries, or small-scale near-shore ?shing, comprise 90
per cent of all ?shing jobs worldwide, approximately 45 per cent of the world’s ?sheries and nearly 25 per
cent of the world’s catch (ILO 2003).
Apart from the primary production sector, ?sheries and aquaculture provide numerous jobs across the
supply chains, in activities such as processing, packaging, marketing and distribution, manufacturing
of ?sh-processing equipment, net and gear making, ice production and supply, boat construction and
maintenance, management, research and administration. This is estimated to support the livelihoods of 660
to 820 million people, or 10 to 12 per cent of the world’s population (FAO 2012a).
According to data collected by the FAO (2012a), however, a huge proportion of the world’s ?sh stocks are
being over?shed. In its latest report on the State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, the FAO states that
almost 30 per cent of the world’s ?sh stocks are overexploited - a slight decrease from the previous two
years. About 57 per cent are fully exploited (i.e. at or very close to their maximum sustainable production),
and only about 13 per cent are not fully exploited.
In 2005, the FAO already warned, that virtually every commercial ?sh species in every ocean or sea is
“over-exploited,” “fully exploited,” or “depleted”, nine of the world’s 17 major ?shing regions are in serious
decline, and that production from most of the world’s ?sheries had reached or exceeded the levels at which
?sh stocks can regenerate (FAO 2005).
Intensive ?shing practices, supported in part by large-scale subsidisation of the ?sheries sector, have led to
the depletion of many ?sh stocks including tuna, cod, haddock, ?ounder, halibut and red hake. The FAO
estimates that more than 80 per cent of the world’s ?sh stocks assessed have been ?shed to their biological
limits or beyond, as indicated in Figure 2.
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74 79 84 89 94 99 04 09
Percentage of stocks assessed
Non-fully exploited Fully exploited Overexploited
Figure 2. Global trends in the state of global marine ?sh stocks since 1974
Source: FAO 2012a
“Overexploitation not only causes negative ecological consequences, but it also reduces ?sh production,
which leads to negative social and economic consequences,” the 2012 report cautions. FAO suggests: “To
increase the contribution of marine ?sheries to the food security, economies and the well-being of coastal
communities, effective management plans must be put in place to rebuild overexploited stocks”. Strengthened
governance and effective ?sheries management are required. The report argues that promoting sustainable
?shing and ?sh farming can provide incentives for wider ecosystem stewardship and advocates enabling
mechanisms, such as the adoption of an ecosystem approach to ?sheries and aquaculture with fair and
responsible tenure systems (FAO 2012a).
Fortunately, measures at the international level are being taken to help stocks to regenerate, recognising
that the process can take up to a century, or even more. For example, in 2012, 48 member countries of
the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT),
2
agreed to maintain eastern
and western Atlantic Blue?n tuna (Thunnus thynnus) quotas in line with the scienti?c advice. However, the
endangered population in the western Atlantic is still severely depleted, being only 36 per cent of what it
was in 1970. It is encouraging that ICCAT heeded the recommendation of scientists and kept the western
catch limit at 1,750 metric tonnes. According to Jorge (2013), this should allow the population to continue
to increase and give biologists time to address major uncertainties in the stock assessment that may be
arti?cially in?ating the estimates of western Blue?n.
At its 16
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meeting, held in March 2013, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) included ?ve commercially valuable shark
species in Appendix II. Trade in species listed under Appendix II requires a CITES permit or certi?cate whose
conditions for issuance and acceptance ensure that such trade is legal, sustainable and traceable. The
?ve shark species listed on Appendix II include the oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus), scalloped
hammerhead (Sphyrma lewini), great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran), smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna
zigaena) and the porbeagle (Lamna nasus), all of which are harvested in huge numbers for their valuable ?ns
and, in some cases, meat. The Porbeagle has suffered serious population declines, notably in the northern
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean, owing to unsustainable ?shing for its high-value meat and ?ns (CITES
2013). According to the Pew Environment Group, scientists project that, under the current rate of exploitation,
this stock would need a minimum of several decades, and possibly more than 100 years, to fully recover
(PEW 2012). Other populations of shark species listed, including the ocean whitetip, have declined by more
2. The ICCAT convention area is 24.8 per cent of the global ocean surface.
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than 90 per cent (document CoP16 Prop. 42). The global value of trade in the shark ?n industry alone is
estimated by the FAO to be around US$ 478 million per year (as reported by TRAFFIC 2013a).
These new shark listings mark a milestone in the involvement of CITES in marine species (CITES 2013).
Manta rays - slow-growing, large-bodied migratory animals, which survive in small, highly fragmented
populations - were also listed on Appendix II of CITES. Manta gill plates fetch high prices in international
markets and have been traded in signi?cant numbers in recent years (CITES 2013).
Just prior to the CITES meeting, in February 2013, a major reform of the European Union’s (EU) Common
Fisheries Policy was approved by the European Parliament. The new policy aims to halt over?shing by
stopping ?sh discards dumped at sea, respecting maximum sustainable yield limits, and basing long-term
planning on sound scienti?c data. Data from the European Commission - indicating that 80 per cent of
?sh stocks in the Mediterranean and 47 per cent in the Atlantic have been over?shed - helped trigger an
overhaul of EU’s ?sheries policy (EC 2012).
Climate change also poses threats to marine and freshwater species and habitats. Fluctuations in water
temperature, ocean currents, upwelling and biogeochemistry are leading to productivity shocks for ?sheries
(Sumaila et al. 2011; Diaz and Rosenberg 2008). The Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the
FAO (n.d.) predicts that the impact of climate change may magnify natural variations and intensify current
pressure on marine ?sh stocks. The effects could include increased pressure on ?sh stocks, shrinking wetlands
and nursery areas and UV-B radiation. The department’s scientists forecast: “Change is expected to result
in elevations in sea surface temperature, global sea level rise, reductions in sea-ice cover and changes
in salinity, wave conditions and ocean circulation. On land, climate change will affect the availability of
water, river ?ow regimes (particularly in ?ood plains), size of lakes, etc. and the needs of water for other
activities competing with ?sheries” (FAO n.d.).
Further, illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) ?shing represents a serious threat to global food
security, causing also economic loss while undermining efforts to sustainably manage ?sh resources
(Agnew et al. 2009).
Aquaculture has the potential to take some of the strain off wild capture ?sheries, but presents speci?c
challenges. These include reliance on wild-caught ?sh as feed for farming carnivorous ?sh, which could
further contribute to the depletion of ?sh stocks; the impossibility of cultivating certain ?sh species; the
generation of waste; and the spread of disease and genetic material, particularly if there is interaction
between farmed and wild ?sh (FAO 2010b, Khan et al. 2011).
Regarding biodiversity impacts, conversion of mangroves for coastal aquaculture is one of the foremost
drivers of mangrove loss. Since 1980, the world has lost about one-?fth of its mangrove forests and what
remains is degraded. An estimated 38 per cent of global mangrove loss can be attributed to the clearing
of mangroves for shrimp culture, while another 14 per cent can be attributed to other forms of aquaculture.
A number of countries have lost more than 40 per cent of their mangrove area over a 25-year period and
many remaining areas are degraded (Van Lavieren et al. 2012).
In a literature review of world shrimp farming in Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Vietnam, Raux et al.
(2002) describe selected environmental and social issues of shrimp farming, including deterioration of
mangrove systems, salt water intrusion, feed and pollution/food insecurity, disused ponds, seeds and
brood stock/biodiversity, disease, unfair trade, restricted access to resources, forced displacement, and
the negative impact on commercial ?sh stocks. The authors conclude that all of these “contribute to the
unsustainable nature of shrimp farming”.
Concerning aquarium trade, if managed sustainably, the trade could support jobs in predominantly rural,
low-income coastal communities and so provide strong economic incentives for coral reef conservation
in regions where other options for generating revenue are limited. However, damaging techniques
occasionally used to collect the animals, possible overharvesting of some species and the high levels of
mortality associated with inadequate handling and transport of sensitive living organisms undermine this
potential and continue to pose signi?cant challenges to achieving sustainability. Consequently, trade in
aquarium ?sh has often been a controversial topic (Wabnitz et al. 2003).
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3.2.2 Trade and ?sheries
Fish and ?sh products are the most extensively traded commodities in the food sector. As shown in Figure 3,
approximately 40 per cent of ?sh output is traded internationally (FAO 2012a). Furthermore, ?shery exports
are increasing signi?cantly. The share of total ?shery production exported in the form of various food and
feed items rose from 25 per cent in 1976 to about 38 per cent or 57 million tonnes in 2010. In the same
period, world trade in ?sh and ?sh products grew signi?cantly also in value terms, rising almost thirteen-
fold from US$ 8 billion to US$ 102 billion. In 2011, despite the economic instability experienced in
many economies, increasing prices and strong demand in developing countries pushed trade volumes and
values to the highest levels ever reported. Despite some softening in the second half of the year, preliminary
estimates indicate that in 2011 exports exceeded US$ 125 billion (FAO 2012a).
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Production
76 78 80 84 82 86 88 90 92 96 94 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
Export
Million tonnes (live weight)
Figure 3. World ?sheries production and quantities destined for export
Source: FAO 2012a
Due to the high perishability of ?sh products, 90 per cent of trade in terms of quantity (live weight equivalent)
comprises processed products such as frozen food and prepared and preserved ?sh (FAO 2012a).
Even if not comparable with volumes of ?sh traded for consumption, there is also considerable trade in
aquarium or ornamental ?sh and supplies. An estimated one billion ornamental ?sh are exported annually
(Dykman 2012). The world export value in 2010 was over US$ 350 million. The main exporting countries
include Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. Brazil and Columbia are also signi?cant exporters. The main
importing countries include Germany, Japan, Singapore, the US and the UK. The ?gures for Singapore also
include re-export, from imports from all surrounding countries (Ploeg 2013).
Trade in ?sh products can play a key role in the growth strategies of many developing countries. In
particular, ?sh trade represents a signi?cant source of foreign currency earnings. Developing countries’
net exports of ?sh products have been increasing rapidly in recent years. There was a seven-fold increase
from 1980 to 2010 – from US$ 3.7 to 27.7 billion. Fish exports of US$ 27.7 billion represented
twice the value of exports of other key commodities such as coffee from the same group of countries. In
2010, 48 per cent of ?sh consumed in developed countries was imported from developing countries.
This share has increased by 10 per cent between 2000 and 2010, and is expected to further rise in
the near future due to the steady demand in developed countries coupled with a declining domestic ?sh
production (FAO 2012a).
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3.2.3 Greening the ?sheries and aquaculture sectors
The Green Economy Report (GER) (UNEP 2011a) stressed the importance of greening the ?sheries and
aquaculture sectors so as to ensure their medium- and long-term pro?tability. As shown in Box 1, the GER
predicts that an investment of US$ 100 to 300 billion in strengthening ?sheries management and vessel
decommissioning would lead to a signi?cant increase in catch. It would also increase resource rents from
a negative US$ 26 billion to a positive US$ 45 billion annually.
Box 1. Key ?ndings of the Green Economy Report
The GER predicts that a single investment of US$ 100-300 billion would signi?cantly reduce excessive
capacity. In addition, it should result in an increase in ?sheries catch from the current 80 million tonnes
a year to 90 million tonnes in 2050, despite a drop in the next decade as ?sh stocks recover. The
present value of bene?ts from greening the ?shing sector is about three to ?ve times the necessary
additional costs. In a scenario of larger and deeper spending of 0.1 to 0.16 per cent of GDP over
the period 2010-2050, to reduce the vessel ?eet, relocate employment and better manage stocks
to increase catch in the medium and longer term, 27 to 59 per cent higher employment would be
achieved, relative to the baseline by 2050. In this same scenario, around 70 per cent of the amount
of ?sh resources in 1970 would be available by 2050 (between 50 million tonnes and 90 million
tonnes per year), against a mere 30 per cent under a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, where no
additional stock management activities are assumed.
Source: UNEP 2011a
The value of ?sheries ecosystems has been assessed by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(TEEB), as illustrated in Box 2.
Box 2. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is a global initiative focused on drawing attention
to the economic bene?ts of biodiversity. Its objective is to highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss
and ecosystem degradation. TEEB presents an approach that can help decision-makers recognise,
demonstrate and capture the values of ecosystems and biodiversity, including how to incorporate
these values into decision-making.
TEEB highlights the economic importance of ?sheries by considering the impacts of over?shing, ?sh
stock collapse and environmental damage on food and job security and economic ef?ciency. One
example in Argentina illustrates that continued over?shing of Argentinean hake threatens their long
term ecological and economic viability. Ecological models project that if existing quota were met,
no-?shing zones in the nursery grounds were respected, and the current 120 per cent over-capacity
of ?shing vessels were reduced by 25-50 per cent, the stock of hake would recover leading to
signi?cant economic gains, possibly increasing the net present value from US$ 65.7 to US$ 118.5
million for fresh ?sh, and from US$ 263 to more than US$ 460 million for frozen ?sh, over the
period 2010-2030 (Villasante et al. 2009).
Source: TEEB 2012
Greening the world’s ?sheries will help restore damaged marine ecosystems. Further, the adoption of green
technologies such as low-impact fuel-ef?cient ?shing methods and investments in alternatives to the use of
fossil fuels could help reduce the carbon footprint of the ?sheries sector (UNEP 2012a).
When managed sustainably, ?sheries support a great number of communities and enterprises. They
generate employment and raise household income, particularly for those engaged in artisanal ?sheries.
Sustainably managed ?sheries can over time generate more income than unsustainably managed ?sheries
due to more secure and larger ?sh stocks and better quality (Sumaila et al. 2012).
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Aquaculture production, on the other hand, has the potential to take some of the pressure off wild ?sh stocks
while supporting livelihoods and food production. This is particularly the case in developing countries,
which currently present the largest share of world aquaculture production by volume.
3
Sustainably managed coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture and mariculture
4
offer signi?cant scope
for green growth and employment opportunities for local communities. To harness this green growth
potential, further green technologies for aquaculture are being developed, including innovative production
systems that use environmentally friendly feeds (UNEP 2012a).
The involvement of local communities is a key tenet of the transition to a greener economy. In this respect,
the sustainable management of artisanal ?sheries may also yield signi?cant bene?ts, particularly where
local communities form part of integrated approaches to ?sheries management.
In the community-based ecosystem approach to ?sheries management, the local community manages
?sh resources in close cooperation with the government and other partners (SPC 2010). This applies, for
example, to the “Piaba” (Brazil) and “Seahorse” (The Philippines) in their aquarium ?sh projects.
The marine aquarium trade, in fact, supports jobs in predominantly rural, low-income coastal communities.
Where resources are managed sustainably, aquarium trade provides strong economic incentives for coral
reef conservation in regions where other options for generating revenue are limited, as the relevant products
are among the highest value-added products originating in the reef (Wabnitz et al. 2003).
3.3 Green economy measures
There are a variety of measures that can lead to more sustainable production, trade and consumption of
?sh and ?sh products including:
• Adopting, implementing, improving and respecting effective ?sheries management and
conservation measures, such as output controls, input controls and auxiliary measures, using
both market-based and command and control policies;
• Building monitoring, control and surveillance infrastructure;
• Phasing out harmful subsidies;
• Introducing incentives to change the behaviour of consumers and economic operators;
• Creating marine protected areas;
• Supporting sustainable artisanal ?sheries;
• Investing in innovation of ?shing and aquaculture techniques;
• Ensuring transparency and sustainability in transfers of ?shing rights; and
• Reducing by-catch, discards and post-harvest losses.
Some of the measures that have the potential to create trade opportunities will be discussed in this section.
3.3.1 Trade-related technical regulations
Fish trade is governed by the general national regulations applying to trade in goods. They include
customs procedures and health-related legislation, in particular sanitary measures, origin and catch
certi?cation requirements (see Box 3).
5
In speci?c cases, trade in ?shery products is also subject to national
IUU certi?cation schemes, sustainable management requirements, and regional ?sheries management
organisations’ catch documentation schemes.
3. Asia, for example, accounted for 89 per cent of world aquaculture production by volume in 2010. The majority of this production was in
China, although other signi?cant producers in Asia include Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and
Vietnam. Other countries that experienced production growth include Brazil, Peru and countries in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 2012a).
4. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.
5. See further the Agriculture chapter, section 2.3.1.
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Box 3. Sanitary measures for ?sh trade - a variety of actions involved
in Senegal
Sanitary certi?cation of ?sh exports from Senegal began with the European Commission sanitary
regulation on ?sh products in the early 1990s. The delivering of catch certi?cation, became more
complex since 1 January 2011, due to the obligation for export countries to provide certi?cates
which state the origin of ?sh. For that reason, many units within the Ministry of Fishery and Marine
Affairs are involved in the export certi?cation scheme. The Division of Inspection and Control is
the authority responsible for verifying that products have followed sanitary and hygienic standards
equal to those in Europe. Moreover, the Directorate of Maritime Fishery delivers sanitary and origin
certi?cation, while the Direction of Protection and Surveillance of Fisheries provides the catch
certi?cate.
Source: Excerpt from a case study prepared by Moustapha Deme, Economist, Oceanographical Research Center of Dakar-
Thiaroye (CRODT/ISRA), Senegal, and Pierre Failler, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for the Economics and Management of
Aquatic Resources (CEMARE), University of Portsmouth, England.
For trade in live ?sh, animal welfare regulations may also be applicable. The Conference of the Parties
(COP) to CITES recommends in Resolution Conf. 10.21 (Rev. CoP16) that the Live Animals Regulations of
the International Air Transport Association (IATA/LAR) and the CITES guidelines for the non-air transport of
live wild animals and plants in their most recent edition be deemed to meet CITES transport requirements for
living specimens. IATA/LAR regulations include speci?cations for containers used to transport live animals
applicable to a list of over 1,000 species, including ?sh.
In addition to the ?ve shark species and the manta rays mentioned above, CITES regulates trade in a number
of aquatic species including aquarium ?sh, giant clams, queen conch, hard and soft corals, seahorses,
other sharks, saw?shes, marine turtles, freshwater rays, freshwater turtles, sturgeons, invertebrates and
live rock (CITES Appendices). At CITES CoP16, more than 30 freshwater turtles were given strengthened
protection from overharvesting for the international pet and meat trades (TRAFFIC 2013b).
3.3.2 Phasing out harmful subsidies
Subsidies to the ?sheries sector can fall within a wide array of government support measures, including support
for ?sheries infrastructure, management services and research, subsidies for access to foreign countries’ waters,
decommissioning of vessels and license retirement, subsidies to capital costs and variable costs, income
support, unemployment insurance, and price support (UNEP 2004a). Depending on how ?sheries subsidies
are de?ned and calculated, global estimates range from US$ 15 to 34 billion (UNEP 2011b).
Fisheries subsidies have gained worldwide attention because of their complex role in trade, ecological
sustainability and socio-economic development (Schorr 2004, UNEP 2004b, UNEP 2004c, UNEP 2005,
UNEP 2011b). After many years of debate in different international fora on the nature of subsidies in the
?sheries sector, there is a global consensus now that by reducing the operating costs and enhancing the
pro?tability of the ?shing industry, subsidies are one of the key driving factors behind overcapacity and
over?shing (von Moltke 2007, 2011). At the same time, ?sheries subsidies in?uence a country’s production
of and trade in ?sh products and affect competitiveness of the ?shing industry (UNEP 2011b).
In the short term, supply of subsidised ?sh and ?sh products can cause lower prices compared to those that
would prevail in an undistorted international market. This implies a potential decline in export earnings,
often in developing countries. In the medium to long term, however, increased pressure over the resource
leads to reduced supply and consequent increases in international prices, which create a perverse incentive
to overexploit the resource (Asche and Smith 2010).
Figure 4 shows the impact of different types of subsidies under different management conditions. It can
be argued that, under certain conditions, ?sheries subsidies would not lead to overcapitalisation and
overexploitation. These conditions include an effective ?sheries management system which eliminates incentives
for overexploitation and prevents the circumvention of quotas, while enforcing severe sanctions against IUU
and outlawing destructive ?shing practices. Such management regimes are, however, still very rare today.
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Figure 4. Impact of eight categories of ?sheries subsidies on ?sh stocks
Effective Management Catch Controls Open Access
Over-
capacity
Full
capacity
Less
than full
Over-
capacity
Full
capacity
Less
than full
Over-
capacity
Full
capacity
Less
than full
Fisheries Infrastructure NH NH NH H H NH H H NH
Management Services NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH
Access to Foreign Waters NH NH NH H H NH H H NH
Decommissioning NH NH - PH PH - H PH -
Capital Costs NH NH NH H H H H H H
Variable Costs NH NH NH H PH PH H H PH
Subsidies to Income NH NH NH PH PH PH H H PH
Price Support Subsidies NH NH NH H H PH H H H
(UNEP 2004a) – NH= Not Harmful; PH = Potentially Harmful; H = Harmful
UNEP and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have developed sustainability criteria for the use of
?sheries subsidies. These criteria fall into three categories: stock-related criteria, capacity-related criteria
and management-related criteria. At a very basic level, the criteria indicate that subsidies should be limited
only to ?sheries where science-based assessments reveal that stocks are underexploited, where the ?shery
is operating far below full capacity, and where effective ?sheries management measures are in place to
ensure long-term sustainability (UNEP and WWF 2007).
In addition, subsidies that support R&D, effective management systems, retraining of workers, or withdrawal
of capacity from overcapitalised waters, could help reduce pressure on the resource, restore marine
biodiversity, reduce the dependence of ?shermen on fossil fuels and reduce the GHG impact of ?shing
activities. These would create the conditions for some new sustainable trade opportunities.
3.3.3 Conforming with certi?cation criteria for wild-caught ?sh
In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of voluntary certi?cation programmes that seek to
help consumers make informed decisions in terms of sustainability about their consumption of wild-capture
?sh products. Examples of such schemes are illustrated in Box 4.
Box 4. Examples of wild-capture ?sh standards
• Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
• Friend of the Sea Criteria (FoS)
• Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch
• U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Fish Watch
• Dolphin-Safe
In addition, major retail chains and their suppliers may carry out their own procedures to ensure that they
source ?sh sustainably.
Certi?cation requirements for wild-caught ?sh generally apply to two separate stages of production,
processing and distribution of ?sh products: activities that happen at the ?shery level, and activities that
happen from port to shelves.
Certi?cation of a ?shery can require the use of technologies such as vessel monitoring systems, radio
frequency identi?cation, bar code management, DNA analysis and electronic log books, most of which
require capital investments (UNEP 2009a).
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Certi?cation applying to activities that happen from port to shelves relates to the so-called chain of custody
(CoC) measures; these are designed to guarantee that the product put on the market and bearing an
ecolabel is really a product coming from the certi?ed ?shery concerned. Therefore, these measures should
normally cover both the traceability of the product all along the processing, distribution and marketing
chain, as well as the proper tracking of the documentation (UNEP 2009b).
Although the various wild-capture ?sh standards and certi?cation schemes share a focus on sustainability
issues, they set different criteria, in some cases cover different lists of species, and may place different
emphasis on the conservation methods to be used. The schemes also vary in their costs, which are generally
higher for the certi?cation of ?sheries as compared to CoC certi?cation. Furthermore, some schemes
focus on single environmental issues, such as the Dolphin-Safe label, which addresses the issue of marine
mammals’ by-catch in tuna ?shing (FAO 2009).
Developing countries face speci?c constraints in relation to certi?cation requirements. A ?rst set of constraints
?agged in a survey carried out by UNEP (2009b) relates to data availability, which is generally poorer in
developing countries, posing challenges to the development and implementation of management systems
and veri?cation of compliance with certi?cation criteria.
A second set of constraints relates to potential distortions to livelihoods, given that increased prices and
demand for certi?ed products may result in higher levels of exports and therefore reduced availability of ?sh
for local consumption. However, whether increased exports of certi?ed products actually have an impact
on food security in developing countries depends inter alia on the primary species being consumed and
on who actually bene?ts from additional revenues generated by exports. Increased sales to export markets,
and potentially higher prices for certi?ed products, could also have signi?cant gender impacts, with larger-
scale buyers (typically male) being able to outcompete small-scale female buyers at landing sites. Finally, if
certi?cation does have the predicted price effects in developed country markets, it could reward middlemen
and the post-harvest supply chain, but not necessarily the ?shing community (UNEP 2009b).
A third issue that may hinder the ability of developing countries to comply with certi?cation criteria relates to
the costs of certi?cation, particularly for small-scale producers. Small-scale ?sheries are less likely to ?nd that
any bene?ts from certi?cation outweigh the costs, especially where the unit of certi?cation may be small and
involve few ?shermen with a low value of catches. In addition, certi?cation costs must be paid in advance,
while bene?ts may not accrue until after the product is caught and marketed. Few ?sheries in developing
countries are certi?ed, consequently those that have been certi?ed e.g. under the MSC scheme (which has
relatively high costs compared to other schemes) have had to rely heavily on donor and external support to
cover certi?cation fees (UNEP 2009b) (Box 5).
Box 5. Examples of costs of certi?cation
Fishery / Scheme Cost in US$
Vietnam Ben Tre clam ?shery / MSC Pre-assessment, $5,000; Full Assessment
budget, $80,000
Azores tuna and demersal ?shery / FoS $37,000 for the demersal ?shery. Tuna ?shery
certi?cation achieved at no cost in association with
Dolphin-Safe programme
Senegal mixed ?shery / FoS $4,000. $1,500/year
UK SW mackerel handline / MSC $20,000 for pre and full assessment
South African hake ?shery / MSC $735,000 including all assessment costs and costs
incurred with work required to ful?l the conditions of
certi?cation
UK Torridon nephrops creel ?shery / MSC $26,000 assessment. Annual audit $4,000
Australia Lakes and Coorong ?shery / MSC $11,628 pre-assessment and $111,802 full assessment
Source: UNEP 2009b, based on data collected by Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management Ltd.
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Although certi?cation schemes face the challenges discussed above, they appear to have increased
consumer awareness of marine ?shery issues. Furthermore, if properly designed and implemented,
certi?cation schemes are an important driver for greening world ?sheries, and are expanding into more
and more places around the world.
Alongside the development of market-based voluntary certi?cation programmes, the FAO has produced
Guidelines for the Eco-labelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Marine Capture Fisheries (FAO 2009).
These guidelines suggest minimum requirements for the operation of ecolabelling schemes. Furthermore,
they provide institutional and procedural standards for how schemes should be set up and the process and
principles against which certifying entities should be assessed.
3.3.4 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquaculture
Certi?cation requirements for sustainable aquaculture generally present a wide coverage, ranging from site
management to social issues. Some of the existing certi?cation schemes concentrate to a greater extent on
so-called “organic” or “bio” requirements, which for example may relate to controls on the use of chemicals
in feeds or to the prohibition of arti?cial induction of the reproduction of aquaculture animals. Sustainability
in aquaculture can also be promoted by implementing high health, welfare, environmental, social and
consumer protection standards.
For these reasons, it is dif?cult to draw a clear line between “organic” or “bio” standards and broader
sustainability standards; the present chapter discusses sustainability criteria so as to include also the narrower
concept of organic criteria, unless otherwise speci?ed.
In light of the proliferation of voluntary standards in aquaculture, the 2011 FAO Technical Guidelines on
Aquaculture Certi?cation are important tools to improve the governance and sustainable development of
this sector. By setting minimum criteria for developing aquaculture certi?cation standards, these guidelines
provide direction for the development, organisation and implementation of credible aquaculture certi?cation
schemes (FAO 2012a).
Some of the current voluntary certi?cation schemes covering aquaculture are listed in Box 6.
Box 6. Examples of aquaculture sustainability standards
• AB France
• Bio Suisse
• Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP), as developed by the Global Aquaculture Alliance
• Responsibly farmed seafood, as developed by the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC)
• Friend of the Sea
• GLOBAL G.A.P.
• Fairtrade Foundation
• World Organization for Animal Health
• International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
• Naturland
The initial efforts related to compliance costs and know-how may be ultimately rewarded by the possibility
to comply with a multitude of regulatory requirements that exist across various markets (FAO 2011).
Certi?cation schemes that apply organic, fair trade and sustainability criteria, for example, could present
a signi?cant market opportunity for importers and exporters. Naturland, for instance, maintains that it
addresses organic production, social principles and fair trade in one source (Naturland 2012).
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The Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) standards, for example, cover a range of highly commercial
species, including pangasius, tilapia, bivalves, salmon and freshwater trout. The ASC concentrates on
requirements that include compliance with of?cial development plans, conversion of natural ecosystems,
water use, and health-related issues. In addition, it covers issues such as compliance with international
labour standards, health and safety of workers and child labour (ASC 2012).
The Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) scheme is one of the most signi?cant aquaculture certi?cation schemes
in terms of volume, and it combines site inspections with controls for sanitary requirements (FAO 2011).
Besides voluntary schemes, the introduction of sustainable aquaculture production rules in regulatory
frameworks of key export markets, such as the EU, can lead to further market growth (EC 2007, 2009).
3.3.5 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquarium ?sh
Besides the legal obligations set out by CITES for trade in certain aquarium ?sh species, a voluntary
certi?cation system has been developed for aquarium ?sh under the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC), but
is not operational at the time of writing. Certi?cation by MAC covered both practices (industry operators,
facilities and collection areas) and products (aquarium organisms).
MAC certi?cation was set up as a third-party certi?cation scheme through the accreditation of independent
third-party certi?cation companies. These MAC-accredited certi?ers would assess companies for their initial
compliance with the MAC standards, and conduct scheduled and unscheduled surveillance visits to monitor
continued adherence to the standards by industry operators at any link of the chain of custody, from reef to
retail (collectors, culturists and breeders, exporters, importers, retailers).
For fresh water ornamental ?sh, sustainability certi?cation is an emerging concept, as explained for example
in recent guidelines issued by the government of India (MPEDA 2011).
3.3.6 Sustainability certi?cation from a supply chain perspective
Fish supply chains can be generally described as a set of interdependent producers, agents, processors,
distributors and wholesalers/retailers/food services, who work to supply a ?sh product to the consumer.
There are differences in supply chains among different countries and regions that correspond to socio-
economic and environmental conditions and cultural diversity. Differences also exist in relation to ?sh
species and products, and harvesting techniques (industrial production, artisanal production, aquaculture
or capture) (UNEP 2009a).
Most sustainability problems such as open access, unfair ?shing, IUU ?shing, poor working conditions, the
lack of price transparency and the lack of information sharing are concentrated at the level of production
and the ?rst intermediaries or processors of the supply chain. The consumers’ side of the chain, however,
also shares some responsibility for unsustainable production.
A key condition for the sustainability of a supply chain is that information related to socio-economic and
environmental sustainability issues can reach intermediary and ?nal buyers. It has been identi?ed that
breaks in information ?ows often happen at the points of highest increase in the ?sh products’ value:
between production and ?rst intermediaries and at the time of export (Gudmundssen et al. 2006, as cited
in UNEP 2009a).
One of the important effects of labels, for example, is that they help consumers to make informed purchasing
decisions. Labels are mechanisms for transferring information from one element of the supply chain to the
other in a systematic way. They enable some degree of traceability, which is a crucial and fundamental
condition for sustainable supply chains. This is in general provided by certi?cation schemes that include a
CoC analysis of the supply chain from port to ?nal buyers.
Organisations willing to implement and demonstrate corporate responsibility programmes rely heavily on
traceability systems. Business-to-business relations may be less visible than on-product labelling, but they can
create powerful incentives for greening the supply chain. To be effective, however, CoC certi?cation should
accompany the certi?cation of the ?shery itself.
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3.4 Trends and trade opportunities
An analysis of trends in international trade in ?sheries has identi?ed several green trade opportunities. The
key areas of trade potential are discussed in this section.
3.4.1 Sustainable management of wild-capture ?sheries
Increased export revenues can arise from the sustainable management of wild-capture ?sheries. The
FAO and World Bank “Sunken Billions” report (2009) identi?es global marine capture ?sheries as an
underperforming global asset. The report concludes that 75 per cent of the world’s ?sheries underperformed
in 2004, mainly due to overexploitation. The lost potential revenue is estimated at US$ 50 billion annually.
Over a thirty-year period up to 2004, this amounted to a loss of approximately US$ 2 trillion. According to
the report, “through comprehensive reform, the ?sheries sector could become a basis for economic growth
and the creation of alternative livelihoods in many countries. At the same time, a nation’s natural capital in
the form of ?sh stocks could be greatly increased and the negative impacts of the ?sheries on the marine
environment reduced.”
A report by the Princes Charities’ International Sustainability Unit (2012) also illustrates the potential economic
gains to be expected from a transition to sustainably managed ?sh stocks. A number of developing country
case studies compiled in 2012 attempted to measure these economic bene?ts at a local ?shery level. For
example, one study on Eastern Paci?c tuna stocks demonstrates that the annual revenue of the tuna ?eet
could rise by US$ 93 million under better management practices (Sun 2010). Another study concludes that
the potential economic gains from restoring the stock of the Hilsa Shad ?shery, the largest single species
?shery in Bangladesh, are approximately US$ 260 million annually, in contrast to the almost complete lack
of economic bene?t in the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario (Mome 2007).
The case of the city of Kayar, in Senegal, is particularly illustrative of the potential economic, social and
environmental bene?ts arising from the sustainable management of ?sh resources (see Box 7).
6
Box 7. Concerted management of the sea bream ?shery in Kayar,
Senegal
Fishing is a key sector of the Senegalese economy. It provides approximately 200 billion FCFA
(approximately US$ 400 million
6
of annual receipts for nearly one third of total export revenues.
Furthermore, ?shing engages about 17 per cent of the working population (approximately
600,000 people) and provides 75 per cent of the animal protein requirement of the population.
The economic and social performance of the Senegalese ?shing industry is directly linked to the
dynamics of the artisanal sub-sector, which ensures more than 80 per cent of national production
(of a total of 450,000 tonnes a year), and as much as 70 per cent of exports (Deme 2008).
This performance is threatened by environmental constraints such as the overexploitation of major
demersal ?sh stocks.
Sea bream (Pagellus bellotti) is mainly caught for the European market. The annual total landings of
16,000 tonnes in 1985 showed continuous decrease during the 1990s and reached 3,000 tonnes
in the mid-2000s. Over-exploitation of the sea bream in the 1990s was demonstrated by the decrease
of ?sh caught, despite the intensi?cation of ?shing efforts, which is estimated at about three times above
the maximum limit. Consequently, the size of sea bream landed was lower than that authorised by the
Senegalese Fish Act (1987), which corresponds to the size of the ?rst sexual maturity of the species.
The renewal of sea bream stocks as well as the future of the ?shery was under threat. Under those
circumstances, the ?shing communities of Kayar decided, shortly after the devaluation of the FCFA
currency in 1994, to implement new management measures to reverse the downward trend.
Trade opportunities and challenges: The town of Kayar is a model in Senegal for having established
the ?rst ?shermen’s professional organisation and initiated the ?rst local management measures of
?shery resources. The institution of a quota started in 1994 is still in force. This local management
model has been adopted by most countries of the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission.
6. At an exchange rate of US$ 0,002 for 1 FCFA.
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In 1995, the National Collective of the Artisanal Fishermen of Senegal (CNPS) implemented
a policy of daily quotas on sea bream in Kayar, which is regarded as the ?rst co-management
process in West Africa. This measure, which limits ?shing to three boxes of 13 kilograms of ?sh
each, per canoe, was respected by ?shermen. The sanctions were highly dissuasive in cases of
non-respect of the quota limit – this included a ?ne of about EUR 50, con?scation of the catch
beyond the limit and the prohibition of ?shing in case of recidivism. The immediate commercial
effect was re?ected through an increase in the price of ?sh and consequently of ?sher’s incomes.
The landing price was multiplied by ten, increasing from 150 FCFA (US$ 0,30 in 1995) to 1,500
FCFA (US$ 3 in 1995) per kilogramme.
At the biological level, the deceleration of the rarefaction process of sea bream resources showed
rapid results as the size of landed ?sh went above the minimum authorised limit, a sign of the recovery
process. The effective limitation of catch, and consequently of ?shing efforts, also contributed to
the increase in the lifespan of ?shing gear, making it possible for ?shermen to run in parallel other
income generating activities. All in all, these reforms of the local ?sheries management system have
enabled local producers and exporters to consolidate their position in international markets.
Extension of the Kayar experience to other Senegalese ?sheries: The Kayar co-management
?shery approach has been extended to other ?sheries along the coast of Senegal, using the
concept of territorial ?shing rights and shared responsibility between the states and ?shing
communities. Several projects, initiated by the Ministry of Fisheries and funded by the World
Bank, have developed a co-management system at the national level. For instance, the recent
project (2005-2012), “Integrated Management of the Marine and Coastal Resources in Senegal”,
recommended an immediate delegation of powers to stakeholders and the promotion of local
initiatives regarding ?sh stock management. The concept of traditional centralisation of ?shery
management is thus under review. A new legal framework is being developed which recognises
the authority of stakeholders to take decisions and actions. These recent changes in the governance
of ?sheries have been implemented in four pilot sites along the Senegalese littoral.
The other notable initiative is the project for “Sustainable Management of Marine Resources”,
funded by Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (2009-2013). It adopts the same
principles of ?sh stock management by communities inhabiting areas near ?shing grounds. Local
initiatives are encouraged with involvements of all stakeholders. Overall, both projects aim to
reinforce management capabilities of both ?shermen organisations and state administrations.
Pursuing the process of co-management, the Ministry of Fisheries in partnership with ?shermen
organisations and NGOs, have also developed a national strategy for the immersion of arti?cial
reefs and the creation of a marine protected area network. These ?shery management tools are
now integrated into the regional planning policy and the general framework of ?shing territorial
unit rights.
The Kayar experience revealed that it is possible to reverse downward trends of ?sh stocks. It also
shows that involving ?shermen organisations is a key factor of success in implementing any ?shery
management measures. The Senegalese government is taking steps to spread the Kayar experience
along the coast of Senegal. On a more global level, the certi?cation of ?sh exports has contributed
to raising the sanitary conditions of all the ?sh landed in Senegal, with a positive effect for local
consumers. Parallel to upgrading of the export ?sh industry, signi?cant efforts have been made by
States authorities to improve the distribution of ?sh products in the domestic market.
Source: Case study prepared by Moustapha Deme, Economist, Oceanographical Research Center of Dakar-Thiaroye
(CRODT/ISRA), Senegal, and Pierre Failler, Senior Research Fellow, Center for the Economics and Management of Aquatic
Resources (CEMARE), University of Portsmouth, England.
3.4.2 Eliminating Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated ?shing
Trade can facilitate reforms aimed at the elimination of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) ?shing
activities. This can be observed, in particular, where international demand and standards in foreign markets
concerning IUU-free products trigger reactions at the national level, and provide a business case for signi?cant
reforms. In this context, the Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery is an example of how the prospect of increasing
sustainable exports can provide incentives for achieving IUU-free ?sh production, as illustrated in Box 8.
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Box 8. Eliminating IUU in the Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery
The Brazilian spiny lobster
7
?shery constitutes a clear instance where a strong trade-oriented
business case creates incentives for the elimination of IUU ?shing.
This species is found throughout the western Atlantic (Daves and Noguchi 2007). Brazilian lobster
exports to the US are worth US$ 80 million per year, and the ?shery provides for the livelihood of
more than 15,000 ?shermen (SFP 2012). The US and the EU are the largest markets for lobsters,
importing 80 per cent and 17 per cent of the yearly catch, respectively (UNEP 2012c).
The Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery faces multiple challenges. The lack of robust and clear regulations
in the sector and the use of illegal ?shing techniques as well as an active illegal ?eet appear to
have led to declining yields, impacting not only the ?shermen and their families, but also on those
dependent on the industry both at the community level and in the processing industry. Weak
traceability throughout the supply chain allows a proportion of products from legal boat-owners
to originate from illegal ?shermen. In addition, the spiny lobster ?shery faces the challenge of
over?shing; hence, there is pressure to supply sustainable products to the US and EU markets and
to meet new import regulations by the EU for sustainable management practices.
Small communities in the northeast of Brazil depend on small-scale lobster ?sheries. There are
around 3,000 artisanal boats measuring no more than three metres in length. These small ?shers
are in constant con?ict with illegal deep sea inexperienced divers who use illegal, unregulated and
dangerous equipment to poach lobsters (UNEP 2010).
Under the Brazilian Lobster Fishery Improvement Programme, the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership
CeDePesca manages the interactions between the major market players both from the supply side
and the demand. The CeDePesca focus, for example, is on the improvement in the ?shing zones
especially coordination with the government of Ceará, the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry of
Environment, and local stakeholders (SFP 2012).
Plans are in place for full implementation of monitoring and research for the lobster ?shing sector in
Brazil. Stock assessments on maximum sustainable yield recommendations have been conducted
with adequate limits and target references identi?ed. A rights-based management system, monitoring
system traceability of lobster ?shing and beach buyers’ registration, output limits and minimisation
of illegal gear and improved quality standards have been established.
At a March 2012 workshop held in Boston, USA, Brazilian producers and six important US
importers joined the Fishery Improvement Programme. Later in the same year, discussions on the
?ndings of the MSC pre-assessment and the characteristics of the programme in Fortaleza resulted
in all Brazilian exporters joining the programme. The Fisheries Lobster Improvement Programme is
still at an early stage but it has created momentum to re-establish scienti?c monitoring and stocks
assessment for lobster populations to provide robust advice to policy makers and private sector
?shery stakeholders. The project is also encouraging market recognition of those in Brazil that
operate legally and transparently in the ?shery which, it is expected, will create an incentive to
expand such good practices and also create export opportunities.
Source: Case study prepared by James Lomax, UNEP
3.4.3 Certi?ed wild-capture ?sh and processed ?sh products
7
The potential for export growth of certi?ed and ecolabelled products makes certi?cation an attractive
business choice for many in the ?shing industry. Much of the interest in certi?cation as a voluntary, market-
based initiative stems from the fact that certi?ed products can access new markets globally. To be sustainable,
however, wild-capture ?sheries certi?cation should not have as an objective the increase of trade volumes
per se, but rather the valorisation of existing trade opportunities.
Despite recent growth, certi?ed seafood sales are still relatively small in a ?shery commodity market
reaching more than US$ 100 billion in annual export sales worldwide (FAO 2012a). For example, in
7. Panulirus argus – red lobster, and Panulirus laevicauda – green lobster.
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the MSC programme, ?sheries already certi?ed or in full assessment have annual catches of nearly 10
million metric tonnes (MSC 2012a, MSC 2012b). This quantity, coupled with the quantity of annual
catches certi?ed by other global schemes, represents about 17 per cent of the annual global harvest of
wild capture ?sheries (FAO 2011).
Nevertheless, the sale of certi?ed ?sh products in markets in developed countries and also, increasingly, in
some developing countries, particularly in China, Namibia, and South Africa has changed from a niche
market to a mainstream one. Consumers are becoming more interested in the way their food is produced.
An increasing number of consumers are choosing to purchase food including ?sh that is healthy and socially
and environmentally sound (UNEP 2009b).
The potential bene?ts and opportunities for the ?sheries industry to obtain a certi?ed ecolabel include:
• Access to new (international) markets that previously may not have been easily accessible;
• Preservation or expansion of market share in growing existing markets;
• Greater credibility vis-à-vis retail buyers;
• Potential for more value-added products, including through product differentiation (niche markets
for environmentally friendly products);
• Reduced production risk through improved stock management; and
• Increased earnings through a potential price premium for eco-labelled ?sh and seafood
(Washington and Ababouch 2011).
Small-scale or artisanal ?sheries in particular, due to their predominance in the industry, have potential for
sustainable growth through green certi?cation. Thus, even though obtaining international certi?cations to
access these new markets can be a challenging experience for many producers, and in particular small-
scale producers, the medium- and long-term economic results are likely to be bene?cial and important to
secure long-term livelihoods (UNEP 2012a).
Demand for certi?cation is most strongly driven by retailers, many of which have now made public
commitments to sustainable sourcing policies. These retailers have signi?cant market power and an ability
to in?uence their suppliers.
8
Demand already far outstrips the availability of certi?ed products (UNEP
2009b). For example, while there is signi?cant certi?ed supply of species like pollock, salmon and hake,
few tropical species are certi?ed (FAO 2009).
The market response to the Vietnamese Ben Tre clam ?sheries sector demonstrates that investments in sustainable
management, through certi?cation of ?sheries resources, can yield substantive returns, as illustrated in Box 9.
Box 9. Ben Tre clam ?sheries certi?cation in Viet Nam
The value of international trade has risen signi?cantly in Vietnam in the last few decades. Exports
from agro-forestry and ?sheries were worth US$ 25 billion in 2011 (Yuan 2011). In the ?sheries
sector, production grew at an average rate of 10.25 per cent between 2001 and 2010, creating
over US$ 5 billion in export value for the country in 2010 (Duc 2011). This continuous economic
growth has implied signi?cant pressure on Vietnam’s natural resources, including concerns about
the dwindling state of ?sh stocks (Vietnamnet 2011).
With growing global concern over the scarcity of natural resources, and international market interest
in sustainably produced goods, the notion of harmonisation of economic growth with sustainable
use of resources presents both opportunities and challenges to government and private sector
operators. Hence, in 2005, the Vietnamese Government signed a Memorandum of Understanding
with the MSC, describing its intention to explore and encourage sustainable ?shing practices and
MSC certi?cation throughout Vietnam.
8. For example, at the time of writing, Wal-Mart, Carrefour, TESCO and Edeka have commitments to sustainable sourcing.
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Much of the growth in the ?sheries sector has been from the aquaculture sector. The capture sector
remains important to the economy, although its growth has slowed down in recent years. The
marine capture sector in Vietnam is divided into two parts: the inshore ?shermen who exploit near
shore resources, and those with medium- to large-scale ?shing vessels who concentrate on off-shore
resources. Both sectors provide livelihoods to hundreds of thousands of ?shermen. It is estimated that
approximately 15 per cent of marine ?n?sh production goes into exports (MPI 2010).
The most important capture species include shrimp, tuna, squid, sea bream, snappers, groupers
and small pelagics. In the inshore sector, some of the most important commercial species include
the Asiatic hard clam (Meretrix lyrata).
Trade opportunities and challenges: The Asiatic hard clam is a high value, bivalve mollusc that
inhabits intertidal and shallow sub tidal sand ?at areas in large parts of Southeast Asia. In the Mekong
Delta, the species is widely distributed in sand ?at areas, mostly in the provinces of Tien Giang, Tra
Vinh, Soc Trang, Kien Giang with the highest density and production of the clam occurring in Ben
Tre province. Clams are sold to domestic markets and exported to Europe, the US, Japan, China
and Taiwan. Clams are harvested manually using a rake, which in some instances may have a net
attached to it, allowing the return of undersized clams (MSC 2009).
In the late 1990s, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) introduced a
system of cooperatives in the ?sheries sector to help address some of the concerns about the state
of the resource. Fishermen in the cooperatives were given rights to exploit de?ned areas of the sand
?ats and manage the clam resource. This regulated the number of people involved in the ?shery and
gave the cooperative a role in managing it. New regulations to manage and control the ?shery
and speci?c harvest targets were introduced to address the problem of catch declines and illegal
?shing (MSC 2012c).
In 2005, WWF initiated a project to work with the Ben Tre clam ?sheries cooperatives, DARD and
partner organisations towards achieving MSC certi?cation. The project commenced with a pre-
assessment of the ?sheries in the Ben Tre province. The pre-assessment served as an initial audit to
determine the level of performance of the ?sheries against the MSC standard and identify if there
were any areas that needed improvements in order to meet the requirements of certi?cation. The
strengths of the ?sheries with respect to the MSC standard included the low impact capture method,
the management measures put in place by the cooperative and DARD to control illegal ?shing and
the presence of protected areas. Other aspects of the ?sheries where improvements were needed
included, better and appropriate understanding of mitigating the impact of clam harvest on the
sand ?at invertebrate community and on marine birds.
In 2009, following a third party independent assessment against requirements for sustainability,
the Vietnamese Ben Tre clam received certi?cation to the MSC’s standard for sustainable ?shing
(MSC 2009). The MSC certi?cation of the ?shery led to signi?cant interest from new buyers in
the US and Europe retailing sustainably-sourced seafood. The prices received for Ben Tre clams
increased by 20 to 30 per cent and the total value of landings of clam increased by 165 per
cent (Tindall 2012).
Certification of the Ben Tre clam fisheries enabled stakeholders in the industry to expand their
markets, boost earnings and improve livelihoods (Vietfish International 2012). In addition to
improved profitability due to increased interest from new buyers in the US, certification of the
fisheries led to a willingness from buyers to purchase clams with shells on at prices higher than
what was received prior to certification. This therefore facilitated higher returns with lower costs
of production.
Following the success of the certi?cation of the Ben Tre clam ?sheries and the interest from the private
sector in purchasing sustainably produced clams, a follow-up initiative to explore opportunities for
extending MSC certi?cation to other clam ?sheries in the Mekong Delta has commenced. The
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), and a number of other organisations,
including the WWF, are supporting the initiative. Initial steps have been undertaken to introduce
the MSC certi?ed Ben Tre sustainable clam production model to different coastal provinces, local
authorities and relevant national organisations in Vietnam and share lessons learnt during the
certi?cation process.
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One of the lessons learnt from the experience of the certi?cation of the Ben Tre clam ?sheries is the
recognition of the role of MSC certi?cation as a tool to help improve the management of ?sheries
sector and enhance sustainable trade. Another key observation is that certi?cation of the Ben Tre
?sheries demonstrates the effectiveness of community based management. Cooperation among
?shermen in the sector and support from stakeholders, including local authorities, clam cooperatives
and the processing and export sector, is considered important to ensuring successful implementation
of the requirements for certi?cation. Such collaborations underpin any future efforts to work towards
certi?cation in other clam ?sheries in the Mekong Delta. In particular, collaboration between different
cooperatives in the Mekong Delta could help to reduce the costs involved in getting MSC certi?cation.
Source: Case study prepared by Oluyemisi Oloruntuyi, Programme Manager, MSC
Certi?cation could also provide new opportunities for attracting capital investment and joint ventures in
developing countries. Some developing countries hope to enhance their chances for certi?cation through
cooperation with others or through joint ventures with ?shing enterprises from developed countries. In South
Africa, for example, efforts for capacity building and stakeholder cooperation led to hake trawl sustainability
certi?cation in April 2004 and March 2010. The main export markets for South African frozen, fresh and
chilled hake are Spain, France, Portugal, Italy, Australia, Germany and the US.
9
Certi?cation enables more direct and stable supply relationships between developing country producers
and developed country buyers. Greater credibility for their products can lead to improved market access.
However, it is important to ensure that suppliers have the expertise to manage contracts and supply the
volumes and stable quality required by buyers (Washington and Ababouch 2011).
There are particular opportunities to exploit the growing demand for frozen ecolabelled products. The
proportion of frozen ?sh grew from 33 per cent of total production for human consumption in 1970 to
reach a record high of 52 per cent in 2010 (FAO 2012a). Developed countries could become a lucrative
market for exports of frozen ecolabelled ?sh and ?sh products (Tsamenyi and Mcllgorm 2010). However,
developing countries need infrastructure including reliable energy supplies and technical capacities.
As discussed in section 3.3.3, many businesses highlight potential risks related to certi?cation. For example,
they are concerned that multiple private labels confuse consumers, leading to potential for fraud, and about
educating consumers on certi?cation when there are still relatively few certi?ed products available on the
market (UNEP 2009b).
These concerns have prompted regulatory authorities in several jurisdictions to take action in order to prevent
abuses and frauds. The regulatory approach to solving this issue has generally been one of establishing
minimum requirements to which eco-labelling schemes should conform, enforced through border controls
and market surveillance measures.
3.4.4 Certi?ed aquaculture and processed aquaculture products
The last 15 years have witnessed an increase in the demand for seafood that has been farmed according
to certi?ed sustainability standards.
By 2015, total value is forecasted to be US$ 1.25 billion (Bergleiter et
al. 2009, as cited in Prein et al. 2010). Demand is coming in particular from European countries such as
France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. The US market is also considered to have a
large potential (USDA 2012).
In the EU, sustainable aquaculture products that meet European standards, for example, are clearly identi?ed
for European consumers (EC 2007, 2009). The EU standard has been de?ned in literature as a consensus
“minimum” standard, as other existing standards are stricter in their requirements (Prein et al. 2012). The
EU regulations represent an opportunity to increase consumer con?dence in certi?ed products, thus fostering
the shift to more sustainable production methods (IFOAM 2010).
9. For further information on capacity building in three southern African countries (Namibia, South Africa and Tanzania), see the UNEP-The
Institute for Security Studies (ISS) project. Available at: http://www.unep.ch/etb/areas/?sh_CS_SouthernAfrica.php. See also: Country
project Southern Africa on Reforming trade and ?sheries policies, re-shaping supply chains and enhancing consumer demand for sus-
tainable ?sheries management, UNEP. Available at: http://www.unep.ch/etb/areas/pdf/Fish%20project%20documents/Project%20
Document%20Southern%20Africa_web.pdf.
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In the speci?c case of organic ?sh products, demand appears to be also noticeable among middle classes
in emerging economies. Sales of organic seafood are growing in new markets where they are seen as a
premium gourmet food, such as in Hong Kong’s premium supermarkets, or through a country’s tourism and
gastronomy sectors as is the case for organic shrimps and oysters in the northeast of Brazil. All in all, the
current low global market penetration of organic seafood translates into an opportunity for the aquaculture
industry (IFOAM 2010). As reported in Box 10, trends in organic aquaculture production show that these
practices are being implemented in several parts of the world.
Box 10. Trends in organic aquaculture production
The most common type of organic aquaculture in China is carp production in polyculture, i.e.
in combination with crabs, shrimps or other local species. There are also certi?ed operations
producing turtles or sea cucumbers.
In other Asian countries, there is an increasing organic production of Black Tiger Shrimp (e.g. Bangladesh,
India, Thailand, and Vietnam), Pangasius cat?sh (e.g. Vietnam) and micro-algae (e.g. India).
In Latin America, there is a strong dominance of organic western white shrimp operations in Brazil,
Equador and Peru.
Source: IFOAM 2010
A large proportion of organically certi?ed aquaculture products come from developing countries where they
are processed and then exported. In 2008, global organic aquaculture production was around 53,500
tonnes with a total market value of US$ 300 million. This was produced by 240 certi?ed operations, of
which 72 were located in China (FiBL et al. 2009).
The critical factor in organic production and conversion, however, appears to be sourcing certi?ed organic
vegetable feedstuff at a reasonable cost and obtaining a supply of certi?ed organic feed (Bergleiter 2011). In
some countries, this is developing into a feed bottleneck and needs to be resolved in order to enable international
trade in organic aquaculture products to continue to ?ourish. One solution is by initiating pilot projects fostering
the production of certi?ed organic manioc, rice, soy and corn as feed ingredients in developing countries.
Within the spectrum of trends in the uptake of broader sustainability criteria, the Best Aquaculture Practices
scheme, for example, reports that in 2012 it had certi?ed 1,004,000 metric tonnes of processed output
and 445,000 metric tonnes of raw output. Excluding seaweed, aquaculture produced about 48 million
metric tonnes in 2010; BAP thus certi?es about 1.6 per cent of processed and 0.9 per cent of raw output.
Global-G.A.P., another major global certi?er, reports to have certi?ed 2 million metric tonnes of traded
produce, but this estimate also includes food safety certi?cation. As a consequence, an estimate of total
certi?ed aquaculture produce would not go beyond ?ve per cent, with signi?cant margins for improvement.
According to research from Prein et al. (2012) and Bergleiter (2011), in fact, the prospects for strongly
expanding this niche market are good. This is especially the case for bivalve shell?sh and seaweed culture
which in general are “no input” systems. The areas where the industry is yet to meet sustainability standards
are mostly related to the recycling or re-use of ropes and other disposable culture materials, and to appropriate
location of farms in areas with the best water quality. Both these issues are increasingly being tackled by
national and international legislation, so that group certi?cation of large areas seems within reach.
Even in aquaculture, however, the implications of sustainability certi?cation for ?sh trade from developing
countries are numerous. FAO (2011) identi?es a signi?cant potential for value addition in private standards,
but highlights the fact that the ?rst concern for developing country producers, processors and exporters
should be to achieve compliance with the regulatory requirements of importing countries.
3.4.5 Sustainable aquarium ?sh trade
The continued development and wider application of aquarium ?sh certi?cation has the potential to develop
the trade in sustainable aquarium ?sh. Findings of empirical studies have indicated a potential for the
continuing development of a green certi?cation scheme within the aquarium ?sh trade (Bergleiter 2011).
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The ornamental fish industry has potential in tropical countries like India. However, to expand trade,
new technologies and policies will have to be developed which will help in attaining a sustainable
industry (Jayalal and Ramachandran 2012). The case of Indonesia is illustrative of the potential
economic and environmental opportunities and challenges that can be achieved by sustainably
managed aquarium fisheries.
Box 11. Trade in aquarium ?sh in Indonesia — use of environmental-
ly-friendly capture techniques
Sustainable ?shing for the trade in aquarium ?sh has become one of the main sources of livelihood
for several villages in Indonesia. Les, in particular, is an important village for marine ornamental ?sh
collection, as the ?sh are exported from here to supply the global aquarium market. The ?shermen
have been collecting ?sh for the last three decades, and stopped using destructive ?shing techniques
in the early 2000s. In particular, ornamental ?sh were threatened by damage to in-shore coral reefs
caused by ?shing practices such as cyanide ?shing, as well as by practices such as prawn trawlers
operating close to reefs. Fishermen now understand the need to use environmentally-friendly capture
techniques, because the amount of pristine reefs diminished drastically to the point where there were
no more ?sh to catch. The ?shermen can now manage their resources more effectively, and are able
to gain ?nancial bene?ts using this approach. They are now going one step further by restoring the
reefs near their village, and can see for themselves how quickly the corals become populated again
with many reef organisms.
Sources: Lini 2012, UNEP 2011a, Wicaksono et al.2001
3.4.6 Marine and coastal tourism
The tourism sector offers great potential for trade opportunities. The Tourism chapter of this report presents
the opportunities related to marine and coastal tourism, and recreational activities.
3.5 Enabling conditions
This section outlines policy options that governments may use to harness the trade opportunities discussed
in this chapter. In line with the voluntary nature of green economy policies and the recognition that national
circumstances are to be assessed on a case-by-case basis, the mix of policy tools for harnessing sustainable
trade opportunities in the ?sheries sector, and the timeframes for their implementation, vary from one country
to another. Moreover, a country’s transition strategy may be de?ned in relation to government decisions
at the most senior level, or gradually, from initiatives at lower levels by ministries and local government
authorities, as well as in response to initiatives by the private sector.
3.5.1 Public investment and spending
• Identify certi?cation and labelling potential. The assessment of export opportunities in wild-
capture ?sh and aquaculture includes reviewing existing production processes to identify those
that are already close to meeting the criteria for certi?cation, and analysing the capability and
capacity to produce new products that could be certi?ed. Support for, in particular, small-scale
?sheries to participate in certi?cation schemes and enter international markets is essential.
• Raise industry and consumer awareness. Raising awareness on the current sustainability of
wild-capture ?sheries and aquaculture, as well as on available approaches for sustainable
consumption, is a key element for the transition to a greener economy. Potential target groups
include middle-income consumers, retail chains, and children in primary and secondary school
in both developed and developing countries.
• Provide assistance to ?sheries and aquaculture farms that wish to adapt their practices in
order to ful?l criteria of sustainability and/or organic standards. Besides bene?tting from
the provision of technical assistance, ?shermen and ?sh farmers often need to make investments
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in sustainability that may be burdensome for smallholders. Support from governments and
processing and/or exporting partners could help cover costs.
• Support development and investment in environmentally sound technologies. In order to make
the ?shing industry more environmentally friendly and at the same time more competitive on
international markets, greater investments in low impact, fuel-ef?cient ?shing methods, reduced
energy use and greener refrigeration technologies, and improved waste management in ?sh
handling, processing and transportation are needed. In addition, investments should aim at
raising ?sheries management standards to internationally agreed levels. This would include using
an ecosystem-based approach for the management of ?sh resources (UNEP and GPA 2006).
• Invest further in R&D and resources in sustainable aquaculture, including small-scale
aquaculture. With the rapid pace of technology development and production increase in
aquaculture, it is important that resources are invested into developing sustainable aquaculture
practices (Asche 2011, UN 2002), including innovative multi-trophic aquaculture production
systems using environmentally friendly feeds and ensuring that legislation protects ecosystems
and their services, safeguarding the environment and livelihoods.
• Ensure responsible aquarium trade. It is important to engage with local communities in order
to guarantee environmentally friendly harvesting methods by, for example, minimising stress
to the ?sh during capture. Exporters should also ensure that the ?sh are transported safely in
order to reduce mortality rates. The further development of a green certi?cation scheme that
takes into account the small-scale nature of ornamental ?shing could be explored. At the same
time, more must be done to protect ornamental ?sh from pollution and other harmful effects
caused by other activities and industries.
3.5.2 Market-based instruments
• Reform ?scal policies and gradually eliminate harmful subsidies. Introducing ?scal incentives
for proper management – which may include restricting access to ?shing grounds through the
imposition of levies on catches – can be effective in both generating revenue for the country
whose ?shing stocks are being exploited and providing an incentive to reduce ?shing efforts.
Furthermore, the elimination. The elimination of harmful subsidies can fundamentally change
incentives and unleash public ?nancial resources to support sustainable ?sheries management
systems, a better scienti?c understanding of the oceans, compensation and re-training of workers,
vessel buyback programmes, and provision of social security. However, these measures need
to be coupled with strong enforcement mechanisms against IUU, in order to avoid creating
incentives to under-declare catches and engage in black market trading.
• Promote sustainability practices by using traceability methods. Traceability methods should
ensure that socio-economic and environmental information on the production process travels
with the products from the net to the shelves. The methods should allow for relatively low-tech
implementation to enable SME participation (UNEP 2009b).
3.5.3 National regulatory frameworks
• Establish a functioning ?sheries management system. The essential elements of a ?sheries
management system should be put in place for every ?shery under exploitation. These
elements may include science-based stock assessments, measures such as quotas and size
limits, licences and other forms of regulated access to ?sheries, and a serious programme to
?ght IUU ?shing activities.
• Involve local communities in the management of ?sh resources. Proponents of regulatory
initiatives aimed at managing ?sh resources, particularly in coastal waters, should consult with
and take advantage of local communities’ expertise. Community-based ?sheries management
presents bene?ts both in terms of sustainable off-take and community gains.
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3.5.4 International frameworks
• Eliminate harmful subsidies. The use of subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and
over?shing should be gradually eliminated, whether at the multilateral level, e.g. in the context of
the WTO Doha Round or other international agreements, or through other forms of cooperation,
including at the regional level. While potential price distortions caused by these subsidies are
already regulated under existing WTO rules, their negative effects on productivity, sustainability
and livelihoods are not yet covered by international rules (UNEP 2011b, Meliado 2012).
• Harmonise standards or establish equivalencies. International standards and labelling schemes
provide an opportunity to document and promote good practices. International cooperation
and development aid should aim at enabling producers to meet standards in export markets,
while applying equivalent standards also for local production and consumption. To contribute
to predictability and potential reduction of trade-related costs for developing countries,
equivalencies between standards, including at the regional level, should be established.
• Strengthen regional ?sheries management organisations (RFMOs). RFMOs are the primary
bodies responsible for the sustainable management of shared marine resources. Contracting
parties work together to put in place and implement management and control measures that
allow the achievement of this objective. However, there is scope for improving the effective
functioning of RFMOs, in particular through further funding, better science, more compliance
and stronger governance. As highlighted by a recent UN General Assembly Resolution on
Sustainable Fisheries, systematically conducted performance reviews are an essential tool in
that process (UNGA 2012).
• Implement international law on sustainable ?sheries. Countries should fully implement
international laws and guidelines on ?sheries including the 1995 Agreement for the
Implementation of the Provisions of the UN Fish Stocks Agreement, the 1993 FAO Compliance
Agreement, the 2009 FAO Port State Measures Agreement, the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries, and the FAO International Plans of Action and technical guidelines (UN
2012, paragraph 169). In addition, CITES Parties should ensure effective implementation of
the Convention and include species in the Appendices in accordance with relevant scienti?c
and trade criteria. The granting of ?shing rights to foreign ?shing ?eets should also be in line
with the relevant provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and
subsequent instruments.
• Strengthen transparency requirements of access agreements. When access to ?sh resources
is granted through government-to-government or business-to-government access agreements,
transparency is a key element for achieving sustainable trade. This facilitates the participation
of national, regional and international stakeholders in the decision-making process related to
the transfer of ?shing rights which often have substantial impacts on resources. (Martin et al.
2001). In addition, transparency is bene?cial to all parties involved, as it helps the licensee to
become aware of other licenses granted for the same ?shery, and the host country to establish
a coherent access policy (Mbithi Mwikya 2006). Transparency may also help to determine the
value of ?sh resources (UNEP 2008).
• Eliminate IUU ?shing. Develop and implement national and regional action plans in accordance
with the FAO’s international plan of action to combat IUU ?shing, identifying vessels engaged in
IUU ?shing and depriving offenders of pro?ts accruing from IUU ?shing. Cooperate with developing
countries to systematically identify needs and build capacity, including support for monitoring,
control, surveillance, compliance and enforcement systems (UN 2012, paragraph 170).
3.5.5 Enhancing dialogue and capacity building
• Enable exporters to meet voluntary standards and legal requirements in export markets.
Capacity building and international cooperation between private and public actors can help
developing country ?sheries understand the content of complex standards and regulations in
order to identify market potential and adapt their technologies accordingly. To scale up the
impact and ensure that more ?sheries can bene?t from the growing market preference for
sustainably produced seafood, there is a need for support and collaboration from the diverse
range of stakeholders involved in the ?sheries sector. Baseline studies can help to identify gaps
in performance of ?sheries with respect to certi?cation standards.
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• Bridge science, policy and communication. Strengthening of science-policy-communication
interfaces can reinforce multi-scale linkages from local to international actors. Close
collaboration is needed between researchers, ?sheries managers, policy makers, stakeholders
and communicators in order to identify gaps and raise environmental performance to ensure
sustainable management of ?sheries. The role of the government is particularly important as
key requirements in sustainability standards relate to ?shery governance and management.
Awareness and training for ?shers and other stakeholders, including the private sector, are
crucial to meet sustainability requirements for certi?cation and to facilitate the process of formal
engagement in certi?cation programmes.
• Support capacity building in order to enhance sustainable export capabilities. Enterprises
could be strengthened to build supply-side capacities in order to meet the sustainability and
quality requirements of major markets, at all stages of supply chains, but particularly at the
production level. Fish processing capacities in developing countries could also be improved.
Furthermore, compliance with standards in export markets for ?sheries requires well-developed
infrastructure, including ?sh landing centres, processing facilities, refrigeration capacities and
ef?cient transportation (UNEP 2012b).
This chapter illustrates the trends, challenges and opportunities at the intersection of increased pressure
on limited ?sheries resources, trade, and the transition to a green economy. As highlighted in the Rio+20
Outcome Document, achieving sustainable management of ?sheries resources and sustainable trade in ?sh
and ?sh products are critical development goals. This chapter also describes opportunities in sustainable
management and sustainability certi?cation for wild-capture ?sheries and aquaculture, as well as in
sustainability practices for aquarium ?sh. The Tourism chapter also highlights how the non-consumptive
usage of coastal and marine environments for recreational and tourism services provides opportunities for
sustainable development.
However, in order for developing countries to be able to fully participate in these opportunities, many
challenges need to be overcome. Meeting standards in export markets remains problematic for producers
and economic operators in developing countries. The cost and know-how needed for achieving compliance
with certi?cation requirements can act as a barrier for more sustainable trade. In addition, the existence of a
functioning and sustainable ?sheries management system depends heavily upon capital investments and R&D,
which in turn depend on the availability of human and ?nancial resources. Phasing out harmful subsidies and
eliminating IUU ?shing activities would contribute to ensuring sustainable trade, but this can happen only by
focusing efforts and establishing clear priorities at the national, regional and international levels.
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3.6 Further resources
3.6.1 Websites for additional information
Green Economy Report’s chapter on Fisheries:
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/3.0_Fisheries.pdf
UNEP’s work on ?sheries subsidies:
http://www.unep.ch/etb/areas/?sherySub.php
Certi?cation and Sustainable Fisheries (UNEP 2009):
http://www.unep.ch/etb/publications/FS%20certi?cation%20study%202009/UNEP%20Certi?cation.pdf
Governing Marine Protected Areas Getting the Balance Right (UNEP, 2011):
http://www.unep.org/ecosystemmanagement/Portals/7/governing-mpas-?nal-technical-report-web-res.pdf
GRID-Arendal:
http://www.grida.no/
The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC):
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/
Green Economy in a Blue World:
http://unep.org/pdf/green_economy_blue.pdf
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
http://www.teebweb.org/
Statistics and information on Fisheries and Aquaculture:
http://www.fao.org/?shery/statistics/en
FAO Globe?sh:
http://www.globe?sh.org/homepage.html
Fisheries policies and WTO:
http://www.fao.org/?shery/topic/13275/en
Information on aquaculture standards:
http://151.1.154.86/GfcmWebSite/SAC/SCESS/12/GFCM-Aquaculture-Certi?cation-DRAFT.pdf
Piaba Project:
http://opefe.com/piaba.html
UNEP-WCMC. Monitoring of International Trade in Ornamental Fish:
http://www.unep- wcmc.org/medial ibrar y/2011/11/02/5fbf9a43/Monitoring%20of%20
international%20trade%20in%20ornamental%20?sh%20-%20Consultation%20Paper.pdf
Sustainable Aquarium Industry Association:
http://www.saia-online.eu/
Project for Ecosystem Services (ProEcoServ):
http://www.proecoserv.org/
Seahorse Project:
http://seahorse.?sheries.ubc.ca/
WTO ?sheries subsidies negotiations:
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/?sh_e/?sh_e.htm
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3.6.2 References
Agnew, D.J., Pearce, J., Pramod, G., Peatman, T., Watson, R., Beddington, J. R. and Pitcher, J. (2009).
Estimating the world wide extent of illegal ?shing. PLoS ONE, Vol. 4, Iss. 2. Available at:
http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0004570
ASC. (2012). Aqualculture Stewardship Council. Available at:
http://www.asc-aqua.org/index.cfm?lng=1
Asche, F. (2011). Green Growth in Fisheries and Aquaculture Production and Trade. Department of
Industrial Economics, University of Stavenger, Norway. Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/sustainableagriculture/48258799.pdf
Asche, F. and Smith, M. D. (2010). Trade and Fisheries: Key Issues for the World Trade Organization.
World Trading Organisation Working Paper No. 2010-03, 2010. Available at:
http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/ersd201003_e.pdf
Bergleiter, S. (2011). Increasing the Organic Share of Aquaculture. The Fish Site, Featured Articles.
Available at:
http://www.the?shsite.com/articles/1253/increasing-the-organic-share-of-aquaculture
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Fish and fish products constitute a major source of income, food and recreation in the global economy. Fish products originate from two main modes of production: harvesting of wild fish (marine and freshwater) and aquaculture. The latter is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as "the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants"
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Chapter outline
3 Fisheries & Aquaculture ............................................................................................. 89
List of Boxes and Figures .......................................................................................... 91
Acronyms .............................................................................................................. 92
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 93
3.2 Environmental and economic context for greening the economy .................................. 93
3.2.1 Current state of world ?sheries and aquaculture ............................................. 93
3.2.2 Trade and ?sheries ................................................................................... 97
3.2.3 Greening the ?sheries and aquaculture sectors .............................................. 98
3.3 Green economy measures ........................................................................................ 99
3.3.1 Trade-related technical regulations ............................................................... 99
3.3.2 Phasing out harmful subsidies ................................................................... 100
3.3.3 Conforming with certi?cation criteria for wild-caught ?sh ............................... 101
3.3.4 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquaculture ............................. 103
3.3.5 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquarium ?sh........................... 104
3.3.6 Sustainability certi?cation from a supply chain perspective ............................. 104
3.4 Trends and trade opportunities ............................................................................... 105
3.4.1 Sustainable management of wild-capture ?sheries ........................................ 105
3.4.2 Eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated ?shing .................................. 106
3.4.3 Certi?ed wild-capture ?sh and processed ?sh products .................................. 107
3.4.4 Certi?ed aquaculture and processed aquaculture products ............................. 110
3.4.5 Sustainable aquarium ?sh trade ................................................................ 111
3.4.6 Marine and coastal tourism ..................................................................... 112
3.5 Enabling conditions ............................................................................................... 112
3.5.1 Public investment and spending ................................................................ 112
3.5.2 Market-based instruments ........................................................................ 113
3.5.3 National regulatory frameworks ................................................................ 113
3.5.4 International frameworks ......................................................................... 114
3.5.5 Enhancing dialogue and capacity building ................................................. 114
3.6 Further resources ................................................................................................... 116
3.6.1 Websites for additional information ........................................................... 116
3.6.2 References ............................................................................................ 117
Copyright @United Nations Environment Programme, 2013
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List of Boxes
Box 1. Key ?ndings of the Green Economy Report
Box 2. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Box 3. Sanitary measures for ?sh trade - a variety of actions involved in Senegal
Box 4. Examples of wild-capture ?sh standards
Box 5. Examples of costs of certi?cation
Box 6. Examples of aquaculture sustainability standards
Box 7. Concerted management of the sea bream ?shery in Kayar, Senegal
Box 8. Eliminating IUU in the Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery
Box 9. Ben Tre clam ?sheries certi?cation in Viet Nam
Box 10. Trends in organic aquaculture production
Box 11. Trade in aquarium ?sh in Indonesia — use of environmentally-friendly capture techniques
List of Figures
Figure 1. World capture ?sheries and aquaculture production, 1950-2010
Figure 2. Global trends in the state of global marine ?sh stocks since 1974
Figure 3. World ?sheries production and quantities destined for export
Figure 4. Impact of eight categories of ?sheries subsidies on ?sh stocks
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Acronyms
ACP
ASC
BAP
CoC
CGPL
CITES
DARD
ECOWAS
FAO
FoS
FIP
GER
GDP
IATA
IFOAM
IUU
JICA
LABOMAR
LAR
MAC
MSC
MSY
NGO
OIE
RFMO
R&D
SFP
TEEB
UN
UNEP
UNCLOS
US
US$
WTO
WWF
African Caribbean and Paci?c
Aquaculture Stewardship Council
Best Aquaculture Practices
Chain of Custody
Lobster Management Commission
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
Economic Community of West African States
Food and Agriculture Organization
Friend of the Sea
Fisheries Improvement Project
Green Economy Report
Gross Domestic Product
International Air Transport Association
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
Illegal, unreported and unregulated
Japanese International Cooperation Agency
Institute of Marine Sciences
Live Animals Regulations
Marine Aquarium Council
Marine Stewardship Council
Maximum Sustainable Yield
Non-governmental Organization
World Organisation for Animal Health
Regional Fisheries Management Organisations
Research and Development
Sustainable Fisheries Partnership
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
United Nations
United Nations Environment Programme
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
United States
United States Dollar
World Trade Organization
World Wildlife Fund
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3 Fisheries & Aquaculture
3.1 Introduction
Enhancing the welfare of ?shing communities, achieving sustainable management of ?sh resources, and
sustainable trade in ?sh and ?sh products are critical development goals reaf?rmed in the Rio+20 Outcome
Document (UN 2012, paragraphs 52, 111, 113-115, and 168-176). By transitioning to a green economy,
through measures such as the elimination of harmful subsidies and the use of greener production and
processing methods, ?sheries resources will be managed more sustainably for the bene?t of present and future
generations. In addition, better information management and conservation measures, including monitoring,
control and surveillance systems need to be developed and implemented with a view to changing awareness
and incentives for economic operators with regard to the exploitation of ?shery resources.
In this context, trade can both support and bene?t from the transition to a green economy by encouraging
better long-term management of global ?sh resources and improved sustainability along the supply chain.
This chapter identi?es general trends and trade opportunities associated with the transition to a green
economy in the ?sheries and aquaculture sectors. It explores ways of responding to the international
demand for sustainable ?sh and ?sh products and how they could be better integrated into relevant markets.
Growing international demand for the integration of sustainability considerations offers increased trade
opportunities in:
• Exports of sustainably and legally produced ?sh and ?sh products;
• Exports of certi?ed wild-capture ?sh and processed ?sh products;
• Exports of certi?ed aquaculture and processed aquaculture products;
• Exports of sustainable aquarium ?sh; and
• Promotion of non-consumptive uses such as tourism.
3.2 Environmental and economic context for greening the economy
3.2.1 Current state of world ?sheries and aquaculture
Fish and ?sh products constitute a major source of income, food and recreation in the global economy. Fish
products originate from two main modes of production: harvesting of wild ?sh (marine and freshwater) and
aquaculture. The latter is de?ned by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as
“the farming of aquatic organisms including ?sh, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants” (FAO 2012b).
1
In 2010, wild capture ?sheries and aquaculture supplied the world with about 148 million tonnes of ?sh,
worth US$ 217.5 billion. Approximately 128 million tonnes - or 86 per cent - were used for human
consumption. Preliminary data for 2011 indicates that production has increased to 154 million tonnes, of
which about 131 million tonnes, or 85 per cent, were consumed as food (FAO 2012a, World Bank 2010).
Even though wild ?sh capture represented 60 per cent of total ?sh production in 2010, total catch from wild
?sheries has remained relatively stable throughout the last three decades. The source of signi?cant growth
in the global production of ?sh since the late 1980s has been aquaculture (see Figure 1); since then, it
has increased almost twelvefold, at an average annual rate of 8.8 per cent. Aquaculture now accounts
for almost half of total ?sh supply for human consumption (FAO 2010a). In 2010, global production of
farmed ?sh was 59.9 million tonnes, compared to 55.7 million tonnes in 2009 and 32.4 million tonnes
in 2000. When farmed aquatic plants and non-food products are included, world aquaculture production
in 2010 was 79 million tonnes, with a market value of US$ 125 billion. Aquaculture is also the world’s
fastest-growing food production activity based on animal protein (FAO 2012a).
1. The de?nition goes on to explain that “farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular
stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.”
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160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Aquaculture production
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10
Capture production
Million tonnes
Figure 1. World capture ?sheries and aquaculture production, 1950-2010
Source: FAO 2012a
Fish products are essential to food security, providing over 1 billion people with their main source of protein
and more than 4.3 billion people with about 15 per cent of their average per capita animal protein intake
(FAO 2012a). Fish proteins are particularly important for preschool-aged children and pregnant women
(World Fish Centre 2011).
World ?sh resources also have a key role in maintaining and expanding employment levels. Over 140
countries have marine ?sheries that provide employment for local and foreign workers. In 2010, wild
?sheries and aquaculture provided incomes and livelihoods for an estimated 54.8 million people engaged
in the primary sector of ?sh production. Artisanal ?sheries, or small-scale near-shore ?shing, comprise 90
per cent of all ?shing jobs worldwide, approximately 45 per cent of the world’s ?sheries and nearly 25 per
cent of the world’s catch (ILO 2003).
Apart from the primary production sector, ?sheries and aquaculture provide numerous jobs across the
supply chains, in activities such as processing, packaging, marketing and distribution, manufacturing
of ?sh-processing equipment, net and gear making, ice production and supply, boat construction and
maintenance, management, research and administration. This is estimated to support the livelihoods of 660
to 820 million people, or 10 to 12 per cent of the world’s population (FAO 2012a).
According to data collected by the FAO (2012a), however, a huge proportion of the world’s ?sh stocks are
being over?shed. In its latest report on the State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, the FAO states that
almost 30 per cent of the world’s ?sh stocks are overexploited - a slight decrease from the previous two
years. About 57 per cent are fully exploited (i.e. at or very close to their maximum sustainable production),
and only about 13 per cent are not fully exploited.
In 2005, the FAO already warned, that virtually every commercial ?sh species in every ocean or sea is
“over-exploited,” “fully exploited,” or “depleted”, nine of the world’s 17 major ?shing regions are in serious
decline, and that production from most of the world’s ?sheries had reached or exceeded the levels at which
?sh stocks can regenerate (FAO 2005).
Intensive ?shing practices, supported in part by large-scale subsidisation of the ?sheries sector, have led to
the depletion of many ?sh stocks including tuna, cod, haddock, ?ounder, halibut and red hake. The FAO
estimates that more than 80 per cent of the world’s ?sh stocks assessed have been ?shed to their biological
limits or beyond, as indicated in Figure 2.
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50
40
60
20
10
0
74 79 84 89 94 99 04 09
Percentage of stocks assessed
Non-fully exploited Fully exploited Overexploited
Figure 2. Global trends in the state of global marine ?sh stocks since 1974
Source: FAO 2012a
“Overexploitation not only causes negative ecological consequences, but it also reduces ?sh production,
which leads to negative social and economic consequences,” the 2012 report cautions. FAO suggests: “To
increase the contribution of marine ?sheries to the food security, economies and the well-being of coastal
communities, effective management plans must be put in place to rebuild overexploited stocks”. Strengthened
governance and effective ?sheries management are required. The report argues that promoting sustainable
?shing and ?sh farming can provide incentives for wider ecosystem stewardship and advocates enabling
mechanisms, such as the adoption of an ecosystem approach to ?sheries and aquaculture with fair and
responsible tenure systems (FAO 2012a).
Fortunately, measures at the international level are being taken to help stocks to regenerate, recognising
that the process can take up to a century, or even more. For example, in 2012, 48 member countries of
the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT),
2
agreed to maintain eastern
and western Atlantic Blue?n tuna (Thunnus thynnus) quotas in line with the scienti?c advice. However, the
endangered population in the western Atlantic is still severely depleted, being only 36 per cent of what it
was in 1970. It is encouraging that ICCAT heeded the recommendation of scientists and kept the western
catch limit at 1,750 metric tonnes. According to Jorge (2013), this should allow the population to continue
to increase and give biologists time to address major uncertainties in the stock assessment that may be
arti?cially in?ating the estimates of western Blue?n.
At its 16
th
meeting, held in March 2013, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) included ?ve commercially valuable shark
species in Appendix II. Trade in species listed under Appendix II requires a CITES permit or certi?cate whose
conditions for issuance and acceptance ensure that such trade is legal, sustainable and traceable. The
?ve shark species listed on Appendix II include the oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus), scalloped
hammerhead (Sphyrma lewini), great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran), smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna
zigaena) and the porbeagle (Lamna nasus), all of which are harvested in huge numbers for their valuable ?ns
and, in some cases, meat. The Porbeagle has suffered serious population declines, notably in the northern
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean, owing to unsustainable ?shing for its high-value meat and ?ns (CITES
2013). According to the Pew Environment Group, scientists project that, under the current rate of exploitation,
this stock would need a minimum of several decades, and possibly more than 100 years, to fully recover
(PEW 2012). Other populations of shark species listed, including the ocean whitetip, have declined by more
2. The ICCAT convention area is 24.8 per cent of the global ocean surface.
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than 90 per cent (document CoP16 Prop. 42). The global value of trade in the shark ?n industry alone is
estimated by the FAO to be around US$ 478 million per year (as reported by TRAFFIC 2013a).
These new shark listings mark a milestone in the involvement of CITES in marine species (CITES 2013).
Manta rays - slow-growing, large-bodied migratory animals, which survive in small, highly fragmented
populations - were also listed on Appendix II of CITES. Manta gill plates fetch high prices in international
markets and have been traded in signi?cant numbers in recent years (CITES 2013).
Just prior to the CITES meeting, in February 2013, a major reform of the European Union’s (EU) Common
Fisheries Policy was approved by the European Parliament. The new policy aims to halt over?shing by
stopping ?sh discards dumped at sea, respecting maximum sustainable yield limits, and basing long-term
planning on sound scienti?c data. Data from the European Commission - indicating that 80 per cent of
?sh stocks in the Mediterranean and 47 per cent in the Atlantic have been over?shed - helped trigger an
overhaul of EU’s ?sheries policy (EC 2012).
Climate change also poses threats to marine and freshwater species and habitats. Fluctuations in water
temperature, ocean currents, upwelling and biogeochemistry are leading to productivity shocks for ?sheries
(Sumaila et al. 2011; Diaz and Rosenberg 2008). The Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the
FAO (n.d.) predicts that the impact of climate change may magnify natural variations and intensify current
pressure on marine ?sh stocks. The effects could include increased pressure on ?sh stocks, shrinking wetlands
and nursery areas and UV-B radiation. The department’s scientists forecast: “Change is expected to result
in elevations in sea surface temperature, global sea level rise, reductions in sea-ice cover and changes
in salinity, wave conditions and ocean circulation. On land, climate change will affect the availability of
water, river ?ow regimes (particularly in ?ood plains), size of lakes, etc. and the needs of water for other
activities competing with ?sheries” (FAO n.d.).
Further, illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) ?shing represents a serious threat to global food
security, causing also economic loss while undermining efforts to sustainably manage ?sh resources
(Agnew et al. 2009).
Aquaculture has the potential to take some of the strain off wild capture ?sheries, but presents speci?c
challenges. These include reliance on wild-caught ?sh as feed for farming carnivorous ?sh, which could
further contribute to the depletion of ?sh stocks; the impossibility of cultivating certain ?sh species; the
generation of waste; and the spread of disease and genetic material, particularly if there is interaction
between farmed and wild ?sh (FAO 2010b, Khan et al. 2011).
Regarding biodiversity impacts, conversion of mangroves for coastal aquaculture is one of the foremost
drivers of mangrove loss. Since 1980, the world has lost about one-?fth of its mangrove forests and what
remains is degraded. An estimated 38 per cent of global mangrove loss can be attributed to the clearing
of mangroves for shrimp culture, while another 14 per cent can be attributed to other forms of aquaculture.
A number of countries have lost more than 40 per cent of their mangrove area over a 25-year period and
many remaining areas are degraded (Van Lavieren et al. 2012).
In a literature review of world shrimp farming in Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Vietnam, Raux et al.
(2002) describe selected environmental and social issues of shrimp farming, including deterioration of
mangrove systems, salt water intrusion, feed and pollution/food insecurity, disused ponds, seeds and
brood stock/biodiversity, disease, unfair trade, restricted access to resources, forced displacement, and
the negative impact on commercial ?sh stocks. The authors conclude that all of these “contribute to the
unsustainable nature of shrimp farming”.
Concerning aquarium trade, if managed sustainably, the trade could support jobs in predominantly rural,
low-income coastal communities and so provide strong economic incentives for coral reef conservation
in regions where other options for generating revenue are limited. However, damaging techniques
occasionally used to collect the animals, possible overharvesting of some species and the high levels of
mortality associated with inadequate handling and transport of sensitive living organisms undermine this
potential and continue to pose signi?cant challenges to achieving sustainability. Consequently, trade in
aquarium ?sh has often been a controversial topic (Wabnitz et al. 2003).
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3.2.2 Trade and ?sheries
Fish and ?sh products are the most extensively traded commodities in the food sector. As shown in Figure 3,
approximately 40 per cent of ?sh output is traded internationally (FAO 2012a). Furthermore, ?shery exports
are increasing signi?cantly. The share of total ?shery production exported in the form of various food and
feed items rose from 25 per cent in 1976 to about 38 per cent or 57 million tonnes in 2010. In the same
period, world trade in ?sh and ?sh products grew signi?cantly also in value terms, rising almost thirteen-
fold from US$ 8 billion to US$ 102 billion. In 2011, despite the economic instability experienced in
many economies, increasing prices and strong demand in developing countries pushed trade volumes and
values to the highest levels ever reported. Despite some softening in the second half of the year, preliminary
estimates indicate that in 2011 exports exceeded US$ 125 billion (FAO 2012a).
150
120
90
60
30
0
Production
76 78 80 84 82 86 88 90 92 96 94 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
Export
Million tonnes (live weight)
Figure 3. World ?sheries production and quantities destined for export
Source: FAO 2012a
Due to the high perishability of ?sh products, 90 per cent of trade in terms of quantity (live weight equivalent)
comprises processed products such as frozen food and prepared and preserved ?sh (FAO 2012a).
Even if not comparable with volumes of ?sh traded for consumption, there is also considerable trade in
aquarium or ornamental ?sh and supplies. An estimated one billion ornamental ?sh are exported annually
(Dykman 2012). The world export value in 2010 was over US$ 350 million. The main exporting countries
include Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. Brazil and Columbia are also signi?cant exporters. The main
importing countries include Germany, Japan, Singapore, the US and the UK. The ?gures for Singapore also
include re-export, from imports from all surrounding countries (Ploeg 2013).
Trade in ?sh products can play a key role in the growth strategies of many developing countries. In
particular, ?sh trade represents a signi?cant source of foreign currency earnings. Developing countries’
net exports of ?sh products have been increasing rapidly in recent years. There was a seven-fold increase
from 1980 to 2010 – from US$ 3.7 to 27.7 billion. Fish exports of US$ 27.7 billion represented
twice the value of exports of other key commodities such as coffee from the same group of countries. In
2010, 48 per cent of ?sh consumed in developed countries was imported from developing countries.
This share has increased by 10 per cent between 2000 and 2010, and is expected to further rise in
the near future due to the steady demand in developed countries coupled with a declining domestic ?sh
production (FAO 2012a).
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3.2.3 Greening the ?sheries and aquaculture sectors
The Green Economy Report (GER) (UNEP 2011a) stressed the importance of greening the ?sheries and
aquaculture sectors so as to ensure their medium- and long-term pro?tability. As shown in Box 1, the GER
predicts that an investment of US$ 100 to 300 billion in strengthening ?sheries management and vessel
decommissioning would lead to a signi?cant increase in catch. It would also increase resource rents from
a negative US$ 26 billion to a positive US$ 45 billion annually.
Box 1. Key ?ndings of the Green Economy Report
The GER predicts that a single investment of US$ 100-300 billion would signi?cantly reduce excessive
capacity. In addition, it should result in an increase in ?sheries catch from the current 80 million tonnes
a year to 90 million tonnes in 2050, despite a drop in the next decade as ?sh stocks recover. The
present value of bene?ts from greening the ?shing sector is about three to ?ve times the necessary
additional costs. In a scenario of larger and deeper spending of 0.1 to 0.16 per cent of GDP over
the period 2010-2050, to reduce the vessel ?eet, relocate employment and better manage stocks
to increase catch in the medium and longer term, 27 to 59 per cent higher employment would be
achieved, relative to the baseline by 2050. In this same scenario, around 70 per cent of the amount
of ?sh resources in 1970 would be available by 2050 (between 50 million tonnes and 90 million
tonnes per year), against a mere 30 per cent under a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, where no
additional stock management activities are assumed.
Source: UNEP 2011a
The value of ?sheries ecosystems has been assessed by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(TEEB), as illustrated in Box 2.
Box 2. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is a global initiative focused on drawing attention
to the economic bene?ts of biodiversity. Its objective is to highlight the growing cost of biodiversity loss
and ecosystem degradation. TEEB presents an approach that can help decision-makers recognise,
demonstrate and capture the values of ecosystems and biodiversity, including how to incorporate
these values into decision-making.
TEEB highlights the economic importance of ?sheries by considering the impacts of over?shing, ?sh
stock collapse and environmental damage on food and job security and economic ef?ciency. One
example in Argentina illustrates that continued over?shing of Argentinean hake threatens their long
term ecological and economic viability. Ecological models project that if existing quota were met,
no-?shing zones in the nursery grounds were respected, and the current 120 per cent over-capacity
of ?shing vessels were reduced by 25-50 per cent, the stock of hake would recover leading to
signi?cant economic gains, possibly increasing the net present value from US$ 65.7 to US$ 118.5
million for fresh ?sh, and from US$ 263 to more than US$ 460 million for frozen ?sh, over the
period 2010-2030 (Villasante et al. 2009).
Source: TEEB 2012
Greening the world’s ?sheries will help restore damaged marine ecosystems. Further, the adoption of green
technologies such as low-impact fuel-ef?cient ?shing methods and investments in alternatives to the use of
fossil fuels could help reduce the carbon footprint of the ?sheries sector (UNEP 2012a).
When managed sustainably, ?sheries support a great number of communities and enterprises. They
generate employment and raise household income, particularly for those engaged in artisanal ?sheries.
Sustainably managed ?sheries can over time generate more income than unsustainably managed ?sheries
due to more secure and larger ?sh stocks and better quality (Sumaila et al. 2012).
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Aquaculture production, on the other hand, has the potential to take some of the pressure off wild ?sh stocks
while supporting livelihoods and food production. This is particularly the case in developing countries,
which currently present the largest share of world aquaculture production by volume.
3
Sustainably managed coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture and mariculture
4
offer signi?cant scope
for green growth and employment opportunities for local communities. To harness this green growth
potential, further green technologies for aquaculture are being developed, including innovative production
systems that use environmentally friendly feeds (UNEP 2012a).
The involvement of local communities is a key tenet of the transition to a greener economy. In this respect,
the sustainable management of artisanal ?sheries may also yield signi?cant bene?ts, particularly where
local communities form part of integrated approaches to ?sheries management.
In the community-based ecosystem approach to ?sheries management, the local community manages
?sh resources in close cooperation with the government and other partners (SPC 2010). This applies, for
example, to the “Piaba” (Brazil) and “Seahorse” (The Philippines) in their aquarium ?sh projects.
The marine aquarium trade, in fact, supports jobs in predominantly rural, low-income coastal communities.
Where resources are managed sustainably, aquarium trade provides strong economic incentives for coral
reef conservation in regions where other options for generating revenue are limited, as the relevant products
are among the highest value-added products originating in the reef (Wabnitz et al. 2003).
3.3 Green economy measures
There are a variety of measures that can lead to more sustainable production, trade and consumption of
?sh and ?sh products including:
• Adopting, implementing, improving and respecting effective ?sheries management and
conservation measures, such as output controls, input controls and auxiliary measures, using
both market-based and command and control policies;
• Building monitoring, control and surveillance infrastructure;
• Phasing out harmful subsidies;
• Introducing incentives to change the behaviour of consumers and economic operators;
• Creating marine protected areas;
• Supporting sustainable artisanal ?sheries;
• Investing in innovation of ?shing and aquaculture techniques;
• Ensuring transparency and sustainability in transfers of ?shing rights; and
• Reducing by-catch, discards and post-harvest losses.
Some of the measures that have the potential to create trade opportunities will be discussed in this section.
3.3.1 Trade-related technical regulations
Fish trade is governed by the general national regulations applying to trade in goods. They include
customs procedures and health-related legislation, in particular sanitary measures, origin and catch
certi?cation requirements (see Box 3).
5
In speci?c cases, trade in ?shery products is also subject to national
IUU certi?cation schemes, sustainable management requirements, and regional ?sheries management
organisations’ catch documentation schemes.
3. Asia, for example, accounted for 89 per cent of world aquaculture production by volume in 2010. The majority of this production was in
China, although other signi?cant producers in Asia include Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and
Vietnam. Other countries that experienced production growth include Brazil, Peru and countries in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 2012a).
4. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.
5. See further the Agriculture chapter, section 2.3.1.
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Box 3. Sanitary measures for ?sh trade - a variety of actions involved
in Senegal
Sanitary certi?cation of ?sh exports from Senegal began with the European Commission sanitary
regulation on ?sh products in the early 1990s. The delivering of catch certi?cation, became more
complex since 1 January 2011, due to the obligation for export countries to provide certi?cates
which state the origin of ?sh. For that reason, many units within the Ministry of Fishery and Marine
Affairs are involved in the export certi?cation scheme. The Division of Inspection and Control is
the authority responsible for verifying that products have followed sanitary and hygienic standards
equal to those in Europe. Moreover, the Directorate of Maritime Fishery delivers sanitary and origin
certi?cation, while the Direction of Protection and Surveillance of Fisheries provides the catch
certi?cate.
Source: Excerpt from a case study prepared by Moustapha Deme, Economist, Oceanographical Research Center of Dakar-
Thiaroye (CRODT/ISRA), Senegal, and Pierre Failler, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for the Economics and Management of
Aquatic Resources (CEMARE), University of Portsmouth, England.
For trade in live ?sh, animal welfare regulations may also be applicable. The Conference of the Parties
(COP) to CITES recommends in Resolution Conf. 10.21 (Rev. CoP16) that the Live Animals Regulations of
the International Air Transport Association (IATA/LAR) and the CITES guidelines for the non-air transport of
live wild animals and plants in their most recent edition be deemed to meet CITES transport requirements for
living specimens. IATA/LAR regulations include speci?cations for containers used to transport live animals
applicable to a list of over 1,000 species, including ?sh.
In addition to the ?ve shark species and the manta rays mentioned above, CITES regulates trade in a number
of aquatic species including aquarium ?sh, giant clams, queen conch, hard and soft corals, seahorses,
other sharks, saw?shes, marine turtles, freshwater rays, freshwater turtles, sturgeons, invertebrates and
live rock (CITES Appendices). At CITES CoP16, more than 30 freshwater turtles were given strengthened
protection from overharvesting for the international pet and meat trades (TRAFFIC 2013b).
3.3.2 Phasing out harmful subsidies
Subsidies to the ?sheries sector can fall within a wide array of government support measures, including support
for ?sheries infrastructure, management services and research, subsidies for access to foreign countries’ waters,
decommissioning of vessels and license retirement, subsidies to capital costs and variable costs, income
support, unemployment insurance, and price support (UNEP 2004a). Depending on how ?sheries subsidies
are de?ned and calculated, global estimates range from US$ 15 to 34 billion (UNEP 2011b).
Fisheries subsidies have gained worldwide attention because of their complex role in trade, ecological
sustainability and socio-economic development (Schorr 2004, UNEP 2004b, UNEP 2004c, UNEP 2005,
UNEP 2011b). After many years of debate in different international fora on the nature of subsidies in the
?sheries sector, there is a global consensus now that by reducing the operating costs and enhancing the
pro?tability of the ?shing industry, subsidies are one of the key driving factors behind overcapacity and
over?shing (von Moltke 2007, 2011). At the same time, ?sheries subsidies in?uence a country’s production
of and trade in ?sh products and affect competitiveness of the ?shing industry (UNEP 2011b).
In the short term, supply of subsidised ?sh and ?sh products can cause lower prices compared to those that
would prevail in an undistorted international market. This implies a potential decline in export earnings,
often in developing countries. In the medium to long term, however, increased pressure over the resource
leads to reduced supply and consequent increases in international prices, which create a perverse incentive
to overexploit the resource (Asche and Smith 2010).
Figure 4 shows the impact of different types of subsidies under different management conditions. It can
be argued that, under certain conditions, ?sheries subsidies would not lead to overcapitalisation and
overexploitation. These conditions include an effective ?sheries management system which eliminates incentives
for overexploitation and prevents the circumvention of quotas, while enforcing severe sanctions against IUU
and outlawing destructive ?shing practices. Such management regimes are, however, still very rare today.
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Figure 4. Impact of eight categories of ?sheries subsidies on ?sh stocks
Effective Management Catch Controls Open Access
Over-
capacity
Full
capacity
Less
than full
Over-
capacity
Full
capacity
Less
than full
Over-
capacity
Full
capacity
Less
than full
Fisheries Infrastructure NH NH NH H H NH H H NH
Management Services NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH
Access to Foreign Waters NH NH NH H H NH H H NH
Decommissioning NH NH - PH PH - H PH -
Capital Costs NH NH NH H H H H H H
Variable Costs NH NH NH H PH PH H H PH
Subsidies to Income NH NH NH PH PH PH H H PH
Price Support Subsidies NH NH NH H H PH H H H
(UNEP 2004a) – NH= Not Harmful; PH = Potentially Harmful; H = Harmful
UNEP and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have developed sustainability criteria for the use of
?sheries subsidies. These criteria fall into three categories: stock-related criteria, capacity-related criteria
and management-related criteria. At a very basic level, the criteria indicate that subsidies should be limited
only to ?sheries where science-based assessments reveal that stocks are underexploited, where the ?shery
is operating far below full capacity, and where effective ?sheries management measures are in place to
ensure long-term sustainability (UNEP and WWF 2007).
In addition, subsidies that support R&D, effective management systems, retraining of workers, or withdrawal
of capacity from overcapitalised waters, could help reduce pressure on the resource, restore marine
biodiversity, reduce the dependence of ?shermen on fossil fuels and reduce the GHG impact of ?shing
activities. These would create the conditions for some new sustainable trade opportunities.
3.3.3 Conforming with certi?cation criteria for wild-caught ?sh
In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of voluntary certi?cation programmes that seek to
help consumers make informed decisions in terms of sustainability about their consumption of wild-capture
?sh products. Examples of such schemes are illustrated in Box 4.
Box 4. Examples of wild-capture ?sh standards
• Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
• Friend of the Sea Criteria (FoS)
• Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch
• U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Fish Watch
• Dolphin-Safe
In addition, major retail chains and their suppliers may carry out their own procedures to ensure that they
source ?sh sustainably.
Certi?cation requirements for wild-caught ?sh generally apply to two separate stages of production,
processing and distribution of ?sh products: activities that happen at the ?shery level, and activities that
happen from port to shelves.
Certi?cation of a ?shery can require the use of technologies such as vessel monitoring systems, radio
frequency identi?cation, bar code management, DNA analysis and electronic log books, most of which
require capital investments (UNEP 2009a).
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Certi?cation applying to activities that happen from port to shelves relates to the so-called chain of custody
(CoC) measures; these are designed to guarantee that the product put on the market and bearing an
ecolabel is really a product coming from the certi?ed ?shery concerned. Therefore, these measures should
normally cover both the traceability of the product all along the processing, distribution and marketing
chain, as well as the proper tracking of the documentation (UNEP 2009b).
Although the various wild-capture ?sh standards and certi?cation schemes share a focus on sustainability
issues, they set different criteria, in some cases cover different lists of species, and may place different
emphasis on the conservation methods to be used. The schemes also vary in their costs, which are generally
higher for the certi?cation of ?sheries as compared to CoC certi?cation. Furthermore, some schemes
focus on single environmental issues, such as the Dolphin-Safe label, which addresses the issue of marine
mammals’ by-catch in tuna ?shing (FAO 2009).
Developing countries face speci?c constraints in relation to certi?cation requirements. A ?rst set of constraints
?agged in a survey carried out by UNEP (2009b) relates to data availability, which is generally poorer in
developing countries, posing challenges to the development and implementation of management systems
and veri?cation of compliance with certi?cation criteria.
A second set of constraints relates to potential distortions to livelihoods, given that increased prices and
demand for certi?ed products may result in higher levels of exports and therefore reduced availability of ?sh
for local consumption. However, whether increased exports of certi?ed products actually have an impact
on food security in developing countries depends inter alia on the primary species being consumed and
on who actually bene?ts from additional revenues generated by exports. Increased sales to export markets,
and potentially higher prices for certi?ed products, could also have signi?cant gender impacts, with larger-
scale buyers (typically male) being able to outcompete small-scale female buyers at landing sites. Finally, if
certi?cation does have the predicted price effects in developed country markets, it could reward middlemen
and the post-harvest supply chain, but not necessarily the ?shing community (UNEP 2009b).
A third issue that may hinder the ability of developing countries to comply with certi?cation criteria relates to
the costs of certi?cation, particularly for small-scale producers. Small-scale ?sheries are less likely to ?nd that
any bene?ts from certi?cation outweigh the costs, especially where the unit of certi?cation may be small and
involve few ?shermen with a low value of catches. In addition, certi?cation costs must be paid in advance,
while bene?ts may not accrue until after the product is caught and marketed. Few ?sheries in developing
countries are certi?ed, consequently those that have been certi?ed e.g. under the MSC scheme (which has
relatively high costs compared to other schemes) have had to rely heavily on donor and external support to
cover certi?cation fees (UNEP 2009b) (Box 5).
Box 5. Examples of costs of certi?cation
Fishery / Scheme Cost in US$
Vietnam Ben Tre clam ?shery / MSC Pre-assessment, $5,000; Full Assessment
budget, $80,000
Azores tuna and demersal ?shery / FoS $37,000 for the demersal ?shery. Tuna ?shery
certi?cation achieved at no cost in association with
Dolphin-Safe programme
Senegal mixed ?shery / FoS $4,000. $1,500/year
UK SW mackerel handline / MSC $20,000 for pre and full assessment
South African hake ?shery / MSC $735,000 including all assessment costs and costs
incurred with work required to ful?l the conditions of
certi?cation
UK Torridon nephrops creel ?shery / MSC $26,000 assessment. Annual audit $4,000
Australia Lakes and Coorong ?shery / MSC $11,628 pre-assessment and $111,802 full assessment
Source: UNEP 2009b, based on data collected by Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management Ltd.
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Although certi?cation schemes face the challenges discussed above, they appear to have increased
consumer awareness of marine ?shery issues. Furthermore, if properly designed and implemented,
certi?cation schemes are an important driver for greening world ?sheries, and are expanding into more
and more places around the world.
Alongside the development of market-based voluntary certi?cation programmes, the FAO has produced
Guidelines for the Eco-labelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Marine Capture Fisheries (FAO 2009).
These guidelines suggest minimum requirements for the operation of ecolabelling schemes. Furthermore,
they provide institutional and procedural standards for how schemes should be set up and the process and
principles against which certifying entities should be assessed.
3.3.4 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquaculture
Certi?cation requirements for sustainable aquaculture generally present a wide coverage, ranging from site
management to social issues. Some of the existing certi?cation schemes concentrate to a greater extent on
so-called “organic” or “bio” requirements, which for example may relate to controls on the use of chemicals
in feeds or to the prohibition of arti?cial induction of the reproduction of aquaculture animals. Sustainability
in aquaculture can also be promoted by implementing high health, welfare, environmental, social and
consumer protection standards.
For these reasons, it is dif?cult to draw a clear line between “organic” or “bio” standards and broader
sustainability standards; the present chapter discusses sustainability criteria so as to include also the narrower
concept of organic criteria, unless otherwise speci?ed.
In light of the proliferation of voluntary standards in aquaculture, the 2011 FAO Technical Guidelines on
Aquaculture Certi?cation are important tools to improve the governance and sustainable development of
this sector. By setting minimum criteria for developing aquaculture certi?cation standards, these guidelines
provide direction for the development, organisation and implementation of credible aquaculture certi?cation
schemes (FAO 2012a).
Some of the current voluntary certi?cation schemes covering aquaculture are listed in Box 6.
Box 6. Examples of aquaculture sustainability standards
• AB France
• Bio Suisse
• Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP), as developed by the Global Aquaculture Alliance
• Responsibly farmed seafood, as developed by the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC)
• Friend of the Sea
• GLOBAL G.A.P.
• Fairtrade Foundation
• World Organization for Animal Health
• International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
• Naturland
The initial efforts related to compliance costs and know-how may be ultimately rewarded by the possibility
to comply with a multitude of regulatory requirements that exist across various markets (FAO 2011).
Certi?cation schemes that apply organic, fair trade and sustainability criteria, for example, could present
a signi?cant market opportunity for importers and exporters. Naturland, for instance, maintains that it
addresses organic production, social principles and fair trade in one source (Naturland 2012).
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The Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) standards, for example, cover a range of highly commercial
species, including pangasius, tilapia, bivalves, salmon and freshwater trout. The ASC concentrates on
requirements that include compliance with of?cial development plans, conversion of natural ecosystems,
water use, and health-related issues. In addition, it covers issues such as compliance with international
labour standards, health and safety of workers and child labour (ASC 2012).
The Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) scheme is one of the most signi?cant aquaculture certi?cation schemes
in terms of volume, and it combines site inspections with controls for sanitary requirements (FAO 2011).
Besides voluntary schemes, the introduction of sustainable aquaculture production rules in regulatory
frameworks of key export markets, such as the EU, can lead to further market growth (EC 2007, 2009).
3.3.5 Conforming with certi?cation requirements for aquarium ?sh
Besides the legal obligations set out by CITES for trade in certain aquarium ?sh species, a voluntary
certi?cation system has been developed for aquarium ?sh under the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC), but
is not operational at the time of writing. Certi?cation by MAC covered both practices (industry operators,
facilities and collection areas) and products (aquarium organisms).
MAC certi?cation was set up as a third-party certi?cation scheme through the accreditation of independent
third-party certi?cation companies. These MAC-accredited certi?ers would assess companies for their initial
compliance with the MAC standards, and conduct scheduled and unscheduled surveillance visits to monitor
continued adherence to the standards by industry operators at any link of the chain of custody, from reef to
retail (collectors, culturists and breeders, exporters, importers, retailers).
For fresh water ornamental ?sh, sustainability certi?cation is an emerging concept, as explained for example
in recent guidelines issued by the government of India (MPEDA 2011).
3.3.6 Sustainability certi?cation from a supply chain perspective
Fish supply chains can be generally described as a set of interdependent producers, agents, processors,
distributors and wholesalers/retailers/food services, who work to supply a ?sh product to the consumer.
There are differences in supply chains among different countries and regions that correspond to socio-
economic and environmental conditions and cultural diversity. Differences also exist in relation to ?sh
species and products, and harvesting techniques (industrial production, artisanal production, aquaculture
or capture) (UNEP 2009a).
Most sustainability problems such as open access, unfair ?shing, IUU ?shing, poor working conditions, the
lack of price transparency and the lack of information sharing are concentrated at the level of production
and the ?rst intermediaries or processors of the supply chain. The consumers’ side of the chain, however,
also shares some responsibility for unsustainable production.
A key condition for the sustainability of a supply chain is that information related to socio-economic and
environmental sustainability issues can reach intermediary and ?nal buyers. It has been identi?ed that
breaks in information ?ows often happen at the points of highest increase in the ?sh products’ value:
between production and ?rst intermediaries and at the time of export (Gudmundssen et al. 2006, as cited
in UNEP 2009a).
One of the important effects of labels, for example, is that they help consumers to make informed purchasing
decisions. Labels are mechanisms for transferring information from one element of the supply chain to the
other in a systematic way. They enable some degree of traceability, which is a crucial and fundamental
condition for sustainable supply chains. This is in general provided by certi?cation schemes that include a
CoC analysis of the supply chain from port to ?nal buyers.
Organisations willing to implement and demonstrate corporate responsibility programmes rely heavily on
traceability systems. Business-to-business relations may be less visible than on-product labelling, but they can
create powerful incentives for greening the supply chain. To be effective, however, CoC certi?cation should
accompany the certi?cation of the ?shery itself.
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3.4 Trends and trade opportunities
An analysis of trends in international trade in ?sheries has identi?ed several green trade opportunities. The
key areas of trade potential are discussed in this section.
3.4.1 Sustainable management of wild-capture ?sheries
Increased export revenues can arise from the sustainable management of wild-capture ?sheries. The
FAO and World Bank “Sunken Billions” report (2009) identi?es global marine capture ?sheries as an
underperforming global asset. The report concludes that 75 per cent of the world’s ?sheries underperformed
in 2004, mainly due to overexploitation. The lost potential revenue is estimated at US$ 50 billion annually.
Over a thirty-year period up to 2004, this amounted to a loss of approximately US$ 2 trillion. According to
the report, “through comprehensive reform, the ?sheries sector could become a basis for economic growth
and the creation of alternative livelihoods in many countries. At the same time, a nation’s natural capital in
the form of ?sh stocks could be greatly increased and the negative impacts of the ?sheries on the marine
environment reduced.”
A report by the Princes Charities’ International Sustainability Unit (2012) also illustrates the potential economic
gains to be expected from a transition to sustainably managed ?sh stocks. A number of developing country
case studies compiled in 2012 attempted to measure these economic bene?ts at a local ?shery level. For
example, one study on Eastern Paci?c tuna stocks demonstrates that the annual revenue of the tuna ?eet
could rise by US$ 93 million under better management practices (Sun 2010). Another study concludes that
the potential economic gains from restoring the stock of the Hilsa Shad ?shery, the largest single species
?shery in Bangladesh, are approximately US$ 260 million annually, in contrast to the almost complete lack
of economic bene?t in the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario (Mome 2007).
The case of the city of Kayar, in Senegal, is particularly illustrative of the potential economic, social and
environmental bene?ts arising from the sustainable management of ?sh resources (see Box 7).
6
Box 7. Concerted management of the sea bream ?shery in Kayar,
Senegal
Fishing is a key sector of the Senegalese economy. It provides approximately 200 billion FCFA
(approximately US$ 400 million
6
of annual receipts for nearly one third of total export revenues.
Furthermore, ?shing engages about 17 per cent of the working population (approximately
600,000 people) and provides 75 per cent of the animal protein requirement of the population.
The economic and social performance of the Senegalese ?shing industry is directly linked to the
dynamics of the artisanal sub-sector, which ensures more than 80 per cent of national production
(of a total of 450,000 tonnes a year), and as much as 70 per cent of exports (Deme 2008).
This performance is threatened by environmental constraints such as the overexploitation of major
demersal ?sh stocks.
Sea bream (Pagellus bellotti) is mainly caught for the European market. The annual total landings of
16,000 tonnes in 1985 showed continuous decrease during the 1990s and reached 3,000 tonnes
in the mid-2000s. Over-exploitation of the sea bream in the 1990s was demonstrated by the decrease
of ?sh caught, despite the intensi?cation of ?shing efforts, which is estimated at about three times above
the maximum limit. Consequently, the size of sea bream landed was lower than that authorised by the
Senegalese Fish Act (1987), which corresponds to the size of the ?rst sexual maturity of the species.
The renewal of sea bream stocks as well as the future of the ?shery was under threat. Under those
circumstances, the ?shing communities of Kayar decided, shortly after the devaluation of the FCFA
currency in 1994, to implement new management measures to reverse the downward trend.
Trade opportunities and challenges: The town of Kayar is a model in Senegal for having established
the ?rst ?shermen’s professional organisation and initiated the ?rst local management measures of
?shery resources. The institution of a quota started in 1994 is still in force. This local management
model has been adopted by most countries of the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission.
6. At an exchange rate of US$ 0,002 for 1 FCFA.
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In 1995, the National Collective of the Artisanal Fishermen of Senegal (CNPS) implemented
a policy of daily quotas on sea bream in Kayar, which is regarded as the ?rst co-management
process in West Africa. This measure, which limits ?shing to three boxes of 13 kilograms of ?sh
each, per canoe, was respected by ?shermen. The sanctions were highly dissuasive in cases of
non-respect of the quota limit – this included a ?ne of about EUR 50, con?scation of the catch
beyond the limit and the prohibition of ?shing in case of recidivism. The immediate commercial
effect was re?ected through an increase in the price of ?sh and consequently of ?sher’s incomes.
The landing price was multiplied by ten, increasing from 150 FCFA (US$ 0,30 in 1995) to 1,500
FCFA (US$ 3 in 1995) per kilogramme.
At the biological level, the deceleration of the rarefaction process of sea bream resources showed
rapid results as the size of landed ?sh went above the minimum authorised limit, a sign of the recovery
process. The effective limitation of catch, and consequently of ?shing efforts, also contributed to
the increase in the lifespan of ?shing gear, making it possible for ?shermen to run in parallel other
income generating activities. All in all, these reforms of the local ?sheries management system have
enabled local producers and exporters to consolidate their position in international markets.
Extension of the Kayar experience to other Senegalese ?sheries: The Kayar co-management
?shery approach has been extended to other ?sheries along the coast of Senegal, using the
concept of territorial ?shing rights and shared responsibility between the states and ?shing
communities. Several projects, initiated by the Ministry of Fisheries and funded by the World
Bank, have developed a co-management system at the national level. For instance, the recent
project (2005-2012), “Integrated Management of the Marine and Coastal Resources in Senegal”,
recommended an immediate delegation of powers to stakeholders and the promotion of local
initiatives regarding ?sh stock management. The concept of traditional centralisation of ?shery
management is thus under review. A new legal framework is being developed which recognises
the authority of stakeholders to take decisions and actions. These recent changes in the governance
of ?sheries have been implemented in four pilot sites along the Senegalese littoral.
The other notable initiative is the project for “Sustainable Management of Marine Resources”,
funded by Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (2009-2013). It adopts the same
principles of ?sh stock management by communities inhabiting areas near ?shing grounds. Local
initiatives are encouraged with involvements of all stakeholders. Overall, both projects aim to
reinforce management capabilities of both ?shermen organisations and state administrations.
Pursuing the process of co-management, the Ministry of Fisheries in partnership with ?shermen
organisations and NGOs, have also developed a national strategy for the immersion of arti?cial
reefs and the creation of a marine protected area network. These ?shery management tools are
now integrated into the regional planning policy and the general framework of ?shing territorial
unit rights.
The Kayar experience revealed that it is possible to reverse downward trends of ?sh stocks. It also
shows that involving ?shermen organisations is a key factor of success in implementing any ?shery
management measures. The Senegalese government is taking steps to spread the Kayar experience
along the coast of Senegal. On a more global level, the certi?cation of ?sh exports has contributed
to raising the sanitary conditions of all the ?sh landed in Senegal, with a positive effect for local
consumers. Parallel to upgrading of the export ?sh industry, signi?cant efforts have been made by
States authorities to improve the distribution of ?sh products in the domestic market.
Source: Case study prepared by Moustapha Deme, Economist, Oceanographical Research Center of Dakar-Thiaroye
(CRODT/ISRA), Senegal, and Pierre Failler, Senior Research Fellow, Center for the Economics and Management of Aquatic
Resources (CEMARE), University of Portsmouth, England.
3.4.2 Eliminating Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated ?shing
Trade can facilitate reforms aimed at the elimination of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) ?shing
activities. This can be observed, in particular, where international demand and standards in foreign markets
concerning IUU-free products trigger reactions at the national level, and provide a business case for signi?cant
reforms. In this context, the Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery is an example of how the prospect of increasing
sustainable exports can provide incentives for achieving IUU-free ?sh production, as illustrated in Box 8.
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Box 8. Eliminating IUU in the Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery
The Brazilian spiny lobster
7
?shery constitutes a clear instance where a strong trade-oriented
business case creates incentives for the elimination of IUU ?shing.
This species is found throughout the western Atlantic (Daves and Noguchi 2007). Brazilian lobster
exports to the US are worth US$ 80 million per year, and the ?shery provides for the livelihood of
more than 15,000 ?shermen (SFP 2012). The US and the EU are the largest markets for lobsters,
importing 80 per cent and 17 per cent of the yearly catch, respectively (UNEP 2012c).
The Brazilian spiny lobster ?shery faces multiple challenges. The lack of robust and clear regulations
in the sector and the use of illegal ?shing techniques as well as an active illegal ?eet appear to
have led to declining yields, impacting not only the ?shermen and their families, but also on those
dependent on the industry both at the community level and in the processing industry. Weak
traceability throughout the supply chain allows a proportion of products from legal boat-owners
to originate from illegal ?shermen. In addition, the spiny lobster ?shery faces the challenge of
over?shing; hence, there is pressure to supply sustainable products to the US and EU markets and
to meet new import regulations by the EU for sustainable management practices.
Small communities in the northeast of Brazil depend on small-scale lobster ?sheries. There are
around 3,000 artisanal boats measuring no more than three metres in length. These small ?shers
are in constant con?ict with illegal deep sea inexperienced divers who use illegal, unregulated and
dangerous equipment to poach lobsters (UNEP 2010).
Under the Brazilian Lobster Fishery Improvement Programme, the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership
CeDePesca manages the interactions between the major market players both from the supply side
and the demand. The CeDePesca focus, for example, is on the improvement in the ?shing zones
especially coordination with the government of Ceará, the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry of
Environment, and local stakeholders (SFP 2012).
Plans are in place for full implementation of monitoring and research for the lobster ?shing sector in
Brazil. Stock assessments on maximum sustainable yield recommendations have been conducted
with adequate limits and target references identi?ed. A rights-based management system, monitoring
system traceability of lobster ?shing and beach buyers’ registration, output limits and minimisation
of illegal gear and improved quality standards have been established.
At a March 2012 workshop held in Boston, USA, Brazilian producers and six important US
importers joined the Fishery Improvement Programme. Later in the same year, discussions on the
?ndings of the MSC pre-assessment and the characteristics of the programme in Fortaleza resulted
in all Brazilian exporters joining the programme. The Fisheries Lobster Improvement Programme is
still at an early stage but it has created momentum to re-establish scienti?c monitoring and stocks
assessment for lobster populations to provide robust advice to policy makers and private sector
?shery stakeholders. The project is also encouraging market recognition of those in Brazil that
operate legally and transparently in the ?shery which, it is expected, will create an incentive to
expand such good practices and also create export opportunities.
Source: Case study prepared by James Lomax, UNEP
3.4.3 Certi?ed wild-capture ?sh and processed ?sh products
7
The potential for export growth of certi?ed and ecolabelled products makes certi?cation an attractive
business choice for many in the ?shing industry. Much of the interest in certi?cation as a voluntary, market-
based initiative stems from the fact that certi?ed products can access new markets globally. To be sustainable,
however, wild-capture ?sheries certi?cation should not have as an objective the increase of trade volumes
per se, but rather the valorisation of existing trade opportunities.
Despite recent growth, certi?ed seafood sales are still relatively small in a ?shery commodity market
reaching more than US$ 100 billion in annual export sales worldwide (FAO 2012a). For example, in
7. Panulirus argus – red lobster, and Panulirus laevicauda – green lobster.
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the MSC programme, ?sheries already certi?ed or in full assessment have annual catches of nearly 10
million metric tonnes (MSC 2012a, MSC 2012b). This quantity, coupled with the quantity of annual
catches certi?ed by other global schemes, represents about 17 per cent of the annual global harvest of
wild capture ?sheries (FAO 2011).
Nevertheless, the sale of certi?ed ?sh products in markets in developed countries and also, increasingly, in
some developing countries, particularly in China, Namibia, and South Africa has changed from a niche
market to a mainstream one. Consumers are becoming more interested in the way their food is produced.
An increasing number of consumers are choosing to purchase food including ?sh that is healthy and socially
and environmentally sound (UNEP 2009b).
The potential bene?ts and opportunities for the ?sheries industry to obtain a certi?ed ecolabel include:
• Access to new (international) markets that previously may not have been easily accessible;
• Preservation or expansion of market share in growing existing markets;
• Greater credibility vis-à-vis retail buyers;
• Potential for more value-added products, including through product differentiation (niche markets
for environmentally friendly products);
• Reduced production risk through improved stock management; and
• Increased earnings through a potential price premium for eco-labelled ?sh and seafood
(Washington and Ababouch 2011).
Small-scale or artisanal ?sheries in particular, due to their predominance in the industry, have potential for
sustainable growth through green certi?cation. Thus, even though obtaining international certi?cations to
access these new markets can be a challenging experience for many producers, and in particular small-
scale producers, the medium- and long-term economic results are likely to be bene?cial and important to
secure long-term livelihoods (UNEP 2012a).
Demand for certi?cation is most strongly driven by retailers, many of which have now made public
commitments to sustainable sourcing policies. These retailers have signi?cant market power and an ability
to in?uence their suppliers.
8
Demand already far outstrips the availability of certi?ed products (UNEP
2009b). For example, while there is signi?cant certi?ed supply of species like pollock, salmon and hake,
few tropical species are certi?ed (FAO 2009).
The market response to the Vietnamese Ben Tre clam ?sheries sector demonstrates that investments in sustainable
management, through certi?cation of ?sheries resources, can yield substantive returns, as illustrated in Box 9.
Box 9. Ben Tre clam ?sheries certi?cation in Viet Nam
The value of international trade has risen signi?cantly in Vietnam in the last few decades. Exports
from agro-forestry and ?sheries were worth US$ 25 billion in 2011 (Yuan 2011). In the ?sheries
sector, production grew at an average rate of 10.25 per cent between 2001 and 2010, creating
over US$ 5 billion in export value for the country in 2010 (Duc 2011). This continuous economic
growth has implied signi?cant pressure on Vietnam’s natural resources, including concerns about
the dwindling state of ?sh stocks (Vietnamnet 2011).
With growing global concern over the scarcity of natural resources, and international market interest
in sustainably produced goods, the notion of harmonisation of economic growth with sustainable
use of resources presents both opportunities and challenges to government and private sector
operators. Hence, in 2005, the Vietnamese Government signed a Memorandum of Understanding
with the MSC, describing its intention to explore and encourage sustainable ?shing practices and
MSC certi?cation throughout Vietnam.
8. For example, at the time of writing, Wal-Mart, Carrefour, TESCO and Edeka have commitments to sustainable sourcing.
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Much of the growth in the ?sheries sector has been from the aquaculture sector. The capture sector
remains important to the economy, although its growth has slowed down in recent years. The
marine capture sector in Vietnam is divided into two parts: the inshore ?shermen who exploit near
shore resources, and those with medium- to large-scale ?shing vessels who concentrate on off-shore
resources. Both sectors provide livelihoods to hundreds of thousands of ?shermen. It is estimated that
approximately 15 per cent of marine ?n?sh production goes into exports (MPI 2010).
The most important capture species include shrimp, tuna, squid, sea bream, snappers, groupers
and small pelagics. In the inshore sector, some of the most important commercial species include
the Asiatic hard clam (Meretrix lyrata).
Trade opportunities and challenges: The Asiatic hard clam is a high value, bivalve mollusc that
inhabits intertidal and shallow sub tidal sand ?at areas in large parts of Southeast Asia. In the Mekong
Delta, the species is widely distributed in sand ?at areas, mostly in the provinces of Tien Giang, Tra
Vinh, Soc Trang, Kien Giang with the highest density and production of the clam occurring in Ben
Tre province. Clams are sold to domestic markets and exported to Europe, the US, Japan, China
and Taiwan. Clams are harvested manually using a rake, which in some instances may have a net
attached to it, allowing the return of undersized clams (MSC 2009).
In the late 1990s, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) introduced a
system of cooperatives in the ?sheries sector to help address some of the concerns about the state
of the resource. Fishermen in the cooperatives were given rights to exploit de?ned areas of the sand
?ats and manage the clam resource. This regulated the number of people involved in the ?shery and
gave the cooperative a role in managing it. New regulations to manage and control the ?shery
and speci?c harvest targets were introduced to address the problem of catch declines and illegal
?shing (MSC 2012c).
In 2005, WWF initiated a project to work with the Ben Tre clam ?sheries cooperatives, DARD and
partner organisations towards achieving MSC certi?cation. The project commenced with a pre-
assessment of the ?sheries in the Ben Tre province. The pre-assessment served as an initial audit to
determine the level of performance of the ?sheries against the MSC standard and identify if there
were any areas that needed improvements in order to meet the requirements of certi?cation. The
strengths of the ?sheries with respect to the MSC standard included the low impact capture method,
the management measures put in place by the cooperative and DARD to control illegal ?shing and
the presence of protected areas. Other aspects of the ?sheries where improvements were needed
included, better and appropriate understanding of mitigating the impact of clam harvest on the
sand ?at invertebrate community and on marine birds.
In 2009, following a third party independent assessment against requirements for sustainability,
the Vietnamese Ben Tre clam received certi?cation to the MSC’s standard for sustainable ?shing
(MSC 2009). The MSC certi?cation of the ?shery led to signi?cant interest from new buyers in
the US and Europe retailing sustainably-sourced seafood. The prices received for Ben Tre clams
increased by 20 to 30 per cent and the total value of landings of clam increased by 165 per
cent (Tindall 2012).
Certification of the Ben Tre clam fisheries enabled stakeholders in the industry to expand their
markets, boost earnings and improve livelihoods (Vietfish International 2012). In addition to
improved profitability due to increased interest from new buyers in the US, certification of the
fisheries led to a willingness from buyers to purchase clams with shells on at prices higher than
what was received prior to certification. This therefore facilitated higher returns with lower costs
of production.
Following the success of the certi?cation of the Ben Tre clam ?sheries and the interest from the private
sector in purchasing sustainably produced clams, a follow-up initiative to explore opportunities for
extending MSC certi?cation to other clam ?sheries in the Mekong Delta has commenced. The
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), and a number of other organisations,
including the WWF, are supporting the initiative. Initial steps have been undertaken to introduce
the MSC certi?ed Ben Tre sustainable clam production model to different coastal provinces, local
authorities and relevant national organisations in Vietnam and share lessons learnt during the
certi?cation process.
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One of the lessons learnt from the experience of the certi?cation of the Ben Tre clam ?sheries is the
recognition of the role of MSC certi?cation as a tool to help improve the management of ?sheries
sector and enhance sustainable trade. Another key observation is that certi?cation of the Ben Tre
?sheries demonstrates the effectiveness of community based management. Cooperation among
?shermen in the sector and support from stakeholders, including local authorities, clam cooperatives
and the processing and export sector, is considered important to ensuring successful implementation
of the requirements for certi?cation. Such collaborations underpin any future efforts to work towards
certi?cation in other clam ?sheries in the Mekong Delta. In particular, collaboration between different
cooperatives in the Mekong Delta could help to reduce the costs involved in getting MSC certi?cation.
Source: Case study prepared by Oluyemisi Oloruntuyi, Programme Manager, MSC
Certi?cation could also provide new opportunities for attracting capital investment and joint ventures in
developing countries. Some developing countries hope to enhance their chances for certi?cation through
cooperation with others or through joint ventures with ?shing enterprises from developed countries. In South
Africa, for example, efforts for capacity building and stakeholder cooperation led to hake trawl sustainability
certi?cation in April 2004 and March 2010. The main export markets for South African frozen, fresh and
chilled hake are Spain, France, Portugal, Italy, Australia, Germany and the US.
9
Certi?cation enables more direct and stable supply relationships between developing country producers
and developed country buyers. Greater credibility for their products can lead to improved market access.
However, it is important to ensure that suppliers have the expertise to manage contracts and supply the
volumes and stable quality required by buyers (Washington and Ababouch 2011).
There are particular opportunities to exploit the growing demand for frozen ecolabelled products. The
proportion of frozen ?sh grew from 33 per cent of total production for human consumption in 1970 to
reach a record high of 52 per cent in 2010 (FAO 2012a). Developed countries could become a lucrative
market for exports of frozen ecolabelled ?sh and ?sh products (Tsamenyi and Mcllgorm 2010). However,
developing countries need infrastructure including reliable energy supplies and technical capacities.
As discussed in section 3.3.3, many businesses highlight potential risks related to certi?cation. For example,
they are concerned that multiple private labels confuse consumers, leading to potential for fraud, and about
educating consumers on certi?cation when there are still relatively few certi?ed products available on the
market (UNEP 2009b).
These concerns have prompted regulatory authorities in several jurisdictions to take action in order to prevent
abuses and frauds. The regulatory approach to solving this issue has generally been one of establishing
minimum requirements to which eco-labelling schemes should conform, enforced through border controls
and market surveillance measures.
3.4.4 Certi?ed aquaculture and processed aquaculture products
The last 15 years have witnessed an increase in the demand for seafood that has been farmed according
to certi?ed sustainability standards.
By 2015, total value is forecasted to be US$ 1.25 billion (Bergleiter et
al. 2009, as cited in Prein et al. 2010). Demand is coming in particular from European countries such as
France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. The US market is also considered to have a
large potential (USDA 2012).
In the EU, sustainable aquaculture products that meet European standards, for example, are clearly identi?ed
for European consumers (EC 2007, 2009). The EU standard has been de?ned in literature as a consensus
“minimum” standard, as other existing standards are stricter in their requirements (Prein et al. 2012). The
EU regulations represent an opportunity to increase consumer con?dence in certi?ed products, thus fostering
the shift to more sustainable production methods (IFOAM 2010).
9. For further information on capacity building in three southern African countries (Namibia, South Africa and Tanzania), see the UNEP-The
Institute for Security Studies (ISS) project. Available at: http://www.unep.ch/etb/areas/?sh_CS_SouthernAfrica.php. See also: Country
project Southern Africa on Reforming trade and ?sheries policies, re-shaping supply chains and enhancing consumer demand for sus-
tainable ?sheries management, UNEP. Available at: http://www.unep.ch/etb/areas/pdf/Fish%20project%20documents/Project%20
Document%20Southern%20Africa_web.pdf.
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In the speci?c case of organic ?sh products, demand appears to be also noticeable among middle classes
in emerging economies. Sales of organic seafood are growing in new markets where they are seen as a
premium gourmet food, such as in Hong Kong’s premium supermarkets, or through a country’s tourism and
gastronomy sectors as is the case for organic shrimps and oysters in the northeast of Brazil. All in all, the
current low global market penetration of organic seafood translates into an opportunity for the aquaculture
industry (IFOAM 2010). As reported in Box 10, trends in organic aquaculture production show that these
practices are being implemented in several parts of the world.
Box 10. Trends in organic aquaculture production
The most common type of organic aquaculture in China is carp production in polyculture, i.e.
in combination with crabs, shrimps or other local species. There are also certi?ed operations
producing turtles or sea cucumbers.
In other Asian countries, there is an increasing organic production of Black Tiger Shrimp (e.g. Bangladesh,
India, Thailand, and Vietnam), Pangasius cat?sh (e.g. Vietnam) and micro-algae (e.g. India).
In Latin America, there is a strong dominance of organic western white shrimp operations in Brazil,
Equador and Peru.
Source: IFOAM 2010
A large proportion of organically certi?ed aquaculture products come from developing countries where they
are processed and then exported. In 2008, global organic aquaculture production was around 53,500
tonnes with a total market value of US$ 300 million. This was produced by 240 certi?ed operations, of
which 72 were located in China (FiBL et al. 2009).
The critical factor in organic production and conversion, however, appears to be sourcing certi?ed organic
vegetable feedstuff at a reasonable cost and obtaining a supply of certi?ed organic feed (Bergleiter 2011). In
some countries, this is developing into a feed bottleneck and needs to be resolved in order to enable international
trade in organic aquaculture products to continue to ?ourish. One solution is by initiating pilot projects fostering
the production of certi?ed organic manioc, rice, soy and corn as feed ingredients in developing countries.
Within the spectrum of trends in the uptake of broader sustainability criteria, the Best Aquaculture Practices
scheme, for example, reports that in 2012 it had certi?ed 1,004,000 metric tonnes of processed output
and 445,000 metric tonnes of raw output. Excluding seaweed, aquaculture produced about 48 million
metric tonnes in 2010; BAP thus certi?es about 1.6 per cent of processed and 0.9 per cent of raw output.
Global-G.A.P., another major global certi?er, reports to have certi?ed 2 million metric tonnes of traded
produce, but this estimate also includes food safety certi?cation. As a consequence, an estimate of total
certi?ed aquaculture produce would not go beyond ?ve per cent, with signi?cant margins for improvement.
According to research from Prein et al. (2012) and Bergleiter (2011), in fact, the prospects for strongly
expanding this niche market are good. This is especially the case for bivalve shell?sh and seaweed culture
which in general are “no input” systems. The areas where the industry is yet to meet sustainability standards
are mostly related to the recycling or re-use of ropes and other disposable culture materials, and to appropriate
location of farms in areas with the best water quality. Both these issues are increasingly being tackled by
national and international legislation, so that group certi?cation of large areas seems within reach.
Even in aquaculture, however, the implications of sustainability certi?cation for ?sh trade from developing
countries are numerous. FAO (2011) identi?es a signi?cant potential for value addition in private standards,
but highlights the fact that the ?rst concern for developing country producers, processors and exporters
should be to achieve compliance with the regulatory requirements of importing countries.
3.4.5 Sustainable aquarium ?sh trade
The continued development and wider application of aquarium ?sh certi?cation has the potential to develop
the trade in sustainable aquarium ?sh. Findings of empirical studies have indicated a potential for the
continuing development of a green certi?cation scheme within the aquarium ?sh trade (Bergleiter 2011).
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The ornamental fish industry has potential in tropical countries like India. However, to expand trade,
new technologies and policies will have to be developed which will help in attaining a sustainable
industry (Jayalal and Ramachandran 2012). The case of Indonesia is illustrative of the potential
economic and environmental opportunities and challenges that can be achieved by sustainably
managed aquarium fisheries.
Box 11. Trade in aquarium ?sh in Indonesia — use of environmental-
ly-friendly capture techniques
Sustainable ?shing for the trade in aquarium ?sh has become one of the main sources of livelihood
for several villages in Indonesia. Les, in particular, is an important village for marine ornamental ?sh
collection, as the ?sh are exported from here to supply the global aquarium market. The ?shermen
have been collecting ?sh for the last three decades, and stopped using destructive ?shing techniques
in the early 2000s. In particular, ornamental ?sh were threatened by damage to in-shore coral reefs
caused by ?shing practices such as cyanide ?shing, as well as by practices such as prawn trawlers
operating close to reefs. Fishermen now understand the need to use environmentally-friendly capture
techniques, because the amount of pristine reefs diminished drastically to the point where there were
no more ?sh to catch. The ?shermen can now manage their resources more effectively, and are able
to gain ?nancial bene?ts using this approach. They are now going one step further by restoring the
reefs near their village, and can see for themselves how quickly the corals become populated again
with many reef organisms.
Sources: Lini 2012, UNEP 2011a, Wicaksono et al.2001
3.4.6 Marine and coastal tourism
The tourism sector offers great potential for trade opportunities. The Tourism chapter of this report presents
the opportunities related to marine and coastal tourism, and recreational activities.
3.5 Enabling conditions
This section outlines policy options that governments may use to harness the trade opportunities discussed
in this chapter. In line with the voluntary nature of green economy policies and the recognition that national
circumstances are to be assessed on a case-by-case basis, the mix of policy tools for harnessing sustainable
trade opportunities in the ?sheries sector, and the timeframes for their implementation, vary from one country
to another. Moreover, a country’s transition strategy may be de?ned in relation to government decisions
at the most senior level, or gradually, from initiatives at lower levels by ministries and local government
authorities, as well as in response to initiatives by the private sector.
3.5.1 Public investment and spending
• Identify certi?cation and labelling potential. The assessment of export opportunities in wild-
capture ?sh and aquaculture includes reviewing existing production processes to identify those
that are already close to meeting the criteria for certi?cation, and analysing the capability and
capacity to produce new products that could be certi?ed. Support for, in particular, small-scale
?sheries to participate in certi?cation schemes and enter international markets is essential.
• Raise industry and consumer awareness. Raising awareness on the current sustainability of
wild-capture ?sheries and aquaculture, as well as on available approaches for sustainable
consumption, is a key element for the transition to a greener economy. Potential target groups
include middle-income consumers, retail chains, and children in primary and secondary school
in both developed and developing countries.
• Provide assistance to ?sheries and aquaculture farms that wish to adapt their practices in
order to ful?l criteria of sustainability and/or organic standards. Besides bene?tting from
the provision of technical assistance, ?shermen and ?sh farmers often need to make investments
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in sustainability that may be burdensome for smallholders. Support from governments and
processing and/or exporting partners could help cover costs.
• Support development and investment in environmentally sound technologies. In order to make
the ?shing industry more environmentally friendly and at the same time more competitive on
international markets, greater investments in low impact, fuel-ef?cient ?shing methods, reduced
energy use and greener refrigeration technologies, and improved waste management in ?sh
handling, processing and transportation are needed. In addition, investments should aim at
raising ?sheries management standards to internationally agreed levels. This would include using
an ecosystem-based approach for the management of ?sh resources (UNEP and GPA 2006).
• Invest further in R&D and resources in sustainable aquaculture, including small-scale
aquaculture. With the rapid pace of technology development and production increase in
aquaculture, it is important that resources are invested into developing sustainable aquaculture
practices (Asche 2011, UN 2002), including innovative multi-trophic aquaculture production
systems using environmentally friendly feeds and ensuring that legislation protects ecosystems
and their services, safeguarding the environment and livelihoods.
• Ensure responsible aquarium trade. It is important to engage with local communities in order
to guarantee environmentally friendly harvesting methods by, for example, minimising stress
to the ?sh during capture. Exporters should also ensure that the ?sh are transported safely in
order to reduce mortality rates. The further development of a green certi?cation scheme that
takes into account the small-scale nature of ornamental ?shing could be explored. At the same
time, more must be done to protect ornamental ?sh from pollution and other harmful effects
caused by other activities and industries.
3.5.2 Market-based instruments
• Reform ?scal policies and gradually eliminate harmful subsidies. Introducing ?scal incentives
for proper management – which may include restricting access to ?shing grounds through the
imposition of levies on catches – can be effective in both generating revenue for the country
whose ?shing stocks are being exploited and providing an incentive to reduce ?shing efforts.
Furthermore, the elimination. The elimination of harmful subsidies can fundamentally change
incentives and unleash public ?nancial resources to support sustainable ?sheries management
systems, a better scienti?c understanding of the oceans, compensation and re-training of workers,
vessel buyback programmes, and provision of social security. However, these measures need
to be coupled with strong enforcement mechanisms against IUU, in order to avoid creating
incentives to under-declare catches and engage in black market trading.
• Promote sustainability practices by using traceability methods. Traceability methods should
ensure that socio-economic and environmental information on the production process travels
with the products from the net to the shelves. The methods should allow for relatively low-tech
implementation to enable SME participation (UNEP 2009b).
3.5.3 National regulatory frameworks
• Establish a functioning ?sheries management system. The essential elements of a ?sheries
management system should be put in place for every ?shery under exploitation. These
elements may include science-based stock assessments, measures such as quotas and size
limits, licences and other forms of regulated access to ?sheries, and a serious programme to
?ght IUU ?shing activities.
• Involve local communities in the management of ?sh resources. Proponents of regulatory
initiatives aimed at managing ?sh resources, particularly in coastal waters, should consult with
and take advantage of local communities’ expertise. Community-based ?sheries management
presents bene?ts both in terms of sustainable off-take and community gains.
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3.5.4 International frameworks
• Eliminate harmful subsidies. The use of subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and
over?shing should be gradually eliminated, whether at the multilateral level, e.g. in the context of
the WTO Doha Round or other international agreements, or through other forms of cooperation,
including at the regional level. While potential price distortions caused by these subsidies are
already regulated under existing WTO rules, their negative effects on productivity, sustainability
and livelihoods are not yet covered by international rules (UNEP 2011b, Meliado 2012).
• Harmonise standards or establish equivalencies. International standards and labelling schemes
provide an opportunity to document and promote good practices. International cooperation
and development aid should aim at enabling producers to meet standards in export markets,
while applying equivalent standards also for local production and consumption. To contribute
to predictability and potential reduction of trade-related costs for developing countries,
equivalencies between standards, including at the regional level, should be established.
• Strengthen regional ?sheries management organisations (RFMOs). RFMOs are the primary
bodies responsible for the sustainable management of shared marine resources. Contracting
parties work together to put in place and implement management and control measures that
allow the achievement of this objective. However, there is scope for improving the effective
functioning of RFMOs, in particular through further funding, better science, more compliance
and stronger governance. As highlighted by a recent UN General Assembly Resolution on
Sustainable Fisheries, systematically conducted performance reviews are an essential tool in
that process (UNGA 2012).
• Implement international law on sustainable ?sheries. Countries should fully implement
international laws and guidelines on ?sheries including the 1995 Agreement for the
Implementation of the Provisions of the UN Fish Stocks Agreement, the 1993 FAO Compliance
Agreement, the 2009 FAO Port State Measures Agreement, the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries, and the FAO International Plans of Action and technical guidelines (UN
2012, paragraph 169). In addition, CITES Parties should ensure effective implementation of
the Convention and include species in the Appendices in accordance with relevant scienti?c
and trade criteria. The granting of ?shing rights to foreign ?shing ?eets should also be in line
with the relevant provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and
subsequent instruments.
• Strengthen transparency requirements of access agreements. When access to ?sh resources
is granted through government-to-government or business-to-government access agreements,
transparency is a key element for achieving sustainable trade. This facilitates the participation
of national, regional and international stakeholders in the decision-making process related to
the transfer of ?shing rights which often have substantial impacts on resources. (Martin et al.
2001). In addition, transparency is bene?cial to all parties involved, as it helps the licensee to
become aware of other licenses granted for the same ?shery, and the host country to establish
a coherent access policy (Mbithi Mwikya 2006). Transparency may also help to determine the
value of ?sh resources (UNEP 2008).
• Eliminate IUU ?shing. Develop and implement national and regional action plans in accordance
with the FAO’s international plan of action to combat IUU ?shing, identifying vessels engaged in
IUU ?shing and depriving offenders of pro?ts accruing from IUU ?shing. Cooperate with developing
countries to systematically identify needs and build capacity, including support for monitoring,
control, surveillance, compliance and enforcement systems (UN 2012, paragraph 170).
3.5.5 Enhancing dialogue and capacity building
• Enable exporters to meet voluntary standards and legal requirements in export markets.
Capacity building and international cooperation between private and public actors can help
developing country ?sheries understand the content of complex standards and regulations in
order to identify market potential and adapt their technologies accordingly. To scale up the
impact and ensure that more ?sheries can bene?t from the growing market preference for
sustainably produced seafood, there is a need for support and collaboration from the diverse
range of stakeholders involved in the ?sheries sector. Baseline studies can help to identify gaps
in performance of ?sheries with respect to certi?cation standards.
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• Bridge science, policy and communication. Strengthening of science-policy-communication
interfaces can reinforce multi-scale linkages from local to international actors. Close
collaboration is needed between researchers, ?sheries managers, policy makers, stakeholders
and communicators in order to identify gaps and raise environmental performance to ensure
sustainable management of ?sheries. The role of the government is particularly important as
key requirements in sustainability standards relate to ?shery governance and management.
Awareness and training for ?shers and other stakeholders, including the private sector, are
crucial to meet sustainability requirements for certi?cation and to facilitate the process of formal
engagement in certi?cation programmes.
• Support capacity building in order to enhance sustainable export capabilities. Enterprises
could be strengthened to build supply-side capacities in order to meet the sustainability and
quality requirements of major markets, at all stages of supply chains, but particularly at the
production level. Fish processing capacities in developing countries could also be improved.
Furthermore, compliance with standards in export markets for ?sheries requires well-developed
infrastructure, including ?sh landing centres, processing facilities, refrigeration capacities and
ef?cient transportation (UNEP 2012b).
This chapter illustrates the trends, challenges and opportunities at the intersection of increased pressure
on limited ?sheries resources, trade, and the transition to a green economy. As highlighted in the Rio+20
Outcome Document, achieving sustainable management of ?sheries resources and sustainable trade in ?sh
and ?sh products are critical development goals. This chapter also describes opportunities in sustainable
management and sustainability certi?cation for wild-capture ?sheries and aquaculture, as well as in
sustainability practices for aquarium ?sh. The Tourism chapter also highlights how the non-consumptive
usage of coastal and marine environments for recreational and tourism services provides opportunities for
sustainable development.
However, in order for developing countries to be able to fully participate in these opportunities, many
challenges need to be overcome. Meeting standards in export markets remains problematic for producers
and economic operators in developing countries. The cost and know-how needed for achieving compliance
with certi?cation requirements can act as a barrier for more sustainable trade. In addition, the existence of a
functioning and sustainable ?sheries management system depends heavily upon capital investments and R&D,
which in turn depend on the availability of human and ?nancial resources. Phasing out harmful subsidies and
eliminating IUU ?shing activities would contribute to ensuring sustainable trade, but this can happen only by
focusing efforts and establishing clear priorities at the national, regional and international levels.
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3.6 Further resources
3.6.1 Websites for additional information
Green Economy Report’s chapter on Fisheries:
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/3.0_Fisheries.pdf
UNEP’s work on ?sheries subsidies:
http://www.unep.ch/etb/areas/?sherySub.php
Certi?cation and Sustainable Fisheries (UNEP 2009):
http://www.unep.ch/etb/publications/FS%20certi?cation%20study%202009/UNEP%20Certi?cation.pdf
Governing Marine Protected Areas Getting the Balance Right (UNEP, 2011):
http://www.unep.org/ecosystemmanagement/Portals/7/governing-mpas-?nal-technical-report-web-res.pdf
GRID-Arendal:
http://www.grida.no/
The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC):
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/
Green Economy in a Blue World:
http://unep.org/pdf/green_economy_blue.pdf
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
http://www.teebweb.org/
Statistics and information on Fisheries and Aquaculture:
http://www.fao.org/?shery/statistics/en
FAO Globe?sh:
http://www.globe?sh.org/homepage.html
Fisheries policies and WTO:
http://www.fao.org/?shery/topic/13275/en
Information on aquaculture standards:
http://151.1.154.86/GfcmWebSite/SAC/SCESS/12/GFCM-Aquaculture-Certi?cation-DRAFT.pdf
Piaba Project:
http://opefe.com/piaba.html
UNEP-WCMC. Monitoring of International Trade in Ornamental Fish:
http://www.unep- wcmc.org/medial ibrar y/2011/11/02/5fbf9a43/Monitoring%20of%20
international%20trade%20in%20ornamental%20?sh%20-%20Consultation%20Paper.pdf
Sustainable Aquarium Industry Association:
http://www.saia-online.eu/
Project for Ecosystem Services (ProEcoServ):
http://www.proecoserv.org/
Seahorse Project:
http://seahorse.?sheries.ubc.ca/
WTO ?sheries subsidies negotiations:
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/?sh_e/?sh_e.htm
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