Description
Business as the exchange of goods within trade situations can easily associated with basic features of traditional rhetoric. When we look at the exchange situation, we can state that the main objective as described above is the exchange of goods; in the traditional fields of study of rhetoric, the main aims of the rhetorician are to move ('movere'), to teach ('docere'), and to delight ('delectare') as stated by Roman rhetoricians.
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CREATING ‘BUSINESS RHETORIC’.
TERMINOLOGICAL EXCHANGE OF RHETORIC AND ‘BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION’ IN CONTEMPORARY BUSINESS.
Fee-Alexandra Haase
University of Nizwa in Oman
Abstract
This article focuses on the various aspects of congruence between the system of ancient rhetoric
as the first discipline for public communication and modern ‘business communication’ that just
recently entered the sector of higher education. We discuss the implementation of traditional
rhetorical concepts in business communication and examine examples of its application, present
a model of business rhetoric for the main branches of ‘business communication’ (management,
public relations, advertising, and marketing), and look at the distinct features of rhetoric within
business communication and the general differences between the discipline rhetoric and the field
of business and its communicative needs.
Keywords: CREATING ; BUSINESS RHETORIC; TERMINOLOGICAL EXCHANGE ;
RHETORIC ; BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ; CONTEMPORARY BUSINESS.
1. Introduction to Rhetoric for Business Studies –
Commonly Shared Aspects and Definition of Rhetoric and Rhetoric Features
1.1. The Differences Between ‘Business Communication’ and Rhetoric:
As ‘Belief’ of the Business Maker vs. the Application of the ‘Science of Rhetoric’
Business as the exchange of goods within trade situations can easily associated with basic
features of traditional rhetoric. When we look at the exchange situation, we can state that the
main objective as described above is the exchange of goods; in the traditional fields of study of
rhetoric, the main aims of the rhetorician are to move (‘movere’), to teach (‘docere’), and to
delight (‘delectare’) as stated by Roman rhetoricians. The aspect of movement can be associated
to any business activity and also can be considered as a main function of management (see also
below). ‘Docere’ refers to the teaching activities of the business company /organization towards
the public audience instructing the persons ‘outside’ about the company / organization. Also
marketing and advertisement can be considered to a lesser degree as the parts of business that use
the function of ‘docere’. ‘Delectare’ can be associated with the function of entertainment;
advertising and public relations as the place for the related events aim at entertainment as a
persuasive tool. Aristotle writes in his Rhetoric (2.1.) as definition of rhetoric (????????):
“Rhetoric then may be defined as the faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in
reference to any subject whatever. This is the function of no other of the arts, each of which is
able to instruct and persuade in its own special subject; thus, medicine deals with health and
sickness, geometry with the properties of magnitudes, arithmetic with number, and similarly with
all the other arts and sciences. But Rhetoric, so to say, appears to be able to discover the means
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of persuasion in reference to any given subject. That is why we say that as an art its rules are not
applied to any particular definite class of things.” (Aristotle) Aristotle mentions in his Rhetoric
(2.11): “Now, that which is persuasive is persuasive in reference to someone, and is persuasive
and convincing either at once and in and by itself, or because it appears to be proved by
propositions that are convincing.” (Aristotle) In contrast, Cornelissen in the Glossary of
Corporate Communication made the following definition of ‘persuasion’: “A means by which a
person or organization tries to influence and convince another person to believe something or do
something, using reasoning and coaxing in a compelling and convincing way :“A persuasive
strategy is according to Cornelissen a “process of communication in which an organization,
through campaigns, meetings and discussions with stakeholders, tries to change and tune the
knowledge, attitude, and behaviours of stakeholders in a way that is favorable to the
organization.” (Cornelissen) A relative new area of higher education is teaching in the field
‘business communication’. Within this academic framework placed within departments for
business studies or English departments with courses focusing on business skills of students,
business rhetoric is treated as a part of curricula of colleges and universities. The terminology of
business rhetoric we can group according to the topics or areas of ‘business communication’ they
cover. So we have an the one hand business rhetoric for management, public relations,
marketing, and advertising and on the other hand we have special topics from business studies
that rely on traditional fields of rhetoric for business concerns. Another aspect of business
rhetoric is the rhetorical strategies and tools of persuasion that developed and originated out of
the fields of practical business or business research and education in business. Traditionally, a
negative connotation of rhetoric as an application of ‘false statements’ in contrast to ‘truth’ is
associated within business studies, which are not aware of the complexity of rhetoric. Business
rhetoric as a specific area of business is not related to the traditional or modern conceptions
about rhetoric, which still stand in the classic tradition. We can distinguish higher and lower
‘business communication’. Higher ‘business communication’ aims at the strategies of conducting
business, while lower ‘business communication’ is the communication aims to perform single
actions for conduction a business. ‘Business communication’ is divided into the formal aspects
of communication aiming at business conduction using several means, the different fields of
‘business communication’ like management communication, advertising communication,
marketing communication, and public relations communication, and the hierarchical aspects of
hierarchical communication within a communication unit like an organisation or a company.
‘Business communication’ aims at the change of things by making business, while rhetoric is
concerned with words. Of course, rhetoric aims at moving in a persuasive way with the use of
words the things in reality in a favorable way for the rhetorician. ‘Business communication’ is
aiming at any persuasive activity that serves the aims of the business. ‘Business communication’
in many cases of the professional field turns out the be a field of belief in the established rules of
being right and having power as well as persuading others in their opinions. ‘Business
communication’ as higher ‘business communication’ also operates upon set values and ethics as
unreal binders between the business as the simple exchange of goods adding unreal values in
order to make the products or services more attractive. So ‘business communication’ is a simple
exchange of goods with the addition of a belief system as a mixture of knowledge taken from
other sources and connected to the business in order to make it more attractive and valuable. On
the contrary, rhetoric is an art and a science. Aristotle in his Rhetoric (1.11-12) describes this art
and science as follows: “It is clear, then, that all other rhetoricians bring under the rules of art
what is outside the subject, and have rather inclined to the forensic branch of oratory.
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Nevertheless, Rhetoric is useful, because the true and the just are naturally superior to their
opposites, so that, if decisions are improperly made, they must owe their defeat to their own
advocates; which is reprehensible. Further, in dealing with certain persons, even if we possessed
the most accurate scientific knowledge, we should not find it easy to persuade them by the
employment of such knowledge. For scientific discourse is concerned with instruction, but in the
case of such persons instruction is impossible”. (Aristotle) Aristotle describes in his Rhetoric
(1.1.1-2) rhetoric as a science (????????, episteme), which is not related to a special issue:
“Rhetoric is a counterpart of Dialectic; for both have to do with matters that are in a manner
within the cognizance of all men and not confined to any special science. Hence all men in a
manner have a share of both; for all, up to a certain point, endeavor to criticize or uphold an
argument, to defend themselves or to accuse. Now, the majority of people do this either at
random or with a familiarity arising from habit. But since both these ways are possible, it is clear
that matters can be reduced to a system, for it is possible to examine the reason why some attain
their end by familiarity and others by chance; and such an examination all would at once admit
to be the function of an art.” (Aristotle)
1.2. A Comparison: Credibility and ‘Business Communication’
Rhetorical ‘Ethos’ and ‘Credibility’ of ‘Business Communication’
Since Aristotle, it is asserted that the use of ethos (moral character) is a means of persuasion
based upon the trust in a speaker with ethics; it allows building a speech that persuades. Practical
advisors for ‘business communication’ mention as a key feature of the success of communication
and their business the quality of ‘credibility’. Let’s take the example of the writer Carbajo who
mentioned in Business Resources of Dun & Bradstreet Credibility Corporation that “credibility
impacts all facets of business and is one of the most important assets for a company to have. It is
the barometer by which customers, lenders, potential partners, potential employees, and others
judge you and your company. Credibility instills belief in your business and how it handles its
customers, business relationships, communications, brand image, etc. With strong credibility,
you have an established trust and dependability factor that is priceless in today’s business
environment.” (Carbajo) The question ‘So What Makes a Business Credible?” Carbajo answers
as follows: “A credible business can be defined differently depending on the individual,
company, or organization reviewing it. While each one has its own defining methods, there are
certain areas every business should focus on. Here are five common methods used to assess the
credibility of a business: 1.Capability, 2.Character, 3.Communication, 4.Compliance, and
5.Creditworthiness (Carbajo) Willis, a professional from the Ashridge Business School in the
United Kingdom in Communication Leadership Credibility wrote: “One of the areas where the
diverse skills of strategy, leadership, team-working, politics, influencing, motivation, finance and
performance measures come together is in the approach an organisation takes to communicating
its vision, strategy or even its current performance”. For Willis, “this is not just periodic
communication at specific timetabled planning and reporting deadlines but continuous
communication. The communication style can have a marked impact regardless of whether it is
between levels of the organisation or within them.”
Willis wrote that the ‘best communicators’
choose a ‘balance of fact and emotion’ that inspires without jeopardizing trust.” (Willis) The
concept of ‘credibility’ is used in ‘business communication’ and its education as a set of values
not based upon knowledge; this irrational element refers to the irrational value setting activities
of ‘additional irreal qualities’ sold with the product / service. Willis characterizes the approach to
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the Ashridge Business School with a credo that “at Ashridge we strongly believe it is an
oversimplification to assume leadership is linked inextricably with the individual. We challenge
the notion of the hero leader who can achieve success in any context.” (Willis)
1.3. ‘Ethos’ in Rhetoric and ‘Credibility’ in ‘Business Communication’
Putnam wrote in Ethos / Credibility as definition of ‘ethos’: “An attitude held by the receiver (the
audience) toward the speaker (the source). We commonly refer to this as source credibility, the
prestige of the speaker, and personal proof. Ethos can be initial (the beginning of the message), it
can be derived (produced during the message) and it can be terminal (source credibility at the
close of the message. Ethos is in the mind of the receiver; the receiver has it; we as an audience
determine if the communicator is credible. The ethos of a source may vary greatly; especially if
he/she is controversial. And the ethos may vary even within the same message. We commonly
and mistakenly speak as if the source has the ethos. The source may be a group or organization;
does not have to be an individual. Ethos is dynamic; always subject to change; may even be
volatile.” (Putnam) Aristotle wrote in the Rhetoric (1.12) about the usefulness of rhetoric based
upon its reliance of the ‘just’: “Nevertheless, Rhetoric is useful, because the true and the just are
naturally superior to their opposites, so that, if decisions are improperly made, they must owe
their defeat to their own advocates; which is reprehensible. Further, in dealing with certain
persons, even if we possessed the most accurate scientific knowledge, we should not find it easy
to persuade them by the employment of such knowledge. For scientific discourse is concerned
with instruction,
14
but in the case of such persons instruction is impossible; our proofs and
arguments must rest on generally accepted principles, as we said in the Topics, when speaking of
converse with the multitude.” (Aristotle) Aristotle writes in the Rhetoric (2.4.) about ‘ethos’ and
the character of the rhetorician: “The orator persuades by moral character when his speech is
delivered in such a manner as to render him worthy of confidence; for we feel confidence in a
greater degree and more readily in persons of worth in regard to everything in general, but where
there is no certainty and there is room for doubt, our confidence is absolute. But this confidence
must be due to the speech itself, not to any preconceived idea of the speaker's character; for it is
not the case, as some writers of rhetorical treatises lay down in their “Art,” that the worth of the
orator in no way contributes to his powers of persuasion; on the contrary, moral character, so to
say, constitutes the most effective means of proof. (Aristotle) (Aristotle) Aristotle also mentions
the argument why rhetoric is actually limited not addressing the area of specific communication
like ‘business communication’; it aims at the use and is the science of words, and in any other
case it would utilize the words as tools for things. Aristotle writes in the Rhetoric (4.5: “ For
what we have said before is true: that Rhetoric is composed of analytical science and of that
branch of political science which is concerned with Ethics, and that it resembles partly Dialectic
and partly sophistical arguments.” “???? ??? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????,
??? ? ???????? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????????,
????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ??????????? ??????.” (Aristotle)
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2. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Education and Practical Fields
2.1. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Public Relations
Rhetorical features of ‘business communication’ in public relations are of course developing
from the two parties that communicate as the company / organization who presents itself via
public relations and its audience. Public Relations have developed various ways of a company
/organization to keep in contact with a general public or specialized audiences. So the rhetorical
means or tools employed can vary depending on the chosen format or way of presentation to the
audience. The major aim the rhetorical means are placed in within these settings is to build
positive relations between the institution / organisation and the chosen public audience.
Indirectly, the company / organisation aims at a positive effect for the actual business. So it is an
indirect ‘business communication’ situation. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate
Communication, ‘public relations’ is the “function or activity that aims to establish and protect
the reputation of a company or brand, and to create mutual understanding between the
organization and the segments of the public with whom it needs to communicate.” ‘Corporate
public relations’ is the “public relations activities towards ‘corporate’ stakeholders, which
excludes customers and prospects in a market. It includes issues management, community
relations, investor relations, media relations, internal communication and public affairs.” ‘Public
people’ are people “who mobilize themselves against the organization on the basis of some
common issue or concern to them.” ‘Public affairs’ is “the public policy aspect of corporate
communication.” ‘Public information’ is the “use of writers and publicists to inform and reassure
the general public of corporate practices; often used to describe communications before the
Second World War.” (Cornelissen)
2.2. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Advertising
Rhetorical features of ‘business communication’ in advertising are of course the persuasive
means of the figures of speech and figures of words, which make the text rhetorically appealing
to the audience that shall be ‘captures’ to respond to the advertisements aiming at the purchase of
the offered products or services. The rhetorical features are all related to the advertisement as the
means or tools for selling the product. In most advertisements, the text or written language or
spoken language is used for the advertisements, but also visual and media means are employed.
According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication, ‘advertisement’ is a “paid-
for dedicated space or time in which only the advertiser is represented.” ‘Advertising’ is the
“process of gaining the public’s attention through paid media announcements.” Am ‘advertising
agency’ is “an agency specializing in advertising and other marketing comm unications on behalf
of a client organization.” An ‘advertising campaign” is a “planned use and scheduling of
advertising over a defined period of time.” ‘Advertising media’ are “paid-for communications
channels such as newspaper (print) ortelevision.” The ‘advertising value equivalent (AVE)’ is “a
measure of evaluating press publicity by counting the column inches of press publicity and
seconds of air time gained and then multiplying the total by the advertising rate of the media in
which the coverage appeared.” ‘Corporate advertising’ is “advertising by a firm where the
corporate entity, rather than solely its products or services, is emphasized.” (Cornelissen)
2.3. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Marketing
Rhetorical features of ‘business communication’ in marketing aim at the special persuasive
situation of selling. All rhetorical activities concentrate on the selling of the product / services of
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the company / organization. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication,
‘marketing’ is the “management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying
customer requirements profitably.” ‘Marketing communications’ means “all methods
(advertising, direct marketing, sales promotion, personal selling, and marketing public relations)
used by a firm to communicate with its customers and prospective customers.” The ‘market’ is a
“defined group for whom a product is or may be in demand (and for whom an organization
creates and maintains products and service offerings).” ‘Market development’ is the “process of
growing sales by offering existing products (or new versions of them) to new customer groups
(as opposed to simply attempting to increase the company’s share of current markets).” ‘Market
orientation’ is the “steadfast adherence to the marketing concept: an approach in which customer
needs and wants are the underlying determinants of an organization’s direction and its marketing
programmes.” ‘Market penetration’ is the “attempt to grow one’s business by obtaining a larger
market share in an existing market.” ‘Market research’ is the “gathering and analysis of data
relating to marketplaces or customers; any research which leads to more market knowledge and
betterinformed decision-making.” ‘Market segmentation’ is the “division of the marketplace into
distinct subgroups or segments, each characterized by particular tastes and requiring a specific
marketing mix Market share A company’s sales of a given product or set of products to a given
set of customers, expressed as a percentage of total sales of all such products to such customers.”
‘Market structure’ is the “character of an industry, based on the number of firms, barriers to
entry, extent of product differentiation, control over price, and the importance of non-price
competition.” ‘Marketing audit’ is a “comprehensive and systematic review and appraisal of
every aspect of a firm’s marketing programme, its organization, activities, strategies and people.”
A ’marketing concept’ is the “process by which the marketer responds to the needs and wants of
the consumer.” The ‘marketing mix’ is the “combination of marketing inputs that affect customer
motivation and behaviour. These inputs traditionally encompass four controllable variables, ‘the
4 Ps’: Product, Price, Promotion and Place.” ‘Marketing objective’ is a “market target to be
achieved reflecting corporate strategy Marketing public relations The use of what are
traditionally seen as public relations tools (media, free publicity) within marketing programmes
that are used to reach marketing objectives.” The ‘marketing strategy’ is the “set of objectives
which an organization allocates to its marketing function in order to support the overall corporate
strategy, together with the broad methods chosen to achieve these objectives.” (Cornelissen)
2.4. General Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Management
Of course the major function of management in a hierarchical perspective is to have the
leadership in a company or organization. The aim of rhetoric, to persuade, can be considered as a
quality of the leader. On other words, leadership and rhetoric are closely related. Commonly,
management is defined as the faculty of realizing aims through the use of means and humans.
Using someone or something as a means or tool for one’s own aims is the quintessence of
management. As a special component, also the question of ethics is touched here, when it comes
to business rhetoric. Traditional classic rhetoric as defined by Quintilian as ars bene dicendi, the
‘art to speak well’ or ‘technique to speak well’, contains two dimensions of the good: On the one
hand the ‘good’ as the good quality of speaking, on the other hand the ‘good’ as the ethically
acting speech of the rhetorician.
PR Indirect Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
Advertisement Indirect Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
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Marketing Direct Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
Management Direct Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
Direct and Indirect Rhetoric in ‘Business Communication’ Situation
The first attribute of management is the leadership in an organization / institution. The leadership
duties can be divided into the controlling of the past, the handling of present issues, and the
planning of issues of the future. For all of these issues, ‘movere’, ‘docere’, and ‘delectare’ are
suitable strategies. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication,
‘management communication’ is “communication between managers and employees; restricted
to dyads and small groups manager communications manager is a practitioner who makes
strategy or programme decisions concerning communications and is held accountable.”
‘Leadership’ is “the skill and activity of leading others within an organization.” ‘Leadership
communication’ is “the general skills of a leader in communicating to employees in an
organizations; including visionary and transformational abilities to inspire and motivate
employees as well as skills to initiate and maintain conversations.” ‘Crisis management’ is “the
reactive response to a crisis in order to pre-empt or limit damage to the organization’s
reputation.” (Cornelissen) The first attribute of management is the leadership in an organization /
institution. The leadership duties can be divided into the controlling of the past, the handling of
present issues, and the planning of issues of the future. For all of these issues, ‘movere’,
‘docere’, and ‘delectare’ are suitable strategies. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of
Corporate Communication, ‘management communication’ is “communication between
managers and employees; restricted to dyads and small groups manager communications
manager is a practitioner who makes strategy or programme decisions concerning
communications and is held accountable.” ‘Leadership’ is “the skill and activity of leading others
within an organization.” ‘Leadership communication’ is “the general skills of a leader in
communicating to employees in an organizations; including visionary and transformational
abilities to inspire and motivate employees as well as skills to initiate and maintain
conversations.” ‘Crisis management’ is “the reactive response to a crisis in order to pre-empt or
limit damage to the organization’s reputation.” (Cornelissen)
3. Examples and Case Studies of Business Rhetoric
3.1. An Example of Classic Rhetoric in Contemporary Business Context
An example of the use of the classic aims of rhetoric we find in an online business magazine.
Mitchell wrote in Business Rhetoric published in E-Commerce Times on the 1
st
of April 2005:
“There are two types of communication skills: cognitive and discursive. Cognitive skills involve
listening, comprehending and critically analyzing what you hear or read. Discursive
communication represents outgoing attempts to inform, persuade, or entertain. Of those, the
ability to persuade is often the most critical.” (Mitchell) The author adopts the three categories of
classic rhetoric ‘to move’ (‘movere’), ‘to teach’ (‘docere’), and ‘to delight’ (‘delectare’) using
the terms ‘to inform’, ‘to persuade’, and ‘to entertain’ as their equivalent. The distinction
between ‘cognitive communication skills’ and ‘discursive communication skills’ refers to a
context of linguistics of the 20
th
century. The author mentions that such ‘business
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communication skills’ are “the most important skills that any manager or staff person can have.”
(Mitchell)
3.2. An Examples of Specific Business Related Expressions
An example of specific business related expressions is the Business Thesaurus (ed. 2011-12) of
Businessballs. Here the verb ‘to haggle’ has the meanings ‘argue’, ‘barter’, and ‘bargain’ and is
an example of a specific verbal interaction aiming at doing business successful for one’s own
advantage. Also an example for jargon of ‘business communication’ is the verb ‘to highlight’
means ‘to emphasise’, ‘to indicate’, ‘to make obvious’, and ‘to emphasize’. Examples for
specific new meanings of common verbs for activities related to ‘business communication’ are
the verb ‘to inform’ means ‘to tell’, ‘to relate’, ‘to influence’, and ‘to educate’, the verb ‘to
instruct’ means ‘to tell’, ‘to teach’, ‘to train’, ‘to inform’, and ‘to command’, and the verb ‘to
lead’, which means ‘to control’, ‘to ahead’, ‘to guide’, ‘to advantage’, and ‘to direct’. The adverb
‘leading’ means ‘best’, ‘managing’, and ‘inspiring’. The adjective ‘mega’ means ‘impressive’,
‘greatest part’, and ‘very large’. References to the aim of classic rhetoric ‘to motivate’ (‘movere’)
have the noun ‘motion’ means ‘proposal’ and the verb ‘to motivate’, which means ‘to encourage’
and ‘to push’. The noun ‘proposition’, which derived from the liberal arts, means in the Business
Thesaurus ‘plan of action’ or ‘business idea’. (Business Thesaurus)
3.3. The Negative Connotation of Rhetoric in Business Contexts
The specific estimation and connotation of rhetoric and persuasion in the Business Thesaurus,
but also the superficial identification of abstract terms used here, which are actually unrelated,
we can see in the following example. The noun ‘opinion’ means ‘idea’, ‘conviction’,
‘persuasion’, and ‘point of view’. The verb ‘to persuade’ means ‘to press’, ‘to urge’, ‘to
convince’, ‘to induce’, ‘to cajole’, ‘to pressurize’, and ‘to sell’. An example of ambiguity is the
noun ‘vision’, which has the set of the meanings ‘concept’, ‘idea’, ‘notion’, ‘plan’, ‘scheme’, and
‘shape’, ‘dream’, ‘aspiration’, ‘ambition’, ‘wish’, ‘thought’, ‘intent’, and ‘intention’. ‘To press’
has in business contexts the meanings ‘to persuade’, ‘to push’, and ‘to request’. (Business
Thesaurus) In the glossary for Business Communication: Building Critical Skills written by
Braun, Kaczmarek, and Locker ‘persuade’ is “to motivate and convince the audience to act”.
‘Persuasive presentation’ is “a presentation that motivates the audience to act or to believe”.
‘Problem-solving persuasion’ as “a pattern of organization that describes a problem that affects
the reader before offering a solution to the problem”. The ‘rhetorical purpose’ is “the effect the
writer or speaker hopes to have on the audience (to inform, to persuade, to build goodwill)”.
(Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker) An example for the negative connotation of rhetoric in business
communication is in public relations the ‘spin’. This is the “attempt to manipulate the depiction
of news or events in the media through artful public relations; often used with derogatory
connotations.” (Cornelissen)
3.4. New Terms of ‘Business Communication’
With the digital media specific digital media types developed. In the glossary for Business
Communication: Building Critical Skills an example is ‘body’ as “the main part of a letter,
memo, or report.” ‘Headings’ are “words or short phrases that group points and divide your
letter, memo, or report into sections.” Also metaphorical expressions like ‘bridge’ as “a sentence
that connects the attention-getter to the body of a letter” are used in ‘business communication’.
‘Talking heads’ as “headings that are detailed enough to provide an overview of the material in
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the sections they introduce.” A ‘buffer’ is “a neutral or positive statement designed to allow the
writer to bury, or buffer, the negative message.” ‘Build goodwill’ is used for “to create a good
image of yourself and of your organization” and aims at producing “the kind of image that makes
people want to do business with you.” Another example are ‘bullets’ as “large round dots or
squares that set off items in a list.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker)
3.5. Oral and Written Communication in ‘Business Communication’ Terminology
In the glossary of Business Communication: Building Critical Skills Braun, Kaczmarek, and
Locker also describes specific kinds of oral and written ‘business communication’. The glossary
calls ‘business slang’ as “terms that have technical meaning but are used in more general senses.
Used sparingly, these terms are appropriate in job application letters and in messages for people
in the same organization, who are likely to share the vocabulary.” ‘Businessese’ is “a kind of
jargon including unnecessary words. Some words were common 200 to 300 years ago but are no
longer part of spoken English. Some have never been used outside of business writing. All of
these terms should be omitted.” ‘Conversational style’ as “conversational patterns such as speed
and volume of speaking, pauses between speakers, whether questions are direct or indirect.
When different speakers assign different meanings to a specific pattern, miscommunication
results.” ‘Freewriting’ as “a kind of writing uninhibited by any constraints. Freewriting may be
useful in overcoming writer’s block, among other things”. A metaphor is ‘gatekeeper’ as “the
audience with the power to decide whether your message is sent on to other audiences. Some
gatekeepers are also initial audiences.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker)
3.6. ‘Business Communication’ Terms with Structural Relation to Ancient Rhetorical
Terms
In contrast to the glossary of Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, ‘claritas’ in
rhetoric is the clearness of one’s expressions. Structurally related to the term is ‘clear’ used in
‘business communication’ with the meaning “a message whose audience gets the meaning the
writer or speaker intended.” Peroratio or ‘peroration’ is in classic Roman rhetoric the final part
of a speech; in ‘business communication’ the ‘close’ is “the ending of a document”. Topic is the
area of rhetoric that derives arguments found in specific places called ‘topoi’ or ‘loci’. It is also
used for the memorization of the speech. Structurally related is ‘clustering’ as “a method of
thinking up ideas by writing the central topic in the middle of the page, circling it, writing down
the ideas that topic suggests, and circling them.” Metaphor is ‘common ground’ as “values and
goals that the writer and reader share”. ‘Coordinating’ is “planning work, giving directions,
fitting together contributions of group members”. ‘Coordination’ as “the third stage in the life of
a task group, when the group finds, organizes, and interprets information and examines
alternatives and assumptions. This is the longest of the four stages”. ‘Credibility’ is the quality of
the rhetorician to be trustworthy. In ‘business communication’ it is “the audience’s response to
the source of the message”. A special kind of ‘business communication’ is the ‘elimination of
alternatives’ as “a pattern of organization for reports that discusses the problem and its causes,
the impractical solutions and their weaknesses, and finally the solution the writer favors”.
‘Encode’ as “to put ideas into symbols.” This business glossary speaks about the ‘life’ of a task
group. In such a ‘life’, the ‘formation’ as “the second stage in the life of a task group, when
members choose a leader and define the problem they must solve”. ‘Formalization’ is “the fourth
and last stage in the life of a task group, when the group makes and formalizes its decision”.
Related to ‘movere’ as persuasion based upon catching emotions is the phrase ‘checking for
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feelings’ as “identifying the emotions that the previous speaker seemed to be expressing verbally
or nonverbally.” ‘Checking for inferences’ is used for “trying to identify the unspoken content or
feelings implied by what the previous speaker has actually said.” ‘Emotional appeal’ as “making
the audience want to do what the writer or speaker asks”. ‘Empathy’ as “the ability to put oneself
in someone else’s shoes, to feel with that person.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker) Braun,
Kaczmarek, and Locker presented in Business Communication: Building Critical Skills a
glossary of ‘business communication’ terms. From argumentation the glossary used the term
‘assumptions’. ‘Assumptions’ as “statements that are not proven in a report, but on which the
recommendations are based”. (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker) Specific ‘business communication’
terms are used in this glossary. ‘Bias-free language’ has the definition as “language that does not
discriminate against people on the basis of sex, physical condition, race, age, or any other
category.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker)
4. Rhetorical Features of ‘Marketing Communication’, ‘Advertising Communication’,
‘Public Relations Communication’, and ‘Management Communication’
4.1. Rhetorical Features in ‘Marketing Communication’:
The Topological Examples of
‘Networking’, ‘Target Groups’, and ‘Unique Selling Point (USP)’
In this part we look at the topological aspect of marketing communication. Marketing
communication has a segmentation of the field of its applications, which can be compared to the
topic of classical rhetoric. Here the rhetoricians use specific categorical ‘topoi’ or ‘loci’
(‘places’) to memorize a speech or to find arguments. In the settings of public relations,
topological structure are the background for the structure of the market. Abstract groups and
places for selling are parts of the topological structure, marketing uses for the description of the
area it is operating in. ‘Marketing’ is the sum of “those corporate activities aimed at
systematically identifying, satisfying and creating the needs of current and potential market
parties. The optimal form of marketing is a mix of product, price, place and promotion
(marketing communication). Marketing is connected with continuous research of the market, the
current and potential customers. (Toolkit CEPA) ‘Marketing communication’ is the sum of
“those strategic activities – based on research of trends, target groups and/or customers - to
promote the services or products of an organisation based on such principles as “perception is the
only reality”, “it is better to be first than to be best”, “exclusivity is better than imitation” and
other principles of trends in society. The communication is aimed at acquiring a top brain
position for the brand or product. The core business of an organization influences the major
choices of marketing communication strategy, as a consumer oriented business has a different
market than a business to business operation. A nature conservation fund has a different market
than a nature conservation research institute.” (Toolkit CEPA) ‘Networking’ aims at connecting
persons with each other through communication and is a persuasive way aiming to have a
favorable effect from that communication. ‘Networking’ consists of “exchanging information
and establishing personal connections. People network in many different settings: on the
telephone, in hallways, in company lunchrooms, at professional conferences, at trade shows,
company meetings, classrooms, lounges, hallways, elevators, airplanes, trains, busses, hotel
lobbies and waiting rooms. Some networking is carefully planned and some just happens.
Networking is friendly, low-key and essential in our complex society. People network to:
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advance their careers, advance their own business, to increase their impact on the world and to
improve their social lives.” (Toolkit CEPA) ‘Target groups’ are the groups used for specific
audiences that determinate the purpose of the message. A target group is “a group of people
which you need to reach with your communication in order to realize a result. For
communication purposes is better not to view them in terms of statistics but as people of flesh
and blood. It is best to segment the target group as far as possible and identify the opinion
leaders (name, address etc.) to whom face to face communication is possible. It is important to
explore how the target group relates to the biodiversity issue and what would motivate them to
act as desired. One has to realize that for successful communication their perception of the issue
is the starting point. Information about scientific facts will not convince them. Most probably our
issue might not even interest them: it is a fact of life that for any issue there are always many
more people not interested in it than that are interested.” (Toolkit CEPA) Within the topological
framework, the ‘unique selling point’ (‘USP’) is “something that sets your product or service
apart from your competitors' in the eyes and minds of your prospects.” (Toolkit CEPA) So it is
also highly related to advertising and catching the eyes of the audiences in persuasive structures
that are used in ‘public relations communication’ and in ‘marketing communication’.
4.2. Rhetorical Features in ‘Management Communication’:
The Examples of Leadership and ‘Corporate Communication’,
‘Stakeholders’, and ‘Focus Group’
Willis wrote about the function of leadership taught at the Ashridge Business School that
“leadership is a process that can be driven by anyone and everyone at different times. Leadership
is a reciprocal process in that it occurs between people. It is not done solely by one person to
another. So it follows that successful leadership depends far more upon the follower's perception
of the leader's abilities than upon the leader's own perceptions. In many ways, high performing
teams are a direct parallel for the leadership/followership process. High performing teams often
find it easier to identify who is displaying leadership characteristics under certain conditions
rather than having the single person at the top.” Willis mentioned that “leadership is bringing
your team’s collective skills to bear in order to find your right place on the model. Good
communication, which equates to effective leadership/followership in organisations today, is in
large part dependent upon achieving respect and credibility. From the perspective of the soft side
alone, it is often about encouraging change and demonstrating skillful influencing skills. Such
skills command respect and give credibility, but without a firm foundation of the sort of business
savvy and commercial acumen as described here, they will be exposed as unrealistic and will not
amount to real leadership credibility.” (Willis) ‘Corporate communication’ aims at
communication structures and contents that represent the organization / company. In contrast to
personal communication, the ‘corporate communication’ is not the carrier of an individual
person communicating. According to the CEPA Toolkit, ‘corporate communication’ is “a
management instrument that is used to harmonise all forms of communication in such a way that
the Ministry acquires and/or retains the image it wishes to acquire and/or retain among its target
groups and customers (both internal and external). Two key concepts in relation to corporate
communication are image and identity. In successful organizations corporate communication is a
priority of the top executives”. (Toolkit CEPA) Among the groups involved in corporate
business, we have the group of stakeholders, which are all persons involved in the business of a
cooperation / organisation. ‘Stakeholders’ are “those people or organisations, which are vital to
the success or failure of an organization or project to reach its goals. The primary stakeholders
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are (a.) those needed for permission, approval and financial support and (b.) those who are
directly affected by the activities of the organization or project. Secondary stakeholders are those
who are indirectly affected. Tertiary stakeholders are those who are not affected or involved, but
who can influence opinions either for or against.” (Toolkit CEPA) A ‘focus group’ is described
as follows: It is “a major tool for listening is the use of focus groups. A focus group is a non-
directive type of interviewing a specific social group: a segment of consumers, voters or
stakeholders in a policy issue. It is a technique in commercial and social marketing. It draws on
group interaction to gain greater insight into why certain opinions are held. Focus groups are
used to improve planning and design of new products or programs, to provide means for
evaluation and to provide insights and qualitative data for communication and marketing
strategies. Good consumer-orientated companies have been using focus groups for years.
Increasingly they are used in politics, policymaking and policy implementation.” (Toolkit CEPA)
4.3. Rhetorical Features in ‘Advertising Communication’:
The Examples of ‘Massage’, ‘Visual Impact’, and ‘Branding’
‘Advertising’ comprises “those forms of PR and marketing communication aimed at the
influencing and /or promoting purchasing behavior with regard to the services and products of
the organisation. Successful advertising is based on principles such as “perception is the only
reality”, “one pictures is more powerful than a thousand words”, “emotion is what triggers
action”. Advertising tools range from billboards and TV spots to direct mail”. (Toolkit CEPA) In
the advertisements a ‘message’ is transferred. The ‘message’ of communication is “the content
one sends to the receiver. In communication planning one formulates the message in terms of the
desired residue of the communication in the mind of the receiver. These are often one-liners,
with an emotional undertone appealing to the values of the receiver and inviting him/her to the
desired attitudes or actions. The message is always transmitted by a person or by other means.
The body language or the choice of the medium has to support the message, if not the result can
be counter productive (‘the medium is the message’)”. (Toolkit CEPA) Of course, besides the
written tool for a message, the oral way of sending a message, and the visual way of sending a
message are used. ‘Visual impact’ is “the visual "first impression" you get when you look at a
page”. (Toolkit CEPA)
4.4. The Rhetoricity of Marketing: The Case of Branding
Branding is the “use of texts and or images to create a specific image and positive associations
for a person, organization, product or service”. (Toolkit CEPA) The marketing brand is a
persuasive tool aiming at the establishment, memorization, and image building of the product of
a company by a common recognizable set of written statements and visual carriers of the
message. It implies that the product has more values than it has actually based upon the product
itself. The values of the marketing brand are ‘irreal’ and fall into the area of acceptance and
persuasion of the audience. The attributes of the branding are ‘irreal’ values that are recognizable
connoted to the product and the company aiming at the favorable presentation of the product and
the company / organization related to it. Branding builds up structures that are related to the
values and images and communicated tools in the public relation communication of the company
/ organization. Among the classical features of the rhetorical aims, the function of docere is
related to it. In the following part we look at the features of brands and the terminology of it
related to marketing. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication, ‘direct
marketing’ is “all activities which make it possible to offer goods or services or to transmit other
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messages to a segment of the population by post, telephone, email or other direct means.” A
‘brand’ is the “set of physical attributes of a product or service, together with the beliefs and
expectations surrounding it – a unique combination which the name or logo of the product or
service should evoke in the mind of the audience.” ‘Brand acceptance’ is “the condition wherein
an individual, usually a customer, is well disposed towards a brand and will accept credible
messages.” ‘Brand awareness’ is the “condition wherein an individual, usually a customer, is
aware of the brand.” ‘Brand equity’ is “the notion that a respected brand name adds to the value
of a product (and therefore generates returns to an organization upon customer purchase).”
‘Brand image’ is the “perception of a brand in the eyes of an individual, usually a customer.”
‘Brand loyalty’ is the “extent to which individuals, usually customers, repurchase (or utilize) a
particular branded product or service.” ‘Brand management’ is the “process by which marketers
attempt to optimize the ‘marketing mix’ for a specific brand.” ‘Brand positioning’ is “the way in
which a brand is communicated to its target market, describing the attributes and values of the
brand and its added value/appeal relative to its customers and the competition.” ‘Branded
identity’ is “a structure whereby businesses and product brands of an organization each carry
their own name (without endorsement by the parent company) and are seemingly unrelated to
each other.” (Cornelissen)
4.5. Rhetorical Features in ‘PR Communication’:
The Examples of ‘docere’ as Teaching in PR, ‘House Style’, and ‘Lobbying’
Using the ‘Docere’ in PR
In the CEPA Toolkit the method of teaching in order to be successful in ‘business
communication’ is exposed. According to the CEPA Toolkit, adult learning is “a specific
methodology for education of professionals and adults. It differs from the methods used in the
formal education system as adults learn best when learning is accomplished through dialogue, •
they feel respected as responsible self directed learners, they feel their knowledge and experience
are valued and can be shared, they feel able to trust, sense safety in the learning environment,
they see how the skill or information is relevant to their lives or their work, and when they see
that the information or skill is immediately useful in performing tasks or to deal with problems
they confront in their lives.” Advertising are “those forms of PR and marketing communication
aimed at the influencing and /or promoting purchasing behaviour with regard to the services and
products of the organisation. Successful advertising is based on principles such as “perception is
the only reality”, “one pictures is more powerful than a thousand words”, “emotion is what
triggers action”. Advertising tools range from billboards and TV spots to direct mail.” (Toolkit
CEPA)
‘House Style’ as a PR Tool and Tool for ‘Corporate Identity’
The ‘house style’ of an organisation presents the organization as a unit towards the outside
world. The style per se is a rhetorical form; in classic rhetoric a distinction between the low
style, the middle style, and the high style exists. The ‘house style’ of a company or organization
is determinated by the common visual and written forms of appearance towards an audience.
The ‘house style’ of an organisation is “the codification of the rules how to communicate
externally. A house style manual contains standards with regard to logo, colours, lay out,
typography etc. in all forms of written communication. It also contains procedures and standards
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for oral communication and organizational behaviour. House style is an instrument of corporate
communication and culture. It is closely connected with marketing. In successful organisations
management and control of house style is a priority of the top executives”. (Toolkit CEPA)
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References
Aristotle. Ars Rhetorica. Ed. W. D. Ross. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959. Perseus Project. Tufts
University. September 23, 2012.
.
Aristotle. Rhetoric. Aristotle in 23 Volumes. Vol. 22. Tr. J. H. Freese. Cambridge and London: Harvard
University Press; William Heinemann Ltd., 1926. Perseus Project. Tufts University. September 23, 2012.
.
Braun, Kathryn; Kaczmarek, Steven Kyo; Locker, Kitty O.: Business Communication: Building
Critical Skills. First Canadian Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. August 23, 2012.
.
Business Thesaurus. Ed. 2011-12. Businessballs. August 23, 2012.
.
Carbajo, Marco. “Credibility”. Business Resources. Jun 25, 2012. Dun & Bradstreet Credibility
Corporation. August 23, 2012.
.
Cornelissen, Joep. Glossary of Corporate Communication. Sage Publishing. August 23, 2012.
.
Mitchell, Anthony. “Business Rhetoric”. E-Commerce Times. 1
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of April 2005. August 23, 2012.
.
Putnam, Mike. “Ethos / Credibility”. COMS 4302: Modern Public Address. Department of
Communication. The University of Texas Arlington. September 23, 2012.
.
Toolkit CEPA Glossary. Ed. Frits Hesselink. Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD), and
the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). August 23,
2012.
Business as the exchange of goods within trade situations can easily associated with basic features of traditional rhetoric. When we look at the exchange situation, we can state that the main objective as described above is the exchange of goods; in the traditional fields of study of rhetoric, the main aims of the rhetorician are to move ('movere'), to teach ('docere'), and to delight ('delectare') as stated by Roman rhetoricians.
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CREATING ‘BUSINESS RHETORIC’.
TERMINOLOGICAL EXCHANGE OF RHETORIC AND ‘BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION’ IN CONTEMPORARY BUSINESS.
Fee-Alexandra Haase
University of Nizwa in Oman
Abstract
This article focuses on the various aspects of congruence between the system of ancient rhetoric
as the first discipline for public communication and modern ‘business communication’ that just
recently entered the sector of higher education. We discuss the implementation of traditional
rhetorical concepts in business communication and examine examples of its application, present
a model of business rhetoric for the main branches of ‘business communication’ (management,
public relations, advertising, and marketing), and look at the distinct features of rhetoric within
business communication and the general differences between the discipline rhetoric and the field
of business and its communicative needs.
Keywords: CREATING ; BUSINESS RHETORIC; TERMINOLOGICAL EXCHANGE ;
RHETORIC ; BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ; CONTEMPORARY BUSINESS.
1. Introduction to Rhetoric for Business Studies –
Commonly Shared Aspects and Definition of Rhetoric and Rhetoric Features
1.1. The Differences Between ‘Business Communication’ and Rhetoric:
As ‘Belief’ of the Business Maker vs. the Application of the ‘Science of Rhetoric’
Business as the exchange of goods within trade situations can easily associated with basic
features of traditional rhetoric. When we look at the exchange situation, we can state that the
main objective as described above is the exchange of goods; in the traditional fields of study of
rhetoric, the main aims of the rhetorician are to move (‘movere’), to teach (‘docere’), and to
delight (‘delectare’) as stated by Roman rhetoricians. The aspect of movement can be associated
to any business activity and also can be considered as a main function of management (see also
below). ‘Docere’ refers to the teaching activities of the business company /organization towards
the public audience instructing the persons ‘outside’ about the company / organization. Also
marketing and advertisement can be considered to a lesser degree as the parts of business that use
the function of ‘docere’. ‘Delectare’ can be associated with the function of entertainment;
advertising and public relations as the place for the related events aim at entertainment as a
persuasive tool. Aristotle writes in his Rhetoric (2.1.) as definition of rhetoric (????????):
“Rhetoric then may be defined as the faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in
reference to any subject whatever. This is the function of no other of the arts, each of which is
able to instruct and persuade in its own special subject; thus, medicine deals with health and
sickness, geometry with the properties of magnitudes, arithmetic with number, and similarly with
all the other arts and sciences. But Rhetoric, so to say, appears to be able to discover the means
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of persuasion in reference to any given subject. That is why we say that as an art its rules are not
applied to any particular definite class of things.” (Aristotle) Aristotle mentions in his Rhetoric
(2.11): “Now, that which is persuasive is persuasive in reference to someone, and is persuasive
and convincing either at once and in and by itself, or because it appears to be proved by
propositions that are convincing.” (Aristotle) In contrast, Cornelissen in the Glossary of
Corporate Communication made the following definition of ‘persuasion’: “A means by which a
person or organization tries to influence and convince another person to believe something or do
something, using reasoning and coaxing in a compelling and convincing way :“A persuasive
strategy is according to Cornelissen a “process of communication in which an organization,
through campaigns, meetings and discussions with stakeholders, tries to change and tune the
knowledge, attitude, and behaviours of stakeholders in a way that is favorable to the
organization.” (Cornelissen) A relative new area of higher education is teaching in the field
‘business communication’. Within this academic framework placed within departments for
business studies or English departments with courses focusing on business skills of students,
business rhetoric is treated as a part of curricula of colleges and universities. The terminology of
business rhetoric we can group according to the topics or areas of ‘business communication’ they
cover. So we have an the one hand business rhetoric for management, public relations,
marketing, and advertising and on the other hand we have special topics from business studies
that rely on traditional fields of rhetoric for business concerns. Another aspect of business
rhetoric is the rhetorical strategies and tools of persuasion that developed and originated out of
the fields of practical business or business research and education in business. Traditionally, a
negative connotation of rhetoric as an application of ‘false statements’ in contrast to ‘truth’ is
associated within business studies, which are not aware of the complexity of rhetoric. Business
rhetoric as a specific area of business is not related to the traditional or modern conceptions
about rhetoric, which still stand in the classic tradition. We can distinguish higher and lower
‘business communication’. Higher ‘business communication’ aims at the strategies of conducting
business, while lower ‘business communication’ is the communication aims to perform single
actions for conduction a business. ‘Business communication’ is divided into the formal aspects
of communication aiming at business conduction using several means, the different fields of
‘business communication’ like management communication, advertising communication,
marketing communication, and public relations communication, and the hierarchical aspects of
hierarchical communication within a communication unit like an organisation or a company.
‘Business communication’ aims at the change of things by making business, while rhetoric is
concerned with words. Of course, rhetoric aims at moving in a persuasive way with the use of
words the things in reality in a favorable way for the rhetorician. ‘Business communication’ is
aiming at any persuasive activity that serves the aims of the business. ‘Business communication’
in many cases of the professional field turns out the be a field of belief in the established rules of
being right and having power as well as persuading others in their opinions. ‘Business
communication’ as higher ‘business communication’ also operates upon set values and ethics as
unreal binders between the business as the simple exchange of goods adding unreal values in
order to make the products or services more attractive. So ‘business communication’ is a simple
exchange of goods with the addition of a belief system as a mixture of knowledge taken from
other sources and connected to the business in order to make it more attractive and valuable. On
the contrary, rhetoric is an art and a science. Aristotle in his Rhetoric (1.11-12) describes this art
and science as follows: “It is clear, then, that all other rhetoricians bring under the rules of art
what is outside the subject, and have rather inclined to the forensic branch of oratory.
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Nevertheless, Rhetoric is useful, because the true and the just are naturally superior to their
opposites, so that, if decisions are improperly made, they must owe their defeat to their own
advocates; which is reprehensible. Further, in dealing with certain persons, even if we possessed
the most accurate scientific knowledge, we should not find it easy to persuade them by the
employment of such knowledge. For scientific discourse is concerned with instruction, but in the
case of such persons instruction is impossible”. (Aristotle) Aristotle describes in his Rhetoric
(1.1.1-2) rhetoric as a science (????????, episteme), which is not related to a special issue:
“Rhetoric is a counterpart of Dialectic; for both have to do with matters that are in a manner
within the cognizance of all men and not confined to any special science. Hence all men in a
manner have a share of both; for all, up to a certain point, endeavor to criticize or uphold an
argument, to defend themselves or to accuse. Now, the majority of people do this either at
random or with a familiarity arising from habit. But since both these ways are possible, it is clear
that matters can be reduced to a system, for it is possible to examine the reason why some attain
their end by familiarity and others by chance; and such an examination all would at once admit
to be the function of an art.” (Aristotle)
1.2. A Comparison: Credibility and ‘Business Communication’
Rhetorical ‘Ethos’ and ‘Credibility’ of ‘Business Communication’
Since Aristotle, it is asserted that the use of ethos (moral character) is a means of persuasion
based upon the trust in a speaker with ethics; it allows building a speech that persuades. Practical
advisors for ‘business communication’ mention as a key feature of the success of communication
and their business the quality of ‘credibility’. Let’s take the example of the writer Carbajo who
mentioned in Business Resources of Dun & Bradstreet Credibility Corporation that “credibility
impacts all facets of business and is one of the most important assets for a company to have. It is
the barometer by which customers, lenders, potential partners, potential employees, and others
judge you and your company. Credibility instills belief in your business and how it handles its
customers, business relationships, communications, brand image, etc. With strong credibility,
you have an established trust and dependability factor that is priceless in today’s business
environment.” (Carbajo) The question ‘So What Makes a Business Credible?” Carbajo answers
as follows: “A credible business can be defined differently depending on the individual,
company, or organization reviewing it. While each one has its own defining methods, there are
certain areas every business should focus on. Here are five common methods used to assess the
credibility of a business: 1.Capability, 2.Character, 3.Communication, 4.Compliance, and
5.Creditworthiness (Carbajo) Willis, a professional from the Ashridge Business School in the
United Kingdom in Communication Leadership Credibility wrote: “One of the areas where the
diverse skills of strategy, leadership, team-working, politics, influencing, motivation, finance and
performance measures come together is in the approach an organisation takes to communicating
its vision, strategy or even its current performance”. For Willis, “this is not just periodic
communication at specific timetabled planning and reporting deadlines but continuous
communication. The communication style can have a marked impact regardless of whether it is
between levels of the organisation or within them.”
Willis wrote that the ‘best communicators’
choose a ‘balance of fact and emotion’ that inspires without jeopardizing trust.” (Willis) The
concept of ‘credibility’ is used in ‘business communication’ and its education as a set of values
not based upon knowledge; this irrational element refers to the irrational value setting activities
of ‘additional irreal qualities’ sold with the product / service. Willis characterizes the approach to
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the Ashridge Business School with a credo that “at Ashridge we strongly believe it is an
oversimplification to assume leadership is linked inextricably with the individual. We challenge
the notion of the hero leader who can achieve success in any context.” (Willis)
1.3. ‘Ethos’ in Rhetoric and ‘Credibility’ in ‘Business Communication’
Putnam wrote in Ethos / Credibility as definition of ‘ethos’: “An attitude held by the receiver (the
audience) toward the speaker (the source). We commonly refer to this as source credibility, the
prestige of the speaker, and personal proof. Ethos can be initial (the beginning of the message), it
can be derived (produced during the message) and it can be terminal (source credibility at the
close of the message. Ethos is in the mind of the receiver; the receiver has it; we as an audience
determine if the communicator is credible. The ethos of a source may vary greatly; especially if
he/she is controversial. And the ethos may vary even within the same message. We commonly
and mistakenly speak as if the source has the ethos. The source may be a group or organization;
does not have to be an individual. Ethos is dynamic; always subject to change; may even be
volatile.” (Putnam) Aristotle wrote in the Rhetoric (1.12) about the usefulness of rhetoric based
upon its reliance of the ‘just’: “Nevertheless, Rhetoric is useful, because the true and the just are
naturally superior to their opposites, so that, if decisions are improperly made, they must owe
their defeat to their own advocates; which is reprehensible. Further, in dealing with certain
persons, even if we possessed the most accurate scientific knowledge, we should not find it easy
to persuade them by the employment of such knowledge. For scientific discourse is concerned
with instruction,
14
but in the case of such persons instruction is impossible; our proofs and
arguments must rest on generally accepted principles, as we said in the Topics, when speaking of
converse with the multitude.” (Aristotle) Aristotle writes in the Rhetoric (2.4.) about ‘ethos’ and
the character of the rhetorician: “The orator persuades by moral character when his speech is
delivered in such a manner as to render him worthy of confidence; for we feel confidence in a
greater degree and more readily in persons of worth in regard to everything in general, but where
there is no certainty and there is room for doubt, our confidence is absolute. But this confidence
must be due to the speech itself, not to any preconceived idea of the speaker's character; for it is
not the case, as some writers of rhetorical treatises lay down in their “Art,” that the worth of the
orator in no way contributes to his powers of persuasion; on the contrary, moral character, so to
say, constitutes the most effective means of proof. (Aristotle) (Aristotle) Aristotle also mentions
the argument why rhetoric is actually limited not addressing the area of specific communication
like ‘business communication’; it aims at the use and is the science of words, and in any other
case it would utilize the words as tools for things. Aristotle writes in the Rhetoric (4.5: “ For
what we have said before is true: that Rhetoric is composed of analytical science and of that
branch of political science which is concerned with Ethics, and that it resembles partly Dialectic
and partly sophistical arguments.” “???? ??? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????,
??? ? ???????? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????????,
????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ??????????? ??????.” (Aristotle)
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2. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Education and Practical Fields
2.1. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Public Relations
Rhetorical features of ‘business communication’ in public relations are of course developing
from the two parties that communicate as the company / organization who presents itself via
public relations and its audience. Public Relations have developed various ways of a company
/organization to keep in contact with a general public or specialized audiences. So the rhetorical
means or tools employed can vary depending on the chosen format or way of presentation to the
audience. The major aim the rhetorical means are placed in within these settings is to build
positive relations between the institution / organisation and the chosen public audience.
Indirectly, the company / organisation aims at a positive effect for the actual business. So it is an
indirect ‘business communication’ situation. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate
Communication, ‘public relations’ is the “function or activity that aims to establish and protect
the reputation of a company or brand, and to create mutual understanding between the
organization and the segments of the public with whom it needs to communicate.” ‘Corporate
public relations’ is the “public relations activities towards ‘corporate’ stakeholders, which
excludes customers and prospects in a market. It includes issues management, community
relations, investor relations, media relations, internal communication and public affairs.” ‘Public
people’ are people “who mobilize themselves against the organization on the basis of some
common issue or concern to them.” ‘Public affairs’ is “the public policy aspect of corporate
communication.” ‘Public information’ is the “use of writers and publicists to inform and reassure
the general public of corporate practices; often used to describe communications before the
Second World War.” (Cornelissen)
2.2. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Advertising
Rhetorical features of ‘business communication’ in advertising are of course the persuasive
means of the figures of speech and figures of words, which make the text rhetorically appealing
to the audience that shall be ‘captures’ to respond to the advertisements aiming at the purchase of
the offered products or services. The rhetorical features are all related to the advertisement as the
means or tools for selling the product. In most advertisements, the text or written language or
spoken language is used for the advertisements, but also visual and media means are employed.
According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication, ‘advertisement’ is a “paid-
for dedicated space or time in which only the advertiser is represented.” ‘Advertising’ is the
“process of gaining the public’s attention through paid media announcements.” Am ‘advertising
agency’ is “an agency specializing in advertising and other marketing comm unications on behalf
of a client organization.” An ‘advertising campaign” is a “planned use and scheduling of
advertising over a defined period of time.” ‘Advertising media’ are “paid-for communications
channels such as newspaper (print) ortelevision.” The ‘advertising value equivalent (AVE)’ is “a
measure of evaluating press publicity by counting the column inches of press publicity and
seconds of air time gained and then multiplying the total by the advertising rate of the media in
which the coverage appeared.” ‘Corporate advertising’ is “advertising by a firm where the
corporate entity, rather than solely its products or services, is emphasized.” (Cornelissen)
2.3. Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Marketing
Rhetorical features of ‘business communication’ in marketing aim at the special persuasive
situation of selling. All rhetorical activities concentrate on the selling of the product / services of
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the company / organization. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication,
‘marketing’ is the “management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying
customer requirements profitably.” ‘Marketing communications’ means “all methods
(advertising, direct marketing, sales promotion, personal selling, and marketing public relations)
used by a firm to communicate with its customers and prospective customers.” The ‘market’ is a
“defined group for whom a product is or may be in demand (and for whom an organization
creates and maintains products and service offerings).” ‘Market development’ is the “process of
growing sales by offering existing products (or new versions of them) to new customer groups
(as opposed to simply attempting to increase the company’s share of current markets).” ‘Market
orientation’ is the “steadfast adherence to the marketing concept: an approach in which customer
needs and wants are the underlying determinants of an organization’s direction and its marketing
programmes.” ‘Market penetration’ is the “attempt to grow one’s business by obtaining a larger
market share in an existing market.” ‘Market research’ is the “gathering and analysis of data
relating to marketplaces or customers; any research which leads to more market knowledge and
betterinformed decision-making.” ‘Market segmentation’ is the “division of the marketplace into
distinct subgroups or segments, each characterized by particular tastes and requiring a specific
marketing mix Market share A company’s sales of a given product or set of products to a given
set of customers, expressed as a percentage of total sales of all such products to such customers.”
‘Market structure’ is the “character of an industry, based on the number of firms, barriers to
entry, extent of product differentiation, control over price, and the importance of non-price
competition.” ‘Marketing audit’ is a “comprehensive and systematic review and appraisal of
every aspect of a firm’s marketing programme, its organization, activities, strategies and people.”
A ’marketing concept’ is the “process by which the marketer responds to the needs and wants of
the consumer.” The ‘marketing mix’ is the “combination of marketing inputs that affect customer
motivation and behaviour. These inputs traditionally encompass four controllable variables, ‘the
4 Ps’: Product, Price, Promotion and Place.” ‘Marketing objective’ is a “market target to be
achieved reflecting corporate strategy Marketing public relations The use of what are
traditionally seen as public relations tools (media, free publicity) within marketing programmes
that are used to reach marketing objectives.” The ‘marketing strategy’ is the “set of objectives
which an organization allocates to its marketing function in order to support the overall corporate
strategy, together with the broad methods chosen to achieve these objectives.” (Cornelissen)
2.4. General Rhetorical Features of ‘Business Communication’ in Management
Of course the major function of management in a hierarchical perspective is to have the
leadership in a company or organization. The aim of rhetoric, to persuade, can be considered as a
quality of the leader. On other words, leadership and rhetoric are closely related. Commonly,
management is defined as the faculty of realizing aims through the use of means and humans.
Using someone or something as a means or tool for one’s own aims is the quintessence of
management. As a special component, also the question of ethics is touched here, when it comes
to business rhetoric. Traditional classic rhetoric as defined by Quintilian as ars bene dicendi, the
‘art to speak well’ or ‘technique to speak well’, contains two dimensions of the good: On the one
hand the ‘good’ as the good quality of speaking, on the other hand the ‘good’ as the ethically
acting speech of the rhetorician.
PR Indirect Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
Advertisement Indirect Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
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Marketing Direct Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
Management Direct Rhetoric for ‘Business Communication’ Situation
Direct and Indirect Rhetoric in ‘Business Communication’ Situation
The first attribute of management is the leadership in an organization / institution. The leadership
duties can be divided into the controlling of the past, the handling of present issues, and the
planning of issues of the future. For all of these issues, ‘movere’, ‘docere’, and ‘delectare’ are
suitable strategies. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication,
‘management communication’ is “communication between managers and employees; restricted
to dyads and small groups manager communications manager is a practitioner who makes
strategy or programme decisions concerning communications and is held accountable.”
‘Leadership’ is “the skill and activity of leading others within an organization.” ‘Leadership
communication’ is “the general skills of a leader in communicating to employees in an
organizations; including visionary and transformational abilities to inspire and motivate
employees as well as skills to initiate and maintain conversations.” ‘Crisis management’ is “the
reactive response to a crisis in order to pre-empt or limit damage to the organization’s
reputation.” (Cornelissen) The first attribute of management is the leadership in an organization /
institution. The leadership duties can be divided into the controlling of the past, the handling of
present issues, and the planning of issues of the future. For all of these issues, ‘movere’,
‘docere’, and ‘delectare’ are suitable strategies. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of
Corporate Communication, ‘management communication’ is “communication between
managers and employees; restricted to dyads and small groups manager communications
manager is a practitioner who makes strategy or programme decisions concerning
communications and is held accountable.” ‘Leadership’ is “the skill and activity of leading others
within an organization.” ‘Leadership communication’ is “the general skills of a leader in
communicating to employees in an organizations; including visionary and transformational
abilities to inspire and motivate employees as well as skills to initiate and maintain
conversations.” ‘Crisis management’ is “the reactive response to a crisis in order to pre-empt or
limit damage to the organization’s reputation.” (Cornelissen)
3. Examples and Case Studies of Business Rhetoric
3.1. An Example of Classic Rhetoric in Contemporary Business Context
An example of the use of the classic aims of rhetoric we find in an online business magazine.
Mitchell wrote in Business Rhetoric published in E-Commerce Times on the 1
st
of April 2005:
“There are two types of communication skills: cognitive and discursive. Cognitive skills involve
listening, comprehending and critically analyzing what you hear or read. Discursive
communication represents outgoing attempts to inform, persuade, or entertain. Of those, the
ability to persuade is often the most critical.” (Mitchell) The author adopts the three categories of
classic rhetoric ‘to move’ (‘movere’), ‘to teach’ (‘docere’), and ‘to delight’ (‘delectare’) using
the terms ‘to inform’, ‘to persuade’, and ‘to entertain’ as their equivalent. The distinction
between ‘cognitive communication skills’ and ‘discursive communication skills’ refers to a
context of linguistics of the 20
th
century. The author mentions that such ‘business
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communication skills’ are “the most important skills that any manager or staff person can have.”
(Mitchell)
3.2. An Examples of Specific Business Related Expressions
An example of specific business related expressions is the Business Thesaurus (ed. 2011-12) of
Businessballs. Here the verb ‘to haggle’ has the meanings ‘argue’, ‘barter’, and ‘bargain’ and is
an example of a specific verbal interaction aiming at doing business successful for one’s own
advantage. Also an example for jargon of ‘business communication’ is the verb ‘to highlight’
means ‘to emphasise’, ‘to indicate’, ‘to make obvious’, and ‘to emphasize’. Examples for
specific new meanings of common verbs for activities related to ‘business communication’ are
the verb ‘to inform’ means ‘to tell’, ‘to relate’, ‘to influence’, and ‘to educate’, the verb ‘to
instruct’ means ‘to tell’, ‘to teach’, ‘to train’, ‘to inform’, and ‘to command’, and the verb ‘to
lead’, which means ‘to control’, ‘to ahead’, ‘to guide’, ‘to advantage’, and ‘to direct’. The adverb
‘leading’ means ‘best’, ‘managing’, and ‘inspiring’. The adjective ‘mega’ means ‘impressive’,
‘greatest part’, and ‘very large’. References to the aim of classic rhetoric ‘to motivate’ (‘movere’)
have the noun ‘motion’ means ‘proposal’ and the verb ‘to motivate’, which means ‘to encourage’
and ‘to push’. The noun ‘proposition’, which derived from the liberal arts, means in the Business
Thesaurus ‘plan of action’ or ‘business idea’. (Business Thesaurus)
3.3. The Negative Connotation of Rhetoric in Business Contexts
The specific estimation and connotation of rhetoric and persuasion in the Business Thesaurus,
but also the superficial identification of abstract terms used here, which are actually unrelated,
we can see in the following example. The noun ‘opinion’ means ‘idea’, ‘conviction’,
‘persuasion’, and ‘point of view’. The verb ‘to persuade’ means ‘to press’, ‘to urge’, ‘to
convince’, ‘to induce’, ‘to cajole’, ‘to pressurize’, and ‘to sell’. An example of ambiguity is the
noun ‘vision’, which has the set of the meanings ‘concept’, ‘idea’, ‘notion’, ‘plan’, ‘scheme’, and
‘shape’, ‘dream’, ‘aspiration’, ‘ambition’, ‘wish’, ‘thought’, ‘intent’, and ‘intention’. ‘To press’
has in business contexts the meanings ‘to persuade’, ‘to push’, and ‘to request’. (Business
Thesaurus) In the glossary for Business Communication: Building Critical Skills written by
Braun, Kaczmarek, and Locker ‘persuade’ is “to motivate and convince the audience to act”.
‘Persuasive presentation’ is “a presentation that motivates the audience to act or to believe”.
‘Problem-solving persuasion’ as “a pattern of organization that describes a problem that affects
the reader before offering a solution to the problem”. The ‘rhetorical purpose’ is “the effect the
writer or speaker hopes to have on the audience (to inform, to persuade, to build goodwill)”.
(Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker) An example for the negative connotation of rhetoric in business
communication is in public relations the ‘spin’. This is the “attempt to manipulate the depiction
of news or events in the media through artful public relations; often used with derogatory
connotations.” (Cornelissen)
3.4. New Terms of ‘Business Communication’
With the digital media specific digital media types developed. In the glossary for Business
Communication: Building Critical Skills an example is ‘body’ as “the main part of a letter,
memo, or report.” ‘Headings’ are “words or short phrases that group points and divide your
letter, memo, or report into sections.” Also metaphorical expressions like ‘bridge’ as “a sentence
that connects the attention-getter to the body of a letter” are used in ‘business communication’.
‘Talking heads’ as “headings that are detailed enough to provide an overview of the material in
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the sections they introduce.” A ‘buffer’ is “a neutral or positive statement designed to allow the
writer to bury, or buffer, the negative message.” ‘Build goodwill’ is used for “to create a good
image of yourself and of your organization” and aims at producing “the kind of image that makes
people want to do business with you.” Another example are ‘bullets’ as “large round dots or
squares that set off items in a list.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker)
3.5. Oral and Written Communication in ‘Business Communication’ Terminology
In the glossary of Business Communication: Building Critical Skills Braun, Kaczmarek, and
Locker also describes specific kinds of oral and written ‘business communication’. The glossary
calls ‘business slang’ as “terms that have technical meaning but are used in more general senses.
Used sparingly, these terms are appropriate in job application letters and in messages for people
in the same organization, who are likely to share the vocabulary.” ‘Businessese’ is “a kind of
jargon including unnecessary words. Some words were common 200 to 300 years ago but are no
longer part of spoken English. Some have never been used outside of business writing. All of
these terms should be omitted.” ‘Conversational style’ as “conversational patterns such as speed
and volume of speaking, pauses between speakers, whether questions are direct or indirect.
When different speakers assign different meanings to a specific pattern, miscommunication
results.” ‘Freewriting’ as “a kind of writing uninhibited by any constraints. Freewriting may be
useful in overcoming writer’s block, among other things”. A metaphor is ‘gatekeeper’ as “the
audience with the power to decide whether your message is sent on to other audiences. Some
gatekeepers are also initial audiences.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker)
3.6. ‘Business Communication’ Terms with Structural Relation to Ancient Rhetorical
Terms
In contrast to the glossary of Business Communication: Building Critical Skills, ‘claritas’ in
rhetoric is the clearness of one’s expressions. Structurally related to the term is ‘clear’ used in
‘business communication’ with the meaning “a message whose audience gets the meaning the
writer or speaker intended.” Peroratio or ‘peroration’ is in classic Roman rhetoric the final part
of a speech; in ‘business communication’ the ‘close’ is “the ending of a document”. Topic is the
area of rhetoric that derives arguments found in specific places called ‘topoi’ or ‘loci’. It is also
used for the memorization of the speech. Structurally related is ‘clustering’ as “a method of
thinking up ideas by writing the central topic in the middle of the page, circling it, writing down
the ideas that topic suggests, and circling them.” Metaphor is ‘common ground’ as “values and
goals that the writer and reader share”. ‘Coordinating’ is “planning work, giving directions,
fitting together contributions of group members”. ‘Coordination’ as “the third stage in the life of
a task group, when the group finds, organizes, and interprets information and examines
alternatives and assumptions. This is the longest of the four stages”. ‘Credibility’ is the quality of
the rhetorician to be trustworthy. In ‘business communication’ it is “the audience’s response to
the source of the message”. A special kind of ‘business communication’ is the ‘elimination of
alternatives’ as “a pattern of organization for reports that discusses the problem and its causes,
the impractical solutions and their weaknesses, and finally the solution the writer favors”.
‘Encode’ as “to put ideas into symbols.” This business glossary speaks about the ‘life’ of a task
group. In such a ‘life’, the ‘formation’ as “the second stage in the life of a task group, when
members choose a leader and define the problem they must solve”. ‘Formalization’ is “the fourth
and last stage in the life of a task group, when the group makes and formalizes its decision”.
Related to ‘movere’ as persuasion based upon catching emotions is the phrase ‘checking for
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feelings’ as “identifying the emotions that the previous speaker seemed to be expressing verbally
or nonverbally.” ‘Checking for inferences’ is used for “trying to identify the unspoken content or
feelings implied by what the previous speaker has actually said.” ‘Emotional appeal’ as “making
the audience want to do what the writer or speaker asks”. ‘Empathy’ as “the ability to put oneself
in someone else’s shoes, to feel with that person.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker) Braun,
Kaczmarek, and Locker presented in Business Communication: Building Critical Skills a
glossary of ‘business communication’ terms. From argumentation the glossary used the term
‘assumptions’. ‘Assumptions’ as “statements that are not proven in a report, but on which the
recommendations are based”. (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker) Specific ‘business communication’
terms are used in this glossary. ‘Bias-free language’ has the definition as “language that does not
discriminate against people on the basis of sex, physical condition, race, age, or any other
category.” (Braun, Kaczmarek, Locker)
4. Rhetorical Features of ‘Marketing Communication’, ‘Advertising Communication’,
‘Public Relations Communication’, and ‘Management Communication’
4.1. Rhetorical Features in ‘Marketing Communication’:
The Topological Examples of
‘Networking’, ‘Target Groups’, and ‘Unique Selling Point (USP)’
In this part we look at the topological aspect of marketing communication. Marketing
communication has a segmentation of the field of its applications, which can be compared to the
topic of classical rhetoric. Here the rhetoricians use specific categorical ‘topoi’ or ‘loci’
(‘places’) to memorize a speech or to find arguments. In the settings of public relations,
topological structure are the background for the structure of the market. Abstract groups and
places for selling are parts of the topological structure, marketing uses for the description of the
area it is operating in. ‘Marketing’ is the sum of “those corporate activities aimed at
systematically identifying, satisfying and creating the needs of current and potential market
parties. The optimal form of marketing is a mix of product, price, place and promotion
(marketing communication). Marketing is connected with continuous research of the market, the
current and potential customers. (Toolkit CEPA) ‘Marketing communication’ is the sum of
“those strategic activities – based on research of trends, target groups and/or customers - to
promote the services or products of an organisation based on such principles as “perception is the
only reality”, “it is better to be first than to be best”, “exclusivity is better than imitation” and
other principles of trends in society. The communication is aimed at acquiring a top brain
position for the brand or product. The core business of an organization influences the major
choices of marketing communication strategy, as a consumer oriented business has a different
market than a business to business operation. A nature conservation fund has a different market
than a nature conservation research institute.” (Toolkit CEPA) ‘Networking’ aims at connecting
persons with each other through communication and is a persuasive way aiming to have a
favorable effect from that communication. ‘Networking’ consists of “exchanging information
and establishing personal connections. People network in many different settings: on the
telephone, in hallways, in company lunchrooms, at professional conferences, at trade shows,
company meetings, classrooms, lounges, hallways, elevators, airplanes, trains, busses, hotel
lobbies and waiting rooms. Some networking is carefully planned and some just happens.
Networking is friendly, low-key and essential in our complex society. People network to:
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advance their careers, advance their own business, to increase their impact on the world and to
improve their social lives.” (Toolkit CEPA) ‘Target groups’ are the groups used for specific
audiences that determinate the purpose of the message. A target group is “a group of people
which you need to reach with your communication in order to realize a result. For
communication purposes is better not to view them in terms of statistics but as people of flesh
and blood. It is best to segment the target group as far as possible and identify the opinion
leaders (name, address etc.) to whom face to face communication is possible. It is important to
explore how the target group relates to the biodiversity issue and what would motivate them to
act as desired. One has to realize that for successful communication their perception of the issue
is the starting point. Information about scientific facts will not convince them. Most probably our
issue might not even interest them: it is a fact of life that for any issue there are always many
more people not interested in it than that are interested.” (Toolkit CEPA) Within the topological
framework, the ‘unique selling point’ (‘USP’) is “something that sets your product or service
apart from your competitors' in the eyes and minds of your prospects.” (Toolkit CEPA) So it is
also highly related to advertising and catching the eyes of the audiences in persuasive structures
that are used in ‘public relations communication’ and in ‘marketing communication’.
4.2. Rhetorical Features in ‘Management Communication’:
The Examples of Leadership and ‘Corporate Communication’,
‘Stakeholders’, and ‘Focus Group’
Willis wrote about the function of leadership taught at the Ashridge Business School that
“leadership is a process that can be driven by anyone and everyone at different times. Leadership
is a reciprocal process in that it occurs between people. It is not done solely by one person to
another. So it follows that successful leadership depends far more upon the follower's perception
of the leader's abilities than upon the leader's own perceptions. In many ways, high performing
teams are a direct parallel for the leadership/followership process. High performing teams often
find it easier to identify who is displaying leadership characteristics under certain conditions
rather than having the single person at the top.” Willis mentioned that “leadership is bringing
your team’s collective skills to bear in order to find your right place on the model. Good
communication, which equates to effective leadership/followership in organisations today, is in
large part dependent upon achieving respect and credibility. From the perspective of the soft side
alone, it is often about encouraging change and demonstrating skillful influencing skills. Such
skills command respect and give credibility, but without a firm foundation of the sort of business
savvy and commercial acumen as described here, they will be exposed as unrealistic and will not
amount to real leadership credibility.” (Willis) ‘Corporate communication’ aims at
communication structures and contents that represent the organization / company. In contrast to
personal communication, the ‘corporate communication’ is not the carrier of an individual
person communicating. According to the CEPA Toolkit, ‘corporate communication’ is “a
management instrument that is used to harmonise all forms of communication in such a way that
the Ministry acquires and/or retains the image it wishes to acquire and/or retain among its target
groups and customers (both internal and external). Two key concepts in relation to corporate
communication are image and identity. In successful organizations corporate communication is a
priority of the top executives”. (Toolkit CEPA) Among the groups involved in corporate
business, we have the group of stakeholders, which are all persons involved in the business of a
cooperation / organisation. ‘Stakeholders’ are “those people or organisations, which are vital to
the success or failure of an organization or project to reach its goals. The primary stakeholders
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are (a.) those needed for permission, approval and financial support and (b.) those who are
directly affected by the activities of the organization or project. Secondary stakeholders are those
who are indirectly affected. Tertiary stakeholders are those who are not affected or involved, but
who can influence opinions either for or against.” (Toolkit CEPA) A ‘focus group’ is described
as follows: It is “a major tool for listening is the use of focus groups. A focus group is a non-
directive type of interviewing a specific social group: a segment of consumers, voters or
stakeholders in a policy issue. It is a technique in commercial and social marketing. It draws on
group interaction to gain greater insight into why certain opinions are held. Focus groups are
used to improve planning and design of new products or programs, to provide means for
evaluation and to provide insights and qualitative data for communication and marketing
strategies. Good consumer-orientated companies have been using focus groups for years.
Increasingly they are used in politics, policymaking and policy implementation.” (Toolkit CEPA)
4.3. Rhetorical Features in ‘Advertising Communication’:
The Examples of ‘Massage’, ‘Visual Impact’, and ‘Branding’
‘Advertising’ comprises “those forms of PR and marketing communication aimed at the
influencing and /or promoting purchasing behavior with regard to the services and products of
the organisation. Successful advertising is based on principles such as “perception is the only
reality”, “one pictures is more powerful than a thousand words”, “emotion is what triggers
action”. Advertising tools range from billboards and TV spots to direct mail”. (Toolkit CEPA) In
the advertisements a ‘message’ is transferred. The ‘message’ of communication is “the content
one sends to the receiver. In communication planning one formulates the message in terms of the
desired residue of the communication in the mind of the receiver. These are often one-liners,
with an emotional undertone appealing to the values of the receiver and inviting him/her to the
desired attitudes or actions. The message is always transmitted by a person or by other means.
The body language or the choice of the medium has to support the message, if not the result can
be counter productive (‘the medium is the message’)”. (Toolkit CEPA) Of course, besides the
written tool for a message, the oral way of sending a message, and the visual way of sending a
message are used. ‘Visual impact’ is “the visual "first impression" you get when you look at a
page”. (Toolkit CEPA)
4.4. The Rhetoricity of Marketing: The Case of Branding
Branding is the “use of texts and or images to create a specific image and positive associations
for a person, organization, product or service”. (Toolkit CEPA) The marketing brand is a
persuasive tool aiming at the establishment, memorization, and image building of the product of
a company by a common recognizable set of written statements and visual carriers of the
message. It implies that the product has more values than it has actually based upon the product
itself. The values of the marketing brand are ‘irreal’ and fall into the area of acceptance and
persuasion of the audience. The attributes of the branding are ‘irreal’ values that are recognizable
connoted to the product and the company aiming at the favorable presentation of the product and
the company / organization related to it. Branding builds up structures that are related to the
values and images and communicated tools in the public relation communication of the company
/ organization. Among the classical features of the rhetorical aims, the function of docere is
related to it. In the following part we look at the features of brands and the terminology of it
related to marketing. According to Cornelissen’s Glossary of Corporate Communication, ‘direct
marketing’ is “all activities which make it possible to offer goods or services or to transmit other
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messages to a segment of the population by post, telephone, email or other direct means.” A
‘brand’ is the “set of physical attributes of a product or service, together with the beliefs and
expectations surrounding it – a unique combination which the name or logo of the product or
service should evoke in the mind of the audience.” ‘Brand acceptance’ is “the condition wherein
an individual, usually a customer, is well disposed towards a brand and will accept credible
messages.” ‘Brand awareness’ is the “condition wherein an individual, usually a customer, is
aware of the brand.” ‘Brand equity’ is “the notion that a respected brand name adds to the value
of a product (and therefore generates returns to an organization upon customer purchase).”
‘Brand image’ is the “perception of a brand in the eyes of an individual, usually a customer.”
‘Brand loyalty’ is the “extent to which individuals, usually customers, repurchase (or utilize) a
particular branded product or service.” ‘Brand management’ is the “process by which marketers
attempt to optimize the ‘marketing mix’ for a specific brand.” ‘Brand positioning’ is “the way in
which a brand is communicated to its target market, describing the attributes and values of the
brand and its added value/appeal relative to its customers and the competition.” ‘Branded
identity’ is “a structure whereby businesses and product brands of an organization each carry
their own name (without endorsement by the parent company) and are seemingly unrelated to
each other.” (Cornelissen)
4.5. Rhetorical Features in ‘PR Communication’:
The Examples of ‘docere’ as Teaching in PR, ‘House Style’, and ‘Lobbying’
Using the ‘Docere’ in PR
In the CEPA Toolkit the method of teaching in order to be successful in ‘business
communication’ is exposed. According to the CEPA Toolkit, adult learning is “a specific
methodology for education of professionals and adults. It differs from the methods used in the
formal education system as adults learn best when learning is accomplished through dialogue, •
they feel respected as responsible self directed learners, they feel their knowledge and experience
are valued and can be shared, they feel able to trust, sense safety in the learning environment,
they see how the skill or information is relevant to their lives or their work, and when they see
that the information or skill is immediately useful in performing tasks or to deal with problems
they confront in their lives.” Advertising are “those forms of PR and marketing communication
aimed at the influencing and /or promoting purchasing behaviour with regard to the services and
products of the organisation. Successful advertising is based on principles such as “perception is
the only reality”, “one pictures is more powerful than a thousand words”, “emotion is what
triggers action”. Advertising tools range from billboards and TV spots to direct mail.” (Toolkit
CEPA)
‘House Style’ as a PR Tool and Tool for ‘Corporate Identity’
The ‘house style’ of an organisation presents the organization as a unit towards the outside
world. The style per se is a rhetorical form; in classic rhetoric a distinction between the low
style, the middle style, and the high style exists. The ‘house style’ of a company or organization
is determinated by the common visual and written forms of appearance towards an audience.
The ‘house style’ of an organisation is “the codification of the rules how to communicate
externally. A house style manual contains standards with regard to logo, colours, lay out,
typography etc. in all forms of written communication. It also contains procedures and standards
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for oral communication and organizational behaviour. House style is an instrument of corporate
communication and culture. It is closely connected with marketing. In successful organisations
management and control of house style is a priority of the top executives”. (Toolkit CEPA)
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COPY RIGHT © 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
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SEPTEMBER 2012
VOL 4, NO 5
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