Description
Positive Psychological Capital is defined as the positive and developmental state of an individual as characterized by high self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resiliency.
Ethnic Identity and Job Attribute Preferences: The Role of Collectivism and Psychological Capital
Abstract The globalization of the workforce has resulted in the need to recruit talent from an increasingly diverse labor market. Understanding how ethnicity may drive individual preferences regarding two important types of job attributes is of value in knowing how to attract potential employees from different ethnic backgrounds. Using a sample of 380 college students from the Midwest and Southeastern region, the authors examined the relationship between ethnic identity, job attributes, collectivism/individualism, and psychological capital. Using structural equation modeling, they found that ethnical identity is more strongly related to the competence and growth aspect of job attribute preferences than status and independence. Next, they demonstrated that collectivism and psychological capital mediate the relationship between ethnic identity and the competence and growth aspect. These promising results suggest that organizational efforts to attract a diverse workforce may benefit from considering the aspects of work that would appeal to different ethnic groups. Keywords: diversity, human resource management, positive organizational behavior
Diversity is a critical consideration as organizations recruit and select for talent (Avery & McKay 2006; Bell, 2011). The existence of an increasingly diverse labor and the demonstrated positive benefits associated diverse workforce have increased the focus on diversity for organizational leaders (Hall & Parker, 1993; McKay & Davis, 2008; R. R. Thomas, 1990). Research has positive relationships between work group diverand worker attitudes (Griffith & Hebl, 2002), affeccommitment and turnover intentions (King, Hebl, George, & Matusik, 2006), and overall organizational performance (Richard, 2000). Recognizing the importance of work place diversity, researchers have attempted to identify and examine recruitment strategies that increase organizational appeal more diverse applicant pools (K. M. Thomas & Wise, Young & Place, 1997). For instance, K. M. Thomas Wise (1999) suggest that compared with White males, minorities and females value different work characteristics when considering recruitment interests. Specifically, females tend to place more emphasis on work-family balance, whereas males tend to value high starting salary (Freeman, 2003). Important for this article, Kim and Gelfand (2003) found that ethnic identity
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influences the perception of organizational recruitment practices. Ethnic identity refers to individual self-concept de- force rived from the salience of ethnic group membership with a (Phinney, 1996). Despite its reported significance, little attention has been given to the potential association between ethnic identity and job attractiveness (Avery &found McKay, 2006; Ployhart, 2006). Moreover, research sug- sity gests that the mechanisms that might influence the rela- tive tionship of ethnic identity and job attractiveness should be examined (Avery, McKay, Wilson, & Tonidandel, 2007; McKay, Avery, & Morris, 2008). Job attractiveness is rooted in the actual and perceived attributes that jobs possess (Tomkiewicz & Johnson, 1997). Job attributes are elements, qualities, and to outcomes of work tasks that influence person-job at- 1999; tachment (Konrad, Ritchie, Lieb, & Corrigall, 2000). and Perceptions of job attributes have been found to affect organizational attractiveness (Turban, Forret, & Hendrickson, 1998), job expectations (Gomez, 2003), and job acceptance (Turban, Eyring, & Campion, 1993). Additionally, racial and ethnic differences in preferences for job attributes have been reported (Gushue, 2006; Tomkiewicz & Adyemi-Bello, 2000). Aber, 2006; Haslam, Oakes, Turner, & McGarthy, 1995; Phinney, 1991; Roberts et al., 1999). Psychological capital encompasses state-like constructs (hope, confidence, optimism, and resilience) that can in- fluence individual selfperceptions and positive psycho- logical development (Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Nor- man, 2007). However, no research has addressed the possible role that an individual's level of psychological capital may play in the relationship of ethnic identity and job attribute preference. In this article, we examine how ethnic identity relates to different aspects of job attribute preferences, partic- ularly competence and growth versus status and in- dependence aspects, and the role of collectivism and individualism in that relationship. The awareness of dif- fering job attribute preferences among diverse groups is of vital importance since individual satisfaction and performance tend to
The role of collectivism/individualism within the ethnic identity and job preference literatures has receive some attention (Gomez, 2003; Kalleberg & Reve, 1993; Marin & Triandis, 1985; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). The collectivist/individualist framework has been associated with individual orientation to and preference for particular work structures (Moorman &Blakely, 1995). However, the possible mediating role of collectivism/individualism in the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences has not been explored. Finally, ethnic identity has been connected to sev- eral important psychological characteristics such as self- esteem and psychological processes of self-categori- zation and inout group comparative context (French, Seidman, Allen, &
increase when there is agreement between individual characteristics and work tasks (Hol- land, 1997). In addition, since ethnic identity has been portrayed as having an important psychological impact (Ferdman, 1995), we look at the role that psychological capital (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007) plays in me- diating the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences. The models reflecting these rela- tionships are found in Figures 1 and 2. The article will be organized as follows. First, we will look at the ethnic identity construct as proposed by Phinney (1990, 1992) and examine the theoretical rela- tionship between ethnic identity and job attribute pref- erences. We will then introduce individualism-collec- tivism and psychological capital and investigate their mediating role in the relationship between ethnic iden- tity and job attribute preference.
Figure 1. Standardized path coefficient comparison
Review of the Literature and Hypotheses Ethnic Identity and Job Attribute Preferences
Phinney (1990) states that ethnic identity is of crucial importance for the psychological functioning and
self-concept of ethnic group members, especially for those who live in societies where their culture is underrepresented and poorly understood (see also Gurin &Epps, 1975; Maldonado, 1975). Ethnic identity is often described within the framework of social identity. So- cial identity refers to "that part of an individual's self- concept which derives from his knowledge of his mem- bership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that mem- bership" (Tajfel, 1981, p. 255). From this perspective, ethnic identity is seen as embedded within the concept of social and group identity theories (Phinney, 1990; for a review of social identity theory, see Brown, 2000). Eth- nic identity represents a sense of self and also influences individual behavior (Phinney, 1990, 1992). This sense of self is shared with others belonging to the same group and contributes to personal wellbeing and positive self- attitude (Phinney & Ong, 2007). People, in general, differ in the way they regard their ethnic categories as well as the groups to which they belong (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). The level of identifica- tion with the ethnic group and the corresponding level of commitment to a particular ethnic identity are de- termined by the perceived value of group membership and the level of selfconcept and self-regard that one gains from that membership (Grossman, Wirt, & Da- vids, 1985; Phinney & Ong, 2007; White & Burke, 1987). Therefore, rather than treating ethnic identity as a cat- egorical variable, it should be considered as a psycho- logical variable whose meaningfulness is determined by its salience (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). Specifically, the more salient the ethnic identity, the more impact it will have on personal behaviors and preferences (Phinney, 1996). Moreover, Phinney (1990) and Phinney and Ong (2007) suggest that ethnic identity is constructed over time through the exploration of one's identity and may or may not culminate in a strong commitment to that iden- tity. In other words, whether individual ethnicity influ- ences behaviors and preferences depends not only on the ethnic membership category but also on the salience of and commitment to the ethnic identity.
Figure 2. Structural equation modeling results (standardized coefficients)
Research suggests that salient group identities such as ethnic identity may shape the way employees view their employment experiences and preferences (Brenner, Blazini, & Greenhaus, 1988). For example, Linnehan, Konrad, Reitman, Greenhalgh, and London (2003) found that Asian Americans who identify strongly with their ethnic groups will tend to place greater value on organizational efforts to increase diversity than those who do not. In a study of Hispanic MBAs, Gomez (2003) found that those with higher acculturation (lower sa- liency of ethnic identity) preferred task-related rather than contextual job attributes. Finally, in the situation of job attraction, Kim and Gelfand (2003) found that ethnic identity moderates the relationship between race and success of recruitment practices. Building on the previous research arguments, we propose that individuals whose ethnic identity is particularly salient will value different job attributes than those whose ethnic identity is not salient. The following paragraphs introduce categories of job attributes and examine this proposal in more detail. Job attribute preference, also termed work values, refers to the degree to which people look for different qualities from their work (Beutell & Brenner, 1986; Konrad et al., 2000; Rowe & Snizek, 1995). Examples of these job qualities in- clude valued rewards, working environment, the oppor- tunity for interaction with others, autonomy, and op- portunity for advancement (Konrad et al., 2000). In this article, we adopt Meyer, Irving, and Allen's (1998) classi- fication of job attribute preferences: comfort and security, competence and growth, and status and independence. We specifically focus on the components of competence and growth and of status and independence as two as- pects that might be different for diverse groups. Competence and growth encompasses job qualities such as affiliation, opportunity for interaction and so- cial awareness. These attributes can be broadly seen as opportunities for establishing and maintaining numer- ous personal friendships (Williams & Best, 1990) or as
a pursuit for social approval (Stein & Bailey, 1973). This attribute is often connected to jobs that offer opportuni- ties to make friends and to work with people (Konrad et al., 2000). In addition, Meyer et al. (1998) argued that this aspect also has a creative component and those who tend to value creativity and variety in their jobs might be more strongly drawn to this aspect. On the other hand, the status and independence component deals mainly with opportunity for autonomy in one's work, high in- come, and a preference for central and prestigious po- sitions that require supervising others rather than in- teracting with others. Williams and Best (1990) define autonomy as an opportunity to act independently and suggest that this aspect will be preferred by those who desire freedom and autonomy in the job. The authors also linked exhibition to autonomy and portrayed it as a desire for attention and recognition of others. This aspect of job attributes is often preferred by those looking for recognition and independence in their work. Ethnic identity, as a facet of social identity, in particu- lar may have a strong impact on individual job attribute preferences (Brenner et al., 1988; Phinney, 1990; Phinney & Ong, 2007). Ethnic identity is developed over time and through continuous exploration of one's identity, environment, and various group memberships (French et al., 2006; Phinney, 1989). More specifically, Phinney (1989) suggested that ethnic identity develops through three stages that involve the actual perception of one's eth- nic identity, then exploration of ethnic identity, and fi- nally achievement of degrees of ethnic identity salience. This exploration is particularly important, as it includes continuous interaction and negotiation of meaning with others from within and outside the ethnic group and of- ten involves a degree of "social creativity" in which the meanings associated with that identity are redefined in a new and innovative manner (French et al., 2006). In this study, we argue that the process of creativity and continuous interaction with others driven by the ex- ploration of one's ethnicity (French et al., 2006, Phinney, Therefore, we suggest that the following: Hypothesis 1: Ethnic identity will be positively related with job attribute preferences such that high eth- nic identity will be more strongly related to com- petence and growth rather than to status and independence
1989) is particularly relevant in influencing job preferences. One key argument here is that the exploration of one's ethnic identity through interaction with others re- sults in the emergence of multiple perspectives and "ka- leidoscope thinking (twisting reality into new patterns and rearranging the pieces to create a new reality)" (McLeod, Lobel & Cox, 1996, p. 250) in diverse individu- als influencing them to search for creativity, variety and innovativeness in their jobs. In addition, the continuous interaction with other members of their ethnic group and generally strong ethnic identification (French et al., 2006; Gomez, 2003; Phinney, 1990) may influence those with salient ethnic identity to search for jobs that pro- vide opportunities for making friends and working with people. Specifically, their preference may demonstrate greater value on status and growth attributes (opportu- nity for interaction, creativity and variety) in their jobs rather than status and independence attributes (auton- omy, opportunity for advancement to prestigious posi- tions, or centrality in the organization).
The Role of Collectivism in the Ethnic Identity-Job Attribute Preference Relationship
Individualism and collectivism have been a topic of vigorous debate in the research literature (Cox, Lobel, &McLeod, 1991; Hofstede, 1980; Gomez, 2003; Kalleberg & Reve, 1993; Marin & Triandis, 1985; Oyserman et al., 2002). Here we define individualism as a focus on the personal characteristic of an individual (goals, distinc- tiveness, and control) and disregard for interpersonal re- lationship and
group memberships (Hsu, 1983; Shweder & Bourne, 1982; Triandis, 1995). In general, people with a strong individualistic orientation place greater value on autonomy, independence, and initiative (Hofstede, 1980). Collectivism, on the other hand, is defined as "a social way of being, oriented toward in-groups and away from out groups" (Oyserman et al., 2002, p. 5). In contrast to individualism, it may include several dif- ferent kinds and levels of referent groups (e.g., family, friends, ethnic and other groups; Hui, 1988). Therefore, individuals with a strong collectivistic orientation tend to place greater value on group unity and personalized relationships (Triandis, 1995). The cognitive mechanism of ethnic identity and individualism-collectivism appear to be related (Gomez, 2003; Oyserman et al., 2002). Through the exploration of ethnicity over time, those who highly identify with their
ethnic group will be more mindful of others and their culture. More specifically, Sotomayor (1977) argues that in contrast to race, which only concerns physical characteristics, ethnic identity contains feeling of belonging and connection with group members on the basis of cul- ture, origin, beliefs, values, or specific practices. There- fore, those with salient ethnic identity are presented as more ingroup oriented. This is in line with Hofst- ede (1980) who found that Latin American minorities in the United States who generally identify strongly with their ethnic groups have greater collectivist values then their European American counterparts. Furthermore, re- search in general has supported the notion that ethnic groups are more cooperative then Anglo groups (Cox et al., 1991; Marin & Triandis, 1985; Oyserman et al., 2002; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988). Therefore, we argue that ethnic identity is positively re- lated to collectivism in individuals. Several studies have found that individualistic and collectivistic cultures have differing preferences for var- ious organizational practices (Bernardin & Russell, 1998; GomezMejia & Welbourne, 1991; Sekaran & Snodgrass, 1986). For example, Robert and Wasti (2002) suggest that individualistic societies emphasize the development of a unique identity and, correspondingly, a preference for autonomy and satisfaction of personal goals and needs. The authors contrast this with predominately collectiv- istic cultures where group membership defines one's identity, with a corresponding high need to remain part of the collective and thus subordinate personal goals to goals of the salient group (Robert & Wasti, 2002; Trian- dis, 1995). Furthermore, studies have found that individuals with a collectivistic focus tend to value task interdepen- dence, task variety and interpersonal relationships at work more than task significance, autonomy or personal recognition (Gomez, 2003; Kalleberg & Reve, 1993). Fur- thermore, research findings in general support the no- tion that individuals with collectivist traditions tend to be more cooperative and work better in groups com- pared to those with individualistic traditions (Cox et al., 1991; Earley, 1993; Moorman & Blakely, 1995). Thus, we propose the following: Hypothesis 2: The relationship between ethnic identity and the competence and growth aspect of job attributes will be mediated by collectivism.
Psychological Capital, Ethnic Identity, and Job Attribute Preferences
The emergence of positive organizational behavior has received significant theoretical attention in both the academic and practitioner literatures (Luthans, 2002a, 2002b; Luthans & Youssef, 2007). Positive organizational human behavior and human capital development in organizations (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007). Luthans (2002b) defines positive organizational behavior as "the study and application of positively oriented human re-
behavior draws on positive psychology literature (Peterson, 2006; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Snyder & Lopez, 2002) and encompasses a positive approach to the study of
source strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement" (p. 59). Through the positive approach to organizational behavior, Luthans and colleagues (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007) have introduced and empirically examined the construct of psychological capital. Psychological capital is identified as
an individual's positive psychological state of development and is characterized by: (1) hav- ing confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challeng- ing tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (op- timism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when neces- sary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and ad- versity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success. (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007, p. 3)
Psychological capital is thus a state-like characteristic that is relatively malleable and open to development. It involves cognitive processes that serve to influence individual behavior and attitudes toward work tasks. It has been found to relate to performance, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors, among other outcomes (Avey, Luthans,& Youssef, 2010; Luthans, Avo- lio, et al., 2007). A direct relationship between ethnic identity and psychological capital has not been established in the extant literature. However, research has argued that through the history of interactions and exploration of one's identity, person's psychological capacities develop as they are faced with obstacles and misunderstand- ings along the way (French et al., 2006). More specifi- cally, Phinney (1989) has argued that the development process and achievement of highly salient ethnic iden- tity drive individuals to derive positive self-attitudes. Furthermore, several authors identified the positive re- lationship between ethnic identity and other individual positive psychological characteristics, some of which are components of the higher order psychological capital construct. Higher ethnic identity has been theoretically and methodologically associated with selfesteem, opti- mism (psychological capital construct), sense of mastery (psychological capital confidence and hope), and predis- positions for self-actualization (Parham & Helms, 1985; Phinney, 1991; Roberts et al., 1999). Ethnic identity has
also been identified as having an impact on the overall well-being of the individual (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001; Phin- ney & Ong, 2007). Whereas authors pursuing the positive approach to organizational behavior have recognized previous "pos- itive research" (e.g., motivation, organizational citizen- ship behaviors, etc.), Avey et al. (2010) argue that the context in which positivity research is now taking place plays a significant role in the conceptualization of this new approach. Specifically, the authors argued that both the volatile organizational context and changing expec- tations and preferences of employees regarding work tasks and work outcomes (greater preference for life- long development, opportunity for interactions) have opened new opportunities for the positive approach to organizational behavior. Individual psychological ca- pacities may in fact influence the value that employees in general, and minority/ethnic groups in particular, place on different job attributes. More specifically, em- ployees with higher levels of psychological capital may not just perform better (Luthans et al., 2007) but proac- tively search for continuous growth, creativity, and vari- ety in their jobs (Sweetman, Luthans, Avey, & Luthans, 2010). Building on the research on psychological capital and ethnic identity, we propose that the following: Hypothesis 3: The relationship between ethnic identity and the competence and growth aspect of job attributes will be mediated by individual psychological capital.
Method Procedures
Participants were asked to complete a web-based survey issued by the researchers' institution. Through a se- cure URL that was sent by e-mail, participants were able to access a web page that contained a cover letter with instructions, demographic questions, and measures for ethnic identity, individualism-collectivism, psycholog- ical capital, and job attribute preferences. Participants were recruited directly by their class instructors. Partic- ipation was voluntary. Measures were separated so that each page contained one measure.
Participants
Questionnaires were sent to 636 undergraduate college students from 13 colleges and universities in Southwestern and Midwestern United States. A total of 404 participants responded, resulting in a 63.5% response rate. Usable data were obtained from 380 participants. The diversity was as follows: White/Caucasian ( n = 149), Black/African American (n = 189), Asian American (n = 19), Hispanic (n = 5), Native American (n = 2), and other specifically, we build on the work of Phinney (1989, 1999, 2007), French et al. (2006), and others (Phinney & Ong, 2007; White & Burke, 1987; Yip & Fuligni, 2002), who ar-
(n = 16). In accord with our discussion above, we have included participants of all races into our analysis. More
gue that ethnic identity should be considered as a psychological variable whose meaningfulness is determined by its salience. Therefore, rather than separating the sam- ple into categories based on race, we evaluate the level of ethnic identity per se, while controlling for race (White versus other) in our model. Demographics for this group are as follows: age 19 to 23 (n = 279), 24 to 27 (n = 68), 28 to 32 (n = 16), 33 and older (n = 17). There were 150 men and 228 females (with 2 missing). Finally, students repre- sented a wide variety of academic disciplines, geograph- ical locations, and career interest.
Measures
Ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was measured using an adapted version of Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Eth- nic Identity Measure. This measure represented the two factors, exploration and commitment (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Because the original measure was developed in 1992, we have conducted confirmatory factor analysis to assess the validity of the measurement. Correspond- ingly, three items were dropped for insufficient load- ing. The preferred scoring is to use the mean of the to- tal items for an overall score (Roberts et al., 1999). In accordance with the literature, we used a 4-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree (Phinney, 1992). Sample items included "I feel a strong attachment toward my racial/ethnic group" and "I have a lot of pride in my racial/ethnic group". The reliability coeffi- cient for the ethnic identity measure was .90. Collectivism. Collectivism was measured using an adapted version of Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, and Gelfand (1995) Individualism-Collectivism Scale. The original measure consists of four subscales measuring dimensions of collectivism and individualism. In this ar- ticle, we used the horizontal collectivism scale to access the collectivism orientation of the participants. Con- sistent with extant literature, we used a 9-point Likert- type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 9 (strongly agree; Singelis et al., 1995). Sample items included "It is important for me to maintain harmony within my group" and "The well-being of my co-workers is impor- tant to me". The reliability coefficient for the Collectiv- ism Scale in this study was .74. Psychological capital. Psychological capital was assessed using a 12-item scale developed by Luthans, Youssef, et al. (2007). The psychological capital measure represents a higher order construct consisting of four subdimen- sions: self-efficacy, resilience, optimism, and hope. Representative items from this scale include the following: efficacy, "I feel confident helping to set targets/goals in my work area"; resilience, "I usually take stressful
things at work in stride"; optimism, "when things are uncertain for me at work, I usually expect the best"; and hope, "If I should find myself in a jam at work, I could think of many ways to get out of it." The instrument uses 6-point Likert-type response scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). Cronbach's al- pha coefficient was .91, and thus consistent with prior reliabilities (e.g., Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008). Job attribute preferences. Job attribute preferences were measured using the adapted Meyer et al. (1998) scale. The scale identifies three sub dimensions: Comfort and Security (Comfort), Competence and Growth (Com- petence), and Status and Independence (Status). In our study, we focused on the status and independence as- pect and the competence and growth aspect. Because the original measure was developed in 1998, we have conducted confirmatory factor analysis to assess the va- lidity of the measurement. Correspondingly, only items with appropriate loadings were kept. Participants rated the importance of job attributes on a 5-point scale rang- ing from not important to very important. Sample ques- tions included the following: "requires working on problems of central importance to the organization" for the status and independence aspect and "encourages continued development of knowledge and skills" for competence and growth aspect. In our study, the coef- ficient alphas for two subdimensions are consistent with those reported in previous studies: .74 for competence and growth and .71 for status and independence. Control variables. In this study, we control for gender, race, and employment status for various analyses. Pre- vious research suggests that there is a relationship be- tween gender and job attributes preferences as well as race and job attributes preferences (Gushue, 2006; Kon- rad et al., 2000; Tomkiewicz & Adeyemi-Bello, 2000). Race was specifically included to assess whether ethnic identity is related to job attribute preferences above and beyond the race category.
Results
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics, correlations, and internal reliabilities for the variables. There are significant correlations between ethnic identity and collectivism (r = .159, p< .01), psychological capital (r = .293, p< .01), and job attribute preferences ( r = .283, p<.01, for competence and growth; r = .192, p< .01, for sta- tus and independence). Structural equation modeling was used to test the model and hypothesis because it adjusts Type I error rates and statistical power most appropriately (Mack- innon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002). To test Hypothesis 1, standardized coefficients were ob- tained, using structural equation modeling. The hypoth- esized model demonstrates acceptable fit to the data (?2 = 445.787, degrees of freedom [df] = 162, p< .01, com- parative fit index [CFI] = .900, root mean square error
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Mean 1. Gender 2. Race 3. Ethnic identity 4. Collectivism 5. Psychological capital 6. Competence and growth 7. Status and independence 0.603 0.610 3.21 7.10 4.83 4.24 3.75 SD 0.490 0.488 0.628 1.062 0.765 0.554 0.675 1 — .142** .195** .016 -.077 .152* -.004 2 — .488** .159* .293** .283** .192** 3 4 5 6 7
(.90) .330** .378** .408** .243**
(.74) .531** .511** .457**
(.91) .593** .411**
(.74) .626**
(.71)
N = 363-380; internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) on diagonal. * p< .05 ; ** p< .01
Table 2. Measurement Model Fit
?2
Four-factor model Three-factor model 858.029 1266.132
??2 408.103**
df 454 461
CFI .917 .835
RMSEA .051 .071
SRMR .052 .063
df = degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized mean square residual.
Table 3. Unstandardized Parameter Estimates, Standardized Parameter Estimates, and Significance Levels Pathways Unstandardized .631 .440 .090 .322 .173 SE .132 .089 .053 .064 .057 Standardized .420 .335 .106 .498 .307 p <.001 <.001 .089 .001 .001 Ethnic identity? Psychological capital Ethnic identity? Collectivism Ethnic identity? Competence and growth Psychological capital? Competence and growth Collectivism? Competence and growth
of approximation [RMSEA] = .07, standardized mean square residual [SRMR] = .05) based on Hu and Bentler's (1999) recommended cutoff criteria. Because different scales were used to measure competence and growth and status and independence, it is not appropriate to di- rectly compare the path coefficients. Thus, standardized parameters for path coefficients for each path were es- timated. Figure 1 presents the standardized path coeffi- cients. As hypothesized, the links between ethnic identity and participants' job attribute preference of competence and growth were positive and significant ( ? = .234, p<.01). However, there is not a statistically significant link between ethnic identity and status and independence (?= .084, p> .05). The difference of the strength between the path coefficients is statistically significant (p< .05). There- fore, Hypothesis 1 was supported. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were tested using structural equation modeling. The measurement model, which examines the relationships between the measured vari- ables and the latent variables, was initially examined.
The measurement model demonstrates an acceptable fit to the data (?2 = 858.029, df = 454, p< .01, CFI = .917, RMSEA = .051, SRMR = .052) as shown in Table 2. As an alternative, a three-factor model, which combines the two mediating latent variables, collectivism and psycho- logical capital, was examined and the model fit was not acceptable. Next, the hypothesized structural model was exam- ined to test the mediating effect of psychological capi- tal and collectivism on the relationship between eth- nic identity and competence and growth aspect. The hypothesized model has a good fit to the data ( ?2 = 1019.697, df = 510,p< .01, CFI = .900, RMSEA = .054, SRMR = .053). The unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates are summarized in Table 3. The di- rect path from ethnic identity to competence and growth aspect is not significant (? = .106, p> .05), indicating full mediation of psychological capital and collectivism. The results of the structural equation modeling are shown in Figure 2. Therefore, Hypotheses 2 and 3 are supported.
Discussion
The importance of diversity for organizations grows significantly with the increase of diversity within la- bor and
consumer markets and the demonstrated bene- fits of a diverse workforce (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1990; Griffith & Hebl, 2002; Murnighan & Conlon, 1991). Therefore, it is critical to determine what constitutes effective diversity management and what practices organizations should pursue in satisfying their human capi- tal needs. In this article, we have provided a model that supports the existence of a significant relationship be- tween ethnic identity and job attribute preferences. Spe- cifically, we suggest that a higher level of identifica- tion with one's ethnicity is an important antecedent to a preference for differing job attributes. Furthermore, we have portrayed that collectivism and psychological capital are important mediators of this relationship. This model has several important implications. First, the majority of research that examines ethnic- ity in the workplace often looks at ethnicity as a categor- ical variable, and hence treats all individuals that belong to a particular category equally (Kim & Gelfand, 2003; K. M. Thomas & Wise, 1999; Young & Place, 1997). How- ever, as Phinney (1992) suggested, there is a significant amount of variation in the way people identify with the ethnic categories to which they belong. More spe- cifically, Phinney and Ong (2007) argue that whereas some strongly identify with the ethnic groups to which they belong, others do not. Therefore, studies that exam- ine ethnicity in categorical ways (contrasts between ra- cial groups) may be forcing ethnicity demarcations that do not fully explain the influence of ethnicity on other variables. By controlling for race, our study suggests that ethnic identity does indeed affect individual job prefer- ences more than the racial category. This may have sig- nificant implications for organizations in general and for human resource managers particularly as they devise or- ganizational recruitment initiatives and diversity polices. Second, although the influence of collectivist perspectives is present in the extant literature (Bernar- din & Russell, 1998; Gomez-Mejia & Welbourne, 1991; Hofstede, 1980; Sekaran & Snodgrass, 1986), the medi- ating role of collectivism with regard to ethnic identity and job attribute preferences has not been explored. Our findings demonstrate the importance of understand- ing and considering groupbased orientations and eth- nicity-based norms and practices within diversity man- agement efforts. More specifically, because those who strongly identify with their ethnicity may have differ- ent expectations of personal outcomes associated with a job or work tasks, special attention is needed to ensure that the attributes encompassed in work or jobs are de- lineated and appropriately articulated. Such identifica- tion and expression of job attributes may assist organi- zations in marketing more effectively to applicants and
employees in order to enhance the organization's ability to attract and retain diverse employees. In addition, human resource managers would benefit from understanding how ethnicity may drive preferences for interaction and growth opportunities within the context of organizational life. Those responsible for the success for organizational diversity programs and procedures may do well to ensure that the association between ethnic group salience and job preferences is appropriately ad- dressed in the selection and placement of applicants and employees of diverse backgrounds. Finally, the importance of employee psychological capital has been demonstrated in several other studies (e.g., Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007). We have addressed the role that this important construct may have in the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences and further demonstrated its unique impor- tance to diversity management in organizations. Our positive findings of a significant positive association of psychological capital with ethnic identity and collectiv- ist orientation are new to the literature and enhance the positioning of psychological capital within the diversity literature. This finding suggests that attention to and de- velopment of positive psychological capacities of indi- viduals may contribute to organizational ability to en- hance the benefits of a diverse workforce. Furthermore, we have added to the psychological capital literature in demonstrating that psychological capital is positively re- lated to interaction, growth, and job variety preferences in individuals. These findings provide an important im- plication for human resource managers as they are look- ing to measure and develop their employees and im- prove individual and organizational performance. Overall, this study's results support the importance of understanding the intricacies of human behavior and the heuristics that may come into play as persons from different ethnic backgrounds consider opportuni- ties for work. Diversity in the labor force and the work- place promotes differences in anticipated outcomes and reasons for why people are attracted to certain jobs or work experiences. The findings of this study may assist organizations and human resource professionals as they expend resources to attract and retain a diverse work- force. The results suggest the importance of consider- ing the ethnic identity salience of diverse groups and its relationship to preferences for specific job attributes as a factor to improve representational diversity in the workforce and enhance job satisfaction of employees from diverse backgrounds. In addition, we contribute to the literature with regard to the importance of diver- sity in the workplace by providing evidence that ethnic identity is positively related to an individual's psychological capacities, which are further predictive of posi- tive organizational outcomes such as engagement and performance.
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Limitations and Future Research
Although this study has important implications for diversity and human resource management, there are some limitations that need to be noted. First, the study relied on self-report data and thus the relationships may have been inflated by common method variance. However, because the particular questions we ask are linked to individuals' selfperceptions and their beliefs and preferences (e.g., the level of identification people have with their ethnicity and correspondingly prefer- ences they hold), opportunities for using objective data are constrained. Therefore, future research should look into the relationship between ethnic identity and indi- vidual job- or organizational-related preferences at dif- ferent points in time and thus, at least partially, address this limitation. The second limitation is the use of a student sample. However, in this study, the sample was advantageous because it provided for a level of diversity that is not of- ten obtained in a typical organizational context. A high level of diversity was relevant for the research question. In addition, the sample allowed us to include partici- pants across a wide range of career disciplines, thus in- creasing the generalizability of our results. Nonetheless, the nature of the relationships we found may differ in a field or organizational context. Consequently, future research should address these relationships in a field study using a full-time employed sample. Finally, our data were cross-sectional, and therefore we cannot form conclusions about the causal nature of the relationships within this study. Although previous literature implies that ethnic identity, once achieved, is relatively stable and as such drives psychological ca- pacities, collectivism, and ultimately behavior and pref- erences (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; French et al., 2006; Go- mez, 2003; Phinney, 1991), the cross-sectional approach precludes us from making this claim. Therefore, future research should use a longitudinal design to reinforce the conclusions with regard to causal direction between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences in particu- lar and other organizationally relevant outcomes in gen- eral. Furthermore, a longitudinal design may yield im- portant developmental findings with regard to change in preferences over time and the impact of acculturation within the organizational context.
first that ethnic identity is more strongly related to competence and growth aspect of job attribute preferences than status and independence. This establishes that eth- nic identity salience does matter in the identification of job preferences. Furthermore, we demonstrated that collectivism and psychological capital are important mediators of the relationship between ethnic identity and competence and growth aspect and warrant additional research attention. Finally, we provide for implications of our findings to the extant literature, organizational diversity initiatives, and human resource management practices directed at improving workforce diversity.
Funding / Conflicting Interests — The authors received
no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article, and declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to its research, authorship, and/or publication.
Conclusion
Our research contributes to the diversity literature by considering the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences that has been largely ignored in the extant literature. Nonetheless, understanding how ethnicity may drive individual preferences with regard to different job attributes is of significant value for ef- fective human resource management in today's plu- ralistic organization. In support of our model, we find
doc_413203194.docx
Positive Psychological Capital is defined as the positive and developmental state of an individual as characterized by high self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resiliency.
Ethnic Identity and Job Attribute Preferences: The Role of Collectivism and Psychological Capital
Abstract The globalization of the workforce has resulted in the need to recruit talent from an increasingly diverse labor market. Understanding how ethnicity may drive individual preferences regarding two important types of job attributes is of value in knowing how to attract potential employees from different ethnic backgrounds. Using a sample of 380 college students from the Midwest and Southeastern region, the authors examined the relationship between ethnic identity, job attributes, collectivism/individualism, and psychological capital. Using structural equation modeling, they found that ethnical identity is more strongly related to the competence and growth aspect of job attribute preferences than status and independence. Next, they demonstrated that collectivism and psychological capital mediate the relationship between ethnic identity and the competence and growth aspect. These promising results suggest that organizational efforts to attract a diverse workforce may benefit from considering the aspects of work that would appeal to different ethnic groups. Keywords: diversity, human resource management, positive organizational behavior
Diversity is a critical consideration as organizations recruit and select for talent (Avery & McKay 2006; Bell, 2011). The existence of an increasingly diverse labor and the demonstrated positive benefits associated diverse workforce have increased the focus on diversity for organizational leaders (Hall & Parker, 1993; McKay & Davis, 2008; R. R. Thomas, 1990). Research has positive relationships between work group diverand worker attitudes (Griffith & Hebl, 2002), affeccommitment and turnover intentions (King, Hebl, George, & Matusik, 2006), and overall organizational performance (Richard, 2000). Recognizing the importance of work place diversity, researchers have attempted to identify and examine recruitment strategies that increase organizational appeal more diverse applicant pools (K. M. Thomas & Wise, Young & Place, 1997). For instance, K. M. Thomas Wise (1999) suggest that compared with White males, minorities and females value different work characteristics when considering recruitment interests. Specifically, females tend to place more emphasis on work-family balance, whereas males tend to value high starting salary (Freeman, 2003). Important for this article, Kim and Gelfand (2003) found that ethnic identity
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influences the perception of organizational recruitment practices. Ethnic identity refers to individual self-concept de- force rived from the salience of ethnic group membership with a (Phinney, 1996). Despite its reported significance, little attention has been given to the potential association between ethnic identity and job attractiveness (Avery &found McKay, 2006; Ployhart, 2006). Moreover, research sug- sity gests that the mechanisms that might influence the rela- tive tionship of ethnic identity and job attractiveness should be examined (Avery, McKay, Wilson, & Tonidandel, 2007; McKay, Avery, & Morris, 2008). Job attractiveness is rooted in the actual and perceived attributes that jobs possess (Tomkiewicz & Johnson, 1997). Job attributes are elements, qualities, and to outcomes of work tasks that influence person-job at- 1999; tachment (Konrad, Ritchie, Lieb, & Corrigall, 2000). and Perceptions of job attributes have been found to affect organizational attractiveness (Turban, Forret, & Hendrickson, 1998), job expectations (Gomez, 2003), and job acceptance (Turban, Eyring, & Campion, 1993). Additionally, racial and ethnic differences in preferences for job attributes have been reported (Gushue, 2006; Tomkiewicz & Adyemi-Bello, 2000). Aber, 2006; Haslam, Oakes, Turner, & McGarthy, 1995; Phinney, 1991; Roberts et al., 1999). Psychological capital encompasses state-like constructs (hope, confidence, optimism, and resilience) that can in- fluence individual selfperceptions and positive psycho- logical development (Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Nor- man, 2007). However, no research has addressed the possible role that an individual's level of psychological capital may play in the relationship of ethnic identity and job attribute preference. In this article, we examine how ethnic identity relates to different aspects of job attribute preferences, partic- ularly competence and growth versus status and in- dependence aspects, and the role of collectivism and individualism in that relationship. The awareness of dif- fering job attribute preferences among diverse groups is of vital importance since individual satisfaction and performance tend to
The role of collectivism/individualism within the ethnic identity and job preference literatures has receive some attention (Gomez, 2003; Kalleberg & Reve, 1993; Marin & Triandis, 1985; Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). The collectivist/individualist framework has been associated with individual orientation to and preference for particular work structures (Moorman &Blakely, 1995). However, the possible mediating role of collectivism/individualism in the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences has not been explored. Finally, ethnic identity has been connected to sev- eral important psychological characteristics such as self- esteem and psychological processes of self-categori- zation and inout group comparative context (French, Seidman, Allen, &
increase when there is agreement between individual characteristics and work tasks (Hol- land, 1997). In addition, since ethnic identity has been portrayed as having an important psychological impact (Ferdman, 1995), we look at the role that psychological capital (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007) plays in me- diating the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences. The models reflecting these rela- tionships are found in Figures 1 and 2. The article will be organized as follows. First, we will look at the ethnic identity construct as proposed by Phinney (1990, 1992) and examine the theoretical rela- tionship between ethnic identity and job attribute pref- erences. We will then introduce individualism-collec- tivism and psychological capital and investigate their mediating role in the relationship between ethnic iden- tity and job attribute preference.
Figure 1. Standardized path coefficient comparison
Review of the Literature and Hypotheses Ethnic Identity and Job Attribute Preferences
Phinney (1990) states that ethnic identity is of crucial importance for the psychological functioning and
self-concept of ethnic group members, especially for those who live in societies where their culture is underrepresented and poorly understood (see also Gurin &Epps, 1975; Maldonado, 1975). Ethnic identity is often described within the framework of social identity. So- cial identity refers to "that part of an individual's self- concept which derives from his knowledge of his mem- bership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that mem- bership" (Tajfel, 1981, p. 255). From this perspective, ethnic identity is seen as embedded within the concept of social and group identity theories (Phinney, 1990; for a review of social identity theory, see Brown, 2000). Eth- nic identity represents a sense of self and also influences individual behavior (Phinney, 1990, 1992). This sense of self is shared with others belonging to the same group and contributes to personal wellbeing and positive self- attitude (Phinney & Ong, 2007). People, in general, differ in the way they regard their ethnic categories as well as the groups to which they belong (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). The level of identifica- tion with the ethnic group and the corresponding level of commitment to a particular ethnic identity are de- termined by the perceived value of group membership and the level of selfconcept and self-regard that one gains from that membership (Grossman, Wirt, & Da- vids, 1985; Phinney & Ong, 2007; White & Burke, 1987). Therefore, rather than treating ethnic identity as a cat- egorical variable, it should be considered as a psycho- logical variable whose meaningfulness is determined by its salience (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). Specifically, the more salient the ethnic identity, the more impact it will have on personal behaviors and preferences (Phinney, 1996). Moreover, Phinney (1990) and Phinney and Ong (2007) suggest that ethnic identity is constructed over time through the exploration of one's identity and may or may not culminate in a strong commitment to that iden- tity. In other words, whether individual ethnicity influ- ences behaviors and preferences depends not only on the ethnic membership category but also on the salience of and commitment to the ethnic identity.
Figure 2. Structural equation modeling results (standardized coefficients)
Research suggests that salient group identities such as ethnic identity may shape the way employees view their employment experiences and preferences (Brenner, Blazini, & Greenhaus, 1988). For example, Linnehan, Konrad, Reitman, Greenhalgh, and London (2003) found that Asian Americans who identify strongly with their ethnic groups will tend to place greater value on organizational efforts to increase diversity than those who do not. In a study of Hispanic MBAs, Gomez (2003) found that those with higher acculturation (lower sa- liency of ethnic identity) preferred task-related rather than contextual job attributes. Finally, in the situation of job attraction, Kim and Gelfand (2003) found that ethnic identity moderates the relationship between race and success of recruitment practices. Building on the previous research arguments, we propose that individuals whose ethnic identity is particularly salient will value different job attributes than those whose ethnic identity is not salient. The following paragraphs introduce categories of job attributes and examine this proposal in more detail. Job attribute preference, also termed work values, refers to the degree to which people look for different qualities from their work (Beutell & Brenner, 1986; Konrad et al., 2000; Rowe & Snizek, 1995). Examples of these job qualities in- clude valued rewards, working environment, the oppor- tunity for interaction with others, autonomy, and op- portunity for advancement (Konrad et al., 2000). In this article, we adopt Meyer, Irving, and Allen's (1998) classi- fication of job attribute preferences: comfort and security, competence and growth, and status and independence. We specifically focus on the components of competence and growth and of status and independence as two as- pects that might be different for diverse groups. Competence and growth encompasses job qualities such as affiliation, opportunity for interaction and so- cial awareness. These attributes can be broadly seen as opportunities for establishing and maintaining numer- ous personal friendships (Williams & Best, 1990) or as
a pursuit for social approval (Stein & Bailey, 1973). This attribute is often connected to jobs that offer opportuni- ties to make friends and to work with people (Konrad et al., 2000). In addition, Meyer et al. (1998) argued that this aspect also has a creative component and those who tend to value creativity and variety in their jobs might be more strongly drawn to this aspect. On the other hand, the status and independence component deals mainly with opportunity for autonomy in one's work, high in- come, and a preference for central and prestigious po- sitions that require supervising others rather than in- teracting with others. Williams and Best (1990) define autonomy as an opportunity to act independently and suggest that this aspect will be preferred by those who desire freedom and autonomy in the job. The authors also linked exhibition to autonomy and portrayed it as a desire for attention and recognition of others. This aspect of job attributes is often preferred by those looking for recognition and independence in their work. Ethnic identity, as a facet of social identity, in particu- lar may have a strong impact on individual job attribute preferences (Brenner et al., 1988; Phinney, 1990; Phinney & Ong, 2007). Ethnic identity is developed over time and through continuous exploration of one's identity, environment, and various group memberships (French et al., 2006; Phinney, 1989). More specifically, Phinney (1989) suggested that ethnic identity develops through three stages that involve the actual perception of one's eth- nic identity, then exploration of ethnic identity, and fi- nally achievement of degrees of ethnic identity salience. This exploration is particularly important, as it includes continuous interaction and negotiation of meaning with others from within and outside the ethnic group and of- ten involves a degree of "social creativity" in which the meanings associated with that identity are redefined in a new and innovative manner (French et al., 2006). In this study, we argue that the process of creativity and continuous interaction with others driven by the ex- ploration of one's ethnicity (French et al., 2006, Phinney, Therefore, we suggest that the following: Hypothesis 1: Ethnic identity will be positively related with job attribute preferences such that high eth- nic identity will be more strongly related to com- petence and growth rather than to status and independence
1989) is particularly relevant in influencing job preferences. One key argument here is that the exploration of one's ethnic identity through interaction with others re- sults in the emergence of multiple perspectives and "ka- leidoscope thinking (twisting reality into new patterns and rearranging the pieces to create a new reality)" (McLeod, Lobel & Cox, 1996, p. 250) in diverse individu- als influencing them to search for creativity, variety and innovativeness in their jobs. In addition, the continuous interaction with other members of their ethnic group and generally strong ethnic identification (French et al., 2006; Gomez, 2003; Phinney, 1990) may influence those with salient ethnic identity to search for jobs that pro- vide opportunities for making friends and working with people. Specifically, their preference may demonstrate greater value on status and growth attributes (opportu- nity for interaction, creativity and variety) in their jobs rather than status and independence attributes (auton- omy, opportunity for advancement to prestigious posi- tions, or centrality in the organization).
The Role of Collectivism in the Ethnic Identity-Job Attribute Preference Relationship
Individualism and collectivism have been a topic of vigorous debate in the research literature (Cox, Lobel, &McLeod, 1991; Hofstede, 1980; Gomez, 2003; Kalleberg & Reve, 1993; Marin & Triandis, 1985; Oyserman et al., 2002). Here we define individualism as a focus on the personal characteristic of an individual (goals, distinc- tiveness, and control) and disregard for interpersonal re- lationship and
group memberships (Hsu, 1983; Shweder & Bourne, 1982; Triandis, 1995). In general, people with a strong individualistic orientation place greater value on autonomy, independence, and initiative (Hofstede, 1980). Collectivism, on the other hand, is defined as "a social way of being, oriented toward in-groups and away from out groups" (Oyserman et al., 2002, p. 5). In contrast to individualism, it may include several dif- ferent kinds and levels of referent groups (e.g., family, friends, ethnic and other groups; Hui, 1988). Therefore, individuals with a strong collectivistic orientation tend to place greater value on group unity and personalized relationships (Triandis, 1995). The cognitive mechanism of ethnic identity and individualism-collectivism appear to be related (Gomez, 2003; Oyserman et al., 2002). Through the exploration of ethnicity over time, those who highly identify with their
ethnic group will be more mindful of others and their culture. More specifically, Sotomayor (1977) argues that in contrast to race, which only concerns physical characteristics, ethnic identity contains feeling of belonging and connection with group members on the basis of cul- ture, origin, beliefs, values, or specific practices. There- fore, those with salient ethnic identity are presented as more ingroup oriented. This is in line with Hofst- ede (1980) who found that Latin American minorities in the United States who generally identify strongly with their ethnic groups have greater collectivist values then their European American counterparts. Furthermore, re- search in general has supported the notion that ethnic groups are more cooperative then Anglo groups (Cox et al., 1991; Marin & Triandis, 1985; Oyserman et al., 2002; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988). Therefore, we argue that ethnic identity is positively re- lated to collectivism in individuals. Several studies have found that individualistic and collectivistic cultures have differing preferences for var- ious organizational practices (Bernardin & Russell, 1998; GomezMejia & Welbourne, 1991; Sekaran & Snodgrass, 1986). For example, Robert and Wasti (2002) suggest that individualistic societies emphasize the development of a unique identity and, correspondingly, a preference for autonomy and satisfaction of personal goals and needs. The authors contrast this with predominately collectiv- istic cultures where group membership defines one's identity, with a corresponding high need to remain part of the collective and thus subordinate personal goals to goals of the salient group (Robert & Wasti, 2002; Trian- dis, 1995). Furthermore, studies have found that individuals with a collectivistic focus tend to value task interdepen- dence, task variety and interpersonal relationships at work more than task significance, autonomy or personal recognition (Gomez, 2003; Kalleberg & Reve, 1993). Fur- thermore, research findings in general support the no- tion that individuals with collectivist traditions tend to be more cooperative and work better in groups com- pared to those with individualistic traditions (Cox et al., 1991; Earley, 1993; Moorman & Blakely, 1995). Thus, we propose the following: Hypothesis 2: The relationship between ethnic identity and the competence and growth aspect of job attributes will be mediated by collectivism.
Psychological Capital, Ethnic Identity, and Job Attribute Preferences
The emergence of positive organizational behavior has received significant theoretical attention in both the academic and practitioner literatures (Luthans, 2002a, 2002b; Luthans & Youssef, 2007). Positive organizational human behavior and human capital development in organizations (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007). Luthans (2002b) defines positive organizational behavior as "the study and application of positively oriented human re-
behavior draws on positive psychology literature (Peterson, 2006; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Snyder & Lopez, 2002) and encompasses a positive approach to the study of
source strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement" (p. 59). Through the positive approach to organizational behavior, Luthans and colleagues (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007) have introduced and empirically examined the construct of psychological capital. Psychological capital is identified as
an individual's positive psychological state of development and is characterized by: (1) hav- ing confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challeng- ing tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (op- timism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when neces- sary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and ad- versity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success. (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007, p. 3)
Psychological capital is thus a state-like characteristic that is relatively malleable and open to development. It involves cognitive processes that serve to influence individual behavior and attitudes toward work tasks. It has been found to relate to performance, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors, among other outcomes (Avey, Luthans,& Youssef, 2010; Luthans, Avo- lio, et al., 2007). A direct relationship between ethnic identity and psychological capital has not been established in the extant literature. However, research has argued that through the history of interactions and exploration of one's identity, person's psychological capacities develop as they are faced with obstacles and misunderstand- ings along the way (French et al., 2006). More specifi- cally, Phinney (1989) has argued that the development process and achievement of highly salient ethnic iden- tity drive individuals to derive positive self-attitudes. Furthermore, several authors identified the positive re- lationship between ethnic identity and other individual positive psychological characteristics, some of which are components of the higher order psychological capital construct. Higher ethnic identity has been theoretically and methodologically associated with selfesteem, opti- mism (psychological capital construct), sense of mastery (psychological capital confidence and hope), and predis- positions for self-actualization (Parham & Helms, 1985; Phinney, 1991; Roberts et al., 1999). Ethnic identity has
also been identified as having an impact on the overall well-being of the individual (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001; Phin- ney & Ong, 2007). Whereas authors pursuing the positive approach to organizational behavior have recognized previous "pos- itive research" (e.g., motivation, organizational citizen- ship behaviors, etc.), Avey et al. (2010) argue that the context in which positivity research is now taking place plays a significant role in the conceptualization of this new approach. Specifically, the authors argued that both the volatile organizational context and changing expec- tations and preferences of employees regarding work tasks and work outcomes (greater preference for life- long development, opportunity for interactions) have opened new opportunities for the positive approach to organizational behavior. Individual psychological ca- pacities may in fact influence the value that employees in general, and minority/ethnic groups in particular, place on different job attributes. More specifically, em- ployees with higher levels of psychological capital may not just perform better (Luthans et al., 2007) but proac- tively search for continuous growth, creativity, and vari- ety in their jobs (Sweetman, Luthans, Avey, & Luthans, 2010). Building on the research on psychological capital and ethnic identity, we propose that the following: Hypothesis 3: The relationship between ethnic identity and the competence and growth aspect of job attributes will be mediated by individual psychological capital.
Method Procedures
Participants were asked to complete a web-based survey issued by the researchers' institution. Through a se- cure URL that was sent by e-mail, participants were able to access a web page that contained a cover letter with instructions, demographic questions, and measures for ethnic identity, individualism-collectivism, psycholog- ical capital, and job attribute preferences. Participants were recruited directly by their class instructors. Partic- ipation was voluntary. Measures were separated so that each page contained one measure.
Participants
Questionnaires were sent to 636 undergraduate college students from 13 colleges and universities in Southwestern and Midwestern United States. A total of 404 participants responded, resulting in a 63.5% response rate. Usable data were obtained from 380 participants. The diversity was as follows: White/Caucasian ( n = 149), Black/African American (n = 189), Asian American (n = 19), Hispanic (n = 5), Native American (n = 2), and other specifically, we build on the work of Phinney (1989, 1999, 2007), French et al. (2006), and others (Phinney & Ong, 2007; White & Burke, 1987; Yip & Fuligni, 2002), who ar-
(n = 16). In accord with our discussion above, we have included participants of all races into our analysis. More
gue that ethnic identity should be considered as a psychological variable whose meaningfulness is determined by its salience. Therefore, rather than separating the sam- ple into categories based on race, we evaluate the level of ethnic identity per se, while controlling for race (White versus other) in our model. Demographics for this group are as follows: age 19 to 23 (n = 279), 24 to 27 (n = 68), 28 to 32 (n = 16), 33 and older (n = 17). There were 150 men and 228 females (with 2 missing). Finally, students repre- sented a wide variety of academic disciplines, geograph- ical locations, and career interest.
Measures
Ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was measured using an adapted version of Phinney's (1992) Multigroup Eth- nic Identity Measure. This measure represented the two factors, exploration and commitment (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Because the original measure was developed in 1992, we have conducted confirmatory factor analysis to assess the validity of the measurement. Correspond- ingly, three items were dropped for insufficient load- ing. The preferred scoring is to use the mean of the to- tal items for an overall score (Roberts et al., 1999). In accordance with the literature, we used a 4-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree (Phinney, 1992). Sample items included "I feel a strong attachment toward my racial/ethnic group" and "I have a lot of pride in my racial/ethnic group". The reliability coeffi- cient for the ethnic identity measure was .90. Collectivism. Collectivism was measured using an adapted version of Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, and Gelfand (1995) Individualism-Collectivism Scale. The original measure consists of four subscales measuring dimensions of collectivism and individualism. In this ar- ticle, we used the horizontal collectivism scale to access the collectivism orientation of the participants. Con- sistent with extant literature, we used a 9-point Likert- type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 9 (strongly agree; Singelis et al., 1995). Sample items included "It is important for me to maintain harmony within my group" and "The well-being of my co-workers is impor- tant to me". The reliability coefficient for the Collectiv- ism Scale in this study was .74. Psychological capital. Psychological capital was assessed using a 12-item scale developed by Luthans, Youssef, et al. (2007). The psychological capital measure represents a higher order construct consisting of four subdimen- sions: self-efficacy, resilience, optimism, and hope. Representative items from this scale include the following: efficacy, "I feel confident helping to set targets/goals in my work area"; resilience, "I usually take stressful
things at work in stride"; optimism, "when things are uncertain for me at work, I usually expect the best"; and hope, "If I should find myself in a jam at work, I could think of many ways to get out of it." The instrument uses 6-point Likert-type response scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). Cronbach's al- pha coefficient was .91, and thus consistent with prior reliabilities (e.g., Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008). Job attribute preferences. Job attribute preferences were measured using the adapted Meyer et al. (1998) scale. The scale identifies three sub dimensions: Comfort and Security (Comfort), Competence and Growth (Com- petence), and Status and Independence (Status). In our study, we focused on the status and independence as- pect and the competence and growth aspect. Because the original measure was developed in 1998, we have conducted confirmatory factor analysis to assess the va- lidity of the measurement. Correspondingly, only items with appropriate loadings were kept. Participants rated the importance of job attributes on a 5-point scale rang- ing from not important to very important. Sample ques- tions included the following: "requires working on problems of central importance to the organization" for the status and independence aspect and "encourages continued development of knowledge and skills" for competence and growth aspect. In our study, the coef- ficient alphas for two subdimensions are consistent with those reported in previous studies: .74 for competence and growth and .71 for status and independence. Control variables. In this study, we control for gender, race, and employment status for various analyses. Pre- vious research suggests that there is a relationship be- tween gender and job attributes preferences as well as race and job attributes preferences (Gushue, 2006; Kon- rad et al., 2000; Tomkiewicz & Adeyemi-Bello, 2000). Race was specifically included to assess whether ethnic identity is related to job attribute preferences above and beyond the race category.
Results
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics, correlations, and internal reliabilities for the variables. There are significant correlations between ethnic identity and collectivism (r = .159, p< .01), psychological capital (r = .293, p< .01), and job attribute preferences ( r = .283, p<.01, for competence and growth; r = .192, p< .01, for sta- tus and independence). Structural equation modeling was used to test the model and hypothesis because it adjusts Type I error rates and statistical power most appropriately (Mack- innon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002). To test Hypothesis 1, standardized coefficients were ob- tained, using structural equation modeling. The hypoth- esized model demonstrates acceptable fit to the data (?2 = 445.787, degrees of freedom [df] = 162, p< .01, com- parative fit index [CFI] = .900, root mean square error
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Mean 1. Gender 2. Race 3. Ethnic identity 4. Collectivism 5. Psychological capital 6. Competence and growth 7. Status and independence 0.603 0.610 3.21 7.10 4.83 4.24 3.75 SD 0.490 0.488 0.628 1.062 0.765 0.554 0.675 1 — .142** .195** .016 -.077 .152* -.004 2 — .488** .159* .293** .283** .192** 3 4 5 6 7
(.90) .330** .378** .408** .243**
(.74) .531** .511** .457**
(.91) .593** .411**
(.74) .626**
(.71)
N = 363-380; internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) on diagonal. * p< .05 ; ** p< .01
Table 2. Measurement Model Fit
?2
Four-factor model Three-factor model 858.029 1266.132
??2 408.103**
df 454 461
CFI .917 .835
RMSEA .051 .071
SRMR .052 .063
df = degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized mean square residual.
Table 3. Unstandardized Parameter Estimates, Standardized Parameter Estimates, and Significance Levels Pathways Unstandardized .631 .440 .090 .322 .173 SE .132 .089 .053 .064 .057 Standardized .420 .335 .106 .498 .307 p <.001 <.001 .089 .001 .001 Ethnic identity? Psychological capital Ethnic identity? Collectivism Ethnic identity? Competence and growth Psychological capital? Competence and growth Collectivism? Competence and growth
of approximation [RMSEA] = .07, standardized mean square residual [SRMR] = .05) based on Hu and Bentler's (1999) recommended cutoff criteria. Because different scales were used to measure competence and growth and status and independence, it is not appropriate to di- rectly compare the path coefficients. Thus, standardized parameters for path coefficients for each path were es- timated. Figure 1 presents the standardized path coeffi- cients. As hypothesized, the links between ethnic identity and participants' job attribute preference of competence and growth were positive and significant ( ? = .234, p<.01). However, there is not a statistically significant link between ethnic identity and status and independence (?= .084, p> .05). The difference of the strength between the path coefficients is statistically significant (p< .05). There- fore, Hypothesis 1 was supported. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were tested using structural equation modeling. The measurement model, which examines the relationships between the measured vari- ables and the latent variables, was initially examined.
The measurement model demonstrates an acceptable fit to the data (?2 = 858.029, df = 454, p< .01, CFI = .917, RMSEA = .051, SRMR = .052) as shown in Table 2. As an alternative, a three-factor model, which combines the two mediating latent variables, collectivism and psycho- logical capital, was examined and the model fit was not acceptable. Next, the hypothesized structural model was exam- ined to test the mediating effect of psychological capi- tal and collectivism on the relationship between eth- nic identity and competence and growth aspect. The hypothesized model has a good fit to the data ( ?2 = 1019.697, df = 510,p< .01, CFI = .900, RMSEA = .054, SRMR = .053). The unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates are summarized in Table 3. The di- rect path from ethnic identity to competence and growth aspect is not significant (? = .106, p> .05), indicating full mediation of psychological capital and collectivism. The results of the structural equation modeling are shown in Figure 2. Therefore, Hypotheses 2 and 3 are supported.
Discussion
The importance of diversity for organizations grows significantly with the increase of diversity within la- bor and
consumer markets and the demonstrated bene- fits of a diverse workforce (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1990; Griffith & Hebl, 2002; Murnighan & Conlon, 1991). Therefore, it is critical to determine what constitutes effective diversity management and what practices organizations should pursue in satisfying their human capi- tal needs. In this article, we have provided a model that supports the existence of a significant relationship be- tween ethnic identity and job attribute preferences. Spe- cifically, we suggest that a higher level of identifica- tion with one's ethnicity is an important antecedent to a preference for differing job attributes. Furthermore, we have portrayed that collectivism and psychological capital are important mediators of this relationship. This model has several important implications. First, the majority of research that examines ethnic- ity in the workplace often looks at ethnicity as a categor- ical variable, and hence treats all individuals that belong to a particular category equally (Kim & Gelfand, 2003; K. M. Thomas & Wise, 1999; Young & Place, 1997). How- ever, as Phinney (1992) suggested, there is a significant amount of variation in the way people identify with the ethnic categories to which they belong. More spe- cifically, Phinney and Ong (2007) argue that whereas some strongly identify with the ethnic groups to which they belong, others do not. Therefore, studies that exam- ine ethnicity in categorical ways (contrasts between ra- cial groups) may be forcing ethnicity demarcations that do not fully explain the influence of ethnicity on other variables. By controlling for race, our study suggests that ethnic identity does indeed affect individual job prefer- ences more than the racial category. This may have sig- nificant implications for organizations in general and for human resource managers particularly as they devise or- ganizational recruitment initiatives and diversity polices. Second, although the influence of collectivist perspectives is present in the extant literature (Bernar- din & Russell, 1998; Gomez-Mejia & Welbourne, 1991; Hofstede, 1980; Sekaran & Snodgrass, 1986), the medi- ating role of collectivism with regard to ethnic identity and job attribute preferences has not been explored. Our findings demonstrate the importance of understand- ing and considering groupbased orientations and eth- nicity-based norms and practices within diversity man- agement efforts. More specifically, because those who strongly identify with their ethnicity may have differ- ent expectations of personal outcomes associated with a job or work tasks, special attention is needed to ensure that the attributes encompassed in work or jobs are de- lineated and appropriately articulated. Such identifica- tion and expression of job attributes may assist organi- zations in marketing more effectively to applicants and
employees in order to enhance the organization's ability to attract and retain diverse employees. In addition, human resource managers would benefit from understanding how ethnicity may drive preferences for interaction and growth opportunities within the context of organizational life. Those responsible for the success for organizational diversity programs and procedures may do well to ensure that the association between ethnic group salience and job preferences is appropriately ad- dressed in the selection and placement of applicants and employees of diverse backgrounds. Finally, the importance of employee psychological capital has been demonstrated in several other studies (e.g., Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007). We have addressed the role that this important construct may have in the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences and further demonstrated its unique impor- tance to diversity management in organizations. Our positive findings of a significant positive association of psychological capital with ethnic identity and collectiv- ist orientation are new to the literature and enhance the positioning of psychological capital within the diversity literature. This finding suggests that attention to and de- velopment of positive psychological capacities of indi- viduals may contribute to organizational ability to en- hance the benefits of a diverse workforce. Furthermore, we have added to the psychological capital literature in demonstrating that psychological capital is positively re- lated to interaction, growth, and job variety preferences in individuals. These findings provide an important im- plication for human resource managers as they are look- ing to measure and develop their employees and im- prove individual and organizational performance. Overall, this study's results support the importance of understanding the intricacies of human behavior and the heuristics that may come into play as persons from different ethnic backgrounds consider opportuni- ties for work. Diversity in the labor force and the work- place promotes differences in anticipated outcomes and reasons for why people are attracted to certain jobs or work experiences. The findings of this study may assist organizations and human resource professionals as they expend resources to attract and retain a diverse work- force. The results suggest the importance of consider- ing the ethnic identity salience of diverse groups and its relationship to preferences for specific job attributes as a factor to improve representational diversity in the workforce and enhance job satisfaction of employees from diverse backgrounds. In addition, we contribute to the literature with regard to the importance of diver- sity in the workplace by providing evidence that ethnic identity is positively related to an individual's psychological capacities, which are further predictive of posi- tive organizational outcomes such as engagement and performance.
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Limitations and Future Research
Although this study has important implications for diversity and human resource management, there are some limitations that need to be noted. First, the study relied on self-report data and thus the relationships may have been inflated by common method variance. However, because the particular questions we ask are linked to individuals' selfperceptions and their beliefs and preferences (e.g., the level of identification people have with their ethnicity and correspondingly prefer- ences they hold), opportunities for using objective data are constrained. Therefore, future research should look into the relationship between ethnic identity and indi- vidual job- or organizational-related preferences at dif- ferent points in time and thus, at least partially, address this limitation. The second limitation is the use of a student sample. However, in this study, the sample was advantageous because it provided for a level of diversity that is not of- ten obtained in a typical organizational context. A high level of diversity was relevant for the research question. In addition, the sample allowed us to include partici- pants across a wide range of career disciplines, thus in- creasing the generalizability of our results. Nonetheless, the nature of the relationships we found may differ in a field or organizational context. Consequently, future research should address these relationships in a field study using a full-time employed sample. Finally, our data were cross-sectional, and therefore we cannot form conclusions about the causal nature of the relationships within this study. Although previous literature implies that ethnic identity, once achieved, is relatively stable and as such drives psychological ca- pacities, collectivism, and ultimately behavior and pref- erences (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; French et al., 2006; Go- mez, 2003; Phinney, 1991), the cross-sectional approach precludes us from making this claim. Therefore, future research should use a longitudinal design to reinforce the conclusions with regard to causal direction between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences in particu- lar and other organizationally relevant outcomes in gen- eral. Furthermore, a longitudinal design may yield im- portant developmental findings with regard to change in preferences over time and the impact of acculturation within the organizational context.
first that ethnic identity is more strongly related to competence and growth aspect of job attribute preferences than status and independence. This establishes that eth- nic identity salience does matter in the identification of job preferences. Furthermore, we demonstrated that collectivism and psychological capital are important mediators of the relationship between ethnic identity and competence and growth aspect and warrant additional research attention. Finally, we provide for implications of our findings to the extant literature, organizational diversity initiatives, and human resource management practices directed at improving workforce diversity.
Funding / Conflicting Interests — The authors received
no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article, and declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to its research, authorship, and/or publication.
Conclusion
Our research contributes to the diversity literature by considering the relationship between ethnic identity and job attribute preferences that has been largely ignored in the extant literature. Nonetheless, understanding how ethnicity may drive individual preferences with regard to different job attributes is of significant value for ef- fective human resource management in today's plu- ralistic organization. In support of our model, we find
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