Description
Conflict is currently recognized to be a component of interpersonal interactions, not necessarily inevitable or innately bad, but often commonplace and is an emergent function of people interacting within the workplace.
INTEGRATING CONFLICT SITUATIONS, PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND
BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE
Barbara B. Nussbaum
Virgiia P!"#$%&'i& Is$i$u$% a( S$a$% Ui)%rsi$#
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INTEGRATING CONFLICT SITUATIONS, PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND
BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE
ABSTRACT
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maag%m%$ &a "%a( $! a %6 r%s%ar&' ag%(a i $'% ar%a !4 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$. T'%
(is$i&$i!s b%$6%% $'% $6! ar% i""us$ra$%( a( r%&%$ r%s%ar&' a77r!a&'%s &ri$i=u%(. I
a((i$i!, $'% 7a7%r %57"!r%s r%s%ar&' ! i(i)i(ua" b%'a)i!r a( s%ma$i&s. Fr!m $'is, a
&!&%7$ua" m!(%" !4 $'% s!&ia" 7r!&%ssig !4 &!4"i&$, !44%rig a i$%ra&$i! 7%rs7%&$i)%, is
7r!7!s%(. Sugg%s$i!s ar% ma(% 4!r a %6 r%s%ar&' (ir%&$i! 4!r $'% s$u(# !4 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$
$'a$ ma# b%$$%r i4!rm 7ra&$i&% a( u(%rs$a(ig.
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%&%ssari"# i%)i$ab"% !r ia$%"# ba(, bu$ !4$% &!mm!7"a&% a( is a %m%rg%$ 4u&$i! !4
7%!7"% i$%ra&$ig 6i$'i $'% 6!r.7"a&% >D%u$s&' A C!"%ma, /+++B S&'%""%b%rg, 8;;9?.
T'% ma<!ri$# !4 7%!7"% 6'! 6!r. s7%( a g!!( 7r!7!r$i! !4 $'%ir 6%%.(a# '!urs
i$%ra&$ig 6i$' !$'%rs a$ $'%ir 6!r.7"a&%. T'% a)%rag% umb%r !4 '!urs 6!r.%( %a&' 6%%. 'as
'%"( 4air"# &!s$a$ 4!r a 6i(% rag% !4 i(us$ri%s !)%r $'% "as$ $% #%ar >Bur%au !4 Lab!r
S$a$is$i&s, /++*?. T'is 4a&$ a"!% s%%ms $! ma.% 6!r.7"a&% !rgai@a$i!s a )iab"% &!$%5$ i
6'i&' $! s$u(# &!4"i&$. C!&!mi$a$"#, !)%r $'% "as$ (%&a(% $'%r% 'as b%% i&r%as%( a$$%$i!
$! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&% b# !rgai@a$i!s, b!$' 7ub"i& a( 7ri)a$%. E)i(%&% !4
$'is is s%% i !rgai@a$i!sC a&$i)i$i%s 4!&us%( a$ $'% s#s$%m a( i(i)i(ua" "%)%". A$ $'% s#s$%m
"%)%", m!r% !rgai@a$i!s ar% im7"%m%$ig a"$%ra$i)% (is7u$% r%s!"u$i! >ADR? 7r!&%ss%s a(
7r!&%(ur%s. C!s$ sa)ig 'as b%% a im7%$us 4!r &!m7ai%s a( $'% F%(%ra" G!)%rm%$
>G%%ra" A&&!u$ig O44i&%, 8;;*? $! i&!r7!ra$% arbi$ra$i! a( m%(ia$i! 7r!&%ss%s as
a"$%ra$i)%s $! 4!rma" "%ga" !7$i!s. P%%r a(D!r maag%m%$ r%)i%6 'as b%% u$i"i@%( $! a((r%ss
i$%r7%rs!a" &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s a$ %ar"i%r s$ag%s !4 %s&a"a$i!. A((i$i!a""#, $'%r% 'as b%% a
gr!6$' i $'% umb%r !4 &!m7ai%s a( ag%&i%s &r%a$ig !rgai@a$i!a" !mbu(sm% 7!si$i!s.
A !rgai@a$i!a" !r i$%ra" !mbu(sma 7r!)i(%s a %u$ra", i(%7%(%$, a( &!4i(%$ia"
m%&'aism 4!r %m7"!#%%s $! (%a" 6i$' &!4"i&$s $'a$ !&&ur 6i$' 7%%rs a(D!r maag%rs.
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r%=uir%m%$ 4!r r%&rui$m%$, s%"%&$i! a( 7%r4!rma&% a77raisa" 4!r %m7"!#%%s, %s7%&ia""#
maag%m%$ a( %5%&u$i)% 7!si$i!s >O44i&% !4 P%rs!%" Faag%m%$, /++*?. A =ui&. i$%r%$
r%)i%6 !4 $'% $raiig 7r!grams b%ig !44%r%( b# $'% O44i&% !4 P%rs!%" Faag%m%$ >OPF,
/++*? r%)%a"s $'a$ G&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ s.i""sH is "is$%( as a &!m7%$%&# g!a" i $'% ma<!ri$# !4
$'% "%a(%rs'i7 &!urs%s !44%r%( $! %5%&u$i)%s. I $'% 7ri)a$% s%&$!r, &!su"$a$s a( i$%ra"
'uma r%s!ur&% (%7ar$m%$s ar% 7r!)i(ig $raiig $'a$ i&"u(%s s.i""s bui"(ig i &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ s$ra$%gi%s >D%u$s&' A C!"%ma, /+++B W'%$$% A Cam%r!, /++/?. T'% $r%( i
!rgai@a$i!s im7"%m%$ig b!$' s#s$%mE6i(% 7r!&%ss%s a( i(i)i(ua"E4!&us%( 7r!grams $!
4a&i"i$a$% maag%m%$ !4 i$%r7%rs!a" &!4"i&$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&% &!i&i(%s 6i$' a gr!6ig b!(#
!4 r%s%ar&' s'!6ig &!4"i&$, i4 !$ maag%(, &a "%a( $! 7!!r !rgai@a$i!a" >D% Dr%u A
B%%rsma, /++,B D% Dr%u A W%igar$, /++0B D%u$s&', 8;-;? a( i(i)i(ua" !u$&!m%s >A#!.!,
Har$%", A Ca""a, /++/B Eu6%ma, Va (% V"i%r$, A Ba..%r, /++0B Fri%(ma, Ti((, C., A Tsai,
/+++?.
C!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!s $'a$ !&&ur i $'% 6!r.7"a&% 7r!)i(% a ri&' !77!r$ui$# $! %57"!r% $!
6'a$ %5$%$ s7%&i4i& as7%&$s !4 $'% si$ua$i! i4"u%&% $'% 7ar$i&i7a$s. T'% "i$%ra$ur% sugg%s$s
$'a$ i(i)i(ua"s i$%ra&$ 6i$'i &!$%5$s a( $'a$ m%aig, 7%r&%7$i!s, a( b%'a)i!rs ar%
%m%rgig 7r!7%r$i%s. W'i"% $'% 7%rs! ma# us% a s%$ !4 s$ra$%gi%s (urig &!4"i&$s, $'% s7%&i4i&
$!!"s us%( 6i"" b% &!$ig%$ ! $'% si$ua$i! as i$ is u4!"(ig. H!6 $'% si$ua$i! u4!"(s is
i4"u%&%( b# $'% s7%&i4i& &!$%5$ua" 4%a$ur%s %)i(%$, mai4%s$ b%'a)i!rs us%( b# 7ar$i%s, a(
i(i)i(ua"sC s!&ia" &!gi$i! 7r!&%ssig. T'% "a$$%r ma# i&"u(% &ausa" aa"#sis a( i4%r%&%s,
a$$i$u(%s ab!u$ $'% s7%&i4i& &!4"i&$, 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!" !)%r $'% si$ua$i!, a(
sub<%&$i)% !rms r%"a$%( $! $'% s7%&i4i& &!4"i&$.
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Statement of the Problem
T'% 7r%7!(%ra&% !4 $'% r%s%ar&' &!(u&$%( i $'% 6!r.7"a&% s%$$ig s$i"" 4ram%s
&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ as a s$ab"% s$#"%, a( 6'i"% $'%r% is a a&.!6"%(g%m%$ $'a$ &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs ar% %m%rg%$ 6i$'i a s7%&i4i& si$ua$i!, $'is is !$ $#7i&a""# r%4"%&$%( i
$'% %m7iri&a" r%s%ar&'. T'%r% is a !77!r$ui$# $! bri(g% 7%rs7%&$i)%s b# i$%gra$ig a
&!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% $! %5ami% $'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' s7%&i4i& as7%&$s !4 $'% &!$%5$ 7r!(u&%
(i44%r%$ r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a( b%'a)i!rs (urig a 6!r.7"a&%
&!4"i&$ si$ua$i!. T'is 7a7%r r%)i%6s %5is$ig $'%!ri%s a( r%s%ar&' r%"a$%( $! &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ $a.ig i$! a&&!u$ i(i)i(ua" ba&.gr!u( )ariab"%s, as 6%"" as !44%rig a
%57a(%( m!(%" 4!r &!si(%ra$i!. Ps#&'!"!g#, s!&i!"!g#, !rgai@a$i!a" b%'a)i!r, a(
%(u&a$i! 'a)% a"" %mbra&%( $'is $!7i& as a im7!r$a$ !% a( !44%r 7%rs7%&$i)%s a( r%s%ar&'
&!$ribu$ig $! $'% &urr%$ .!6"%(g% r%"a$ig $! $'is &!m7"%5 $!7i&. O77!r$ui$i%s %5is$ 4!r
maag%m%$ s&'!"ars $! assum% "%a(%rs'i7 i %'a&ig !ur u(%rs$a(ig !4 &!4"i&$ i $'%
6!r.7"a&% $! &r%a$% s$r!g%r a( !7$ima""# 4u&$i!ig !rgai@a$i!s.
Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks
T'%r% is a %!rm!us b!(# !4 "i$%ra$ur%, $'%!r%$i&a" a( %m7iri&a", (%a"ig 6i$' &!4"i&$
a( &!4"i&$ maag%m%$. T'is 7a7%r is gr!u(%( i a b!(# !4 r%s%ar&' s7%&i4i&a""# a((r%ssig
i$%r7%rs!a" &!4"i&$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&%. T'% 4!""!6ig s%&$i! 7r!)i(%s (%s&ri7$i!s !4 a s7%&i4i&
si$ua$i! >&!4"i&$? i a gi)% &!$%5$ >$'% 6!r.7"a&%? a( $6! )i%6s ! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$
b%'a)i!rsI s$#"% )%rsus &!$ig%&#.
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$'a$ 3!' $!!. a"" !4 $'% &r%(i$ 4!r $'%ir <!i$ 6!r. ! a $as. 4!r&% 6'% '% 7r%s%$%( $'% r%su"$s
$! $'% maag%m%$ &!mmi$$%%. Fr!m 'is 6!r(s a( a&$i!s Far# 'as &!&"u(%( $'a$ 3!'
(%"ib%ra$%"# m%a$ $! mis"%a( $'% &!mmi$$%% ab!u$ 'is &!$ribu$i!s. Far# (%&i(%s !$ $!
(ir%&$"# &!4r!$ 3!' bu$ $! $a". $! '%r 4ri%(s ab!u$ '!6 agr# a( 4rus$ra$%( s'% is ab!u$ $'is
si$ua$i!.
D!%s Far# a"6a#s r%s7!( $! &!4"i&$ b# a)!i(ig &!4r!$a$i! !r (!%s s'% us% (i44%r%$
b%'a)i!rs bas%( u7! $'% si$ua$i!J I4 $'% &!4"i&$ i)!")%( a 4%ma"% &!6!r.%r !r $'%
(isagr%%m%$ 6as ab!u$ a m!r% $%&'i&a" issu%, 6!u"( Far#Cs b%'a)i!r b% $'% sam%J A s$#"%
7%rs7%&$i)% $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ is bas%( u7! $'% 7r%mis% $'a$ a 7%rs! us%s $'% sam%
b%'a)i!rs a&r!ss (i44%r%$ &!$%5$s a( &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s >Wi"s! A Wa"$ma, 8;11?, 6'i"% a
&!$ig%&# a77r!a&' $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ sugg%s$s $'a$ $'% i(i)i(ua" 6i"" us% b%'a)i!rs a(
a&$i!s $'a$ i&!r7!ra$%s si$ua$i!a" a( &!$%5$ua" 4a&$!rs >3am%s!, 8;;;?. W'a$ 4!""!6s is a
m!r% (%$ai"%( "!!. a$ s$#"% a( &!$ig%&#.
Conflict Style
R%s%ar&' &!(u&$%( i 6!r.7"a&% s%$$igs 'as "arg%"# 4ram%( $'% i(i)i(ua" $! 'a)% a
&!4"i&$ s$#"% $'a$ Gma# r%4"%&$ a 7r%(is7!si$i!, 'abi$ !r s$ab"% i$%ra" 7r%4%r%&%H >Wi"s! A
Wa"$ma, 8;11? $'a$ is &!sis$%$ !)%r $im% a( a&r!ss si$ua$i!s. Fr!m $'is 7%rs7%&$i)%, s$u(i%s
6%r% (%sig%( $! %5ami% $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% i(i)i(ua" (i44%r%&%s i a$$ribu$%s su&' as
s%5 >Bu""is, C!5, A H%rr!(, 8;1/B Ga#"%, Pr%iss, A A""%, 8;;-B LaFra&%, Br!6%"", A Ha',
8;;*B Pa7a A Na$a""%, 8;1;?, 7%rs!a"i$# >F!b%rg, 8;;1B P%r&i)a", Smi$'%ram, A K%""#, 8;;/?,
m!ra" (%)%"!7m%$ >Ra'im, Bu$@ma, A W'i$%, 8;;;?, a( &u"$ura" ba&.gr!u( >C'ua A
9
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$'%s% i(i)i(ua" (i44%r%&%s ma# b% r%"a$%( $! '!6 a 7%rs! ma# a77r!a&' a( b%'a)% i a
&!4"i&$ si$ua$i!. H!6%)%r, i4 b%'a)i!r is a 4u&$i! !4 $'% i(i)i(ua" a( $'% %)ir!m%$, $'%
7ar$i&i7a$s a( issu%s i)!")%( i a &!4"i&$ 6i"" !4$% )ar# a( ma# a"s! &!$ribu$% $! $'%
i$%ra&$i!. A((i$i!a""#, r%s%ar&' "i.ig $rai$s, su&' as s%5 $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!ra"
s$#"%s >C'usmir A Fi""s, 8;1;B H!$$%s A Ka', 8;*-B P!r$%""! A L!g, 8;;-? 'as 'a( mi5%(
r%su"$s raisig $'% 7!ssibi"i$# $'a$ s%5 is !$ &!sis$%$"# "i.%( $! &!4"i&$ s$#"% !r $'a$ &!4"i&$
b%'a)i!r, as a $rai$, is !$ $'% !7$ima" 4ram%6!r..
Contingency Perspective
I &!$ras$ $! a s$#"% 4ram%6!r., a &!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% sugg%s$s $'a$ a i(i)i(ua"
i&!r7!ra$%s sa"i%$ %5$%ra" )ariab"%s i$! $'%ir &!gi$i)% 7r!&%ssig (urig a i$%ra&$i! a(
$'is ma# a44%&$ $'% i(i)i(ua"Cs &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs. R%s%ar&'%rs i &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs i $'% 6!r.7"a&% 'a)% '#7!$'%si@%( a( i(%$i4i%( s!m% r%"%)a$
si$ua$i!a" )ariab"%s. T'% b%'a)i!rs us%( b# a i(i)i(ua" (urig a (isagr%%m%$ ma# )ar#
(%7%(%$ u7! $'% s%5 !4 $'% !$'%r 7%rs! >Ga#"% %$ a"., 8;;-B LaFra&% %$ a"., 8;;*B Tis"%#,
/++8?. T'%r% ma# a"s! b% (i44%r%$ G$#7%sH !4 &!4"i&$s. O% &a$%g!ri@a$i! i(%$i4i%( i
=ua"i$a$i)% r%s%ar&', $as. )%rsus r%"a$i!s'i7Er%"a$%( >3%', 8;;,? 'as b%% r%"a$%( $! (i44%r%&%s
i !u$&!m% )ariab"%s, su&' as $%am sa$is4a&$i! >3%', 8;;,?, 7%r4!rma&%, >D% Dr%u A
W%igar$, /++0? a( i!)a$i! >L!)%"a&%, S'a7ir!, A W%igar$, /++8?. C!4"i&$s i $'%
6!r.7"a&% !4$% $a.% $'% 4!rm !4 )%rba" !r 6ri$$% %5&'ag%s. T'% 6!r(s us%( b# a 7ar$i&i7a$
b%&!m% 7ar$ !4 $'% &!$%5$ i 6'i&' $'% &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i! is !&&urrig. W'% as7%&$s !4 $'%
&!$%5$ ar% r%"%)a$ $! $'% 7ar$i&i7a$, su&' as s%5 !r s7%&i4i& 6!r(s us%(, a (i44%r%$ 7a$$%r !4
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&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs ma# b% us%( $! maag% $'% i$%ra&$i! >O"s!EBu&'aa,
Drasg!6, F!b%rg, F%a(, K%%a, A D!!#a, 8;;1?.
I summar#, a &!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% a()!&a$%s $'a$ a i(i)i(ua" 'as a $!!" .i$ !4
b%'a)i!rs $'a$ sD'% us%s (urig a &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!. T'%s% ma# b% r%"a$%( $! 7%rs!a"
&'ara&$%ris$i&s su&' as s%5, ag%, !r 7%rs!a"i$#. H!6%)%r, $'%r% s%%ms $! b% a gr!6ig i$%r%s$ b#
r%s%ar&'%rs $! =u%s$i! 6'a$ as7%&$s !4 $'% &!$%5$ !r si$ua$i! ma# r%"a$% $! !r i4"u%&% $'%
i(i)i(ua"Cs &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs. U(%rs$a(ig $'% 7%rs!Cs &!$ribu$i! $!
b%'a)i!r 'as b%% %5$%si)%"# s$u(i%( usig )ariab"%s su&' as s%5 a( a$$i$u(%s. T'is 7a7%r 6i""
a77"# 6%""Esu77!r$%( $'%!ri%s, 7rimari"# 4r!m $'% 4i%"( !4 s!&ia" 7s#&'!"!g#, $! 7r!7!s% a
4ram%6!r. 4!r %57"!rig $'% r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% $'% i(i)i(ua", $'% &!$%5$, a( b%'a)i!r i
6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s.
The Individual and Behavior
R%s%ar&' $'a$ %57"!r%s $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% $'% i(i)i(ua" a( b%'a)i!r 'as b%% $'%
4!&us !4 (i)%rs% 4i%"(s, i&"u(ig 7s#&'!"!g#, %(u&a$i!, mar.%$ig, a( %&!!mi&s. O4$% $'%
=u%s$i!s as.%( i&"u(%I 6'a$ 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s &a b% us%( $! 7r%(i&$ a 7%rs!Cs a&$i!s
!r $! u(%rs$a( b%'a)i!rJ T'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r >A<@% A Fis'b%i, 8;1+B A<@% A
Fa((%, 8;19? 'as b%% a77"i%( i a im7r%ssi)% b!(# !4 r%s%ar&', 6'i&' "arg%"# 4!&us%s !
7r%(i&$ig a s7%&i4i%( b%'a)i!r 4r!m a s%$ !4 i(i)i(ua" &'ara&$%ris$i&s, $'a$ i&"u(%s a$$i$u(%s,
sub<%&$i)% !rms, a( 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!". A$$ribu$i! T'%!r# >H%i(%r, 8;,1B W%i%r,
8;19? is a s%$ !4 $'%!ri%s $'a$ r%"a$%s '!6 i(i)i(ua"s ma.% s%s% !4 !u$&!m%s a( si$ua$i!s a(
$'% subs%=u%$ a&$i!s r%"a$%( $! $'is 7r!&%ss. T'% 4!""!6ig s%&$i!s bri%4"# (%s&rib% $'%s% $6!
&!m7"%5 $'%!ri%s as $'%# ma# b% i$%gra$%( i$! r%s%ar&' ! 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$.
1
The Theory of Planned Behavior. A i(i)i(ua"Cs a&$i!s ar% g%%ra""# u(%r )!"i$i!a"
&!$r!" a( s%r)% a 7ur7!s%. A<@% a( Fis'b%i >8;1+? 7r!7!s%( $'a$ $'% imm%(ia$% a( ma<!r
(%$%rmia$ !4 b%'a)i!r is i$%$i!, !r 6'a$ $'%# $%rm%( b%'a)i!ra" i$%$i!. T'% m!(%" 'as
$'r%% i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s $'a$ ar% a$%&%(%$ $! i$%$i!I a$$i$u(%s, sub<%&$i)% !rms, a(
7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!". A$$i$u(% $!6ar( a b%'a)i!r is a 7!si$i)% !r %ga$i)% %)a"ua$i! !4
7%r4!rmig a s7%&i4i%( b%'a)i!r. Sub<%&$i)% !rm is $'% 7%r&%i)%( s!&ia" 7r%ssur% $'a$ $'%
i(i)i(ua" 4%%"s $'a$ is %i$'%r 4!r !r agais$ 7%r4!rmig a s7%&i4i& b%'a)i!r. B%'a)i!rs !&&urrig
i a s!&ia" i$%ra&$i! ma# !$ b% u(%r a sig"% 7%rs!Cs (ir%&$ &!$r!" b%&aus% $'%r% ar% %5$%ra"
)ariab"%s, i&"u(ig $'% !$'%r 7%rs!Cs a&$i!s $'a$ ma# i4"u%&% $'a$ &!$r!". P%r&%i)%(
b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!" >PBC? s%r)%s as a a((i$i!a" a$%&%(%$ $! i$%$i! >A<@% A Fa((%,
8;19? $! r%4"%&$ $'% %5$%$ $'a$ a 7%rs! 4%%"s $'a$ sD'% 'as &!$r!" !)%r a( $'% %as% !r (i44i&u"$#
i 7%r4!rmig a s7%&i4i& b%'a)i!r. T'% PBC )ariab"% "arg%"# &!si(%rs $'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' a
i(i)i(ua" b%"i%)%s !r i4%rs $'a$ sD'% 'as 7%rs!a" &!$r!" $! 7%r4!rm !r !$ 7%r4!rm a b%'a)i!r.
T'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r 'as b%% us%( %5$%si)%"# i r%s%ar&' $! %57"ai a( 7r%(i&$ a
rag% !4 b%'a)i!rs, i&"u(ig (is'!%s$ b%'a)i!rs, su&' as &'%a$ig a( "#ig, %5&%%(ig s7%%(
"imi$s, a( a rag% !4 '%a"$' $!7i&s su&' as %5%r&isig, (i%$ig, a( usig &!(!ms. T'% m!(%" !4
$'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r is i Figur% 8 b%"!6.
;
Figur% 8I T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r >A<@%, 8;;8?
Attribution Theory and Locus of Causality. P%!7"% &!m% $! .!6 ab!u$ %a&' !$'%rsC
s$a$%s >%.g., %m!$i!s a( i$%$i!s? a( m!r% %(urig (is7!si$i!s >%.g., $rai$s a( b%"i%4s?
$'r!ug' 7r!&%ss%s r%4%rr%( $! as s!&ia" &!gi$i! >Fis.% A Ta#"!r, 8;;8bB Gi"b%r$, 8;;1? a(
(%s&rib%( b# A$$ribu$i! T'%!r#. Fri$@ H%i(%r >8;,1?, &r%(i$%( as $'% 4!u(%r !4 A$$ribu$i!
T'%!r#, sugg%s$%( $'a$ 7%!7"% us% aK)% 7r!&%ss%s $! u(%rs$a( $'% &aus%s !4 %)%$s i !r(%r $!
ma.% (%&isi!s a( $a.% a&$i!s $! a(a7$ a( r%s7!( $! %)%$s. T'% 7r!&%ss%s $'a$ 7%!7"% us% $!
.!6 $'%ms%")%s a( !$'%rs ma# b% &!s&i!us, u&!s&i!us, 7%r&%7$ua", &!gi$i)%, a(
8+
A$$i$u(%
$!6ar( $'%
b%'a)i!r
Sub<%&$i)%
N!rm
P%r&%i)%(
B%'a)i!ra"
C!$r!"
B%'a)i!ra"
I$%$i!
B%'a)i!r
b%'a)i!ra". W'i"% $'%r% ma# b% (i44%r%$ a$$ribu$i!s a( i4%r%&%s ma(% b# a i(i)i(ua"
(urig a i$%ra&$i!, r%s%ar&'%rs 'a)% '#7!$'%si@%( $'a$ a$$ribu$i!s !4 $'% "!&us !4 &ausa"i$#
7"a# a sigi4i&a$ r!"% >Ru(!"7', R!%s&', Gr%i$%m%#%r, A W%i%r, /++-B W%i%r, /+++, /++8?.
Par$i&i7a$s i a i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i! "i.%"# ma.% a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# su&' $'a$ $'%#
i4%r $'% &aus% !4 $'% %)%$ !r !u$&!m% is !%s%"4, $'% !$'%r 7%rs! !r $'% si$ua$i! >A""r%(, /+++B
3!%s A Da)is, 8;9,B W%i%r, 8;19?. A$$ribu$i!s ma(% (urig a i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i! 'a)%
b%% s'!6 $! b% i4"u%&%( b# 7ar$i&i7a$ &'ara&$%ris$i&s, su&' as s%5 >Fi%("%r, S%mi, A
Fi.%au%r, 8;;0? a( gr!u7 m%mb%rs'i7 >Faass, Sa")i, Ar&uri, A S%mi, /+++B Rubii A
S%mi, 8;;-?. R%s%ar&' (%sig%( $! "!!. a$ "aguag% r%)%a"%( $'a$ 6!r(s us%( (urig a
i$%ra&$i!, s7%&i4i&a""# )%rbs, &!)%#%( i4!rma$i! $'a$ b!$' im7"i%( a( "%a( $! (i44%r%$
a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# >Fi%("%r A S%mi, 8;11B S%mi A Fi%("%r, 8;11B S%mi A Farsma,
8;;-?. R%s%ar&' 4!&us%( ! i$ra7%rs!a" a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# >6i$'i !%s%"4? 'as su77!r$%(
a r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% (i44%r%$ a$$ribu$i!s >%.g., $! !%s%"4 !r si$ua$i!? a( subs%=u%$
b%'a)i!rs a( !u$&!m%s, su&' as a&'i%)%m%$ a( (%7r%ssi! >Abrams! A Far$i, 8;18B
W%i%r, /+++?. A A$$ribu$i! F!(%" !4 Em!$i! a( F!$i)a$i! is i Figur% / b%"!6.
Figur% /I A$$ribu$i! F!(%" !4 Em!$i! a( F!$i)a$i!
I summar#, $'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r a( A$$ribu$i! T'%!r# 'a)% %a&' b%%
a77"i%( i r%s%ar&' $! %57"!r% $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% i(i)i(ua" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a( b%'a)i!r.
88
N%ga$i)%,
Im7!r$a$, !r
U%57%&$%(
E)%$
C!s&i!us A
U&!s&i!us
Pr!&%ssig
P%r&%7$ua"
Pr!&%ssig
C!gi$i)%
Pr!&%ssig
B%'a)i!ra"
R%a&$i!
R%s%ar&'%rs 'a)% 4!u( $'a$ a$$i$u(%s a"!% ar% !$ a"6a#s $'% b%s$ 7r%(i&$!r !4 b%'a)i!r a(
'a)% i&"u(%( a((i$i!a" i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s, su&' as sub<%&$i)% !rms a( 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra"
&!$r!". L!&us !4 &ausa"i$#, a i(i)i(ua"Cs i4%r%&% !4 $'% &aus% !4 $'% %)%$, is $'!ug'$ $! 7"a#
a im7!r$a$ r!"% i i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i!s >W%i%r, /+++?, a( ma# %57"ai b%'a)i!r, i
a((i$i! $! $'% !$'%r i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s.
The Individual, Context Behavior
A 7%rs!Cs b%'a)i!r &a b% 4ram%( $! b% a %m%rg%$ 4u&$i! !4 $'% i(i)i(ua" a( $'%
%)ir!m%$ !r &!$%5$ >L%6i, 8;,8?. W'%r%as $'% 4i%"( !4 7s#&'!"!g# 4!&us%s m!r% ! $'%
i(i)i(ua" a( b%'a)i!r, s!&ia" 7s#&'!"!g# is bui"$ u7! $'% !$i! $'a$ $'% i(i)i(ua" (%)%"!7s
a( i$%ra&$s 6i$'i s!&ia" s#s$%ms >Tur%r, 8;;8?. E5am7"%s !4 r%s%ar&' 6i$'i $'is 7%rs7%&$i)%
i&"u(%sI $'% (%)%"!7m%$ a( mai4%s$a$i!s !4 s$%r%!$#7ig >A""7!r$, 8;,-D8;*;B Fis.%, 8;;1B
Faass %$ a"., /+++?, a"&!'!" us% i $'% Gr%%. s#s$%m a$ &!""%g%s >B!rsari, Fur7'#, A Bar%$$,
/++*?, a( )i!"%&% 6i$'i 4ami"i%s >G%""%s A S$raus, 8;*;?. A &!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% a(!7$%(
i &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ r%s%ar&' >3am%s!, 8;;;B O"s!EBu&'aa %$ a"., 8;;1? &!si(%rs '!6
$'% &!$%5$ i4"u%&%s $'% i(i)i(ua" a( b%'a)i!r. I(i)i(ua"s a&$ a( i$%ra&$ 6i$'i a &!$%5$.
W'i"% $'% i(i)i(ua" brigs a "!$ $! $'% si$ua$i!, 6'%$'%r $'a$ is %5%r&isig a"!% !r i$%ra&$ig
6i$' !$'%rs, $'% &!$%5$ 'as $'% 7!$%$ia" $! a44%&$ 6'a$ b%'a)i!rs ar% i$%(%(.
Sex of Parties
T'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' $'%r% is a r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% )ari!us 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a(
&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ 'as g%%ra$%( &!si(%rab"% r%s%ar&'. E5am7"%s !4 $'%s% i&"u(%I s%5
8/
>Br%6%r, Fi$&'%"", A W%b%r, /++/B Bu""is %$ a"., 8;1/B Ga#"% %$ a"., 8;;-B Pa7a A Na$a""%, 8;1;?,
7%rs!a"i$# >F!b%rg, 8;;1B P%r&i)a" %$ a"., 8;;/?, m!ra" (%)%"!7m%$ >Ra'im %$ a"., 8;;;?, a(
&u"$ura" ba&.gr!u( >C'ua A Gu(#.us$, 8;1*B Tis"%#, /++8?. W'i"% s!m% r%s%ar&' 'as i(%%(
sugg%s$%( r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% $'%m, !$'%rs 'a)% 4!u( mi5%( r%su"$s.
T'% i4"u%&% $'a$ s%5 7"a#s ! &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!s is &!si(%r%( i $'is 7a7%r, b%&aus%
!4 7!ssib"% a44%&$s $'a$ %5$%( b%#!( a r%"a$i!s'i7 $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs as a
i(i)i(ua"E"%)%" )ariab"%. S%5 is &!si(%r%( $! b% a sa"i%$ &!$%5$ua" )ariab"% i $'% "i$%ra$ur%
a( r%s%ar&' i a$$ribu$i!s >F&L%a, S$!gma, A N%'a, /++*B Ta#, Ag, A D#%, /++9?,
s!&ia" &!gi$i! >Br%6%r, 8;11B Fis.%, Li, A N%ub%rg, 8;;;B F&Cra% A B!(%'aus%, /+++B
R!$'bar$ A Ta#"!r, 8;;/? a( s$%r%!$#7ig >S&'%i(%r, /++-?. R%s%ar&' b# Fa%$$i a(
D%Gra(a >8;;8? usig $'% "iguis$i& &a$%g!r# m!(%" >LCF?, a "aguag%Ea$$ribu$i! m!(%",
s'!6%( (i44%r%$ mai %44%&$s r%"a$%( $! s%5. A"s! usig $'% LCF, Fi%("%r %$ a" >8;;0? %5ami%(
$'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% s%5 a( "aguag% us%( $! (%s&rib% $% g%(%rEr!"% issu%s, su&' as
7r%)%$i! !4 7r%ga&# a( (ri)ig &ars, i a sma"" s$u(%$ sam7"%. T'%ir r%su"$s sugg%s$%(
(i44%r%$ 7a$$%rs !4 "aguag% us% 6'% &!m7arig 4%ma"% a( ma"% r%s7!(%$s. R%s%ar&'
usig $'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r >TPB? $! %57"ai a rag% !4 b%'a)i!rs, i&"u(ig $! 7r%(i&$
(ri)%rCs &!m7"ia&% 6i$' s7%%( "imi$s >E""i!$$, Armi$ag%, A Baug'a, /++0?, a(!"%s&%$ %a$ig
a( a&$i)i$# b%'a)i!rs >Ba.%r, Li$$"%, A Br!6%"", /++0?, a( %5%r&is% >Bri&.%"", C'a$@isara$is,
A Pr%$$#, /++9? r%7!r$%( s$a$is$i&a""# sigi4i&a$ %44%&$s 4!r r%s7!(%$sC s%5.
T'% "i$%ra$ur% &i$%( r%7r%s%$s a s"i&% !4 $'% r%s%ar&' $'a$ 'as b%% (!% ! $'%s% $!7i&s
a( $'%!ri%s. Fa# !$'%r ar$i&"%s %5is$ $'a$ (! !$ i&"u(% s%5 as a )ariab"% i $'% (%sig.
H!6%)%r, b%&aus% s%5 'as b%% im7"i&a$%( $! b% r%"%)a$ as b!$' a i(i)i(ua" a( &!$%5$ua"
)ariab"%, i$s 7!$%$ia" r!"% is )a"uab"% $! %57"!r% 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ si$ua$i!s.
80
Language Linguistic Category !odel "LC!#
Durig a &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!, $'% b%'a)i!rs $'a$ mai4%s$ b%$6%% 7ar$i%s ar% !4$% i $'%
4!rm !4 )%rba" u$$%ra&%s. A "!$ !4 i4!rma$i!, i a((i$i! $! $'% a&$ua" m%aig, is &!)%#%( i
$'% 6!r(s. I$ is $'is a((i$i!a" i4!rma$i! $'a$ ma# b% a &!$%5$ua" i4"u%&% ! $'% &!4"i&$
i$%ra&$i!. A((i$i!a""#, $'% LCF 7r%s%$%( i $'is 7a7%r s'!6s '!6 "aguag% i$%ra&$s i
&!4"i&$ a( i$s 7!$%$ia" $! i4"u%&% b%'a)i!r.
R%s%ar&' ! 6'a$ is &!mm!"# &a""%( $'% Gim7"i&i$ &ausa"i$#H !4 )%rbs aris%s 4r!m a
s!&ia" 7s#&'!"!gi&a" 7%rs7%&$i)% i $'a$, G"aguag% 6i"" b% )i%6%( as a b%'a)i!r $'a$ is b!$'
i4"u%&%( b# !$'%r 7%!7"%, as 6%"" as a m%as 4!r i4"u%&ig $'% b%'a)i!r !4 !$'%rsH
>H!"$gra)%s, /++/, 7. /?. E57%rim%$a" (%sigs ar% $#7i&a" 4!r $'is r%s%ar&' usig a =u%s$i!air%
6i$' i$%ms 6!r(%( i $'% s%$%&% s$ru&$ur%, Gsub<%&$ 7r%(i&a$%
8
!b<%&$.H O)%ra"", $'% r%su"$s 'a)%
s'!6%( a 7a$$%r $'a$ a&$i! )%rbs >%.g., 'i$ !r $%""s? "%a( $! a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# $! $'% sub<%&$
6'i"% s$a$% )%rbs >%.g., "i.% !r $rus$? "%a( $! a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# $! $'% !b<%&$ !4 $'% s%$%&%
>Br!6 A Fis', 8;10?. Fur$'%r, a(<%&$i)%s $'a$ s$%mm%( 4r!m %i$'%r a&$i! )%rbs !r s$a$% )%rbs
s'!6%( $'% sam% 7a$$%r !4 a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$#.
S%mi a( Fi%("%r >8;11? 7r!)i(% a 4ur$'%r (%)%"!7m%$ $! $'% )%rb &ausa"i$# 7a$$%r
6i$' $'% LCF. T'% au$'!rs 7r!7!s% $'a$ $%rms us%( as 7r%(i&a$%s >i.%., )%rbs a( a(<%&$i)%s? &a
b% &a$%g!ri@%( i$! a m!(%" a"!g a sig"% (im%si! !4 &!&r%$%%ss $! abs$ra&$%ss. I $'%ir
ii$ia" r%s%ar&' 6i$' $'% LCF >Fi%("%r A S%mi, 8;11B S%mi A Fi%("%r, 8;11? $'%# (%)%"!7%(
$'% &a$%g!ri%s, %5ami%( '!6 6%"" a &!r7us !4 $%rms (is&rimia$%( i$! $'% &a$%g!ri%s, a(
%57"!r%( r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% &a$%g!ri%s a( a$$ribu$i!Er%"a$%( =u%s$i!s. T'%ir r%su"$s
8
GT'% sub<%&$ !4 a s%$%&% is $'% 7%rs!, !b<%&$ !r i(%a b%ig (%s&rib%(. T'% 7r%(i&a$% is $'% %57"aa$i! !4 $'%
a&$i!, &!(i$i!, !r %44%&$ !4 $'% sub<%&$ >7. 9?H >S'%r$@%r, 8;19?.
8-
s'!6%( a ma<!ri$# !4 $'%ir 7ar$i&i7a$s agr%%( i &a$%g!ri@ig $'% )%rbs >1-.*/L? a( $'%
&a$%g!ri%s (is&rimia$%(, b!$' $'%!r%$i&a""# a( %m7iri&a""#, 6'% r%"a$%( $! 4i)% a$$ribu$i!E
r%"a$%( )ariab"%s >i.%., sub<%&$ i4!rma$i)%%ss, %(urig%ss, )%ri4iabi"i$#, (is7u$abi"i$#, a(
si$ua$i! i4!rma$i)%%ss? >Fi%("%r A S%mi, 8;11B S%mi A Fi%("%r, 8;11?. Usig $'% LCF,
D!ug"as a( Su$$! >/++9? %57"!r%( $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% $'% "aguag% us%( >&!&r%$%E
abs$ra&$ (im%si!? $! (%s&rib% $'% a&$i!s (%7i&$%( i &ar$!!s a( 7ar$i&i7a$sC i4%r%&%s !4
a&$!rCs a$$i$u(%s a( g!a"s. Par$i&i7a$s i4%rr%( 4r!m a 7!si$i)% abs$ra&$ (%s&ri7$i! $'a$ $'%
(%s&rib%r 6as m!r% "i.%"# a 4ri%( >$'a %%m# !r ubias%( !bs%r)%r? a( 6as i 4a)!r !4 $'%
7r!$ag!is$. S%)%ra" r%s%ar&'%rs >&4., Faass A Ar&uri, 8;;/B Faass, Sa")i, Ar&uri, A S%mi,
8;1;B Faass A S&'a""%r, 8;;8B Rubii A S%mi, 8;;-? 'a)% %5ami%( $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%%
gr!u7Em%mb%rs'i7 a( "aguag% us%. Par$i&i7a$s (%s&rib%( 7!si$i)% igr!u7 >6i$'i !%Cs !6
s!&ia" gr!u7? a( %ga$i)% !u$gr!u7 b%'a)i!rs i m!r% abs$ra&$ "aguag% >i.%., usig a(<%&$i)%s
a( s$a$% )%rbs?. A((i$i!a""#, $'%# (%s&rib%( %ga$i)% igr!u7 a( 7!si$i)% !u$gr!u7 b%'a)i!rs
i m!r% &!&r%$% "aguag% >i.%., usig a&$i! )%rbs?.
G!ig a s$%7 4ur$'%r, $'% 7ur7!s% !4 $'% r%s%ar&' 6as $! %57"!r% $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%%
(i44%r%$ 7a$$%rs !4 "aguag% us%( a( subs%=u%$ b%'a)i!r. S%mi a( D% P!!$ s$u(i%( $! 6'a$
%5$%$ (!%s $'% =u%s$i!, $'% s7%&i4i& 6!r(ig !4 i$ usig $'% LCF, i4"u%&% $'% as6%r >D%
P!!$ A S%mi, 8;;,B S%mi A D% P!!$, 8;;*b?. T'is 6!r. 6as bui"$ u7! %ar"i%r r%s%ar&' (!%
b# S%mi a( Farsma >8;;-? 6'! 4!u( $'a$ $'% i4%r%&%s 6%r% a"!g $6! i(%7%(%$
(im%si!sI &ausa"i$# !r 6'! is$iga$%( $'% a&$i! a( (is7!si$i!a" =ua"i$# !4 $'% sub<%&$ !r
!b<%&$ !4 $'% s%$%&%. I4%r%&%s !4 (is7!si$i! 4!""!6 $'% sam% 7a$$%r as &ausa"i$#, bu$ s%%m%(
$! a"s! b% i4"u%&%( b# &!$%5$ua" i4!rma$i!, su&' as $'% 7rimig is$ru&$i!s gi)% $! $'%
7ar$i&i7a$s b# $'% r%s%ar&'%rs. S%mi a( D% P!!$Cs r%s%ar&' s'!6%( a r%"a$i!s'i7 $'a$
8,
abs$ra&$ 7r%(i&a$%s us%( i =u%s$i!s r%su"$%( i as6%rs 6i$' m!r% abs$ra&$ 7r%(i&a$%s >%.g., s$a$%
)%rbs?. T'%# &!i%( $'% 7'%!m%!, GMu%s$i!EAs6%r Para(igmH >MAP? a( r%7"i&a$%( $'%
7r%)i!us r%s%ar&' r%su"$s >S%mi A D% P!!$, 8;;*a?. T'%ir subs%=u%$ r%s%ar&' a"s! r%)%a"%(
$'a$ arra$i)%s 6ri$$% b# 7ar$i&i7a$s 6%r% i4"u%&%( b# $'% 7r%(i&a$%s us%( i $'% =u%s$i!s.
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abs$ra&$ "aguag% im7"i&i$"#.
I4 a =u%s$i! &a i4"u%&% a as6%r $'r!ug' a mai7u"a$i! !4 $'% )%rbs, S%mi, Gi" (%
F!$%s, Higgis, Es$!urg%$ a( Va"%&ia >/++,? %57"!r%( $'% %44%&$s !4 a mai7u"a$i! i a
'%a"$'Er%"a$%( m%ssag% ! 7ar$i&i7a$sC i$%$ $! a&$. T'% au$'!rs r%7!r$%( $'a$ i 7ar$i&i7a$s
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s7!r$s 6'% $'% m%ssag% i&"u(%( abs$ra&$ )%rbs $'a i4 i$ i&"u(%( &!&r%$% )%rbs. T'% !77!si$%
7a$$%r 6as s%% 4!r 7r%)%$i!E4!&us%( 7ar$i&i7a$s 6'! s'!6%( a s$r!g%r i$%$i! $! %gag%
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%44%&$i)% i i4"u%&ig i$%$i! a( b%'a)i!r.
Summary and Consideration for Future Theory, Research and Practice
C!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!s $'a$ !&&ur i $'% 6!r.7"a&% 7r!)i(% a ri&' !77!r$ui$# $! i$%gra$%
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89
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a# gi)% si$ua$i! >Kas'ima A L%6is, /+++B S'%77ar( %$ a"., 8;11?. A$$ribu$i! r%s%ar&'%rs
sugg%s$ $'a$ a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# 7"a# a im7!r$a$ r!"% i i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i!s, bu$
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8;
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doc_463826764.pdf
Conflict is currently recognized to be a component of interpersonal interactions, not necessarily inevitable or innately bad, but often commonplace and is an emergent function of people interacting within the workplace.
INTEGRATING CONFLICT SITUATIONS, PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND
BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE
Barbara B. Nussbaum
Virgiia P!"#$%&'i& Is$i$u$% a( S$a$% Ui)%rsi$#
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INTEGRATING CONFLICT SITUATIONS, PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND
BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE
ABSTRACT
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maag%m%$ &a "%a( $! a %6 r%s%ar&' ag%(a i $'% ar%a !4 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$. T'%
(is$i&$i!s b%$6%% $'% $6! ar% i""us$ra$%( a( r%&%$ r%s%ar&' a77r!a&'%s &ri$i=u%(. I
a((i$i!, $'% 7a7%r %57"!r%s r%s%ar&' ! i(i)i(ua" b%'a)i!r a( s%ma$i&s. Fr!m $'is, a
&!&%7$ua" m!(%" !4 $'% s!&ia" 7r!&%ssig !4 &!4"i&$, !44%rig a i$%ra&$i! 7%rs7%&$i)%, is
7r!7!s%(. Sugg%s$i!s ar% ma(% 4!r a %6 r%s%ar&' (ir%&$i! 4!r $'% s$u(# !4 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$
$'a$ ma# b%$$%r i4!rm 7ra&$i&% a( u(%rs$a(ig.
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>L%(%ra&', 8;;,, 7. -+?.
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%&%ssari"# i%)i$ab"% !r ia$%"# ba(, bu$ !4$% &!mm!7"a&% a( is a %m%rg%$ 4u&$i! !4
7%!7"% i$%ra&$ig 6i$'i $'% 6!r.7"a&% >D%u$s&' A C!"%ma, /+++B S&'%""%b%rg, 8;;9?.
T'% ma<!ri$# !4 7%!7"% 6'! 6!r. s7%( a g!!( 7r!7!r$i! !4 $'%ir 6%%.(a# '!urs
i$%ra&$ig 6i$' !$'%rs a$ $'%ir 6!r.7"a&%. T'% a)%rag% umb%r !4 '!urs 6!r.%( %a&' 6%%. 'as
'%"( 4air"# &!s$a$ 4!r a 6i(% rag% !4 i(us$ri%s !)%r $'% "as$ $% #%ar >Bur%au !4 Lab!r
S$a$is$i&s, /++*?. T'is 4a&$ a"!% s%%ms $! ma.% 6!r.7"a&% !rgai@a$i!s a )iab"% &!$%5$ i
6'i&' $! s$u(# &!4"i&$. C!&!mi$a$"#, !)%r $'% "as$ (%&a(% $'%r% 'as b%% i&r%as%( a$$%$i!
$! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&% b# !rgai@a$i!s, b!$' 7ub"i& a( 7ri)a$%. E)i(%&% !4
$'is is s%% i !rgai@a$i!sC a&$i)i$i%s 4!&us%( a$ $'% s#s$%m a( i(i)i(ua" "%)%". A$ $'% s#s$%m
"%)%", m!r% !rgai@a$i!s ar% im7"%m%$ig a"$%ra$i)% (is7u$% r%s!"u$i! >ADR? 7r!&%ss%s a(
7r!&%(ur%s. C!s$ sa)ig 'as b%% a im7%$us 4!r &!m7ai%s a( $'% F%(%ra" G!)%rm%$
>G%%ra" A&&!u$ig O44i&%, 8;;*? $! i&!r7!ra$% arbi$ra$i! a( m%(ia$i! 7r!&%ss%s as
a"$%ra$i)%s $! 4!rma" "%ga" !7$i!s. P%%r a(D!r maag%m%$ r%)i%6 'as b%% u$i"i@%( $! a((r%ss
i$%r7%rs!a" &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s a$ %ar"i%r s$ag%s !4 %s&a"a$i!. A((i$i!a""#, $'%r% 'as b%% a
gr!6$' i $'% umb%r !4 &!m7ai%s a( ag%&i%s &r%a$ig !rgai@a$i!a" !mbu(sm% 7!si$i!s.
A !rgai@a$i!a" !r i$%ra" !mbu(sma 7r!)i(%s a %u$ra", i(%7%(%$, a( &!4i(%$ia"
m%&'aism 4!r %m7"!#%%s $! (%a" 6i$' &!4"i&$s $'a$ !&&ur 6i$' 7%%rs a(D!r maag%rs.
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A$ $'% i(i)i(ua"E"%)%", m!r% !rgai@a$i!s 'a)% i&"u(%( &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ s.i""s as a
r%=uir%m%$ 4!r r%&rui$m%$, s%"%&$i! a( 7%r4!rma&% a77raisa" 4!r %m7"!#%%s, %s7%&ia""#
maag%m%$ a( %5%&u$i)% 7!si$i!s >O44i&% !4 P%rs!%" Faag%m%$, /++*?. A =ui&. i$%r%$
r%)i%6 !4 $'% $raiig 7r!grams b%ig !44%r%( b# $'% O44i&% !4 P%rs!%" Faag%m%$ >OPF,
/++*? r%)%a"s $'a$ G&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ s.i""sH is "is$%( as a &!m7%$%&# g!a" i $'% ma<!ri$# !4
$'% "%a(%rs'i7 &!urs%s !44%r%( $! %5%&u$i)%s. I $'% 7ri)a$% s%&$!r, &!su"$a$s a( i$%ra"
'uma r%s!ur&% (%7ar$m%$s ar% 7r!)i(ig $raiig $'a$ i&"u(%s s.i""s bui"(ig i &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ s$ra$%gi%s >D%u$s&' A C!"%ma, /+++B W'%$$% A Cam%r!, /++/?. T'% $r%( i
!rgai@a$i!s im7"%m%$ig b!$' s#s$%mE6i(% 7r!&%ss%s a( i(i)i(ua"E4!&us%( 7r!grams $!
4a&i"i$a$% maag%m%$ !4 i$%r7%rs!a" &!4"i&$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&% &!i&i(%s 6i$' a gr!6ig b!(#
!4 r%s%ar&' s'!6ig &!4"i&$, i4 !$ maag%(, &a "%a( $! 7!!r !rgai@a$i!a" >D% Dr%u A
B%%rsma, /++,B D% Dr%u A W%igar$, /++0B D%u$s&', 8;-;? a( i(i)i(ua" !u$&!m%s >A#!.!,
Har$%", A Ca""a, /++/B Eu6%ma, Va (% V"i%r$, A Ba..%r, /++0B Fri%(ma, Ti((, C., A Tsai,
/+++?.
C!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!s $'a$ !&&ur i $'% 6!r.7"a&% 7r!)i(% a ri&' !77!r$ui$# $! %57"!r% $!
6'a$ %5$%$ s7%&i4i& as7%&$s !4 $'% si$ua$i! i4"u%&% $'% 7ar$i&i7a$s. T'% "i$%ra$ur% sugg%s$s
$'a$ i(i)i(ua"s i$%ra&$ 6i$'i &!$%5$s a( $'a$ m%aig, 7%r&%7$i!s, a( b%'a)i!rs ar%
%m%rgig 7r!7%r$i%s. W'i"% $'% 7%rs! ma# us% a s%$ !4 s$ra$%gi%s (urig &!4"i&$s, $'% s7%&i4i&
$!!"s us%( 6i"" b% &!$ig%$ ! $'% si$ua$i! as i$ is u4!"(ig. H!6 $'% si$ua$i! u4!"(s is
i4"u%&%( b# $'% s7%&i4i& &!$%5$ua" 4%a$ur%s %)i(%$, mai4%s$ b%'a)i!rs us%( b# 7ar$i%s, a(
i(i)i(ua"sC s!&ia" &!gi$i! 7r!&%ssig. T'% "a$$%r ma# i&"u(% &ausa" aa"#sis a( i4%r%&%s,
a$$i$u(%s ab!u$ $'% s7%&i4i& &!4"i&$, 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!" !)%r $'% si$ua$i!, a(
sub<%&$i)% !rms r%"a$%( $! $'% s7%&i4i& &!4"i&$.
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Statement of the Problem
T'% 7r%7!(%ra&% !4 $'% r%s%ar&' &!(u&$%( i $'% 6!r.7"a&% s%$$ig s$i"" 4ram%s
&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ as a s$ab"% s$#"%, a( 6'i"% $'%r% is a a&.!6"%(g%m%$ $'a$ &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs ar% %m%rg%$ 6i$'i a s7%&i4i& si$ua$i!, $'is is !$ $#7i&a""# r%4"%&$%( i
$'% %m7iri&a" r%s%ar&'. T'%r% is a !77!r$ui$# $! bri(g% 7%rs7%&$i)%s b# i$%gra$ig a
&!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% $! %5ami% $'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' s7%&i4i& as7%&$s !4 $'% &!$%5$ 7r!(u&%
(i44%r%$ r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a( b%'a)i!rs (urig a 6!r.7"a&%
&!4"i&$ si$ua$i!. T'is 7a7%r r%)i%6s %5is$ig $'%!ri%s a( r%s%ar&' r%"a$%( $! &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ $a.ig i$! a&&!u$ i(i)i(ua" ba&.gr!u( )ariab"%s, as 6%"" as !44%rig a
%57a(%( m!(%" 4!r &!si(%ra$i!. Ps#&'!"!g#, s!&i!"!g#, !rgai@a$i!a" b%'a)i!r, a(
%(u&a$i! 'a)% a"" %mbra&%( $'is $!7i& as a im7!r$a$ !% a( !44%r 7%rs7%&$i)%s a( r%s%ar&'
&!$ribu$ig $! $'% &urr%$ .!6"%(g% r%"a$ig $! $'is &!m7"%5 $!7i&. O77!r$ui$i%s %5is$ 4!r
maag%m%$ s&'!"ars $! assum% "%a(%rs'i7 i %'a&ig !ur u(%rs$a(ig !4 &!4"i&$ i $'%
6!r.7"a&% $! &r%a$% s$r!g%r a( !7$ima""# 4u&$i!ig !rgai@a$i!s.
Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks
T'%r% is a %!rm!us b!(# !4 "i$%ra$ur%, $'%!r%$i&a" a( %m7iri&a", (%a"ig 6i$' &!4"i&$
a( &!4"i&$ maag%m%$. T'is 7a7%r is gr!u(%( i a b!(# !4 r%s%ar&' s7%&i4i&a""# a((r%ssig
i$%r7%rs!a" &!4"i&$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&%. T'% 4!""!6ig s%&$i! 7r!)i(%s (%s&ri7$i!s !4 a s7%&i4i&
si$ua$i! >&!4"i&$? i a gi)% &!$%5$ >$'% 6!r.7"a&%? a( $6! )i%6s ! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$
b%'a)i!rsI s$#"% )%rsus &!$ig%&#.
,
H#7!$'%$i&a" S&%ari!I 3!' a( Far# ar% 7%%rs a$ ABC !rgai@a$i!. Far# b%"i%)%s
$'a$ 3!' $!!. a"" !4 $'% &r%(i$ 4!r $'%ir <!i$ 6!r. ! a $as. 4!r&% 6'% '% 7r%s%$%( $'% r%su"$s
$! $'% maag%m%$ &!mmi$$%%. Fr!m 'is 6!r(s a( a&$i!s Far# 'as &!&"u(%( $'a$ 3!'
(%"ib%ra$%"# m%a$ $! mis"%a( $'% &!mmi$$%% ab!u$ 'is &!$ribu$i!s. Far# (%&i(%s !$ $!
(ir%&$"# &!4r!$ 3!' bu$ $! $a". $! '%r 4ri%(s ab!u$ '!6 agr# a( 4rus$ra$%( s'% is ab!u$ $'is
si$ua$i!.
D!%s Far# a"6a#s r%s7!( $! &!4"i&$ b# a)!i(ig &!4r!$a$i! !r (!%s s'% us% (i44%r%$
b%'a)i!rs bas%( u7! $'% si$ua$i!J I4 $'% &!4"i&$ i)!")%( a 4%ma"% &!6!r.%r !r $'%
(isagr%%m%$ 6as ab!u$ a m!r% $%&'i&a" issu%, 6!u"( Far#Cs b%'a)i!r b% $'% sam%J A s$#"%
7%rs7%&$i)% $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ is bas%( u7! $'% 7r%mis% $'a$ a 7%rs! us%s $'% sam%
b%'a)i!rs a&r!ss (i44%r%$ &!$%5$s a( &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s >Wi"s! A Wa"$ma, 8;11?, 6'i"% a
&!$ig%&# a77r!a&' $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ sugg%s$s $'a$ $'% i(i)i(ua" 6i"" us% b%'a)i!rs a(
a&$i!s $'a$ i&!r7!ra$%s si$ua$i!a" a( &!$%5$ua" 4a&$!rs >3am%s!, 8;;;?. W'a$ 4!""!6s is a
m!r% (%$ai"%( "!!. a$ s$#"% a( &!$ig%&#.
Conflict Style
R%s%ar&' &!(u&$%( i 6!r.7"a&% s%$$igs 'as "arg%"# 4ram%( $'% i(i)i(ua" $! 'a)% a
&!4"i&$ s$#"% $'a$ Gma# r%4"%&$ a 7r%(is7!si$i!, 'abi$ !r s$ab"% i$%ra" 7r%4%r%&%H >Wi"s! A
Wa"$ma, 8;11? $'a$ is &!sis$%$ !)%r $im% a( a&r!ss si$ua$i!s. Fr!m $'is 7%rs7%&$i)%, s$u(i%s
6%r% (%sig%( $! %5ami% $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% i(i)i(ua" (i44%r%&%s i a$$ribu$%s su&' as
s%5 >Bu""is, C!5, A H%rr!(, 8;1/B Ga#"%, Pr%iss, A A""%, 8;;-B LaFra&%, Br!6%"", A Ha',
8;;*B Pa7a A Na$a""%, 8;1;?, 7%rs!a"i$# >F!b%rg, 8;;1B P%r&i)a", Smi$'%ram, A K%""#, 8;;/?,
m!ra" (%)%"!7m%$ >Ra'im, Bu$@ma, A W'i$%, 8;;;?, a( &u"$ura" ba&.gr!u( >C'ua A
9
Gu(#.us$, 8;1*B Tis"%#, /++8? $! %57"ai !r 7r%(i&$ $'%ir &!4"i&$ s$#"%. I$ui$i)%"#, ma# !4
$'%s% i(i)i(ua" (i44%r%&%s ma# b% r%"a$%( $! '!6 a 7%rs! ma# a77r!a&' a( b%'a)% i a
&!4"i&$ si$ua$i!. H!6%)%r, i4 b%'a)i!r is a 4u&$i! !4 $'% i(i)i(ua" a( $'% %)ir!m%$, $'%
7ar$i&i7a$s a( issu%s i)!")%( i a &!4"i&$ 6i"" !4$% )ar# a( ma# a"s! &!$ribu$% $! $'%
i$%ra&$i!. A((i$i!a""#, r%s%ar&' "i.ig $rai$s, su&' as s%5 $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!ra"
s$#"%s >C'usmir A Fi""s, 8;1;B H!$$%s A Ka', 8;*-B P!r$%""! A L!g, 8;;-? 'as 'a( mi5%(
r%su"$s raisig $'% 7!ssibi"i$# $'a$ s%5 is !$ &!sis$%$"# "i.%( $! &!4"i&$ s$#"% !r $'a$ &!4"i&$
b%'a)i!r, as a $rai$, is !$ $'% !7$ima" 4ram%6!r..
Contingency Perspective
I &!$ras$ $! a s$#"% 4ram%6!r., a &!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% sugg%s$s $'a$ a i(i)i(ua"
i&!r7!ra$%s sa"i%$ %5$%ra" )ariab"%s i$! $'%ir &!gi$i)% 7r!&%ssig (urig a i$%ra&$i! a(
$'is ma# a44%&$ $'% i(i)i(ua"Cs &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs. R%s%ar&'%rs i &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs i $'% 6!r.7"a&% 'a)% '#7!$'%si@%( a( i(%$i4i%( s!m% r%"%)a$
si$ua$i!a" )ariab"%s. T'% b%'a)i!rs us%( b# a i(i)i(ua" (urig a (isagr%%m%$ ma# )ar#
(%7%(%$ u7! $'% s%5 !4 $'% !$'%r 7%rs! >Ga#"% %$ a"., 8;;-B LaFra&% %$ a"., 8;;*B Tis"%#,
/++8?. T'%r% ma# a"s! b% (i44%r%$ G$#7%sH !4 &!4"i&$s. O% &a$%g!ri@a$i! i(%$i4i%( i
=ua"i$a$i)% r%s%ar&', $as. )%rsus r%"a$i!s'i7Er%"a$%( >3%', 8;;,? 'as b%% r%"a$%( $! (i44%r%&%s
i !u$&!m% )ariab"%s, su&' as $%am sa$is4a&$i! >3%', 8;;,?, 7%r4!rma&%, >D% Dr%u A
W%igar$, /++0? a( i!)a$i! >L!)%"a&%, S'a7ir!, A W%igar$, /++8?. C!4"i&$s i $'%
6!r.7"a&% !4$% $a.% $'% 4!rm !4 )%rba" !r 6ri$$% %5&'ag%s. T'% 6!r(s us%( b# a 7ar$i&i7a$
b%&!m% 7ar$ !4 $'% &!$%5$ i 6'i&' $'% &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i! is !&&urrig. W'% as7%&$s !4 $'%
&!$%5$ ar% r%"%)a$ $! $'% 7ar$i&i7a$, su&' as s%5 !r s7%&i4i& 6!r(s us%(, a (i44%r%$ 7a$$%r !4
*
&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs ma# b% us%( $! maag% $'% i$%ra&$i! >O"s!EBu&'aa,
Drasg!6, F!b%rg, F%a(, K%%a, A D!!#a, 8;;1?.
I summar#, a &!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% a()!&a$%s $'a$ a i(i)i(ua" 'as a $!!" .i$ !4
b%'a)i!rs $'a$ sD'% us%s (urig a &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!. T'%s% ma# b% r%"a$%( $! 7%rs!a"
&'ara&$%ris$i&s su&' as s%5, ag%, !r 7%rs!a"i$#. H!6%)%r, $'%r% s%%ms $! b% a gr!6ig i$%r%s$ b#
r%s%ar&'%rs $! =u%s$i! 6'a$ as7%&$s !4 $'% &!$%5$ !r si$ua$i! ma# r%"a$% $! !r i4"u%&% $'%
i(i)i(ua"Cs &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs. U(%rs$a(ig $'% 7%rs!Cs &!$ribu$i! $!
b%'a)i!r 'as b%% %5$%si)%"# s$u(i%( usig )ariab"%s su&' as s%5 a( a$$i$u(%s. T'is 7a7%r 6i""
a77"# 6%""Esu77!r$%( $'%!ri%s, 7rimari"# 4r!m $'% 4i%"( !4 s!&ia" 7s#&'!"!g#, $! 7r!7!s% a
4ram%6!r. 4!r %57"!rig $'% r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% $'% i(i)i(ua", $'% &!$%5$, a( b%'a)i!r i
6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s.
The Individual and Behavior
R%s%ar&' $'a$ %57"!r%s $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% $'% i(i)i(ua" a( b%'a)i!r 'as b%% $'%
4!&us !4 (i)%rs% 4i%"(s, i&"u(ig 7s#&'!"!g#, %(u&a$i!, mar.%$ig, a( %&!!mi&s. O4$% $'%
=u%s$i!s as.%( i&"u(%I 6'a$ 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s &a b% us%( $! 7r%(i&$ a 7%rs!Cs a&$i!s
!r $! u(%rs$a( b%'a)i!rJ T'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r >A<@% A Fis'b%i, 8;1+B A<@% A
Fa((%, 8;19? 'as b%% a77"i%( i a im7r%ssi)% b!(# !4 r%s%ar&', 6'i&' "arg%"# 4!&us%s !
7r%(i&$ig a s7%&i4i%( b%'a)i!r 4r!m a s%$ !4 i(i)i(ua" &'ara&$%ris$i&s, $'a$ i&"u(%s a$$i$u(%s,
sub<%&$i)% !rms, a( 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!". A$$ribu$i! T'%!r# >H%i(%r, 8;,1B W%i%r,
8;19? is a s%$ !4 $'%!ri%s $'a$ r%"a$%s '!6 i(i)i(ua"s ma.% s%s% !4 !u$&!m%s a( si$ua$i!s a(
$'% subs%=u%$ a&$i!s r%"a$%( $! $'is 7r!&%ss. T'% 4!""!6ig s%&$i!s bri%4"# (%s&rib% $'%s% $6!
&!m7"%5 $'%!ri%s as $'%# ma# b% i$%gra$%( i$! r%s%ar&' ! 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$.
1
The Theory of Planned Behavior. A i(i)i(ua"Cs a&$i!s ar% g%%ra""# u(%r )!"i$i!a"
&!$r!" a( s%r)% a 7ur7!s%. A<@% a( Fis'b%i >8;1+? 7r!7!s%( $'a$ $'% imm%(ia$% a( ma<!r
(%$%rmia$ !4 b%'a)i!r is i$%$i!, !r 6'a$ $'%# $%rm%( b%'a)i!ra" i$%$i!. T'% m!(%" 'as
$'r%% i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s $'a$ ar% a$%&%(%$ $! i$%$i!I a$$i$u(%s, sub<%&$i)% !rms, a(
7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!". A$$i$u(% $!6ar( a b%'a)i!r is a 7!si$i)% !r %ga$i)% %)a"ua$i! !4
7%r4!rmig a s7%&i4i%( b%'a)i!r. Sub<%&$i)% !rm is $'% 7%r&%i)%( s!&ia" 7r%ssur% $'a$ $'%
i(i)i(ua" 4%%"s $'a$ is %i$'%r 4!r !r agais$ 7%r4!rmig a s7%&i4i& b%'a)i!r. B%'a)i!rs !&&urrig
i a s!&ia" i$%ra&$i! ma# !$ b% u(%r a sig"% 7%rs!Cs (ir%&$ &!$r!" b%&aus% $'%r% ar% %5$%ra"
)ariab"%s, i&"u(ig $'% !$'%r 7%rs!Cs a&$i!s $'a$ ma# i4"u%&% $'a$ &!$r!". P%r&%i)%(
b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!" >PBC? s%r)%s as a a((i$i!a" a$%&%(%$ $! i$%$i! >A<@% A Fa((%,
8;19? $! r%4"%&$ $'% %5$%$ $'a$ a 7%rs! 4%%"s $'a$ sD'% 'as &!$r!" !)%r a( $'% %as% !r (i44i&u"$#
i 7%r4!rmig a s7%&i4i& b%'a)i!r. T'% PBC )ariab"% "arg%"# &!si(%rs $'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' a
i(i)i(ua" b%"i%)%s !r i4%rs $'a$ sD'% 'as 7%rs!a" &!$r!" $! 7%r4!rm !r !$ 7%r4!rm a b%'a)i!r.
T'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r 'as b%% us%( %5$%si)%"# i r%s%ar&' $! %57"ai a( 7r%(i&$ a
rag% !4 b%'a)i!rs, i&"u(ig (is'!%s$ b%'a)i!rs, su&' as &'%a$ig a( "#ig, %5&%%(ig s7%%(
"imi$s, a( a rag% !4 '%a"$' $!7i&s su&' as %5%r&isig, (i%$ig, a( usig &!(!ms. T'% m!(%" !4
$'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r is i Figur% 8 b%"!6.
;
Figur% 8I T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r >A<@%, 8;;8?
Attribution Theory and Locus of Causality. P%!7"% &!m% $! .!6 ab!u$ %a&' !$'%rsC
s$a$%s >%.g., %m!$i!s a( i$%$i!s? a( m!r% %(urig (is7!si$i!s >%.g., $rai$s a( b%"i%4s?
$'r!ug' 7r!&%ss%s r%4%rr%( $! as s!&ia" &!gi$i! >Fis.% A Ta#"!r, 8;;8bB Gi"b%r$, 8;;1? a(
(%s&rib%( b# A$$ribu$i! T'%!r#. Fri$@ H%i(%r >8;,1?, &r%(i$%( as $'% 4!u(%r !4 A$$ribu$i!
T'%!r#, sugg%s$%( $'a$ 7%!7"% us% aK)% 7r!&%ss%s $! u(%rs$a( $'% &aus%s !4 %)%$s i !r(%r $!
ma.% (%&isi!s a( $a.% a&$i!s $! a(a7$ a( r%s7!( $! %)%$s. T'% 7r!&%ss%s $'a$ 7%!7"% us% $!
.!6 $'%ms%")%s a( !$'%rs ma# b% &!s&i!us, u&!s&i!us, 7%r&%7$ua", &!gi$i)%, a(
8+
A$$i$u(%
$!6ar( $'%
b%'a)i!r
Sub<%&$i)%
N!rm
P%r&%i)%(
B%'a)i!ra"
C!$r!"
B%'a)i!ra"
I$%$i!
B%'a)i!r
b%'a)i!ra". W'i"% $'%r% ma# b% (i44%r%$ a$$ribu$i!s a( i4%r%&%s ma(% b# a i(i)i(ua"
(urig a i$%ra&$i!, r%s%ar&'%rs 'a)% '#7!$'%si@%( $'a$ a$$ribu$i!s !4 $'% "!&us !4 &ausa"i$#
7"a# a sigi4i&a$ r!"% >Ru(!"7', R!%s&', Gr%i$%m%#%r, A W%i%r, /++-B W%i%r, /+++, /++8?.
Par$i&i7a$s i a i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i! "i.%"# ma.% a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# su&' $'a$ $'%#
i4%r $'% &aus% !4 $'% %)%$ !r !u$&!m% is !%s%"4, $'% !$'%r 7%rs! !r $'% si$ua$i! >A""r%(, /+++B
3!%s A Da)is, 8;9,B W%i%r, 8;19?. A$$ribu$i!s ma(% (urig a i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i! 'a)%
b%% s'!6 $! b% i4"u%&%( b# 7ar$i&i7a$ &'ara&$%ris$i&s, su&' as s%5 >Fi%("%r, S%mi, A
Fi.%au%r, 8;;0? a( gr!u7 m%mb%rs'i7 >Faass, Sa")i, Ar&uri, A S%mi, /+++B Rubii A
S%mi, 8;;-?. R%s%ar&' (%sig%( $! "!!. a$ "aguag% r%)%a"%( $'a$ 6!r(s us%( (urig a
i$%ra&$i!, s7%&i4i&a""# )%rbs, &!)%#%( i4!rma$i! $'a$ b!$' im7"i%( a( "%a( $! (i44%r%$
a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# >Fi%("%r A S%mi, 8;11B S%mi A Fi%("%r, 8;11B S%mi A Farsma,
8;;-?. R%s%ar&' 4!&us%( ! i$ra7%rs!a" a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# >6i$'i !%s%"4? 'as su77!r$%(
a r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% (i44%r%$ a$$ribu$i!s >%.g., $! !%s%"4 !r si$ua$i!? a( subs%=u%$
b%'a)i!rs a( !u$&!m%s, su&' as a&'i%)%m%$ a( (%7r%ssi! >Abrams! A Far$i, 8;18B
W%i%r, /+++?. A A$$ribu$i! F!(%" !4 Em!$i! a( F!$i)a$i! is i Figur% / b%"!6.
Figur% /I A$$ribu$i! F!(%" !4 Em!$i! a( F!$i)a$i!
I summar#, $'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r a( A$$ribu$i! T'%!r# 'a)% %a&' b%%
a77"i%( i r%s%ar&' $! %57"!r% $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% i(i)i(ua" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a( b%'a)i!r.
88
N%ga$i)%,
Im7!r$a$, !r
U%57%&$%(
E)%$
C!s&i!us A
U&!s&i!us
Pr!&%ssig
P%r&%7$ua"
Pr!&%ssig
C!gi$i)%
Pr!&%ssig
B%'a)i!ra"
R%a&$i!
R%s%ar&'%rs 'a)% 4!u( $'a$ a$$i$u(%s a"!% ar% !$ a"6a#s $'% b%s$ 7r%(i&$!r !4 b%'a)i!r a(
'a)% i&"u(%( a((i$i!a" i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s, su&' as sub<%&$i)% !rms a( 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra"
&!$r!". L!&us !4 &ausa"i$#, a i(i)i(ua"Cs i4%r%&% !4 $'% &aus% !4 $'% %)%$, is $'!ug'$ $! 7"a#
a im7!r$a$ r!"% i i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i!s >W%i%r, /+++?, a( ma# %57"ai b%'a)i!r, i
a((i$i! $! $'% !$'%r i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s.
The Individual, Context Behavior
A 7%rs!Cs b%'a)i!r &a b% 4ram%( $! b% a %m%rg%$ 4u&$i! !4 $'% i(i)i(ua" a( $'%
%)ir!m%$ !r &!$%5$ >L%6i, 8;,8?. W'%r%as $'% 4i%"( !4 7s#&'!"!g# 4!&us%s m!r% ! $'%
i(i)i(ua" a( b%'a)i!r, s!&ia" 7s#&'!"!g# is bui"$ u7! $'% !$i! $'a$ $'% i(i)i(ua" (%)%"!7s
a( i$%ra&$s 6i$'i s!&ia" s#s$%ms >Tur%r, 8;;8?. E5am7"%s !4 r%s%ar&' 6i$'i $'is 7%rs7%&$i)%
i&"u(%sI $'% (%)%"!7m%$ a( mai4%s$a$i!s !4 s$%r%!$#7ig >A""7!r$, 8;,-D8;*;B Fis.%, 8;;1B
Faass %$ a"., /+++?, a"&!'!" us% i $'% Gr%%. s#s$%m a$ &!""%g%s >B!rsari, Fur7'#, A Bar%$$,
/++*?, a( )i!"%&% 6i$'i 4ami"i%s >G%""%s A S$raus, 8;*;?. A &!$ig%&# 7%rs7%&$i)% a(!7$%(
i &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ r%s%ar&' >3am%s!, 8;;;B O"s!EBu&'aa %$ a"., 8;;1? &!si(%rs '!6
$'% &!$%5$ i4"u%&%s $'% i(i)i(ua" a( b%'a)i!r. I(i)i(ua"s a&$ a( i$%ra&$ 6i$'i a &!$%5$.
W'i"% $'% i(i)i(ua" brigs a "!$ $! $'% si$ua$i!, 6'%$'%r $'a$ is %5%r&isig a"!% !r i$%ra&$ig
6i$' !$'%rs, $'% &!$%5$ 'as $'% 7!$%$ia" $! a44%&$ 6'a$ b%'a)i!rs ar% i$%(%(.
Sex of Parties
T'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' $'%r% is a r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% )ari!us 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a(
&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ 'as g%%ra$%( &!si(%rab"% r%s%ar&'. E5am7"%s !4 $'%s% i&"u(%I s%5
8/
>Br%6%r, Fi$&'%"", A W%b%r, /++/B Bu""is %$ a"., 8;1/B Ga#"% %$ a"., 8;;-B Pa7a A Na$a""%, 8;1;?,
7%rs!a"i$# >F!b%rg, 8;;1B P%r&i)a" %$ a"., 8;;/?, m!ra" (%)%"!7m%$ >Ra'im %$ a"., 8;;;?, a(
&u"$ura" ba&.gr!u( >C'ua A Gu(#.us$, 8;1*B Tis"%#, /++8?. W'i"% s!m% r%s%ar&' 'as i(%%(
sugg%s$%( r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% $'%m, !$'%rs 'a)% 4!u( mi5%( r%su"$s.
T'% i4"u%&% $'a$ s%5 7"a#s ! &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!s is &!si(%r%( i $'is 7a7%r, b%&aus%
!4 7!ssib"% a44%&$s $'a$ %5$%( b%#!( a r%"a$i!s'i7 $! &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!rs as a
i(i)i(ua"E"%)%" )ariab"%. S%5 is &!si(%r%( $! b% a sa"i%$ &!$%5$ua" )ariab"% i $'% "i$%ra$ur%
a( r%s%ar&' i a$$ribu$i!s >F&L%a, S$!gma, A N%'a, /++*B Ta#, Ag, A D#%, /++9?,
s!&ia" &!gi$i! >Br%6%r, 8;11B Fis.%, Li, A N%ub%rg, 8;;;B F&Cra% A B!(%'aus%, /+++B
R!$'bar$ A Ta#"!r, 8;;/? a( s$%r%!$#7ig >S&'%i(%r, /++-?. R%s%ar&' b# Fa%$$i a(
D%Gra(a >8;;8? usig $'% "iguis$i& &a$%g!r# m!(%" >LCF?, a "aguag%Ea$$ribu$i! m!(%",
s'!6%( (i44%r%$ mai %44%&$s r%"a$%( $! s%5. A"s! usig $'% LCF, Fi%("%r %$ a" >8;;0? %5ami%(
$'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% s%5 a( "aguag% us%( $! (%s&rib% $% g%(%rEr!"% issu%s, su&' as
7r%)%$i! !4 7r%ga&# a( (ri)ig &ars, i a sma"" s$u(%$ sam7"%. T'%ir r%su"$s sugg%s$%(
(i44%r%$ 7a$$%rs !4 "aguag% us% 6'% &!m7arig 4%ma"% a( ma"% r%s7!(%$s. R%s%ar&'
usig $'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r >TPB? $! %57"ai a rag% !4 b%'a)i!rs, i&"u(ig $! 7r%(i&$
(ri)%rCs &!m7"ia&% 6i$' s7%%( "imi$s >E""i!$$, Armi$ag%, A Baug'a, /++0?, a(!"%s&%$ %a$ig
a( a&$i)i$# b%'a)i!rs >Ba.%r, Li$$"%, A Br!6%"", /++0?, a( %5%r&is% >Bri&.%"", C'a$@isara$is,
A Pr%$$#, /++9? r%7!r$%( s$a$is$i&a""# sigi4i&a$ %44%&$s 4!r r%s7!(%$sC s%5.
T'% "i$%ra$ur% &i$%( r%7r%s%$s a s"i&% !4 $'% r%s%ar&' $'a$ 'as b%% (!% ! $'%s% $!7i&s
a( $'%!ri%s. Fa# !$'%r ar$i&"%s %5is$ $'a$ (! !$ i&"u(% s%5 as a )ariab"% i $'% (%sig.
H!6%)%r, b%&aus% s%5 'as b%% im7"i&a$%( $! b% r%"%)a$ as b!$' a i(i)i(ua" a( &!$%5$ua"
)ariab"%, i$s 7!$%$ia" r!"% is )a"uab"% $! %57"!r% 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ si$ua$i!s.
80
Language Linguistic Category !odel "LC!#
Durig a &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!, $'% b%'a)i!rs $'a$ mai4%s$ b%$6%% 7ar$i%s ar% !4$% i $'%
4!rm !4 )%rba" u$$%ra&%s. A "!$ !4 i4!rma$i!, i a((i$i! $! $'% a&$ua" m%aig, is &!)%#%( i
$'% 6!r(s. I$ is $'is a((i$i!a" i4!rma$i! $'a$ ma# b% a &!$%5$ua" i4"u%&% ! $'% &!4"i&$
i$%ra&$i!. A((i$i!a""#, $'% LCF 7r%s%$%( i $'is 7a7%r s'!6s '!6 "aguag% i$%ra&$s i
&!4"i&$ a( i$s 7!$%$ia" $! i4"u%&% b%'a)i!r.
R%s%ar&' ! 6'a$ is &!mm!"# &a""%( $'% Gim7"i&i$ &ausa"i$#H !4 )%rbs aris%s 4r!m a
s!&ia" 7s#&'!"!gi&a" 7%rs7%&$i)% i $'a$, G"aguag% 6i"" b% )i%6%( as a b%'a)i!r $'a$ is b!$'
i4"u%&%( b# !$'%r 7%!7"%, as 6%"" as a m%as 4!r i4"u%&ig $'% b%'a)i!r !4 !$'%rsH
>H!"$gra)%s, /++/, 7. /?. E57%rim%$a" (%sigs ar% $#7i&a" 4!r $'is r%s%ar&' usig a =u%s$i!air%
6i$' i$%ms 6!r(%( i $'% s%$%&% s$ru&$ur%, Gsub<%&$ 7r%(i&a$%
8
!b<%&$.H O)%ra"", $'% r%su"$s 'a)%
s'!6%( a 7a$$%r $'a$ a&$i! )%rbs >%.g., 'i$ !r $%""s? "%a( $! a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# $! $'% sub<%&$
6'i"% s$a$% )%rbs >%.g., "i.% !r $rus$? "%a( $! a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# $! $'% !b<%&$ !4 $'% s%$%&%
>Br!6 A Fis', 8;10?. Fur$'%r, a(<%&$i)%s $'a$ s$%mm%( 4r!m %i$'%r a&$i! )%rbs !r s$a$% )%rbs
s'!6%( $'% sam% 7a$$%r !4 a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$#.
S%mi a( Fi%("%r >8;11? 7r!)i(% a 4ur$'%r (%)%"!7m%$ $! $'% )%rb &ausa"i$# 7a$$%r
6i$' $'% LCF. T'% au$'!rs 7r!7!s% $'a$ $%rms us%( as 7r%(i&a$%s >i.%., )%rbs a( a(<%&$i)%s? &a
b% &a$%g!ri@%( i$! a m!(%" a"!g a sig"% (im%si! !4 &!&r%$%%ss $! abs$ra&$%ss. I $'%ir
ii$ia" r%s%ar&' 6i$' $'% LCF >Fi%("%r A S%mi, 8;11B S%mi A Fi%("%r, 8;11? $'%# (%)%"!7%(
$'% &a$%g!ri%s, %5ami%( '!6 6%"" a &!r7us !4 $%rms (is&rimia$%( i$! $'% &a$%g!ri%s, a(
%57"!r%( r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% &a$%g!ri%s a( a$$ribu$i!Er%"a$%( =u%s$i!s. T'%ir r%su"$s
8
GT'% sub<%&$ !4 a s%$%&% is $'% 7%rs!, !b<%&$ !r i(%a b%ig (%s&rib%(. T'% 7r%(i&a$% is $'% %57"aa$i! !4 $'%
a&$i!, &!(i$i!, !r %44%&$ !4 $'% sub<%&$ >7. 9?H >S'%r$@%r, 8;19?.
8-
s'!6%( a ma<!ri$# !4 $'%ir 7ar$i&i7a$s agr%%( i &a$%g!ri@ig $'% )%rbs >1-.*/L? a( $'%
&a$%g!ri%s (is&rimia$%(, b!$' $'%!r%$i&a""# a( %m7iri&a""#, 6'% r%"a$%( $! 4i)% a$$ribu$i!E
r%"a$%( )ariab"%s >i.%., sub<%&$ i4!rma$i)%%ss, %(urig%ss, )%ri4iabi"i$#, (is7u$abi"i$#, a(
si$ua$i! i4!rma$i)%%ss? >Fi%("%r A S%mi, 8;11B S%mi A Fi%("%r, 8;11?. Usig $'% LCF,
D!ug"as a( Su$$! >/++9? %57"!r%( $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%% $'% "aguag% us%( >&!&r%$%E
abs$ra&$ (im%si!? $! (%s&rib% $'% a&$i!s (%7i&$%( i &ar$!!s a( 7ar$i&i7a$sC i4%r%&%s !4
a&$!rCs a$$i$u(%s a( g!a"s. Par$i&i7a$s i4%rr%( 4r!m a 7!si$i)% abs$ra&$ (%s&ri7$i! $'a$ $'%
(%s&rib%r 6as m!r% "i.%"# a 4ri%( >$'a %%m# !r ubias%( !bs%r)%r? a( 6as i 4a)!r !4 $'%
7r!$ag!is$. S%)%ra" r%s%ar&'%rs >&4., Faass A Ar&uri, 8;;/B Faass, Sa")i, Ar&uri, A S%mi,
8;1;B Faass A S&'a""%r, 8;;8B Rubii A S%mi, 8;;-? 'a)% %5ami%( $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%%
gr!u7Em%mb%rs'i7 a( "aguag% us%. Par$i&i7a$s (%s&rib%( 7!si$i)% igr!u7 >6i$'i !%Cs !6
s!&ia" gr!u7? a( %ga$i)% !u$gr!u7 b%'a)i!rs i m!r% abs$ra&$ "aguag% >i.%., usig a(<%&$i)%s
a( s$a$% )%rbs?. A((i$i!a""#, $'%# (%s&rib%( %ga$i)% igr!u7 a( 7!si$i)% !u$gr!u7 b%'a)i!rs
i m!r% &!&r%$% "aguag% >i.%., usig a&$i! )%rbs?.
G!ig a s$%7 4ur$'%r, $'% 7ur7!s% !4 $'% r%s%ar&' 6as $! %57"!r% $'% r%"a$i!s'i7 b%$6%%
(i44%r%$ 7a$$%rs !4 "aguag% us%( a( subs%=u%$ b%'a)i!r. S%mi a( D% P!!$ s$u(i%( $! 6'a$
%5$%$ (!%s $'% =u%s$i!, $'% s7%&i4i& 6!r(ig !4 i$ usig $'% LCF, i4"u%&% $'% as6%r >D%
P!!$ A S%mi, 8;;,B S%mi A D% P!!$, 8;;*b?. T'is 6!r. 6as bui"$ u7! %ar"i%r r%s%ar&' (!%
b# S%mi a( Farsma >8;;-? 6'! 4!u( $'a$ $'% i4%r%&%s 6%r% a"!g $6! i(%7%(%$
(im%si!sI &ausa"i$# !r 6'! is$iga$%( $'% a&$i! a( (is7!si$i!a" =ua"i$# !4 $'% sub<%&$ !r
!b<%&$ !4 $'% s%$%&%. I4%r%&%s !4 (is7!si$i! 4!""!6 $'% sam% 7a$$%r as &ausa"i$#, bu$ s%%m%(
$! a"s! b% i4"u%&%( b# &!$%5$ua" i4!rma$i!, su&' as $'% 7rimig is$ru&$i!s gi)% $! $'%
7ar$i&i7a$s b# $'% r%s%ar&'%rs. S%mi a( D% P!!$Cs r%s%ar&' s'!6%( a r%"a$i!s'i7 $'a$
8,
abs$ra&$ 7r%(i&a$%s us%( i =u%s$i!s r%su"$%( i as6%rs 6i$' m!r% abs$ra&$ 7r%(i&a$%s >%.g., s$a$%
)%rbs?. T'%# &!i%( $'% 7'%!m%!, GMu%s$i!EAs6%r Para(igmH >MAP? a( r%7"i&a$%( $'%
7r%)i!us r%s%ar&' r%su"$s >S%mi A D% P!!$, 8;;*a?. T'%ir subs%=u%$ r%s%ar&' a"s! r%)%a"%(
$'a$ arra$i)%s 6ri$$% b# 7ar$i&i7a$s 6%r% i4"u%&%( b# $'% 7r%(i&a$%s us%( i $'% =u%s$i!s.
T'%r%4!r%, $'% au$'!rs sugg%s$%( $'a$ 7ar$i&i7a$s i&!r7!ra$% a( r%s7!( $! &!&r%$% a(
abs$ra&$ "aguag% im7"i&i$"#.
I4 a =u%s$i! &a i4"u%&% a as6%r $'r!ug' a mai7u"a$i! !4 $'% )%rbs, S%mi, Gi" (%
F!$%s, Higgis, Es$!urg%$ a( Va"%&ia >/++,? %57"!r%( $'% %44%&$s !4 a mai7u"a$i! i a
'%a"$'Er%"a$%( m%ssag% ! 7ar$i&i7a$sC i$%$ $! a&$. T'% au$'!rs r%7!r$%( $'a$ i 7ar$i&i7a$s
$'a$ 6%r% 7r!m!$i!E4!&us%(, (%$%rmi%( b# a s&a"%, s'!6%( a s$r!g%r i$%$i! $! %gag% i
s7!r$s 6'% $'% m%ssag% i&"u(%( abs$ra&$ )%rbs $'a i4 i$ i&"u(%( &!&r%$% )%rbs. T'% !77!si$%
7a$$%r 6as s%% 4!r 7r%)%$i!E4!&us%( 7ar$i&i7a$s 6'! s'!6%( a s$r!g%r i$%$i! $! %gag%
i s7!r$s 6'% $'% m%ssag% i&"u(%( &!&r%$% )%rbs &!m7ar%( $! abs$ra&$ )%rbs. T'%# &!&"u(%(
$'a$ 7%rsuasi)% m%ssag%s $'a$ ar% $ai"!r%( $! 4i$ $'% r%&i7i%$sC "iguis$i& 7r%4%r%&%s ma# b% m!r%
%44%&$i)% i i4"u%&ig i$%$i! a( b%'a)i!r.
Summary and Consideration for Future Theory, Research and Practice
C!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!s $'a$ !&&ur i $'% 6!r.7"a&% 7r!)i(% a ri&' !77!r$ui$# $! i$%gra$%
(i44%r%$ $'%!ri%s a( %57"!r% $! 6'a$ %5$%$ s7%&i4i& as7%&$s !4 $'% si$ua$i! i4"u%&% $'%
7ar$i&i7a$s. T'is 7a7%r is gr!u(%( i "i$%ra$ur% a( r%s%ar&' $'a$ sugg%s$s $'a$ i(i)i(ua"s
i$%ra&$ 6i$' &!$%5$s a( $'a$ $'% m%aig, 7%r&%7$i!s, a( b%'a)i!rs ar% %m%rgig 7r!7%r$i%s
>L%6i, 8;,8?. L%6i >8;,8? "ab%"%( $'is $'% i$%ra&$i! 7%rs7%&$i)% !4 b%'a)i!r a( i)!")%s
s!&ia" 7r!&%ssig !4 $'% &!$%5$.
89
T'% r%s%ar&' $'a$ 'as us%( $'% T'%!r# !4 P"a%( B%'a)i!r 'as g%%ra""# 7%r4!rm%( )%r#
6%"" i 7r%(i&$ig i$%$i! a( b%'a)i!r 4r!m $'r%% i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%sI a$$i$u(%s, sub<%&$i)%
!rms, 7%r&%i)%( b%'a)i!ra" &!$r!" >Armi$ag% A C!%r, /++8B Hagg%r, C'a$@isara$is, A
Bi(("%, /++/B S'%77ar(, Har$6i&., A Wars'a6, 8;11?. T'% b%'a)i!rs $'a$ 'a)% b%% s$u(i%(
6i$' $'% TPB 'a)% g%%ra""# b%% i$ra7%rs!a" >%.g., 6%ig'$E"!ss !r %5%r&is%? as &!m7ar%( $!
i$%r7%rs!a". A((i$i!a""#, i $'% 7r%)i!us r%s%ar&', $'% TPB 'as b%% us%( $! s$u(# a sig"%
$arg%$ b%'a)i!r, su&' as sm!.ig &%ssa$i!. T'is 7ra&$i&% 'as b%% =u%s$i!%( b# s!m%
r%s%ar&'%rs b%&aus% $'% i(i)i(ua" g%%ra""# 'as m!r% $'a !% b%'a)i!ra" !7$i! a)ai"ab"% i
a# gi)% si$ua$i! >Kas'ima A L%6is, /+++B S'%77ar( %$ a"., 8;11?. A$$ribu$i! r%s%ar&'%rs
sugg%s$ $'a$ a$$ribu$i!s !4 &ausa"i$# 7"a# a im7!r$a$ r!"% i i$%r7%rs!a" i$%ra&$i!s, bu$
%m7iri&a" r%s%ar&' is "imi$%(.
T! (%)%"!7 a ri&'%r u(%rs$a(ig !4 &!4"i&$ b%'a)i!r, i$ is %ss%$ia" $'a$ r%s%ar&'
i&"u(% b!$' i(i)i(ua" a( si$ua$i!a" )ariab"%s. T'% TPB, r%7r%s%$ig i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s,
&a b% %5$%(%( a( %57a(%( i $'r%% 6a#s. 8? T'% m!(%" &a b% a77"i%( i a i$%r7%rs!a"
i$%ra&$i!, a 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!, /? $'r%% &!4"i&$ maag%m%$ b%'a)i!ra" i$%$i!s
&a b% i&"u(%(I !&!4r!$a$i!, s!"u$i!E!ri%$%(, a( &!$r!" >Pu$am A Wi"s!, 8;1/?
b%&aus% (urig a &!4"i&$ i$%ra&$i!, a i(i)i(ua" 'as a rag% !4 b%'a)i!rs $'a$ &a b% &'!s%,
a( 0? i&"u(% a$$ribu$i!s !4 $'% "!&us !4 &ausa"i$# $! 7!$%$ia""# %57"ai a((i$i!a" )aria&% i
&!4"i&$ maag%m%$ i$%$i!s b%#!( $'a$ a"r%a(# %57"ai%( b# $'% $'r%% i(i)i(ua" )ariab"%s
!4 $'% TPB. I $'% 7r!7!s%( m!(%", $'r%% )ariab"%sI s%5 !4 7r!$ag!is$, $#7% !4 &!4"i&$, a(
6!r(s us%(, ar% &!si(%r%( $! r%7r%s%$ sa"i%$ as7%&$s !4 $'% &!$%5$ sugg%s$%( i 7r%)i!us
r%s%ar&' i &!4"i&$ a( a$$ribu$i!. Figur% 0 (is7"a#s $'% 7r!7!s%( I$%ra&$i!is$ F!(%" !4
C!4"i&$ Faag%m%$.
8*
Figur% 0. I$%ra&$i!is$ F!(%" !4 C!4"i&$ Faag%m%$
Orgai@a$i!s ar% (%)!$ig r%s!ur&%s $! im7"%m%$ s#s$%ms, 7r!&%ss%s, a( $raiig $!
im7r!)% $'% maag%m%$ a( !u$&!m% !4 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$s. T'is $r%( 6i"" "i.%"# &!$iu% as
!rgai@a$i!s a( %m7"!#%%s ar% r%=uir%( $! 6!r. %44%&$i)%"# 6i$'i a &'agig %)ir!m%$.
A((i$i!a""#, r%su"$s 4r!m r%s%ar&' s'!6ig &!4"i&$s &a "%a( $! 7!!r !rgai@a$i!a" a(
7%rs!a" !u$&!m%s is a((ig 4ur$'%r im7%$us $! u(%rs$a(ig &!4"i&$ si$ua$i!s a( &!4"i&$
maag%m%$ i $'% 6!r.7"a&%. R%s%ar&' is %%(%( $! bri(g% 7%rs7%&$i)%s a( a77"# $'%m i a
(i44%r%$ 6a# raisig =u%s$i!s ab!u$ $'% %5$%$ $! 6'i&' s7%&i4i& as7%&$s !4 $'% &!$%5$ 7r!(u&%
81
Si$ua$i! T'i.i
g
B%'a)i!ra"
I$%$
A$$i$u(%s,
Sub<%&$i)% N!rms,
P%r&%i)%( B%'a)i!ra" C!$r!",
L!&us !4 Causa"i$#
Ba&.gr!u( Variab"%s
su&' asI 7%rs!a"i$#, ag%,
g%(%r, %(u&a$i!
A<@% A Fis'b%i, 8;1+B
W%i%r, 8;19
(i44%r%$ r%"a$i!s'i7s b%$6%% 7%rs!a" &'ara&$%ris$i&s a( b%'a)i!rs (urig a 6!r.7"a&%
&!4"i&$ si$ua$i!. R%s%ar&' ag%(as ar!u( $'is $!7i& %%( $! b% &r%a$%(.
P!$%$ia" =u%s$i!s 4!r %57"!ra$i! g%%ra$%( b# $'is 7a7%r ar%I
8. D!%s $'% &!$%5$ !4 a gi)% 6!r.7"a&% &!4"i&$ si$ua$i! i4"u%&% a 7%rs!Cs r%s7!s%J
/. S7%&i4i&a""#, i $'% 6!r.7"a&% (! 7%!7"% r%s7!( (i44%r%$"# (%7%(ig u7! %a&' !4 $'%
4!""!6igI
a. T'% $#7% !4 &!4"i&$B $'a$ is, i4 $'% &!4"i&$ $as. !r r%"a$i!s'i7Er%"a$%(J
b. T'% "aguag% us%(B $'a$ is, i4 $'% "aguag% )ari%s i abs$ra&$i!J
&. T'% s%5 !4 $'% 7%rs! ii$ia$ig $'% &!4"i&$J
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