Description
A brand is often the most valuable asset of a Corporation. Brand owners manage their brands carefully to create shareholder value, and brand valuation is an important management technique that ascribes a money value to a brand, and allows marketing investment to be managed (e.g.: prioritized across a portfolio of brands) to maximize shareholder value.
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Anna-Maria Malmgren Giselle Sucre
Avdelning, Institution Division, Department
Datum Date 2004-01-22
Ekonomiska institutionen 581 83 LINKÖPING Språk Language Svenska/Swedish X Engelska/English Rapporttyp Report category Licentiatavhandling Examensarbete C-uppsats X D-uppsats Övrig rappor t ____ ISBN
ISRN Internationella ekonomprogrammet 2004/21 Serietitel och serienummer Title of series, numbering ISSN
URL för elektronisk versionhttp://www.ep.liu.se/exjobb/eki/2004/iep/021/ Titel Title Förtroendets roll i tjänstevarumärkesuppbyggande processen The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand Författare Author Anna-Maria Malmgren and Giselle Sucre
Sammanfattning Abstract Background: In the existing branding literature there is no distinction made between theories for building product- and services brands although services have very different characteristics compared to products. The services characteristics imply that the customer has a high need of reassurance that the right brand choice is being made, which ought to bring forth the role of trust in the relationship between the customer and the service brand. Purpose: The purpose is to analyze the process of building a service brand and the role of trust in this process. Delimitations: The study will include the financial service sector since the complexity of services is brought to its head in this case. Realization: In total, 13 interviews were conducted with company representatives at SEB and Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, a Brand Consultant and customers of financial service companies. Results: We suggest that when it comes to the process of building a service brand, the emphasis of the elements differ somewhat compared to the building of product brands, where the emphasis is put on brand identity and in particular trust. When it comes to trust, a positive reputation could initially serve to signal trust but it is the actual encounter with the staff that determines the trustworthiness of the service brand. Nyckelord Keyword Services, Branding, Brands, Trust, Financial Service Sector, Per Åman
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Table of Content 1.Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background and Discussion of the Problem ....................................... 1 1.2 Purpose ............................................................................................ 3 1.3 Delimitations .................................................................................... 4 1.4 Target Audience ............................................................................... 4 1.5 Disposition of the Thesis ................................................................... 4 2.Methodology.......................................................................................... 6 2.1 Reflections on Science...................................................................... 6 2.2. Hermeneutics and Positivism............................................................ 9 2.3 Methodological Approach............................................................... 12 2.4 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approach.............................................. 16 2.5 Type of Study................................................................................. 17 2.6 Collection of Data........................................................................... 19 2.6.1 Secondary Data ........................................................................ 19 2.6.2 Primary Data............................................................................ 20 2.6.2.1 Selection of Objects of Study............................................. 21 2.6.2.2 Procedure for Collecting Data ............................................ 24 2.7 Has Validity, Reliability and General Applicability Been Achieved?. 25 3.Frame of References............................................................................ 27 3.1 The Concept of Branding ................................................................ 27 3.1.1 What is a Brand?...................................................................... 28 3.1.2 The Process of Building a Brand ............................................... 30 3.1.2.1 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective .............. 32 3.1.2.2 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective ............... 35 3.1.2.3 Summarizing the Brand Building Process ........................... 39 3.2 Services Branding ........................................................................... 40 3.2.1 What is a Service?.................................................................... 40
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
3.2.1.1 Summarizing the Services Characteristics........................... 45 3.2.2 Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process............ 45 3.2.2.1 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective ............... 46 3.2.2.2 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective .............. 50 3.2.2.3 Summarizing Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process......................................................................................... 52 3.2.3 Summarizing Services Branding ............................................... 54 3.3 The Concept of Trust ...................................................................... 55 3.3.1 What is Trust?.......................................................................... 56 3.3.2 Approaches to Trust ................................................................. 58 3.3.2.1 Calculative View of Trust.................................................. 58 3.3.2.2 Social and Affective View of Trust..................................... 60 3.3.2 Different Views on the Creation of Trust................................... 62 3.3.2.1 Institutional and Impersonal Arrangements ......................... 63 3.3.2.2 Personal Relationships....................................................... 65 3.4 Services Branding and Trust: Overall Notions.................................. 70 4.Empirical Findings.............................................................................. 73 4.1 Distinctive Features of Services....................................................... 74 4.2 Services Brands vs. Product Brands: Distinguishing Aspects ............ 75 4.3 The Customer’s Decision-Making Process and Service Brands......... 79 4.4 Services Brands and Trust............................................................... 84 4.4.1 Different Aspects on Trust Emergence...................................... 84 4.4.2 The Organization and Trust Emergence..................................... 90 5.Analysis ............................................................................................... 92 5.1 Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process .................. 92 5.1.1 The Brand Building Process of Services: Internal Perspective .... 92 5.1.2 The Brand Building Process of Services: External Perspective ... 95
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
5.1.3 The Brand Building Process of Services: Summarizing Reflections ........................................................................................................ 97 5.2 The Role of Trust for Building a Service Brand................................ 98 5.2.1 The Relation Between Services Brands and Trust...................... 98 5.2.1.1 Implications of the Unique Characteristics of a Service....... 99 5.2.1.2 Risk and Uncertainty Entail the Need of Trust...................102 5.2.2 Trust as an Element in the Brand Building Process of Services..106 6.Conclusions ....................................................................................... 113 6.1 Contributions of the Thesis.............................................................113 6.2 Concluding Reflections and Recommendations ...............................114 6.3 Suggestions for Further Research....................................................115 Bibliography Appendix 1 Appendix 2 List of figures Figure 1. The Brand Building Process Figure 2. The Intangibility and Tangibility Continuum Figure 3. Continuum of Evaluation for Different Types of Offerings Figure 4. Relation between Services Brands and Trust 31 41 44 99
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Introduction
1
Introduction
In this initial chapter we have the intention to put forward the underlying causes that have served as a basis when developing our research questions. This discussion will result in the key issue of the thesis and accordingly the purpose. Subsequently, the limitations of the study will be elucidated followed by a clarification of the primary target group. To conclude, we will briefly present the outline of the thesis.
1.1 Background and Discussion o f the Problem
Today, developed countries are experiencing a trend towards what can be referred to as a service economy, where the service sector contributes to more than two thirds of its total GDP (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn 2001, Grönroos 1990, Normann 1992). Concurrently with this development, services marketing is becoming increasingly recognized as a discipline (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1985). However, despite the rapid evolution of the service sector, only 23 % of the world’s top brands are services brands (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). This implies that even though the service economy is predominant, and although there has been a focus towards the development of the discipline of services marketing (Parasuraman, 1987), it is the products that are in focus when it comes to successful branding (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003), a fact that raises the question of why this is the case. A brief review of the existing branding literature indicates that these theories discuss the process of building brands in rather general terms, i.e. there is no distinction made between theories for building product brands and services 1
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Introduction
brands. However, according to many authors, services have very different characteristics compared to products and are more complex in their nature (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Parasuraman, 1987, Zeithaml et al, 1985 Blankson & Kalafatis, 1999), something that may imply differences when it comes to branding strategies (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001, Dall’Olmo, 2000).
One of the most prominent characteristics that add to the uniqueness of the service is the fact that since services as opposed to products are performances, they cannot be seen, felt tasted or touched (Parasuraman, 1987, Zeithaml et al, 1985). In addition, services are produced and consumed at the same time as well as they cannot be stored (ibid) which further complicates their nature. Moreover, the performance of the service is rather variable in its character (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). Even though the intensity of the features above differs depending on the character of the particular service, the complexity is brought to its head in the case of financial services (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). When it comes to this type of services, the benefits that are offered have often a rather high degree of intangibility and are sometimes even bought long before the customer can receive them (as for example in the case of pension funds and life assurance) (ibid). In other words, this type of services to a great extent implies promises that may or may not be fulfilled (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999), which in turn ought to implicate a certain existence of risk and uncertainty from the customer’s point of view (Dall’Olmo, 2000). Consequently, the customer has a high need of reassurance that fulfillment will occur and that the right brand choice is being made (ibid).
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Introduction
The discussion above leads us to reflect upon the role of trust in the relationship between the customer and the service brand. Within the growing literature about the concept of trust there are, depending on the school of thought that is applied, contradicting views about the definition of trust as well as a disagreement about its functions and creation (Blomqvist, 1997, Cowles, 1997, Kennedy et al, 2001, Nooteboom, 2002, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Tillmar, 2002). The concept of trust has long been acknowledged in social science and psychology (Blomqvist, 1997). In recent years the importance of trust has also been recognized when discussing business relationships. However, the focus within this area has mainly been directed towards the role of trust within the organizational level and within the business-to-business context (Cowles, 1997, Jevons & Gabott, 2000, Kennedy et al, 2001). Consequently, there is a gap in the literature about trust between consumers and organizations even though the importance of trust in this type of relationship is evident (Kennedy et al, 2001). In our opinion, the role of trust ought to be of importance when it comes to services and the branding of such due to its unique nature.
With the above-mentioned reasoning in mind, we have elaborated the following research questions, which we have the intention to analyze: - Which elements are emphasized in the brand building process of services? - What is the role of trust for the building of a service brand and how could the customers’ trust in a service brand be developed?
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of our thesis is to analyze the process of building a service brand and the role of trust in this process. 3
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1.3 Delimitations
Our intention is to empirically study the financial service sector since, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, the complexity of services is brought to its head in this particular case.
1.4 Target Audience
This thesis is primarily directed towards scholars, students and practitioners within the area of Business Administration that have an interest in the field of Branding.
1.5 Disposition o f the Thesis
In this section, a disposition of the structure in the thesis will be briefly presented in order to facilitate the reading.
Chapter 1- Introduction: In this first chapter we have described the background of the study, which has concluded in the research questions and accordingly the purpose of the thesis.
Chapter 2-Methodology: In this chapter we will present our scientific perceptions about knowledge and reality and how this has affected the way we have approached our research. In addition, we will describe the mode of procedure for collecting and processing the empirical findings of our research study.
Chapter 3- Frame of References: Our intention in chapter three is to discuss on a theoretical level the process of building services brands as well as the concept of 4
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trust. Consequently, the frame of references will be divided into four sections discussing the issues of Branding, Services Branding, Trust and finally a section where these issues are brought together. Chapter 4- Empirical Findings: In this chapter, we will present the results of the acquired data regarding the issue of service branding and its relation to trust.
Chapter 5- Analysis: In the analysis, the theoretical notions presented in the frame of references will be further developed taking into consideration the findings of the empirical study.
Chapter 6- Concluding Discussion : In the final chapter, our intention is to discuss what we believe are the contributions of the thesis. We will also present suggestions for further research related to the topic of this thesis.
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Methodology
2
Methodology
In the previous chapter, we addressed the issue of the purpose with our research. Hence, in this chapter, our intention is to discuss our scientific view when conducting this research. Hence, we will explain our thoughts on science and reality. In addition, this chapter will deal with our practical mode of procedure when collecting the empirical data. The idea is to provide the reader with an opportunity to critically examine the results that will be discussed later on in this thesis.
2.1 Reflections on Science
The concepts of knowledge and science are commonly occurring in various contexts in everyday life. However, when faced with the task of writing a thesis, one begins to reflect more profoundly upon what these concepts are really about. The main question then is how can one write a thesis that in some way can be considered to generate knowledge about a specific phenomenon? How can one write a thesis that can be considered scientific? It could then be of interest to briefly bring forth the concepts of knowledge and knowledge production as well as the notion of what can be considered scientific.
According to Holmberg (1987), one acquires knowledge by registering different characteristics of the nature around oneself throughout life. He further argues that we learn from the social contexts around us by observing our fellowmen and the interaction between them (ibid). By collecting impressions of different types, we build up experience, which we can further use to interpret and make conclusions about the world around us (ibid). According to Holmberg (1987) 6
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this is in broad outline how knowledge is generated. However, he claims that knowledge production can be divided into everyday life knowledge production and scientific knowledge production and that there are differences as well as similarities between these two types of knowledge production (ibid). One of the similarities is, according to Holmberg (1987) that both the ordinary person and the scientist want to find and describe the phenomena around us and understand the processes that occur. About the differences, when it comes to everyday life, Holmberg (1987) argues that acquiring experiences may imply that we put together occurrences that may not really be connected and that we draw conclusions that rest on a weak basis. Consequently, he states that knowledge about processes in the everyday life often form patterns that are difficult to grasp. Scientific knowledge on the other hand, is according to Holmberg (1987) produced on the basis of specific modes of procedure, which consequently implies a more categorical production of knowledge. Furthermore, he argues that in order for the knowledge to be considered scientific it should belong to an acknowledged field within a particular discipline (ibid). Wallén (1996) presents a similar reasoning regarding this matter. He claims that scientific knowledge differs from everyday life knowledge production in the sense that the conditions of which scientific knowledge is based on are examined systematically (ibid). Furthermore, Wallén (1996) states that in order for knowledge to be considered scientific, discussions about the methods and authenticity need to be included so that the science then could yield some type of collective knowledge that other researchers can take part of, control the accuracy of and further build on. Above, the notion of knowledge in terms of what can be considered as scientific has been elucidated. In this reasoning, focus seems to be on the importance of applying specific modes of procedure. With this in mind, we believe that it could be of interest to further elucidate what can be considered scientific by 7
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presenting Molander’s (1988) nine dimensions regarding this matter. Consequently, below, we will briefly discuss these dimensions: According to Molander (1988), in order to be able to call a person scientific the person should be well familiar with certain scientific theories and methods-and also apply them. Furthermore, Molander (1988) argues that when it comes to a statement, it can be true or false but cannot in itself be considered scientific. However, if the statement is included in a scientific theory, formulated in a scientific conceptual apparatus or confirmed by scientific methods, the statement could be considered scientific (ibid). The criteria for concepts and terms to be regarded as scientific is related to requirements on accuracy and that there exists no ambiguity. Molander (1988) further points out that a theory can be seen as scientific if it includes statements that in a uniform and coherent manner describe a phenomenon within a certain field of research. The dimension approach and perspective can according to Molander (1988) only indirectly be regarded as scientific to the extent that they are supported by scientific theories. Also, Molander (1988) points out that in order for research to be considered scientific, it is important that there exist specific methods that are used to process material to acquire or verify data. Molander (1988) further argues that the execution of a specific research can be called scientific if one applies scientific theories and methods and if generally impartial modes of reasoning and drawing conclusions are applied. Finally, a thesis is scientific according to Molander (1988) if the presentation of it is such that the reader could assess the tenability in the sense that it is possible to easily follow the argumentation. In addition, all the sources of reference and other types of evidence should be carefully accounted for.
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Our intention with this thesis is of course to produce scientific knowledge. Consequently, higher demands are placed on us in the sense that, accordingly with the authors’ views mentioned above, it implies that specific modes of procedure and methods are applied (Holmberg, 1987, Wallén, 1996, Molander, 1988). As mentioned earlier, when it comes to scientific knowledge production, there are specific requirements regarding authenticity of the research (Wallén, 1996). In addition, as mentioned above, tenability and clarity are essential for a thesis to be considered scientific (Molander, 1988). Consequently, in the rest of this chapter our intention is to further elucidate the modes of procedure that have been applied when writing the thesis in order to fortify that our thesis could be seen as scientific.
2.2. Hermeneutics and Positivism
Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (2001) argue that regarding science, there are two main scientific approaches: positivism and hermeneutics. It is argued that the former assumes absolute knowledge as an ideal while the latter originates from relative knowledge (ibid). Moreover, Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (2001) claim that while the positivistic approach seeks to explain and describe, the hermeneutical approach seeks to acquire a comprehensive understanding, or an insight.
The concept of positivism was introduced by the French sociologist August Comte in the beginning of the 19th century (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001, Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994) who argued that it is possible to produce knowledge that is positive as well as developing for society (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). The positivistic approach is based on the idea that knowledge should be real and accessible for our senses and built on 9
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logical reasoning (ibid). In addition, knowledge should be able to be verified (ibid). The central idea in the positivistic approach is that there exists a true reality that we can acquire knowledge about through observations (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). It is argued that positivistic research is conducted according to the hypotheticaldeductive model, which implies that hypotheses, which are tested empirically with the help of scientific methods, are derived from theories (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). In addition, the idea of reductionism characterizes this approach; the whole can be studied by reducing the problem into different parts that are studied separately (ibid). Another characteristic of the positivistic approach is that the research should be objective, in other words it should be independent of the researcher that conducts the research and his personality or attitude should not affect the results (Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). Kvale (1997) points out that when it comes to the positivistic approach, the researcher’s influence should be eliminated or minimized as much as possible. Patel & Tebelius (1987) argue that the positivistic view of knowledge could be said to be the following: scientific knowledge provides us with the possibility to predict events. Furthermore, those predictions should be stated in terms of probability, which are based on logical analysis of the data (ibid).
The hermeneutical approach regards the interpretation and understanding of the human existence and reality (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). It is argued that reality can be understood through language as well as human actions (ibid). In contrast to the positivistic approach, the hermeneutical approach does not seek to explain but instead the idea is to understand our own and other individuals’ perceptions by interpreting how the human life is expressed in the written and spoken language (Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). It is argued that 10
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people have intentions that are expressed through language and actions (ibid). Thus, a dialogue between individuals is essential when it comes to the hermeneutical approach (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001). It is pointed out by Patel & Tebelius (1987) that hermeneutical research is subjective, in the sense that the researcher consciously uses his preunderstanding or values, knowledge and experiences, as a tool in order to interpret the acquired material. They further argue that the researcher’s preunderstanding is essential in the process of interpreting the acquired information (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). The hermeneutical approach is further characterized by what is referred to as holism (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul,2001), which is based on the idea that it is only possible to understand the object and his actions when it is connected to the whole (Sköldberg, 1994). The researcher alternates between the whole and the parts in order to acquire an understanding that is as comprehensive as possible (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001). This reasoning can be illustrated by what is referred to as the hermeneutical spiral which can be explained in the following manner: the meaning of the parts is based on the whole at the same time that the parts determine the meaning of the whole (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). The same reasoning can be applied to the researcher in the sense that the preunderstanding anticipates the interpretation, at the same time that the researcher is influenced when interpreting the object of analysis which also leads to a new interpretation and increased understanding (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001). Furthermore, it is argued that the parts of the hermeneutical spiral are part of the whole, which is continually growing (Patel & Davidsson, 2003).
Striving towards the notion of objectivity could in our opinion be appealing when it comes to research since i t, in accordance with the positivistic approach 11
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implies that the researcher’s influence on the results is minimized (Kvale, 1997). However, we believe that this is very difficult to achieve since when facing the task of for example writing a thesis, the authors always have some type of previous knowledge that in turn is revised throughout the thesis. Consequently, in our opinion, it is nearly impossible to avoid the notion of subjectivity, which we in addition find essential when interpreting a specific phenomenon. When conducting our research we have in the main interpreted existing theories as well as brought these theories together with our interpretations about individuals’ perceptions about the phenomenon in question. This means that conducting a dialogue is crucial in order to bring new insights of the phenomenon that is studied and that we hope to produce additional knowledge about. These new insights have in turn affected our view of the phenomenon in question. Consequently, we believe that it is necessary when conducting research not to act as spectators and describe the phenomenon, but instead it is important to become part of the process through a dialogue with individuals that could bring new ideas about the specific subject. In our opinion, this view is in accordance with the hermeneutic approach.
2.3 Methodological Approach
Earlier in this chapter, we briefly discussed the concept of knowledge production and what criteria that is needed for it to be considered as scientific. It was concluded that specific modes of procedure and methods were important in this process. According to Holmberg (1987), the knowledge production process evolves around two main concepts; one is referred to as deduction and the other is referred to as induction. These are according to Patel & Davidsson (2003) concepts that describe how the scientist relates theory and reality to each other. In order to provide an insight of our position in this matter, we will proceed in 12
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this section with a brief presentation of the concepts of deduction and induction followed by a discussion of our mode of procedure in our thesis. It could be said that a scientist that works in a deductive manner, follows the path of proof (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). This way of working is characterized by deriving hypotheses from the existing theories that will then be empirically tested in the specific case (ibid). Consequently, conclusions are made about individual occurrences from general principles and existing theories (ibid). Patel & Davidsson (2003) point out that it could be said that the scientist that works in an inductive manner follows the path of exploration. This implies that the scientist will study a particular object of research without prior anchorage in an established theory (ibid). A new theory will then be formulated with the help of the gathered empirical data (ibid). When it comes to our mode of procedure for fulfilling the purpose of our thesis, the following reasoning could be presented. The process of arriving at the purpose of our thesis started out with an interest in the area of branding of services, and specifically the brand building process when it comes to services. Consequently, this interest lead us to look into the existing research within the area which in turn gave rose to an interest in the concept of trust and its relation to services branding. With this in mind, the purpose was formulated. Once this purpose was formulated, we were faced with the choice of either proceeding with the empirical studies accordingly with an inductive approach or developing a theoretical base with the help of existing literature, which is in line with the deductive approach. When considering this choice we overviewed the pros and cons with each approach:
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When it comes to the inductive approach, Wallén (1996) points out that the intention should be to collect the empirical data in an unbiased manner, which we believe could be seen as an advantage when conducting research since this would imply that the research is not subjected to previous theoretical frames. However, the notion of unbiased research has been criticized by several researchers (Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Wallén, 1996). What is pointed out is that the researcher cannot work in a completely unbiased manner since he always initially has his own conceptions and ideas that will color the theories that he produces (ibid). Patel & Davidsson (2003) also emphasize another downside with this approach. It is argued that the scientist does not really know the scope and general applicability of his theory due to the fact that the information that has been used to formulate it is based on empirical findings in a particular situation (ibid). An advantage of the deductive approach is according to Patel & Davidsson (2003) that the objectivity of the research could be enhanced due to the fact that the scientist takes a starting point in the already existing theory. It is further stated that the research process then becomes less colored by the scientist’s own subjective perceptions (ibid). However, also when it comes to the deductive approach, researchers point out that there are also downsides. Patel & Davidsson (2003) emphasize that this approach implies that an already existing theory determines which information that should be collected, how one should interpret this information as well as how the result should be related to the already existing theory. Consequently, it is stated that this could affect and direct the research in a particular direction so that new interesting findings may not be discovered (ibid). Another drawback with the deductive approach is pointed out by Alvesson & Sköldberg (1994). They emphasize that since this approach takes its starting point in a general rule that is then presumed to be applicable in all 14
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cases, including the specific case of study, it could be more appropriate to talk about an establishment of facts rather than an explanation (ibid). Having the above reasoning in mind, which approach would we choose? It is pointed out by Alvesson & Sköldberg (1994) that when it comes to the inductive and the deductive approaches, it ought to be difficult to fit all types of research into one of these two alternatives. In our opinion, our research does not entirely fit into either one of the categories. Since we considered it necessary to have some kind of theoretical base when acquiring empirical data, the inductive approach seemed inappropriate for our research. Instead, the deductive approach seemed more suitable. The reason for this is that we wanted to initially use the existing literature about branding, services and trust, since these to some extent are topics that are not naturally related to each other. Consequently, in our opinion, it seemed natural to primarily bring the concepts together and reason about their interrelation on a theoretical level before undertaking the empirical study. However, what lead us to believe that our research could not be conducted entirely in a deductive manner was that our further intention was to use the empirical study to acquire additional insights about the purpose of our thesis. Then, in the analysis, these new insights would serve to revise and develop our theoretical notions that were generated in the frame of references. To sum up we believe that our mode of procedure when conducting our research diverges somewhat from the deductive approach since we use the empirical findings to further develop our theoretical notions. However, we hope that this divergence could serve to reduce the drawback presented by Alvesson & Sköldberg (1994) regarding the deductive approach, i.e. that our thesis concludes in an explanation of the studied phenomenon rather than only an establishment of facts.
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2.4 Qualitative vs. Quantitati ve Approach
According to Denscombe (2000), the distinction that usually is made between qualitative and quantitative research is too simplified since the conditions related with each of the categories are usually overlapping. Consequently, it is argued that it is difficult to place research in one of the two categories (Denscombe, 2000, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). However, the terms quantitative and qualitative are usually used to represent contrasting positions in research and each of these is related to different dimensions (Denscombe, 2000, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). It could then be of interest to explain the features that characterize the two types of research.
Quantitative research strives to measure phenomena that can be converted into figures that are then analyzed using statistical methods (Denscombe, 2000). Furthermore, quantitative research is associated with the necessity to detach specific factors from the whole in order to study their functions (ibid). It is argued that there is more focus on the researcher’s ideas about which dimensions that are of interest (Bryman, 1989: in Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994) and that the data exists independently from the researcher (Denscombe, 2000). When it comes to qualitative research, a fundamental idea is that there exists a possibility to acquire knowledge of an individual’s world through language (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). Consequently, the phenomenon that is observed or registered is converted into words, which is the basic unit of analysis (Denscombe, 2000). In addition, qualitative research is associated to a holistic perspective, which implies that the factors are studied in their specific context (ibid). Also, when it comes to qualitative research, the modes of procedure often put the perspective of the object of study in focus (Bryman, 1989: in Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994). 16
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Regarding our research, our intention is to acquire understanding about the phenomenon of services branding and the role of trust. We believe that it is then interesting to get an insight on and acquire knowledge of how different individuals view and interpret this phenomenon, which then makes it essential to put the object of study and his perspective in focus. In order to do this, a dialogue with individuals that could bring insights about the phenomenon is necessary. Our view is thus in accordance with the qualitative approach.
2.5 Type o f St udy
When conducting a research it is important to decide upon the disposition of the study, which includes for example reflecting upon the techniques that will be applied (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). The types of study that are most commonly referred to in the literature are survey-studies, experiments and case studies (ibid). When it comes to qualitative research the idea is to acquire understanding about a specific phenomenon and consequently within this approach case studies are of great importance (Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). As mentioned earlier, we find a qualitative research to be most suitable for our study and this makes it interesting for us to consider the choice of conducting a case study. Consequently, the main characteristics of a case study will be described below.
It is argued that a case study is characterized by the fact that only a few objects, such as for example a company or a sector, are included in the study (Denscombe, 2000, Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001, Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). According to Denscombe (2000), this implies that there are greater possibilities to obtain deeper insights and to explain why a specific result is obtained. Case studies signify an opportunity to acquire a deep-going 17
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description of relations, experiences and processes that appear in the specific unit of study (ibid). Furthermore, Denscombe (2000) points out that when it comes to case studies, the main idea is to elucidate the general picture by studying the individual case (ibid). Consequently, it could be argued that case studies tend to have a holistic perspective (Patel & Tebelius, 1987).
Taking into account the elements that characterize a case study, we believe that this type of study could be suitable for our research. The reason for this is that we believe that it could serve in order to look into in the most comprehensive manner possible the trust process when it comes to service brands. The next question regards however which specific case of study to choose. When deciding upon this matter, several aspects of importance are emphasised: Denscombe (2000) points out that since a case study demands that the researcher consciously chooses a specific case that will be studied, it is crucial that this decision is defended and that the researcher can justify that the chosen case is suitable for the purpose of the research (ibid). He further argues that the selection of the specific case can for example be based on its relevance for existing theories (ibid). This is based on the idea that case studies can be used in order to test or develop theories (Layder, 1993: in Denscombe, 2000). This implies that the most obvious base for selecting a case of study ought to be that it includes crucial elements that are specifically significant for the specific research (Denscombe, 2000). Taking the above-mentioned reasoning into consideration, we decided that the financial service sector, i.e. the bank- and insurance sector, would serve as our case study. The reason for choosing to include this specific sector in our study is that existing theories within the area of services brands indicate that the 18
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complexity of services is brought to its head in the case of financial services (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). Consequently, we believe that these theoretical aspects indicate that the financial sector ought to include crucial characteristics that are of interest for our specific study, which is in accordance with Denscombe’s (2000) argument about the basis for selecting a case of study. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, our intention has been to develop our theoretical notions that were generated in the frame of references with the help of insights acquired through the empirical study. Consequently, using the financial service sector as a case study has served to develop our theoretical notions, which is in accordance with Layder’s (1993: in Denscombe, 2000) above-mentioned reasoning.
2.6 Collection of Data
When writing a thesis the data that can be used can be of two types: secondary and primary data. Secondary data refers to the information that already has been documented about a certain phenomenon, but which has not been compiled primarily for the researcher’s specific study (Lundahl and Skärvad, 1999). Primary data, on the other hand, is information that has been collected from the original source for the researcher’s study in particular (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). For the purpose of this study, it was necessary to make use of both secondary and primary data .
2.6.1 Se c ondary Data
When it comes to the use of secondary data, we have limited our collection of material to scientific research publications from acknowledged periodicals and books. Lundahl & Skärvad (1999) point out that it is fundamental to have a critical attitude towards this type of data since the researcher himself has not 19
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collected it and the production process behind the data is therefore unknown to him. Consequently, we have tried to use as many sources as possible that deal with similar issues. This way, we believe that we to some extent could compare the reasoning of the different authors and thereby more easily examine the sources in a critical manner.
The collection of secondary data was initiated with a brief review of the existing services branding literature. We then received indications about that the literature concerning this concept seemed to be rather limited and lacked a discussion about the brand building process specifically when it comes to services. Therefore, we reviewed the work of some of the acknowledged researchers within the area of branding in order to acquire a knowledge base within the topic of brand building. Subsequently, the services marketing literature was reviewed to acquire an understanding of how these two concepts could be incorporated. Furthermore, when studying the services marketing literature, we started to reflect upon the possible relation between services brands and trust, which then resulted in the study of the concept of trust.
2.6.2 P rima ry Data
About the use of primary data , we found it suitable to use interviews in our study. So why did we choose to utilize this method for gathering our empirical data? Denscombe (2000) points out that if the researcher wants to collect deepgoing information from a smaller number of individuals, interviews are suitable. He further states that if the researcher wants to find out about emotions, experiences and sensations, interviews are the best alternative. In the case of our study, our way of thinking corresponds to the reasoning of Denscombe (2000). We perceived it necessary to get inputs on a more profound level about the service brand and its relation to trust and we wanted to get insights about how 20
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the interviewees perceived this phenomenon. About the procedure of selecting interviewees, it will be further discussed below. 2.6.2.1 Selection of Objects of Study When it comes to deciding which interviewees that should be included in a study, Lundahl and Skärvad (1999) bring forth two types of interviewees; the expert and the directly interested party. In this context, the expert is a person that has particular knowledge within the specific field of which the researcher is interested in (ibid). The directly interested party on the other hand is a person that is directly connected to the studied phenomenon, like for example employees in the department that is being researched.
As we have mentioned earlier, the financial service sector, i.e. the bank and insurance sector, will serve as our case study. Consequently, to acquire the most comprehensive picture possible, we tried to consider which key actors that come into contact with a financial service brand and in which way this contact occurs. As a result, we came to the conclusion that it was necessary to interview socalled experts that all have different relation to a financial service brand, in order to acquire comprehensive knowledge of the studied phenomenon. To further clarify our choice of interviewees, we believe that the following categorization could be made; Expert Knowledge, Backline Staff, Frontline Staff and Customers. About the category Expert Knowledge, we thought that it could be of interest to acquire knowledge from someone that had great theoretical and practical knowledge within the field of branding, i.e. an expert within the studied phenomenon. Consequently, we chose to interview a brand consultant that specializes within the field of brand development and that has a lot of 21
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experience in helping companies to build up their brands. In addition to acquiring information from an expert within the field of branding, we also considered it important to interview representatives from a specific financial service brand. Therefore we decided to conduct interviews with staff in different positions at two financial service companies; SEB and Östgöta Brandstodsbolag. Within these companies we thought it would be appropriate to interview people that have front positions and direct contact with the customers, here referred to as Frontline Staff. We had the opportunity to interview four financial advisors at SEB, Linköping. Even though these advisors work within different scopes in the company like Customer Services, Private Banking and Corporate Division, they all have direct contact with the customers and in addition they ought to have a lot of practical knowledge and experience about service brands. Regarding what type of interviewee these people represent, we believe that they could be seen as experts in the sense that they could all be considered to have particular knowledge connected to their specific role of profession.
In addition to interviewing employees on a frontline level, we also perceived it important to also include what we refer to as Backline Staff in the study. These are employees that are not in direct contact with the customers, but that instead work on a more strategic level with the particular service brand and could therefore be seen as having more theoretical expertise about this matter. Consequently, within this category we interviewed a Regional Manager and the Director of Publicity at SEB. Moreover, we interviewed the Market Communicator and two Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag. In our opinion, also these interviewees could be seen as experts related to their specific role of profession.
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About the final category, Customers, we believe that it would be interesting to try to get insight about the service brand and the trust process from the customer’s perspective as well. In a way they can also be seen as experts in their role of being just that. That is, customers. Therefore, we decided to also include interviews with three financial service customers.
So why did we try to include as many different key actors as possible in the study? In our opinion, if we had for example chosen to interview only consultants with expertise knowledge about the service brand, they probably would not have had the same practical experience of the relation between the customer and the service brand as for example an advisor from a financial service company. On the other hand, if we had only interviewed frontline staff, they would probably not have had the same theoretical understanding of the service brand and its building process. Thus we believe that this would have implied a higher risk that we would have acquired an incomplete picture of our studied phenomenon. About the number of customers included in our study, one could question why we have chosen to interview only three customers. In our opinion, conducting a more comprehensive study of customers’ perceptions i n this matter would have been preferable. However, because of the limited scope of this thesis, it was either including some customers or none. We chose to interview a limited number in order to acquire at least some insights about their perceptions since they in our opinion have essential knowledge regarding aspects of importance when it comes to the decision making process of a service brand. Having the above reasoning as a basis, our hopes were that we would get an as comprehensive picture of the studied phenomenon as possible.
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2.6.2.2 Procedure for Collecting Data As mentioned before, we came to the conclusion that using interviews as a part of the investigation was suitable when collecting the empirical information. It is pointed out that a common way to distinguish between different types of interviews is to consider the degree of standardization that is being used (Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). The degree of standardization basically depends on how much the interviewer interacts with the interviewees (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). When the level of standardization is high, i.e. standardized interviews, the formulation and order in which the questions are asked are predetermined (ibid). When it comes to unstandardized interviews the level of standardization is non-existent, which means that the formulation of the questions is very open (Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). The third category, semi-standardized interviews, implies that the questions have then been predetermined but the interviewer can make follow-up questions to get additional information and more deep-going answers (ibid). Some questions are also aimed only towards certain people (ibid).
Since our intention was to acquire as much insight as possible in the interviewee’s views and interpretations of the studied phenomenon, we wanted to give the interviewees the possibility to answer as freely as possible, however, within the scope of the studied topic. Therefore, we considered that conducting semi-standardized interviews was suitable for our study. In total, 13 interviews were carried out, with an average of about 40 minutes. Two different interview models with predetermined questions that were designed having the theories in mind were elaborated; one for customers and one for the consultant and the company representatives. However, during the interviews, follow-up questions were asked in order to get a comprehensive picture of the interviewees’ thoughts. In order to minimize the risk for misinterpretations to occur, the 24
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interviews were tape-recorded. We also asked the respondents if we were allowed to quote them and, since the interviews were conducted in Swedish, if their answers could be translated to English. In addition, we asked if they wanted to read the transcriptions of the interviews in order to check for misinterpretations.
2.7 Has Validity, Reliability and General Applicability Been Achieved?
Earlier in this chapter, we have argued that a qualitative approach was most suitable for the purpose of this study. However, as pointed out by Patel & Davidsson (2003) this type of approach may imply some difficulties when it comes to the concepts of validity and reliability of the study. What is argued is that qualitative research is about understanding and interpreting a phenomenon, which implies that each study is unique (ibid). Consequently, to which degree validity could be considered to be attained in the study, depends on how carefully the researcher describes how the research is conducted and how the reasoning is built up (ibid). When it comes to the concept of reliability of qualitative research, Patel & Davidsson (2003) emphasize that this concept could be seen as interlaced with validity. According to these authors, the reason for this is that what characterizes qualitative research is interpretations and thus it is not crucial to acquire the same results every time an interview is conducted but instead to acquire new insights and knowledge (ibid). Therefore, Patel & Davidsson (2003) argue that the concept of reliability could be incorporated in the discussion of validity instead. When it comes to our efforts to attain validity, we have tried throughout the thesis to describe our line of thought and the choices that have been made. In addition, in this chapter we have tried to clarify
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in a comprehensive manner our standpoints in order to give the reader the possibility to judge the validity of our reasoning. When it comes to qualitative research and case studies, several authors question the notion of general applicability since a case study concerns only a specific case and is therefore not based on statistical samples (Patel & Tebelius, 1987, Denscombe, 1998, Kvale, 1997). Regarding this matter, Wallén (1996) emphasizes that there are differences between case studies and general research results (ibid). What is pointed out is that general research results usually imply a reinterpretation from the general knowledge to the more specific situation (ibid). However, regarding case studies, the idea is that the results should be transferred from a specific situation to another, which in reality cannot be done without further interpretation and processing of the results (ibid). Having this reasoning as a basis, Wallén (1996) argues that a proper methodology is necessary in order to be able to use the results as a model instead of applying it directly to another situation. When it comes to the methodology applied in our research, we have throughout this chapter discussed our lines of thought and therefore, accordingly with Wallén’s (1996) reasoning, we believe that our theoretically- and empirically based notions regarding trust and services brands, could contribute with interesting insights to other types of research within the area.
To sum up, in this section we have discussed the validity and general applicability of our study. We believe that this discussion together with the rest of this chapter can serve to justify that our research could be considered scientific, since accordingly with the guidelines mentioned in the first section, we have carefully described our choices related to the modes of procedure.
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3
Frame of Refere nces
Our intention in this chapter is to discuss the process of building service brands as well as the concept of trust. Consequently, the frame of references will be divided into four sections: In the first section we will put forward aspects of interest regarding the process of building brands. The next section will deal with the topic of services and subsequently services branding as a concept. The third section will introduce the reader to the issue of trust; its definition as well as its functions and creation. To conclude the chapter, our intention is to discuss our overall notions about services branding and trust that have evolved through the previous sections.
3.1 The Co ncept of Branding
The concept of branding and its strategic potential for companies has in recent years been very acknowledged (Kapferer, 1997, Melin, 1999, Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård, 2002). Even though the concept dates back to the end of the 19th century (Melin, 1999) it is argued that branding still is in its early stage of development in terms of strategic importance for the brand owner (Kapferer, 1997).
The importance of branding can be related to the brand’s role in creating value for the company (Aaker, 1991, Kapferer, 1997, Melin 1999) in the sense that it is can be seen as an eternal asset (Melin, 2002) that comprises all the positive and negative impressions that every potential buyer creates over time (Kapferer, 1997). Consequently, one of the most important functions of branding is to add meaning to the company’s offerings by creating unique associations to them 27
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(Melin, 2002). From the consumer’s point of view, the brand creates value since it facilitates the process of choosing between the many offerings in the market (ibid). Also, it is pointed out that the brand adds value to the customer by offering a sort of guarantee that expectations will be fulfilled since the quality is expected to be constant (Melin, 1999). Furthermore, the perceived risk for the consumer can be reduced when choosing a well-known brand (ibid).
Above, we have briefly discussed the functions of a brand and the importance of branding. So, how is a brand created, then? Before we move on to this matter, we believe that it is essential to briefly discuss how a brand can be defined.
3.1.1 What is a B rand?
There are many interpretations of the definition of a brand that each emphasizes different aspects of the concept. Hence, it could be of interest to have a brief discussion regarding different views about this matter in order to arrive at a definition that we find most suitable. The definition of a brand stated in the Swedish Intellectual Property Law can serve as a good starting point of discussion: “A brand may consist of all signs which may be reproduced graphically, especially words including personal names as well as figures, letters, numbers and the shape or outfit of a good or its package, provided that the signs can distinguish goods which are offered in one business from those that are offered in another.” (§1 Vml, our translation). As Melin (1999) points out, this legal definition is rather descriptive since it emphasizes a brand’s characteristics and functions, with a focus on the latter. The characteristics of a brand are also pointed out by Aaker (1991) who puts focus on the “physical” aspects of a brand stating that “A brand is a distinguishing name and/or symbol (such as a logo, trademark, or package 28
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design) intended to identify the goods or services of either one seller or group of sellers, and to differentiate those goods or services from those of competitors” (Aaker, 1991, p.7) In our opinion, this definition clearly emphasizes the differentiating function of the brand, something that Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård (2002) also point out by defining a brand as “…a company’s symbol that in addition to its visual form (logotype), is a carrier of value. This “value” is due to the fact that the brand is a sign of the company that identifies the company’s products and consequently separates them from others by creating associations and meanings” (Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård, 2002, our translation, p 151). The main focus of this definition seems to be the brand as a value carrier for the company that creates meaning for the customer. The meaning of a brand is discussed even more explicitly in Kapferer’s (1994) definition, which states, “A brand is not a product. It is the product’s essence, its meaning, and its direction and it defines its identity in time and space” (Kapferer, 1994, p.4). What in our opinion makes this definition interesting is that it focuses on the immaterial aspect rather than the more physical aspects of a brand. A definition that even further points out the immaterial aspects of a brand defines the brand as “ the promise of the bundle of attributes that someone buys…the attributes that make up the brand may be real or illusionary, rational or emotional, tangible or invisible.” (Ambler & Styles, 1996, p. 10) In our opinion, this definition is the most suitable one. The reason for this is that it catches the mere essence of what a brand stands for in the mind of individuals, namely a promise that is expected to be fulfilled. However, when discussing brand definitions, it could also be of importance to point out the brand’s function as a value carrier as was emphasized by Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård (2002). The reason for this is, as mentioned before, that the concepts of value and brand 29
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seem to be closely related. This matter, as well as the process of building a brand will be further discussed below.
3.1.2 The P roc e ss of B uilding a B ra nd
It has been pointed out that building brands can be considered as a process of creating value for both the customer and the company (Melin 1999, Kapferer, 1994, Aaker, 1996). This process is about creating what is referred to as brand equity (ibid). There is, according to Melin (1999) no acknowledged definition of brand equity. However, we find that Aaker’s (1996) definition could serve to elucidate the concept: “ Brand equity is a set of assets (and liabilities) linked to a brand’s name and symbol that adds to (or subtracts from) the value provided by a product or a service to a firm and/or that firm’s customers”. (Aaker, 1996, p 7)
Different authors have different views on how brand equity is created and which perspectives that need to be emphasized in the process. However, since our purpose of this section is to acquire a general understanding of the existent branding literature in order to move over to looking at branding and services, we will discuss some of the authors that we perceive as most recognized within the area. Consequently, we have decided to below attend to the work of Jean-Noël Kapferer (1994), David Aaker (1996), and Frans Melin (1999) concerning how brand equity is created.
When discussing the brand building process, Melin’s (1999) model (see figure 1) could in our opinion serve as a basis due to its rather comprehensive nature. The reason for this is that this model (as opposed to Aaker’s, 1996 and Kapferer’s 1994 reasoning) takes into consideration both the internal (brand-
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owner/company) and external (consumer) perspectives of the brand building process.
Internal Process Productattributes Commitment External Process
Brand Identity
Brand Sensitiveness
Core Values Brand Building in the Company
Brand Awareness Brand Equity
Positioning
Brand Associations
Brand Building in the Consumer’s Mind
Market Communication Internal Brand Loyalty The Brand-owner’s Perspective
Value Added
Brand Loyalty
The Consumer’s Perspective
Figure 1. The Brand Building Process (Melin,1999, p208)
The overall reasoning behind Melin’s model, as well as the reasoning of Kapferer (1994) and Aaker (1996) of the brand building process is that the main objective is to attract a large number of loyal customers. When customers are loyal over time, brand equity is created (ibid). Melin (1999) further argues that in order for the brand-owner to be able to attract this broad base of loyal consumers, it is essential to build a strategic brand platform, thereby adding to the brand equity. Below, we will begin discussing the external consumer perspective and then proceed, accordingly to Melin, with the internal brand31
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owner perspective. As mentioned before, Kapferer’s (1994) and Aaker’s (1996) points of view will be incorporated in the discussion. 3.1.2.1 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective Melin (1999) argues that no matter which target group that a company focuses on, it is essential to understand the elements that affect the consumer’s decisionmaking process, which will lead to brand loyalty. Consequently the external perspective of the brand building process is based on six elements that describe the process for developing brand loyalty in the consumer’s mind (ibid). In order for the brand-owner to be able to create genuine brand loyalty, one of the essential tasks is, according to Melin (1999) to try to trigger a consumer’s commitment or interest for the brand in question. The goal for the brand-owner should be that the consumer would attach as great importance as possible to the particular brand when choosing a product brand1 (ibid). However, Melin (2002) points out that the commitment of the consumer varies depending on the type of product. Consequently, he argues that products like everyday commodities are generally low commitment products and the consumers are therefore passive receivers of information. However, products that have a complex decisionmaking process give rise to high commitment and the consumers thereby tend to actively search for information (Melin, 1999).
The ultimate goal, Melin (1999) argues, is to decrease the consumer’s pricesensitiveness at the same time as the brand-sensitiveness is increased (i.e. the consumer chooses the offering with the brand as a basis and not the price). The brand sensitiveness is often the highest when the decision to buy concerns
1
Product brand is referred to as the particular brand and the particular product that it is attached to since a
consumer does not buy only a brand nor a product (Melin, 1999)
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technologically complicated products or when the economic risk is perceived as high (Melin, 2002). The consumer will then tend to choose the better-known brand with a renowned reputation (ibid). By improving the brand-sensitiveness, the greater are the chances that brand awareness is created (Melin, 1999). According to Melin, (1999), creating brand awareness in the consumers’ minds is crucial for the brand building process. This reasoning is supported by Aaker (1996) who lists brand awareness as one of the four brand equity assets that create value. Brand awareness refers to the different ways that the consumers remember a brand (Aaker, 1996). It is argued that due to a large number of brands existing in the market, it is important to get the consumer to at least recognize the brand, recall it, or preferably that he has the brand on the top of his mind (Melin, 1999, Aaker, 1996). The optimal result is that the consumer recalls only the specific brand (Aaker, 1996). Creating brand awareness is important since it creates a sense of belonging and familiarity for the customer, which is a precondition for the creation of preferences for certain brands (Melin, 1999).
Melin (1999) points out that in order to make the brand product seem attractive, it is important for the brand-owner to relate it with certain values, which will create positive brand associations in the consumer’s mind. This is the second brand equity asset that Aaker (1996) discusses. Brand associations refer to what the company wants the customer to relate the brand to and could include factors like product attributes or a certain spokesperson for the brand (ibid). The main reason that makes the concept of brand associations so important is that it contributes to avoiding competition based on price (Melin, 1999). Even if a consumer has never actually tried a certain product brand, he usually has some type of opinion of the brand (ibid).
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One of the most crucial brand associations that a consumer can have is perceived quality (Melin, 1999). This is the third brand equity asset that Aaker (1996) includes in his model of building brands. Perceived quality can be seen as the customer’s perceptions of the overall quality or the superiority of the offering, related to its intended purpose (Aaker, 1996). In order to transmit a notion about perceived quality, quality associations to the inner and the outer attributes of the product brand are useful (Melin, 1999). When it comes to the inner attributes, it is important to maintain a high and constant actual quality of the offering (ibid). The name and package of the offering, which are examples of the outer characteristics, can also affect the customer’s perception of the quality (ibid). Quality associations primarily emphasize the functional values of the product brand although emotional values such as lifestyle, geographical origin are also important (ibid). The idea is that the perceptions of the product brand should result in a positive and strong image in the consumer’s mind (ibid). Melin (1999) argues that the associations that the customer has to the brand, will serve as a basis for the value added , i.e. the premium price that the consumers are willing to pay to acquire exactly that brand. Further he argues that the goal for the brand-owner should be that the value added would create brand preferences that in the long term will be transformed into brand loyalty. Since brand loyalty creates a base for profitability and a stable market share, it is highly desirable for the brand-owner that the consumer is strongly attached to the specific product brand (Melin, 1999). Aaker (1996) also emphasizes the importance of brand loyalty and lists it as the fourth asset that contributes to the brand equity process. It is pointed out that there are five levels of brand loyalty, included in the loyalty pyramid (ibid), which will briefly be described below. The bottom level includes the buyer that 34
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is not loyal and consequently indifferent to the brand. In the second level the buyers are satisfied with the offering and see no need to change it although switching to another brand may occur if a better offer appears. In the third level the customers are also satisfied, however, switching to another brand implies costs in terms of money, time, etc. Customers that really like the brand can be found on the fourth level. These customers are in some sense usually emotionally attached to the brand. In the top level the committed customers can be found. Generally, these customers recommend the brand to others and usually the brand is important to them in the sense that they identify themselves with what the brand stands for. (Aaker, 1996) 3.1.2.2 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective In order for the brand-owner to be able to attract brand loyal consumers it is, according to Melin (1999), important to identify the most essential elements in the brand building process from the perspective of the brand-owner. Consequently, Melin (1999) lists six strategic activities that are crucial for the internal brand building process and these will briefly be described below: One of the most important aspects in the brand building process is about using product attributes of different types in order to develop a functional value added for the customer (Melin, 1999). It is pointed out that in all kinds of brand building, one should bare in mind that a brand always becomes known through the product it represents (ibid). Further, it is stated that the brand has no intrinsic value and hence it is not until the brand is related to a product that the value creating process can be initiated (ibid). Consequently, Melin (1999) argues that the use of product attributes is of great importance in terms of differentiating a brand. This implies the use of concrete characteristics of the product like for example design, color and logotype as means to communicate and individualize 35
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the brand’s visual identity (ibid). As has been mentioned earlier, one of the most crucial brand associations that a consumer can have is perceived quality. Consequently, one of the most important product attributes is quality, where the focus for the brand-owner should be to reduce the gap between the perceived quality and the actual quality so that the quality expectations are met (Melin, 1999).
The second important aspect of the internal brand building process is according to Melin (1999) about developing a strong sense of what the brand stands for, gives it meaning and makes it unique, in other words developing a strong brand identity. When discussing brand identity it is important to distinguish it from the concept of image (Aaker, 1996, Kapferer, 1994). These two factors are closely related to each other, but they take different starting points (Kapferer, 1994). While the topic of image takes a starting point in the customer’s point of view on how the brand is seen, the topic of identity deals with the question of what is the brand’s uniqueness (ibid). Hence, image can be seen as the result of what the customers have perceived in terms of a brand’s identity and should therefore not be the starting point when discussing how brand identity is created (Kapferer, 1994). It would be starting in the wrong end (ibid). It is stated that brand identity has become increasingly more important due to the fact that it mainly builds on developing emotional value added, which is harder to copy than when building mainly on for example product attributes (Melin, 1999, Aaker, 1996). However, to develop a unique identity is a complex process that requires large measurements of continuity from the brand-owner’s perspective (Kapferer, 1994). As is pointed out by Kapferer (1994); while a newly created brand can take any path it desires, such liberty is highly restricted after several years, when the brand has already acquired its own level of 36
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existence and identity. Hence, what makes the process of developing an identity difficult is the fact that the brand needs to be updated and maintained and yet remain permanent and unique in terms of what it stands for (ibid). So what are the most important aspects for the creation of brand identity, then? Kapferer (1994) has developed a so-called identity prism dealing with this issue. This prism consists of six facets that will be further discussed below.
As is explained by Kapferer (1994), the overall objective for the brand-owner is to develop a core identity that can be persistent over time. In order to do this however, the identity of the brand needs to be communicated from the brandowner. When building the identity of a brand, there are two sides to consider; the picture of the sender (i.e. brand-owner) and the picture of the recipient (customer). When discussing the picture of the sender, the point of departure should be the physique and the personality of the brand. The reason for this is that these are the factors that the brand-owner actually can control and communicate to the recipient.
The physique of the brand is derived from certain key features or functions that make up the brand. As stated by Kapferer, the physique is the brand basis and the tangible support of the brand whose function is to evoke a mental picture of the brand in the minds of consumers. For example, La Vache qui Rit (the laughing cow) evokes a picture of foil wrapped cheese portions in round boxes etc. The personality of the brand is referred to as the particular character of the brand. What is pointed out is that people tend to identify the brand with a person, i.e. personify the brand and consequently this process can be enhanced by the brand-owner through using for example spokespersons or figureheads. The overall goal with developing the physique and the personality of the brand identity is that it should correspond to the picture that is held by the recipient. It 37
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is important that the brand identity is a reflection of the consumer’s self image and how they want to be perceived. In order for the brand-owner to succeed with transmitting a strong brand identity, it is important that strong links between the product brand and the consumer are created. There are two different kinds of links for achieving this; relationship and culture. About relationship as a link for creating a brand identity, it is stressed that an exchange between persons, i.e. between the customer and the members of the organization, provides the opportunity to further portray the desired brand identity of the brand-owner. About the culture, it is stated that the brand has its own culture, which is derived from the organization behind the brand. This is especially true in the case where the brand and the organization bear the same name. (Kapferer, 1994)
The third important aspect of the internal brand building process is according to Melin (1999) to develop a differentiation value added, i.e developing the core value of the brand. This implies determining the factors that can contribute to strengthening the long-term competitive advantage of the brand (ibid). The core value will then be the communicative link between the brand-owner and the consumer and it is therefore important that the factors that are chosen are easy to communicate, unique and difficult to imitate (Melin 1999). The next aspect that is included in Melin’s (1999) model is positioning, which refers to the process of acquiring a unique position in the minds of the consumers. The fifth aspect, market communication implies the task of actually transferring the positioning message to the customer (ibid). As means to do this, advertisements, commercials and sponsoring are used (Melin, 1999). The final aspect in the internal brand building process is according to Melin (1999) internal brand loyalty. It is argued that a prerequisite for the customer to remain loyal to a brand is that the brand-owner is loyal as well, which means 38
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according to Melin (1999) that the brand-owner maintains a brand’s legal and commercial status (ibid). This is achieved by coordinating activities within four areas (ibid). The first one, trademark management refers to protecting the trademark exclusive right to the brand while identity management refers to controlling that there is coherence between the brand and the development of new products. Image management deals with working towards coherence of the brand image (consumer’s perspective) and the brand identity (brand-owner’s perspective). Finally, loyalty management refers to the measurements that the brand-owner takes in order to sustain a high consumer loyalty. 3.1.2.3 Summarizing the Brand Building Process We have now illustrated some of the main aspects that are discussed by Kapferer (1994), Aaker (1996), and Melin (1999) concerning the process of building a brand. To summarize, in our opinion Melin’s framework is indeed the most complete compared to Aaker and Kapferer. For example, in the case of Aaker’s discussion about brand equity, it is more concentrated towards the external perspective of Melin’s model, listing the four assets of brand equity as brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty. Furthermore, Kapferer’s (1994) discussion about how brand equity is created is highly concentrated towards the creation of brand identity. However, in this discussion, Kapferer highlights the importance of a relationship between the customer and the members of the organization for brand identity creation and subsequently the brand equity creating process, an aspect that is not included in Melin’s framework for building a brand. With this reasoning as a basis, Aaker’s and Kapferer’s reasoning was incorporated in Melin’s framework. Therefore, from now on, we will refer to this compilation of the three authors’ reasoning as the brand building framework.
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In our opinion, a common denominator in the reasoning by the three authors (e.g. Aaker, 1996, Kapferer, 1994, Melin, 1999) is a lack of explicit distinctions in terms of branding of products versus services. Instead, the two concepts are dealt with simultaneously. As mentioned in the problem discussion, we take a somewhat skeptical attitude towards the issue of whether it is appropriate to use the exact same reasoning for branding of services as for products, considering a service’s characteristics. Consequently, we will discuss this issue in the following section.
3.2 Services Branding
In order to clarify the issue of branding and services, we will begin this section by defining what is a service and what are the main characteristics that distinguish it from a product.
3.2.1 What is a Se rvic e ?
Even though there are numerous definitions such as this one, there is an ongoing debate whether there are such things as “pure” services (de Chernatony & SegalHorn, 2001, Grönroos, 1996). It is argued that concurrently with the growth of the service sector, the boundaries between products and services has become somewhat blurred (Grönroos, 1996). Consequently, it is pointed out that most services of today include some elements of tangible resources (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). This discussion can be further illustrated by using the continuum of tangible-intangible possibilities (Payne, 1993). What is pointed out by Payne (1993) is that there is a continuum of tangibility ranging from highly intangible to highly tangible and that both products and services differ in their degree of tangibility (see figure 2).
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• Intangible Elements • • • • • Tangible Elements • • •
Babysitting Education Legal Services Air Travel Fast Foods Cosmetics Soft Drinks Clothing Sugar
Figure 2. The Intangibility and Tangibility Continuum (Payne, 1993, p.8)
As can be seen in the continuum, sugar is described as a pure product with only tangible elements whereas babysitting includes only intangible elements (ibid). However, legal services and air travel are described to have some tangible elements even though the intangible elements are predominant (ibid). The following example can serve to further illustrate the matter of different degrees of tangibility when it comes to services: an airline cannot function without major tangibles such as the planes, check-in-desks, etc (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). The financial services provided by a bank on the other hand, have less tangible resources, where the major service is connected to the activity performed by the experts (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). Normann (1992) argues that one of the reasons for the change in the nature of the service is due to the increasing use of communication and information technology. This has made it possible to store some types of services (ibid), like for example in the IT industry. Also, because of this, the necessity of face-to-face interaction in the production and consumption of services could sometimes be lowered (ibid). The discussion above illustrates that the boundaries between services may have become more vague where most services of today have elements of tangibility. 41
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Even a recognized researcher within services marketing such as Grönroos (1990) defines a service rather vaguely stating the following: “A service is an activity or series of activities of more or less intangible nature that normally, but not necessarily, take place in interactions between the customer and service employees and/or physical resources or goods and/or systems of the service provider, which are provided as solutions to customer problems.” (Grönroos, 1990, p.27) With this comprehensive definition in mind, from this point onward, we will not further elucidate the different degrees of tangibility in different services and which implications these differences would have, since this discussion in our opinion is not relevant for the purpose of the thesis. Consequently, we confine the discussion in this matter by pointing out that there are different degrees of tangibility involved in different services, from services with very few tangible elements, such as in the financial sector (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999) to services with a higher degree of tangibility such as for example airlines (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001).
When discussing services, it is essential to point out the characteristics that distinguish them from products and make them unique in their character. Hence, below we will discuss the distinctive features of a service; intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity and perishability.
The most fundamental feature that distinguishes a service from a product is intangibility (Zeithaml, et al, 1985, de Chernatony, Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). This implies that since services are performances, they cannot be sensed in the same way as goods, meaning they cannot be seen, felt, tasted or touched (Parasuraman, 1987). The fact that the service is immaterial in its essence (Normann, 1992), results in customers defining it in an abstract and subjective manner (Grönroos, 1990). Intangibility 42
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can, according to Bateson (1979: in Zeithaml et al 1985), be seen as the most important criterion of a service since it is from this feature that all other unique features emerge. Another important characteristic that adds to the uniqueness of a service is the inseparability of its production and consumption (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony, Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). Consequently, while products are first produced, then sold and then consumed, most services are sold, then produced and consumed simultaneously (Parasuraman, 1987). The fact that the customer must participate during the production of many services, as is the case in haircuts or airplane trips, the inseparability factor “forces the buyer into intimate contact with the production process” (Carmen & Langeard, 1980, p. 8). The third feature that is distinctive to the service is the heterogeneity aspect (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). Since services entail social relationships in the sense that both personnel and customers are involved in the process (Grönroos, 1990), the essence of the service varies from time to time (Grönroos, 1990, Parasuraman, 1987, Normann, 1992). Consequently, the experience of a service is often unique and consistency is thereby hard to achieve (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). In addition, the human element cannot be measured in terms of quality as in the case of products (Berry 1980: in de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). Finally, perishability is another characteristic that makes the service unique (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). This feature implies that the service cannot be stored 43
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(Normann, 1992, Parasuraman, 1987) in the sense that for example, if the seats of a plane are not purchased, the opportunity of taking advantage of the service has expired. Therefore, a situation where supply and demand is synchronized is difficult to achieve (Zeithaml et al, 1985). Furthermore, a service does not result in the transfer of ownership (Grönroos, 1990, Normann, 1992).
Zeithaml (1991) argues that due to the unique characteristics of a service, the evaluation processes for the consumer will be different for services than in the case of products. This is discussed through the use of a framework (see figure 3) where services and products are plotted along a continuum depending on the degree of difficulty to evaluate them. Consequently, three categories are distinguished in this continuum: search qualities, experience qualities and credence qualities. (ibid).
Figure 3. Continuum of Evaluation for Different Types of Offerings (Zeithaml, 1991, p.40)
The first category, search qualities, refers to the attributes that can be determined before making a purchase, like style, color and feel. Experience qualities, on the other hand, cannot be assessed before the purchase or consumption has taken place. Examples of these are taste and purchase satisfaction. Finally, Zeithaml refers to credence qualities as characteristics that can be impossible to evaluate 44
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even after purchase and consumption has taken place. Offerings that have a high degree of credence qualities are for instance medical diagnosis and financial services. As can be seen in the figure, most goods can be found in the left of the continuum, while services are found on the opposite side. Consequently, services are high in both experience and credence qualities but low in search qualities. (Zeithaml, 1991) 3.2.1.1 Summarizing the Services Characteristics To sum up the reasoning above, one can conclude that the evaluation process of services is far more difficult than for products due to its unique and distinctive characteristics. As was mentioned above, when it comes to products, the consumer has a higher possibility to evaluate the offering before buying it due to the existence of search qualities, than when it comes to services (Zeithaml, 1991). Services, on the other hand, are impossible to evaluate before the purchase and sometimes even after depending on what type of service that is performed (ibid). Consequently, the customer is forced to rely on other processes when evaluating services (ibid). As a result of this, we suggest that in the process of building a service brand, there may be a need to emphasize different aspects than in the case of product brands. Consequently, we will continue with a discussion about how the services characteristics affect the brand building process that was presented in the first section of the frame of references.
3.2.2 Se rvic e s C ha rac te rist ic s a nd t he B ra nd B uilding P roc e ss
As could be seen in the first section of this frame of references, the discussion of the brand building process left us reflecting upon whether it is appropriate to use the exact same reasoning for branding of services as for products. We then tried to deepen our understanding of the particular characteristics of services in the 45
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beginning of this section. Consequently, we will now apply this learning as well as the existent literature on services branding to the brand building framework that was presented in the first section. By doing this, we hope to put focus on possible differences. Consequently, we will begin the reasoning with discussing the different stages of this framework. Our intention is then to proceed with an overall discussion of the framework in terms of service branding. 3.2.2.1 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective Melin (1999) points out that using product attributes to differentiate a brand is one of the most important aspects of the brand building process. As mentioned before, services are performances and consequently services brands represent something that is intangible (Parasuraman, 1987). However, a way to make services brands more tangible, is to instead use as many physical elements as possible such as staff uniforms, building design, office décor etc, that can be associated with the brand (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998, Greene, 1994).
Melin (1999) also stresses that one of the most important product attributes that can be used is quality. It was mentioned earlier that since the service is highly heterogeneous in its nature (Zeithaml et al, 1985), keeping a persistent quality is considerably harder than in the case of products (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998). In other words, although technology enables the quality of product brands to be rather consis tent, this is not the case for services (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). Consequently, in the case of using quality as an attribute to differentiate the brand and thereby contribute to the brand building process, the specific characteristics of a service complicate the issue.
As was mentioned earlier, the creation of brand identity is crucial in the process of building a brand (Kapferer 1994, Melin 1999). Furthermore, the topic of how 46
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brand identity is created was further illustrated through Kapferer’s (1994) identity prism. Consequently, it is now our intention to briefly discuss Kapferer’s framework in terms of services branding. Kapferer (1994) points out that physique is the basis of the brand whose function is to evoke a mental picture of the particular brand in the minds of consumers. However, due to the specific characteristics of services, this aspect may not be as evident as in the case of products. As was mentioned before, the immaterial and intangible nature of services, make consumers define services in a rather subjective manner (Grönroos, 1990). This may imply that it might not be as easy for the brand-owner to evoke a clear picture of the brand identity in the minds of the consumers. One of the reasons for this may be that in services there are far more points of contact between the services brands and the customers (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Consequently, the customerfacing staff has a greater impact on brand perceptions when it comes to services (ibid). As a result of this, the level of coherence in the organization ought to be essential to evoke a clear picture of the brand in consumers’ minds. Regarding the role of personality, Kapferer (1994) points out that in the identity creating process people tend to personify the brand which implies the possible use of spokespersons for the brand in question. However, when it comes to the case of service branding, this process may be somewhat more comprehensive than for products. As we have mentioned earlier, in service branding, there are more points of contact involved than in the case of products (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Consequently, in the case of product branding, the personality of the brand can be created with more emphasis on the marketing department and its communications agency (ibid). However, in the case of service branding, the personality creating process comprises the whole 47
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organization and its members (ibid) thus evoking the issue of the importance of coherence within the organization. The discussion above about the importance of the physique and personality of the brand for the process of creating a brand identity may imply that, in the case of services, the emphasis of these aspects may be somewhat different. As mentioned before, Kapferer (1994) points out that in order to communicate the desired identity of the brand from the sender to the recipients, the concepts of culture and relationship are important links in the process. According to authors that discuss the branding of services, the existence of a coherent corporate culture is the key element in the brand building process of services (Parasuraman, 1987, McDonald, de Chernatony & Harris, 2001). It is pointed out that even though a strong corporate culture is important for all firms, such a culture is especially important for service firms (Parasuraman, 1987). The main reason for this is due to the particular nature of services and the fact that services are inherently people intensive (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003, Parasuraman, 1987, Zeithaml et al, 1985). Consequently, in services branding, a consistent perceived quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). It is even argued that the staff, in the context of services branding, can be considered as the firm’s brand deliverer, or indeed as the brand itself (ibid).
Kapferer (1994) argues that relationship is an important link for the brand-owner to communicate the desired brand identity and he also points out that this is particularly true for services brands. It is pointed out that one of the most common ways for consumers to form relationships with brands is through advertising (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). However, because of the fact that consumers interact more with staff when it comes to services brands, 48
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consumers’ relationships with the brand come both from advertising and the behavior of staff (ibid). Consequently, it is stated that by having staff whose values are aligned with those of the services brand, their behavior should encourage consumers to develop a relationship with the brand (ibid). The reasoning above about Kapferer’s (1994) identity prism applies in our opinion rather well for describing the process of creating brand identity of services brands. However, the nature of services may to some extent put more emphasis on some facets of the prism than others. In both the case of physique and personality, these concepts may depend more heavily on the existence of a coherent corporate culture and relationship building than may be the case when discussing products. About core values, positioning and market communication, Melin (1999) points out that these are important elements in the brand building process. However, the execution of these elements may be somewhat different when discussing services brands. It is pointed out in the service branding literature that positioning for services is more difficult due to the fact that vague, intangible benefits need to be communicated (Blankson & Kalafatis, 1999, de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). As has been mentioned earlier, when it comes to services brands, there are more points of contact than is the case for products (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Consequently, the consumers don’t use advertisements to as a high degree to interpret the brand, but more from all their points of contact with the organization, transforming the staff into more active participants in the positioning process (ibid), thus making the execution of the element market communication somewhat different. When it comes to positioning of services brands, it is thus stated that having an internal focus becomes especially 49
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important in the sense that it is crucial to get the staff to understand and be committed to delivering the core values of the brand (de Chernatony & SegalHorn, 2001). This means that the positioning ought to derive from the corporate culture which defines the core values thus encouraging forms of staff behavior that are preferred (ibid).
Regarding the element of internal brand loyalty, Melin (1999) emphasizes the importance of that the brand-owner maintains the brand’s legal and commercial status. However, in the case of service branding, it could be important to emphasize another aspect of internal brand loyalty as well. As mentioned earlier, in services branding, it is important that the values of the individuals within the organization are aligned with the brand’s values (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). When discussing services brands, it is important how things are done internally with the help of a strong corporate culture (de Chernatony & SegalHorn, 2001). Consequently, as is pointed out by Heskett (in de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001) when employees understand the brand values and how this affects their roles in the organization, the commitment to deliver the service brand is enhanced. Hence, when it comes to service branding, internal brand loyalty ought to be strongly related to the existence of a coherent corporate culture where the values of the staff are aligned with the brand values. 3.2.2.2 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective When it comes to the issue of commitment, Melin (1999) argues that it is important to try to trigger the consumer’s interest for the particular brand. He also points out that the level of commitment varies depending on the type of offering. This reasoning ought to apply also regarding the decision-making process in the consumer’s mind when it comes to services brands. There ought to be the same type of continuum in the case of services as in the case of 50
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products, reaching from services in which the consumers act more like passive recipients of information to services in which the consumers seek out information actively. Melin (1999) points out that the brand sensitiveness is generally the highest when it comes to products that are technologically complicated or where the economic risk is perceived as high. He also claims that the consumer will then tend to choose the better-known brand with a renowned reputation (ibid). This reasoning may also apply in the case of services brands. However, the nature of services may put even more emphasis on the importance of reputation. For example, as has been mentioned before, a service often does not involve a transfer of ownership, which implies that many services are bought long before they are experienced, such as pensions or life assurance (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). Consequently, services brands first need to develop an image and reputation to attract customers and then they need to retain these customers as competitors try to lure them away even before the service brand has been experienced (ibid). This may imply that when it comes to service branding, the role of reputation for the decision-making process could be even more important for creating brand-sensitiveness. About brand awareness it is argued by Melin (1999) and Aaker (1996) that due to a large number of brands existing in the market, it is important to get the consumer to at least recognize the brand, recall it, or preferably that he has the brand on the top of his mind. When it comes to services brands, the reasoning ought to be applied in the same manner
According to Melin (1999), product attributes and spokespersons are important for the creation of brand associations. As mentioned earlier, using these factors 51
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when it comes to services brands could imply some difficulties due to the specific nature of services. Keeping a persistent quality is more difficult due to the services heterogeneity (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998), which, as has been pointed out earlier may imply that using quality as a product attribute could be more difficult for services as compared to products. Due to this issue, creating brand associations also could be more difficult when it comes to service brands. As been pointed out when discussing has the element brand identity, keeping a consistent perceived quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Thus, in our opinion, the staff acting consistently could serve as a means to create brand associations when it comes to services brands.
Melin (1999) argues that the brand associations in the consumer’s mind constitute the basis for the premium price that the consumers are willing to pay, i.e. the value added. Since the element brand association is closely related to the element value added in the brand building process, this element could also be dependent on the staff acting consistently so that the service brand is perceived to be consistent in quality. Melin (1999) and Aaker (1996) emphasize the importance of brand loyalty for adding to brand equity. According to Melin (1999), value added creates brand preferences that in the long term will be transformed into brand loyalty. In our opinion, the same reasoning ought to be applicable when it comes to services brands. 3.2.2.3 Summarizing Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process To sum up the discussion above about the individual elements in the brandbuilding framework, when it comes to the important elements in the process of 52
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building a service brand seen from the brand-owners perspective, the most prominent element seems to be the creation of a strong brand identity. As has been mentioned before, building a strong and coherent corporate culture is according to the services branding literature the key aspect in the process of building a service brand (Parasuraman, 1987, McDonald, de Chernatony & Harris, 2001). Thus creating a coherent corporate culture could be regarded as nearly the backbone of the brand building process when it comes to services. On the other hand, the unique features that characterize a service could somewhat dampen the emphasis of product attributes in the services brand building process.
When it comes to the emphasis on the elements core values, positioning and market communication, these ought to be consistent with the brand-building framework presented in the first section of this frame of references. However, due to the unique characteristics of services, the execution of these elements could be somewhat different in the sense that the staff becomes more involved in the positioning process (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). About the element internal brand loyalty, Melin’s (1999) reasoning about the importance of maintaining the legal and commercial status of the brand may also be applied to services brands. However, as mentioned before, in addition, the aspect of a strong staff commitment ought to be of importance in the case of services brands. When it comes to the elements that affect the consumers’ decision-making process, the emphasis of these could partially differ due to the services unique characteristics. The reasoning about the elements commitment, brand sensitiveness and brand awareness discussed in the first section of this frame of references, may be applied also in the consumers’ decision-making process 53
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when discussing services brands. As mentioned earlier, it could be more difficult to create brand associations as well as value added since keeping a persistent quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently. Regarding brand loyalty, the reasoning may be applied in the same manner when it comes to service brands.
3.2.3 Summa riz ing Se rv ic e s B ra nding
We have now discussed the different elements that are included in the framework of the brand building process that was presented earlier in the frame of references, in terms of services branding. To summarize the section about services branding, we suggest that it can be said that in broad outline, the emphasis of the particular elements in this framework differs due to the specific characteristics of services. However, these unique characteristics also give rise to the thought that the brand building process may be somewhat more comprehensive when it comes to services than it would be in the case of products. The reasoning behind this line of thought will be discussed below. When the notion of what is a brand was discussed in the beginning of this chapter, one of the definitions emphasized the brand as “ the promise of the bundle of attributes that someone buys…the attributes that make up the brand may be real or illusionary, rational or emotional, tangible or invisible.” (Ambler & Styles, 1996, p10) However, it is pointed out that a service brand is more of a promise than a product brand, which is more of the actual item that “resides in your hand” (Anonymous in de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001, p 657). Consequently, delivering the promise of a service brand is more difficult than for product brands (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). As has been suggested before, the unique characteristics of a service, i.e. intangibility, heterogeneity, perishability and inseparability, contributes to 54
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making the evaluation process of a service more difficult (Zeithaml, 1991). As was mentioned earlier, services are high in experience and/or credence qualities, which implies that evaluation is difficult and in some cases even impossible (ibid), something that ought to make the evaluation of the service brand promise even more difficult. This in turn could imply a high level of perceived risk and uncertainty (Dall’Olmo, 2000). Therefore, the customer may need a high degree of reassurance that the brand promise will really be fulfilled (ibid). In this context, building a relationship is crucial to facilitate the evaluation of the brand promise and thereby reduce the perceived risk associated with the particular service (ibid). When it comes to the issue of perceived risk associated with a purchase, Dall’Olmo (2000) points out that corporate brand names can help to reduce this risk. She further argues that when quality cannot easily be evaluated, the use of a corporate brand can serve as a risk reducer and contribute to the process of creating trust (ibid). Consequently, building a relationship based on trust ought to be particularly important in order to reduce the risk for the consumer when choosing a service brand. So, what is meant by trust, then? And how does it emerge? These issues will be addressed in the following section.
3.3 The Co ncept of Trust
“ Trust…tends to be somewhat like a combination of the weather and motherhood; it is widely talked about, and it is widely assumed to be good for organizations. When it comes to specifying just what it means in an organizational context, however, vagueness creeps in.” (Porter, Lawler & Hackman 1975 : in McAllister, 1995, p. 1)
In our opinion, the statement above illustrates the rather complex nature of the concept of trust. As mentioned by Huemer (1998), mentioning a concept such as 55
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trust doesn’t necessarily mean that it is understood or explained thoroughly. It is pointed out that trust is an elusive concept that means different things to different individuals (Nooteboom, 2002, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Tillmar, 2002). As has been pointed out in the problem discussion, there are, depending on the school of thought that is applied, contradicting views about the definition of trust as well as a disagreement about its functions and creation (Blomqvist, 1997, Cowles, 1997, Kennedy et al 2001, Nooteboom, 2002, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Tillmar, 2002). In our opinion, with the above-mentioned discussion in mind, the concept of trust needs to be discussed in a rather thoroughly manner. Consequently, the intention with this section is to bring forth important aspects of the trust phenomenon. Hence, we will begin with a discussion about what is trust and how it could be defined. We will then proceed by elucidating the two basic approaches of the concept of trust. The section will end with a discussion about the different views on the creation of trust.
3.3.1 What is Trus t? The concept of trust is difficult to define and there is widespread disagreement about its definition (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, McAllister, 1995, Blomqvist, 1997, Yousafzai, Pallister & Foxall, 2003, Tillmar, 2002, Sanner, 1997). However, most definitions have three assumptions in common which will be further discussed below (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Milne & Boza, 1999): - a degree of interdependence between the trustor and the trustee - trust can be seen as a way to cope with risk or uncertainty - a belief or expectation that the other party in the relationship will not take advantage of the vulnerability that arises when the risk is accepted.
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The first assumption, that is interdependence, is based on the reasoning that the need to trust arises from the existence of social relationships, since individuals would not have a need to trust without relationships (Lewis & Weigert, 1985). It is when an individual’s activities depend on the fact that the other individual cooperates or acts in a certain way, that the expectations about that person’s trustworthiness become important (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It is proposed that the importance of trust arises from the uncertainty of human behavior (Nooteboom, 2002). Coleman (1990: in Cowles, 1997) asserts that situations involving trust are a subclass of those involving risk. It is stated that if the individual did not face risk, he would not be engaged in a trusting behavior (ibid). Furthermore, it is argued that when an individual trusts another person, risk arises because he will be exposed to the possibility that the other person may take advantage of him, i.e. behave opportunistically (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Lorenz, 1988, Yousafzai, et al, 2003) and the risk that his expectations will not be met (Nooteboom, 2002).
In addition, trust can be related to a situation of risk where the individual can loose for example time, reputation, money, information, etc (Tillmar, 2002). It is argued that trust is related to risk since the necessity of trust arises when a bad outcome would make an individual regret his actions, in other words, trust presupposes a situation of risk (Luhmann, 1988). According to some authors, the individual would be worse off if he does not trust than if he had trusted (Lorenz, 1988, Sanner, 1997, Tillmar, 2002). The issue of vulnerability is also central in several definitions of trust (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Sanner, 1997). This third assumption implies that a consequence of risk and uncertainty is vulnerability (Huemer, 1998). When trusting someone else to do something, the individual exposes himself to a risk of another individual’s possible ill will, which implies vulnerability (Sanner, 1997, Baier 1986: in Huemer, 1998). Trust implies the 57
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increase of an individual’s vulnerability to another person whose behavior one cannot control (Lorenz, 1988). Trust is argued to be essentially needed in uncertain situations since trust signifies to assume risk and becoming vulnerable to the person that is trusted (Hosmer, 1995).
3.3.2 Approac he s to Trus t
As has been mentioned in the problem discussion, there is considerable disagreement about how trust develops and what makes trust occur, depending on the approach that is presupposed. Basically, there are two fundamental and opposing views on the concept of trust: the calculative and the social and affective view of trust (Huemer, 1998). These two approaches could be seen as the basis of the concept of trust and will therefore be addressed below. 3.3.2.1 Calculative View of Trust The calculative view of trust, is the major economic perspective on trust (Huemer, 1998). It is argued that trust involves expectations based on selfinterest and that trust is not based on moral reasoning but is instead a strategic outcome (Huemer, 1998). In this view, humans are seen as rational actors that seek to gain maximal utility (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998). In this view, trust is often discussed in a context of opportunism, which implies that rational agents will try to avoid suffering from opportunism by calculating payoffs (Humphrey, 1998). In other words it can be said that trust involves expectations that are based on calculations weighing the costs and benefits of the individual acting in a certain way (Coleman 1990: in Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Gambetta, 1988, Nooteboom, 2002). It is also argued that the only grounds that an agent has for believing that the other individual will not exploit the vulnerability that arises in a trusting situation, is the fact that a nonopportunistic behavior will offer greater gains (Humphrey, 1998). Consequently, 58
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the calculative trust view highlights the issue of trust involving risk as well as the assumption that the individual is able to calculate potential gains and losses of an action (ibid). It is also argued that trustworthiness increases with the time of the relationship with the trustor (Coleman 1990: in Huemer, 1998). Within the calculative view, there are several types of trust and the following seem to be the most frequently occurring (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bahmann, 1998, McAllister, 1995, Tillmar, 2002): Knowledge based trust is included in the calculative view of trust and takes place when enough information for predicting others’ behavior is available, thus it is argued that information and interaction contributes to trust (Huemer, 1998). The cognitive aspect of trust is emphasized in what is referred to as cognitive based trust, which is grounded in beliefs about individuals’ reliability and dependability (McAllister, 1995). It is argued that cognitions (i.e. the mental processes by which knowledge is built up) are reflected in the expectations that individuals have about the social order and about interactions with other individuals (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Zucker, 1986). Consequently, it is stated that these expectations can form the basis of trust (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). In other words it can be said that when individuals share beliefs and thereby build mutual expectations, trust is produced (Luhmann: 1979 in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). Another type of trust that resembles cognitive based trust is process based trust. This type of trust discussed by Zucker (1986) rests on a common base of knowledge, which means that common background expectations are required for its production.
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Fragile trust is based on the individuals’ judgment of the probability of the other’s actions (Ring, 1996). Ring (1996) indicates that this type of trust is similar to McAllister’s definition of cognitive-based trust which is also related to predictability. It is argued that fragile trust allows economic actors to deal with each other in guarded ways, relying thus on formal or contractual means and on institutional safeguards2. Furthermore, it is pointed out that this type of trust can help provide a foundation to simplify and develop stability in for example economic relationships. However, reliance on fragile trust generates trust since it is based on calculation of the other actor’s trustworthiness and the less information there exists about the individual, the more it costs to determine if he can be trusted. When it comes to this type of trust, it is argued that if the expectations are not met, reliance on the other actor will likely break down. (Ring, 1996) 3.3.2.2 Social and Affective View of Trust The social and affective view of trust emphasizes social bonds, individuals identifying with each other and their desire to maintain respectful relationships (Huemer, 1998). It is argued that the feelings that individuals have about trust are social in nature and therefore the calculative conception of trust could be seen as inadequate as an explanation (Huemer, 1998). Moral obligation and ethical issues are emphasized in this view (Child, 1998, Hosmer, 1995) and it is argued that trust is based on an individual’s expectations that the trustee will exercise responsibility (Parsons, 1951: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). Consequently, it is stated that moral obligations have an important role in the development of trust (ibid).
2
Institutional safeguards can be defined as guarantees that are made on an institutional level as for example state
and federal regulations (Cowles, 1997).
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There are several types of trust that are mentioned in relation to the social and affective conception of trust. Those that seem to be the more commonly referred to will be briefly discussed below: Affect based trust builds on interpersonal care and concern for the welfare of individuals rather than on self-interest (McAllister, 1995). McAllister (1995) claims that this type of trust is based on emotional bonds between individuals and consequently, a relationship between the people concerned as well as communication are of great importance for the development of affect based trust (ibid). Resilient trust is argued by Ring (1996) to be similar to affect based trust in the sense that it is about a belief in other individuals’ good will or reliance in the moral integrity of others rather than on the probability of the trustor’s actions (Ring, 1996). It is argued that this type of trust survives a situation where the expectations about the other party’s action are not satisfied (ibid). Furthermore, resilient trust is related to openness, loyalty, integrity (honesty) and discreteness (the ability to maintain confidence) (ibid). Ring (1996) points out that the perceptions of these factors seem to be based on prior relationships between actors (ibid). In addition, they may emerge from perceptions derived in the course of developing the relationship (ibid). Lewicki & Bunker (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) argue that normative trust is based on shared values and identification. Furthermore, Lane & Bachman (1998) claim that this type of trust is based on people sharing common values and norms arising from kinship, familiarity or common background as well as interest (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It is argued that individuals support each other when they share values and n orms (Fukuyama, 1995: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It is even argued that without individuals sharing common values, trust cannot be developed (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). 61
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Characteristic based trust, which is discussed by Zucker (1986), is what is called free trust, which means that it cannot be invested in or deliberately created. This type of trust is tied to a person and depends on social similarity or cultural agreement, that is on that the actors share a common religion or family background that contributes to them having a world in common. Consequently, information about social similarity is necessary when it comes to characteristic based trust. Another type of trust, referred to by Zucker (1986) as institutional based trust, does not rest on personal characteristics or on past history exchange but on formal social structures, depending on individual or firm specific attributes. (Zucker, 1986)
3.3.2 Different Views on the Creation of Trus t There is no single answer in the literature about the notion of creating trust (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Nooteboom, 2002, Tillmar, 2002). Depending on the approach on trust that is assumed, that is how one views trust, it may be more or less possible to create trust (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It has been argued that those theorists that hold to the notion that trust is associated with the calculative view of trust in its pure form generally claim that trust is impossible to create (Huemer, 1998). As is explained by Zucker (1986), these theorists often view trust as being either present or absent. However, theorists that acknowledge the social and affective view of trust in its pure form usually claim that trust is an emergent process (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998). An issue that is related to the creation of trust is the extent to which trust can be produced via different forms of institutional and impersonal arrangements or whether concrete personal relationships are needed (Huemer, 1998). 62
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Consequently, below different views on the creation of trust will be discussed with this reasoning as a basis. 3.3.2.1 Institutional and Impersonal Arrangements When it comes to the issue of the creation of trust, Zucker (1986) has studied what can be referred to as trust primarily produced via institutional arrangements. She argues that trust is produced in a routinely manner and that this production is essential in order to understand exchanges in a social system. Furthermore, she states that trust is difficult for scientists to measure because it is explained in terms of antecedents that are difficult to measure, as for example the internalization of rules. Consequently, this implies that it is difficult for individuals to determine if they can trust or not in a specific transaction. This means that individuals and firms measure trust with the help of indirect measures such as indices or signals to decide upon the likely existence of trust. Zucker (1986) asserts that there are two types of trust that can be produced; institutional based and process based trust, of which each is related to specific indicators. (Zucker, 1986) These will be further discussed below. Institutional based trust can, according to Zucker (1986), be deliberately produced through written rules and formal hierarchy, professional certification. According to Zucker (1986), there are two subtypes of institutional based trust. The first is referred to as person- or firm specific and is based on membership on a subculture. An example of how trust can be signaled is through what is referred to as professionalization (e.g. professional association membership, professional certification). The second, intermediary mechanisms, rests on some kind of guarantee that the promise will be fulfilled as for example bank supervision of escrow accounts. It is argued that for example legal mechanisms reduce the risk associated to trusting and make this process easier. The 63
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information that is needed for this mode of trust production ought to be limited but detailed and specific. (Zucker, 1986) According to Zucker (1986), process based trust can be deliberately created through for example interaction over time. Its production rests on a common base of knowledge. This type of trust is tied to past or expected exchange and is related to an incremental process of building trust through the gradual accumulation of either direct or indirect knowledge about the other. Reputation, brand names and warranties of qualities are examples of what is referred to as indirect knowledge or symbols that are used by the actors as an attempt to signal trustworthiness. It is argued that firms can invest in process-based trust through positive reputation or brand names. Reputation is a symbolic representation of past exchange history while brand name is a deliberately created representation for reputation. Advertisement can be used to invest in these formal forms of process based trust. A large amount of person- or firm specific information is required. (Zucker, 1986)
The importance of potential partners sending out signals of trustworthiness such as reputation and brand names is also acknowledged by Lane & Bachmann (1998). It is argued that it is in the interest of these potential partners to make their trustworthiness known by sending out these types of signals (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). Moreover, it is claimed that in the case of business relations, trust is seldom offered spontaneously but instead requires a period of experience when knowledge of the other is accumulated either through direct contact or through third parties that are reliable (ibid).
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3.3.2.2 Personal Relationships Several authors emphasize the importance of personal relationships for the production of trust (Granovetter, 1985: in Huemer, 1998, Lorenz, 1988, McAllister, 1995). Granovetter (1985: in Huemer, 1998) claims that the most important element for the production of trust is not institutional arrangements, but concrete social relations. Moreover, Granovetter (ibid) argues that an individual is interested in whether the trustee is expected to deal honestly with him, which is related to whether former contacts have been satisfactory. Lorenz (1988) also emphasizes the importance of personal relationships when he argues that trust can be created intentionally by sacrificing short-term gains for the long-term benefits offered by mutual cooperation. However, it is stated that personal relationships do not necessarily need to involve friendship or caring or that bonds of friendship are necessary for trusting (ibid). Instead, Lorenz (1988) stresses the need for personal contacts as well as geographical proximity for an individual being able to decide whether to trust or not. Further, he claims that an individual cannot solely rely on reputation to determine trustworthiness, but that own experience and time are crucial elements (ibid). The existence of a personal relationship is emphasized when it comes to the development of affect based trust (McAllister, 1995). As mentioned before, affect based trust is based on the emotional bonds between people and is consequently a form which is most likely to develop and become deeper through relatively intensive personal relationships that take place under quite a long period of time (McAllister, 1995). Hence, mutual knowledge and the sharing of information is crucial for the development of this form of trust (ibid).
Ring & Van de Ven (1994: in Huemer, 1998) assert that trust is based in the moral integrity and confidence in another’s good will, hence trust is produced 65
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through personal interactions leading to social bonds. Furthermore, it is argued that trust develops gradually, evolving in a slow process where there is little risk and hence little trust in the beginning enabling individuals to develop their relations and engage in major transactions (Ring & Van de Ven, 1992: in Nooteboom, 2002). In this process, individuals evaluate their experience and then decide if they want to continue their cooperation (Ring & Van de Ven, 1992: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). A model of the evolution of trust in different stages has been proposed by Lewicki & Bunker (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Nooteboom, 2002). In this model, trust first develops with calculation as a basis and calculative trust develops (Lewicki & Bunker, 1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). In this first stage, people are willing to take risk when entering into dependence on others since they know of the existence of institutional safeguards. It is suggested that many business and legal relationships remain at this stage with repeated but arm’s length transactions. If the validity of the trust is confirmed and repeated interaction and transaction is encouraged, the actors will develop a knowledge base about each other and thus the conditions for a transition to cognitive trust will emerge. At this stage the other partner in the relationship has proven to be consistent and reliable, hence the trustor can feel comfortable and consequently, the partner is predictable. The experience of the calculative relationship is crucial for how willing the individuals are to develop cognitive trust, i.e. if the experience is negative and trust is broken, probably the relationship will be terminated. When the knowledge of each other acquired has deepened and mutual confidence has developed, there may be a new transition to normative trust based on shared values and identification. The actors may be encouraged to identify with each other’s goals and interests and mutual affect will probably emerge. Generally, at this stage, the partners may become friends and thus this 66
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form of trust is not so common in business transactions where there is usually a difference in interest. (Lewicki & Bunker: 1996 in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) As we have mentioned earlier, several authors emphasize the importance of personal relationships for the production of trust (Granovetter, 1985: in Huemer, 1998, Lorenz, 1988, McAllister, 1995, Ring & Van de Ven, 1994 in Huemer, 1998). Dwyer, Schurr & Oh (1987) have developed a framework that describes the development of business relationships, in which trust has an essential role. It is argued that relationships evolve through four general phases; awareness, exploration, expansion and commitment (ibid). Each phase includes different levels of interaction which all have implications for establishing expectations, direct experiences and interdependence (Kennedy et al, 2001). The four phases will be briefly described below: The first phase, awareness, refers to the process where one actor recognizes that another is a feasible exchange partner. It is stated that situational proximity between the parties facilitate awareness because in the same manner as a family is more likely to become acquainted with neighbors, buyers are inclined to become aware of brands that are advertised frequently in media. In the awareness phase there has still not occurred any interaction between the parties. (Dwyer, et al, 1987)
The exploration phase, which is the second phase, is according to Dwyer, et al (1987), the so-called search and trial phase where relational exchange occurs. Consequently, it is when the buyer searches for information, makes the first purchase and initiates the process when trust is developed (ibid). Moreover, it is stated that it is after the product is bought, used and evaluated that trust either goes on or deteriorates (ibid). It is claimed that, “the exploratory relationship is 67
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very fragile in the sense that minimal investment and interdependence make for simple termination .” (Dwyer, et al, 1987, p. 16) In the exploration phase, the norms and standard of conduct that characterize the relational contract take shape (Dwyer, et al, 1987). It is stated that by adopting norms and create standards of conduct, the ground rules are set for future exchange between the emerging exchange partners (ibid). The aspects that could evoke trust include for example sellers’ use of implicit stimulants of trust such as brand names, trademarks and logos (ibid). However, it is pointed out that direct experience is probably the main basis for judging trustworthiness in the explanatory phase (ibid).
In the next phase, expansion , the benefits obtained by exchange partners continue to increase. In this phase the foundation of trust that emerged in the exploration phase now lead to increased interdependence. It is stated that the expansion process is a consequence of each party’s satisfaction with the other. Consequently, the exchange outcomes that occurred in the exploration phase provided a test of the other party to deliver satisfaction. When a party fulfilled the perceived exchange obligations in a satisfactory manner, that party’s attractiveness to the other increased and motivation to maintain the relationship was therefore increased. Moreover, the satisfactory outcome also reduced the number of alternatives that the exchange partner may use as replacement. (Dwyer, et al, 1987) The final phase referred to as the commitment phase, is the most advanced in terms of buyer-seller interdependence. Here, the exchange partners have achieved a level of satisfaction where other partners that could provide similar benefits are almost excluded from the choosing process. The actors involved in the relationship have not ceased to reflect upon other alternatives but keep being 68
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aware of other alternatives without constant and frequent testing. In other words, customer loyalty has been achieved. (Dwyer, et al, 1987) Kennedy et al (2001) has developed a conceptual model that specifically focuses on the development of trust close to the end of the exploration phase. In this model it is suggested that the buyer develops an attitude of trust or distrust based on the first experience with the individual salesperson and the organization. It is stated that for the majority of the purchases which imply a high involvement and that are used frequently as well as evaluated over time, exploration will continue after the initial purchase. Furthermore, it is argued that there are several factors that affect the buyer’s perceptions of trust, like for example the salesperson’s competence, the perceived ethical concern of the company and the level of familiarity with the product before the purchase. (Kennedy et al, 2001) Regarding the relation between brands and consumers’ trust, Delgado-Ballester & Munuera-Alemán (2002) argue that when it comes to brands, trust is the consumer’s feeling of security that the brand will meet his consumption expectations. This feeling can according to Delgado-Ballester & MunueraAlemán (2002) be based on the dimensions brand reliability and brand intentions. Brand reliability relates to the assumption that the brand has the capacity to satisfy the customer’s needs for example through constant quality. This dimension means that the brand is viewed as a promise of future performance that has to be constantly achieved if the company wants the brand to be trusted by the consumer. Brand intentions on the other hand, have more emotional roots and are therefore considered to be more abstract. This dimension implies that considering the fact that the buying and consumption for the consumer is related to a vulnerability to the company’s actions and decisions. Brand intentions is concerned with the belief that the company is not 69
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going to take advantage of the vulnerability of the consumer. (Delgado-Ballester & Munuera-Alemán, 2002)
3.4 Services Branding and Trust: Overall Notions
In the three main sections that comprise this frame of references, we have discussed the concept of branding, which then served as a basis for discussing services and branding followed by a section where the notion of trust was elucidated. So where does this leave us? Hence, in this final section our intention is to discuss the overall notions that have evolved through the previous sections.
As mentioned in the first section, when discussing the brand building process taking into account the perspectives of Melin (1999), Kapferer (1994) and Aaker (1996), there seems to be a lack of distinctions in terms of branding of products versus services. Consequently, in the following section, the reasoning about the specific characteristics of services was incorporated into the framework of the brand building process presented in the first section of the frame of references. This concluded in the reasoning that, in broad outline, the emphasis of the elements in the brand building process could differ due to the specific characteristics of services. Regarding the brand building process of services seen from the brand owner’s perspective, i.e. the internal perspective, brand identity and specifically corporate culture were brought forth as particularly important factors. When it comes to the external perspective, it was suggested that the emphasis of the elements in the consumer’s decision-making process could partially differ due to the services unique characteristics. In addition, it was proposed that the unique characteristics of services and the difficulty in the evaluation it implies, may implicate a higher level of perceived risk and 70
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uncertainty than could be in the case of products. With this reasoning as a basis, the issue of the importance of trust for the brand building process of services emerged. Consequently, the concept of trust, its definition and emergence, was elucidated in the third section. As was mentioned in the section regarding the concept of trust, interdependence, risk, uncertainty and vulnerability, are assumptions that are usually included in the definition of the concept (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Milne & Boza, 1999). Concerning interdependence, it is argued that without relationships, there exists no need to trust (Lewis & Weigert, 1985). Kapferer (1994) points out that when it comes to services, relationships are a particularly important link in the brand building process. It is even argued that since the staff is the brand’s main deliverer, they can even be considered as the brand itself (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003), which may even further emphasize the importance of relationships in services branding.
It is also pointed out in the trust literature that trust is essentially needed in uncertain situations since trust signifies risk and becoming vulnerable to the person that is trusted (Hosmer, 1995). When it comes to services, as mentioned before, they are generally high in experience and credence qualities, which implies that they are impossible to evaluate before the purchase and sometimes even after, depending on what type of service that is performed (Zeithaml, 1991). This suggests that the difficulties of evaluating the service and thereby the service brand promise, may imply a higher perceived risk, uncertainty as well as vulnerability from the consumer’s point of view. This reasoning, may consequently suggest the need for the consumer to have a trustworthy relationship with the service brand, making the consumer’s decision-making process somewhat different when it comes to services brands. Consequently, 71
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since the service brand building process may be more related to building a trustworthy relationship, more pressure may be put on the internal process of building the brand. As a result, in our opinion, the brand building process of service brands may be more comprehensive. As mentioned before, the staff could be considered to be the link between the brand and the consumer (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). In order for the consumer to have a trustworthy relationship to the brand, which is according to de Chernatony & Segal-Horn (2003) personified by the staff, factors such as a coherent corporate culture and a strong brand identity may be even further emphasized in the process of building a service brand.
The intention with the above-mentioned discussion has been to, in broad outline convey our notions about the role of trust in the brand building process when it comes to services. However, a more comprehensive discussion about this matter will be further pursued in the analysis taking into consideration also the empirical findings.
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4
Empirical Findings
In this chapter, the insights from the performed interviews will be presented. Consequently, this chapter will include four different sections: the first section deals with the distinctive features of services, the second discusses the issue of services brands vs. product brands, and the third considers the consumers’ decision making process of services brands. Finally, the fourth section discusses services brands and trust. However, this chapter will begin with an overview regarding the interviewees. In total, 13 interviews were performed. Of these, 9 interviews were conducted with company representatives at different levels within two Swedish bank- and insurance companies: SEB and Östgöta Brandstodsbolag. In addition, a Brand Consultant as well as 3 customers of different banks/insurance companies were interviewed. A compilation of the respondents follows below:
Interviewees Carolina Käll Anna Nygren Per Palmqvist Jonas Lundberg Mattias Karldén Britta Lundqvist Karin Hedberg Eva Sowa The role of the interviewees Financial Advisor, Customer Services, SEB Linköping Financial Advisor, Private Banking, SEB Linköping Financial Advisor, Corporate Division, SEB Linköping Financial Advisor, Private Banking Enskilda Banken, SEB Linköping Regional Manager SEB Tryggliv (Insurance), Stockholm Director of Publicity, SEB Head office Stockholm Market Communicator, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping Sales Director , Private Insurance, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping
Göran Wennerberg Sales Director, Corporate Insurance, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping Pär Bergkvist Lina Gustavsson Göran Lindström Christian Widlund Consultant, President Värdera Varumärkesutveckling, Linköping Customer at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Föreningssparbanken Customer at If Skandia, SEB Customer at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Föreningssparbanken
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4.1 Distinctive Features of Services
When asked to explain a service, a Financial Advisor at SEB described a service as something that a customer buys but which is not concrete (Carolina Käll). Also the Brand Consultant indicated that a service is something that does not in the main comprises a physical product, but instead that the performance stands before the product (Pär Bergkvist). He further explained that a service can of course contain a product, but in this case it is most likely more of an application than a physical product. The Director of Publicity at SEB made the distinction between services and goods, where the service in this case is something that cannot be touched (Britta Lundqvist). Furthermore she pointed out that in order to mediate a service it has to be made tangible (ibid). A reason for this was said to be due to the fact that a service cannot stand for itself in the same way as goods, which can be bought and experienced at once (ibid). A service, on the other hand, she noted, cannot be touched or looked upon but is instead something that is often bought at once and experienced later (ibid). She further stated that this matter implies some difficulties in the case of for example insurances since the customer buys these with hopes that the service will never be utilized (ibid). The complexity of bank services when it comes to for example fund investments was also pointed out: “...and when it comes to certain bank services, it could be said that one solely buys the expectations about growth, for example in the case of fund investments…what the customer expects is an increase and that is actually what one buys, and that is what makes services difficult and makes it all more complex” (Britta Lundqvist, our translation)
The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, emphasized that it is much harder to show the value of a service compared to a product, especially when it comes to 74
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financial services such as having a financial advisor: “…It’s much harder to show the value of it [the service]. It cannot be touched at the same time as the value grows over time.” (Mattias Karldén, our translation). The problem, he continued, is that the benefits of the service that is provided by an advisor will not reveal themselves until much later; “…like, “Well, what do you know! It was a real good thing that I got that chap Kalle as an advisor two years ago; look; my economy is straightened out; good interest on the loans and we are saving for the kids”…but in this case it’s difficult to show value, especially initially in the encounter, that “now you will get me, Mattias as your advisor and it will cost you 2500 SEK a year”…it is above all extremely difficult to put a price on it…” (Mattias Karldén, our translation).
4.2 Services Brands vs. Product Brands: Distinguishing Aspects
About the definition of a brand, a Financial Advisor at SEB pointed out that a brand is so much more than just the brand name itself (Carolina Käll). The same respondent also said that either good or bad feelings could arise just by spotting the logotype of the brand. A colleague of hers at SEB also emphasized the notion of the particular feelings that the brand logotype awakes (Anna Nygren). She stated that the brand logotype is generally connected to positive or negative associations of some kind and that the brand reflects the whole personality of the company behind the brand (Anna Nygren). The associations aspect of a brand was further pointed out by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, who stated that: “…we [SEB] can have a very strong picture about what we stand for, but when we ask the customer about what he thinks when he thinks about SEB or Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken as was our former name, other things emerge…” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) 75
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A Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, emphasized the brand as a means to distinguish a company from its competitors in the customer’s mind (Eva Sowa). She also noted that the brand concept also comprises the staff: “…also the way we [the staff] work is part of a brand, through the way we appear in the eyes of the customer”. (Eva Sowa, our translation)
The Brand Consultant that we interviewed, Pär Bergkvist, expressed the brand as a promise and stressed that a brand should strive to be a promise. He also indicated that if the brand promises something that people demonstrably think is being fulfilled, then this is the basis of what could be referred to as a brand (Pär Bergkvist).
About what distinguishes services brands from product brands, many interesting aspects arose during the interviews. One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized that the brand is even more important for service delivering companies since there is no actual product that can be touched but instead it is more about a sensation of the particular service brand (Eva Sowa). In addition, she stated that for example in the case of an insurance company such as Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, the significance of a solid brand may be even greater than in the case of products: “…in reality we are selling security and therefore it’s really important that we have a solid brand so that people feel that they have that security that they have bought. Because, if they never experience injury or damage, then they don’t know how our offering works and then they have to feel secure in what they have [bought].” (Eva Sowa, our translation) Also one of the Financial Advisors at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services, the brand ought to have a more important role that in the case of products, since it is harder to have some type of perception about a service 76
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(Anna Nygren). She continued: “if you buy a pair of pants, you’re able to know the quality and how they look, but when it comes to a service it depends on who within the service delivering company you meet. It could be different at different times with the same company…it’s more vague because you cannot see the service in front of you…there are so many more dimensions when it comes to services compared to a product…” (Anna Nygren, our translation)
Another Financial Advisor at SEB also emphasized the role of the brand as especially important when it comes to services since in this case it is harder to refer to something in particular as opposed to in the case of products (Carolina Käll). She further explained: “…when it comes to a service delivering company, you probably think more about the people behind…for example, SEB; you don’t think of the premises of the bank, but instead about the people; maybe your adviser; more those types of aspects. But for example in the case of CocaCola, you think more about the actual product…” (Carolina Käll, our translation). The importance of the people behind the brand when it comes to service brands was also indicated by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated the following: “ The difference is that you think more about the people when it comes to services [brands]; you put it in relation to those who work there. In the case of product brands it’s different in that aspect.”(Jonas Lundberg, our translation). A similar argument was also presented by one of the customers that were interviewed: “I think that services brands are more connected to people…and that it should be safe and secure in some way. It’s more connected to people and emotions, too.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) The Brand Consultant that we interviewed highlighted aspects such as leadership and organization as being especially important in a service delivering 77
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company (Pär Bergkvist). He pointed out that if imperfections arise in the management process, there might be more direct replications towards the services brand while there may be more of a delay in the case of product brands. He continued “…if the management at CocaCola is put in a crisis situation, there is a fairly long lifecycle for the CocaCola can; in other words, the impression of the CocaCola can does not deteriorate the same day and neither does the taste. In the long run, the deliveries may become delayed and then the product brand starts to loose pace, but in a service producing company, a leadership decision or a leadership crisis has a more direct effect on what people perceive as the brand.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation).
The importance of coherent and clear corporate values and that everyone in the organization understand the meaning of these, was indicated by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv (Mattias Karldén). He commented that during some periods of time, for example when SEB became an internet-bank, the employees were quite uncertain about what the company stood for. Furthermore, he indicated that having unclear internal values could imply a risk; “Indistinctness when it comes to these kind of things, such as values in terms of what the company really stands for and what Thunell [the President of SEB] and all the others say? And; what do our walls say as well as; where do we want to be? And; what does that imply when me as an individual co-worker meet a customer? What should I do and what shouldn’t I do? When we become unclear internally; that we one day should behave in a certain manner and the next in another, then we loose ground directly, because the internal aspect is very important!” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) Moreover, he pointed out that a lack of concordance when it comes to corporate values in the organization would result in an unclear service brand. The reason for this, according to Mattias Karldén, is that the customer then will have different experiences 78
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depending on which local office that he enters: “It’s important that there exists a common backbone; this is what we stand for and this is what we don’t stand for” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) The interviewed Brand Consultant also pointed out that culture is a more important aspect when it comes to service delivering companies since this is the only thing that the company has to work with to fill the organization with enthusiasm about the service brand (Pär Bergkvist). Furthermore, he stated; “…in a product company it’s possible to fill the organization with enthusiasm by presenting the latest model or design; it can be put on the table and unveiled and people will come together and say, “Wow, what an improvement; this we are proud of!” A service brand, of course, becomes more abstract, and then the culture becomes almost as important as design.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation)
4.3 The Custo mer’s Decision-Making Process and Service Brands
When asked about important aspects in the consumer’s decision-making process when it comes to service brands, a Financial Advisor at SEB emphasized the importance of the prior contact with the particular service brand, especially in the case of for example a bank (Anna Nygren). She also indicated the importance of other people’s experiences when it comes to choosing a certain service brand: “I also think that what you have heard from other people’s experiences is important. And it has become even more important because people generally talk more about their experiences from service delivering companies. Before it may have been more confidential regarding which bank and insurance company that people had, but I think that nowadays people talk more about if they are satisfied or dissatisfied” (Anna Nygren, our translation). 79
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A Financial Advisor at SEB also emphasized the importance of other people’s experiences when choosing a service brand (Carolina Käll). She noted that this could be especially important within the financial sector, since there is a higher risk: “When it comes to the financial sector, money is very much at heart. It is more important than which hairdresser you go to because it is not as bad if you go to the wrong hairdresser once. In our sector [the financial sector] I think that you take more into consideration what you hear from others and what you read in the media. I believe that the more which is at stake for the person on a personal level, like for example as in the case of a bank, the more important it is to check the brand before. (Carolina Käll, our translation)
When asked about the consumer’s decision-making process when it comes to services brands, the Director of Publicity of SEB pointed out the importance of a well-known brand; “Since it is difficult to form an opinion of what you buy, that is the specific service, you form an opinion based to a large extent on the brand and in that case, how well-known the brand is and what it is famous for.”(Britta Lundqvist, our translation) One of the Financial Advisors at SEB expressed a similar reasoning, stating the following: “Firstly, I am convinced that it has to be a well-known brand. Of course, it depends somewhat on the type of service but generally I think that it must ring a bell that you recognize it from something genuine.” (Jonas Lundberg)
One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag pointed out the importance of reputation: It means a lot that people talk in town that they have good claims adjustment, that there is a reputation in town…The clients that have had accidents have to be able to tell the others that it works; that strengthens our brand.” (Eva Sowa, our translation) One of the customers that we interviewed also pointed out the importance of reputation when choosing a 80
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service brand; “I also rely a lot on what I hear from other people; if they think that a particular service company is good, then I consider that more than when it comes to products; for example, if somebody I trust says that the service is good. When it comes to products I can probably more myself determine if this particular product seems to be good.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation)
The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv claimed that one of the determining factors in the consumer’s decision-making process of a service brand is that the company behind the service brand maintains some kind of activity and takes initiatives towards the customer over time (Mattias Karldén). Furthermore, he pointed out that this is especially important in the financial service sector; “Our products, in particular, are rarely static; if you buy into a fund, it then develops on different levels. The same goes for an account; if you want to borrow money for buying a house, the interest rate changes over time and consequently, in our company you cannot see the client only once…and consequently you need to look over how you have invested your money and then you realize that the customer values the initiatives towards him very much.”(Mattias Karldén, our translation) The interviewed Brand Consultant pointed out the importance of personal commitment and personal contacts (Pär Bergkvist). He further stated that when it comes to the service delivering company, the service brand rises and falls with the human perceptions: “The people behind the service brand become the ones that in some way inspire the customer to maybe continue…if it is the first encounter, the first impression is to a hundred percent built on the people involved in the service company.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation) A Financial Advisor at SEB also indicated the importance of the people behind the service brand as an important factor in the decision-making process and stated; “…in a 81
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way, they are the ones that make up the brand.” (Jonas Lundberg, our translation) The reasoning about the importance of personal contact as an important factor in the decision-making process was also brought up by one of the customers that we interviewed. She pointed out that this aspect is especially important when it comes to financial services: “It should be easy to acquire information…and I think that the personal contact is very important when it comes to those [financial] types of services.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized the aspect of security as an important factor in the customer’s decision-making process when it comes to services brands: “For us within the insurance business, signaling security is very important. After all, that is what we sell. Everything we do must strengthen the security.”(Göran Wennerberg, our translation). His colleague Eva Sowa especially emphasized the aspect of security when it comes to the insurance business: “In our business price is very important…it could be difficult for the customer to choose one above the other when the products are so similar and then the security aspect arises.” (Eva Sowa, our translation) Also one of the Financial Advisors at SEB emphasized that the aspects concerning security ought to be more important in the financial sector: “Money is always a sensitive subject for people. Like; “who can I entrust with my money?” I think that with other types of services it’s easier to switch. For example, in the case of insurance companies, you usually don’t know if you think that the company is good or bad until you need to use the insurance, which you hopefully may never need to.” (Anna Nygren, our translation)
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The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv emphasized the importance of trustworthiness in the customer’s decision-making process of a service brand and that this is especially important when it comes to service brands within the financial sector; “…as a customer, you entrust a part of your economy which is central for everybody; no matter if you have a little or a lot of money, it is incredibly important that it receives good attention, because it affects your overall life a great deal. Thus, trustworthiness is almost crucial; if it doesn’t exist it is very difficult to get the clients to give us that type of trust at all, to entrust a part of the economy to our advice.” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) When asked which factors that could be especially important when choosing a financial service brand, a customer indicated the importance of clarity and trust: “…especially that you perceive a sense of trust for the people that you meet within the bank and insurance business. In those situations it is more important than when I go by train for example; because it is about money. Also, this thing with Skandia 3; then you start to think more about these things; if there are some companies that are better and so on. You think more about the issue of guarantees after this thing with Skandia. (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) She continued her reasoning by pointing out the vulnerability when saving money in for example pension funds, especially after the Skandia scandal: “You have no control of what they are doing, and I think that feels uncomfortable; you deposit your money and then you really have confidence that the money will accumulate…then you find out that they cash out these bonuses and fiddles away and such things! You cannot really control what they are doing and therefore it is especially important that you perceive a sense of trust more than in any other
3
During Fall 2003, directors at the insurance company Skandia Liv, were accused of systematically concealing
expenses in the firm’s accounts and collecting high bonuses. (Eriksson, 2003)
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service sector. It should all be in the open, with an evident sense of clarity; that you know what is going on. ” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation)
4.4 Services Brands and Tr ust
Regarding the issue of service brand and trust, we asked our interviewees questions about what trust for the service brand meant for them as well as how they believed it emerged. The idea was to present the aspects that could be of importance for the customers’ trust in a service brand to emerge. In addition, we asked our respondents about their perceptions of how the organization behind the brand could contribute to create trust in the service brand as well as the employee’s role in the process of creating trust in it. The aspects of interest regarding these issues will be presented in the following sections.
4.4.1 Dif fe re nt As pe c ts on Trust E me rge nc e
When asked about the notion of trust in relation to services brands, a Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized the importance of trust especially in the case of the bank and insurance sector; “It is very important that the consumers trust in us; that is after all what they are buying [at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag]” (Eva Sowa, our translation) The other Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag commented: “We are selling a service that cannot be put in a concrete form, so many times it’s the fact that they [the customers] trust in us; that is, when they end up in a situation in which we [Östgöta Brandstodsbolag] should deliver, they should feel quite sure that they will get it. In other words, that they are sure that we will pay them and that they feel that our conditions are the best in the market…They should be able to feel that they have chosen something good, something that suits them.” (Göran Wennerberg, our translation) 84
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An interesting aspect that was brought up by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv was that trust in the service brand is built up during a long period of time and that it is built up in a process between individuals. “…I don’t think that it is something that you go and buy by spending 2 billions in marketing, I don’t believe in that but I believe that trust is created over time through personal contacts with the customers and then trust arises. And that you [the company] do not commit a lot of foolish things over a period of time that become publicly known…if a lot of these things happen, many years of work with a lot of individual co-workers may be lost very quickly…I believe that it [trust] is something that is built up over time…when our sellers meet the customers” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) The issue of reputation was especially emphasized by one of the Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag (Eva Sowa). It was for example indicated that what the customer hears from others, is of great importance for trust in the service brand to arise (ibid). She also pointed out the importance of openness and communication towards the consumer; “ The President [of Östgöta Brandstodsbolag] recently met our customers and told them that “this is how it is in this company, we have nothing to hide” and I believe that this is also very important in order to maintain trust.” (Eva Sowa, our translation)
Another important aspect for the emergence of trust in a service brand is according to a Financial Advisor at SEB, consistency in the consumers’ perceptions of the brand (Anna Nygren). She indicated that it could be of importance that the changes which the customer experiences are not too big. The reason for this was said to be that changes could imply anxiety for the customer (Anna Nygren). The aspect of stability as well as a long history of the service brand was also emphasized by one of her colleagues at SEB:“…other things that 85
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can give weight to a brand could be the fact that it is old and that it has been around for a long time; for example, SEB has been around for a long time and represents stability. Those things could be more important than you think for people.” (Carolina Käll, our translation) The Market Communicator at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag mentioned an example of the aspect of history when she indicated that trust in the service brand could be said to build up through generations. She noted that generally if the parents have been customers, there is a great probability that their children will also choose the same service brand (Karin Hedberg). A customer pointed out the importance of tradition for trust in a service brand to emerge (Lina Gustavsson). She stated that it is more difficult to trust in a service brand that has recently emerged, than trusting in a service brand that has existed for a long time. “For example, I’m a customer at Telia and they are very expensive which I think is bad, but I know what Telia is...I probably want that there is a tradition.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) An aspect of interest that was pointed out by the Director of Publicity at SEB was the notion that trust in the service brand is based on the customer’s own experiences. “Trust can of course be built via advertising and communication, but only to a certain extent. Therefore, it’s not until I have tried and experienced that I can really feel a sense of trust, so it’s probably the own experience that creates trust. It’s said that trust cannot be sold but that it is something that is acquired, and it is acquired through experiences” (Britta Lundqvist, our translation) A Financial Advisor at SEB suggested that the perception of the customer being treated in the manner that he wants to be treated in, influences his trust in the service brand (Per Palmqvist). The Market Communicator at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized: “it’s important that we are there directly for the 86
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customer as a support and are a partner to discuss with when the customer is a little worried and feels uncertain about something” (Karin Hedberg). A customer also emphasized the importance of how the customer is treated and the service that one receives and pointed out that this is the foundation for trusting in a service brand (Christian Widlund).
The importance of a relation in the process of creating trust in a service brand was noted by the Brand Consultant that was interviewed, who expressed it in the following manner:“ It’s actually the relationship that brings forth a feeling of security or a feeling of commitment…and of course it is when you experience that you are good at relations and that you are prepared to listen to the needs that exist. If you then can interpret these needs, well, then security arises. And if you then can satisfy them [the needs], then trust is created” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation) However, he further indicated that there exists some kind of boundary when it comes to relationships between the customer and the employee, where it is important that it is the customer that shows interest in the company and takes the initiative. Otherwise the relationship may be taken too far. “There always exists a boundary when it comes to relations…there is a boundary between friends and respect” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation) The importance of a satisfactory personal relation between the customer and the service delivering company when it comes to the creation of trust in a service brand, was also pointed out by the Market Communicator at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag; “...that you know that you are always able to get help quickly and in a satisfactory manner; that you are always taken care of.” (Karin Hedberg). A customer emphasized the importance of a trustworthy relation when buying a service brand and stressed that the employee who the customer meets has an essential role for trust in a service brand to be created (Lina 87
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Gustavsson). She mentioned an example where she decided not to engage in a financial business transaction since trust in the service brand was not created:“ Trust in her [the employee ] was not created, and then it didn’t matter if the rate of interest was lower.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) Furthermore, the same interviewee said that when she trusts a service brand she is willing to pay more for it. This was also emphasized by another customer who noted that when it comes to service brands, trustworthiness is more important than price (Göran Lindström). An interesting point that can be related to the employees’ role in the process of creating a trustworthy relationship was presented by one of the Financial Advisors at SEB (Jonas Lundberg). He suggested that trust in the service brand is connected to all the people within the organization; “Trust is everything in the company, if you look at the people who work within the brand, then it is everything; from those who appear and comment in the media to those who you have the local contact with; it is then trust is created.” (Jonas Lundberg, our translation). The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv presented a similar reasoning emphasizing the internal aspect when creating trust between the customer and the service brand. He further noted; “It’s how you say things, in which manner, when you do it; that is what makes the brand. It is you as a person who is SEB for this particular customer” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) The Brand Consultant that participated in our interviews also emphasized the importance of the employees when creating trust in the service brand and stated that: “…the service brand is the individuals [in the organization] and that means that if the individuals go out of the room, the brand goes out of the room 88
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and then you can say that if you have done everything right; what we have said about reputation and trust is greatly influenced by how the individual handles the first meeting, the relation, the fulfillment of delivery and in the perfect world the follow-up. And that means that the loyalty of the customer can be built on and related to some kind of brand trust and then this converts into trust in an individual”. (Pär Bergkvist, our translation)
The Brand Consultant further pointed out that since trust in the service brand is related to trust in the individual that delivers it, a problem could arise for the service-delivering company when the employee decides to change jobs. “ ...then you have done the whole chain of measures based on security that have contributed to the creation of trust and then this person [the employee] decides to change jobs; then the customer follows him. If they [the company] try to do everything right with culture and a base of core values, i.e. a common vision, implementation, that is, using all those types of attributes; then they build individuals; they invest in the individuals’ competence development and these people become successful and competent. And the service brand lives on all these people continue to be competent and if they for some reason decide to quit then you begin to reflect upon; where is the loyalty strongest? Is it related to the individuals or to the service producing brand?” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation).
Moreover, the Brand Consultant indicated that usually when a customer decides to change banks, it is because he is disappointed with one person at the service delivering company. He also emphasized that when the customer finds out that the person that he relates the service brand decides to change jobs, he might see it as a signal for him to change companies too. “…this person who has spoken so kindly about this, what can be the reasons for him to leave? And this is the services brand’s big, big threat; because I have built trust in someone for a long 89
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period of time I translate it to the conclusion that something has happen there [in the company] that is not good and what do I value the most? If it is this individual’s actions or way to handle my inquiries and wants, then I’m ready to follow him.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation)
4.4.2 The O rganizatio n a nd Trust Eme rge nc e
When dealing with the issue of how the organization behind the service brand contributes to the creation of trust, one of the Financial Advisors at SEB indicated that it is of significance that all the employees know what the company stands for (Anna Nygren). She further emphasized the importance of concordance within the organization (ibid). Another Financial Advisor at SEB also said that it is essential for the employees’ beliefs to be in concordance with the broad outlines set at the managerial level (Jonas Lundberg). Furthermore, he argued that “...the most important issue for the management should be to build up the co-workers trust...I believe that it creates concordance and it creates security and that creates greater possibilities for that one as a co-worker acts in a better manner towards the customers you are in contact with.” (Jonas Lundberg, our translation)
The Brand Consultant that was interviewed also emphasized the importance of a common vision in the organization for the creation of trust (Pär Bergkvist). He pointed out the importance of everyone knowing which issues that are of importance when delivering the service brand. Furthermore, he indicated that if employees have different perceptions of the significant issues, the consumer’s trust could be affected in a negative manner. The reason for this is that if different employees handle the customer’s request in different ways, there is a risk that the service brand will not fulfill the customers’ expectations. (Pär Bergkvist) 90
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One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag pointed out that honesty and harmony in relation to the business concept, are important when building on the consumers’ trust in the service brand: “If you have chosen a business concept, you have to see to it that it is not only about empty phrases but that you really fulfill it.”(Göran Wennerberg) He further argued that otherwise the customer could perceive that the service brand does not fulfill its promises, which could in turn affect the trust in the brand. When it comes to the employees’ perceptions of their role in creating trust in the service brand, a Financial Advisor at SEB noted the significance of being consistent when using the service brand name (Anna Nygren). She stressed for example the importance of using the logotype in the right manner, that is, in the right context in order for the customer to perceive the service company as professional.
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5
Analysi s
We concluded our frame of references with a discussion about our general notions regarding services brands and trust. After having conducted our empirical study we feel it is now time to bring our notions together in a more comprehensive discussion regarding the brand building process when it comes to services as well as the role of trust in this process.
5.1 Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process
In the frame of references, it was suggested that the emphasis of the elements in the brand building process could differ due to the specific characteristics of services (see section 3.2.2.3). Our intention is now to further develop this reasoning by taking into consideration the empirical findings of this study. Thus, we will begin by discussing the elements of the internal perspective of the brand building process, followed by a discussion regarding the external perspective.
5.1.1 The B rand B uilding P roc e ss of Se rv ic e s: Inte rna l P e rs pe c tive
Regarding the first element, product attributes, we indicated in the frame of references that the unique features of a service could make the use of this element more difficult. However, it was argued that as a means to make the service more tangible, as many physical elements as possible could be used (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998, Greene, 1994). It was also mentioned that due to the heterogeneity of a service (Zeithaml et al, 1985), using quality as a product attribute could be difficult. The issue of the difficulty of using product attributes when it comes to services was brought up by several of the 92
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interviewees. About the need to tangibilize a service, the Director of Publicity at SEB, strengthened this reasoning when she indicated that since the service cannot stand for itself in the same way as goods, it has to be made tangible (Britta Lundqvist). Moreover, a Financial Advisor at SEB stressed the heterogeneity aspect by pointing out that if you buy a product, it is easier to know the quality, but in the case of services, it is more difficult since it depends on the service brand deliverer how the quality is perceived (Anna Nygren). In the frame of references, we suggested that the element brand identity ought to be the most prominent element when it comes to the brand building process of services. The reason for this was argued to be that since services are heterogeneous (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003) and intangible in their nature (Grönroos, 1990), there is a need to put particular emphasis on the existence of a coherent corporate culture (Parasuraman, 1987, McDonald, de Chernatony & Harris, 2001). Our interviewees also pointed out this issue. The Brand Consultant stated that culture is a particularly important aspect when it comes to services brands, since this is the only aspect that the company is able to work with to portray what the brand is about (Pär Bergkvist). Also the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv addressed the issue of the importance of a coherent corporate culture and a common backbone when it comes to services brands (Mattias Karldén). He indicated that unclear corporate values could imply that the staff behaves differently each time they meet the customer, which in turn could result in an unclear service brand (ibid). As is indicated by the interviewees, the existence of a coherent culture is due to the services unique characteristics essential in the brand building of services. By developing a coherent corporate culture, the brand can be portrayed in a consistent manner despite its heterogeneous and intangible nature.
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Regarding the elements core values, positioning and market communication we indicated in the frame of references that the execution of these elements could be somewhat different when it comes to services brands. It was pointed out that in the case of services brands the staff becomes more active participants in the positioning process since there are more points of contact involved than in the case of product brands (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Furthermore it was stated that it is therefore crucial to get the staff to understand and be committed to delivering the core values of the brand (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). Some of our interviewees pointed out the issue of a service brand involving many points of contact. A Financial Advisor at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services brands, the experience of the customer could be different every time depending on whom you meet within the organization (Anna Nygren). Her colleague presented a similar reasoning stating that when you think about a service brand you think more about the people behind the brand while in the case of products you think more about the actual product (Carolina Käll). The statements indicate in our opinion that in the case of services brands, the positioning has to be well anchored in the culture and in the identity while for example when it comes to positioning products, the marketing department can direct the positioning more since there are fewer points of contact involved in the process.
About the element internal brand loyalty, we suggested in the frame of references that the importance of maintaining the legal and commercial status of the brand could also be applied to services brands. However, it was suggested that internal brand loyalty in the case of services brands ought to be related to the existence of a coherent corporate culture (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001) where the values of the staff are aligned with the brand values (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). The Brand Consultant emphasized this issue 94
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pointing out that when it comes to product brands, it is easier to fill the organization with enthusiasm with the help of technical product features and design but in the case of services brands, the culture becomes essential regarding this matter (Pär Bergkvist). This reasoning indicates in our opinion, that when it comes to services brands it is important to build internal brand loyalty having a strong corporate culture as a basis.
5.1.2 The B rand B uilding P roc e ss of Se rv ic e s: Exte rna l P e rspe c tive
In the frame of references, we indicated that the element commitment could be applied in the same manner in the case of services brands. Moreover, it was suggested that there ought to be the same type of continuum as when discussing product brands, reaching from services in which the consumers act more like passive recipients of information to services in which the consumers seek out information actively. A Financial Advisor at SEB addressed the issue of different levels of commitment when it comes to services brands. She stated that it is for example not as bad choosing the wrong hairdresser than choosing the wrong bank, since there is more at stake on a personal level in the latter case and then it is more important to check the brand before (Carolina Käll). This statement regarding service brands could in our opinion be applied to Melin’s (1999) reasoning about how low and high commitment to an offering gives rise to different levels of information searching. If using Carolina Käll’s argument, one could say that a financial service provider such as a bank requires high commitment and consequently a more active search of information about the service brand, while a hairdresser service requires lower commitment and then more passive information seeking.
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Regarding the element brand sensitiveness we indicated in the frame of references that the reasoning could also be applied when it comes to services brands. However, since services are often bought before they are experienced (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999), more emphasis is put on the importance of reputation when choosing a service brand. Some of our respondents commented on the issue of reputation being especially important in the case of services brands. The Director of Publicity at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services it is difficult to form an opinion about what you are buying, therefore instead one forms an opinion with the help of how well known the brand is and what it is famous for (Britta Lundqvist). Regarding this issue, one of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag stated that a good reputation strengthens the service brand especially when it comes to insurances since it is the clients that have experienced the offering can tell others that it works (Eva Sowa). About brand awareness, brand associations and value added we suggested in the frame of references that when it comes to services brands, these elements could also be applied. However, it was suggested that brand associations and consequently value added could imply some difficulties in the case of services brands since keeping a persistent quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). As mentioned when discussing product attributes, a Financial Advisor at SEB pointed out that in the case of services brands it is more difficult to know the quality since how the quality is perceived by the customer depends on the service brand deliverer (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, creating brand associations in the consumer’s mind ought to be more dependent on the staff acting consistently and less on using for example spokespersons. Consequently, as mentioned before, in order for the staff acting consistently it is essential to have a strong coherent corporate culture.
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Regarding the element brand loyalty it was argued in the frame of references that value added creates brand preferences that in the long term will be transformed into brand loyalty (Melin, 1999). Furthermore, it was pointed out that since brand loyalty creates a base for profitability and a stable market share, it is highly desirable for the brand-owner that the consumer is strongly attached to the specific product brand (ibid) and in our opinion achieving brand loyalty is emphasized in the same manner in the case of services brands.
5.1.3 The B rand B uilding P roc e ss of Se rv ic e s: Summa riz ing Re fle c tions
Throughout this section, we have analyzed the brand building process when it comes to services. After this analysis it could be said that our notions about the elements that are emphasized particularly when it comes to the brand building process of services seem to be supported when taking into account the empirical findings.
In our opinion, the most prominent element in the brand building process of services is brand identity and consequently the existence of a coherent corporate culture. As has been indicated throughout the analysis in this section, the element brand identity could be said to influence the other elements in the brand building process of services in a more evident way than could be the case when it comes to products. For example, when it comes to the elements positioning and market communication, as mentioned earlier, positioning of product brands ought to be related more directly to the marketing department. On the other hand, in the case of positioning services brand, the staff become more active participants in the process, which in turn means that a clear brand identity becomes a more of a prerequisite in order for the positioning to succeed. When it comes to the element brand association, a similar reasoning could be applied. 97
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As pointed out by a respondent (Carolina Käll), in the case of service brands the customer often associates to the people behind the service brand. In our opinion, it is then important that the staff acts consistently when delivering the service brand, something that is dependent on a coherent corporate culture and a clear brand identity.
In the frame of references we indicated that the brand building process of services could be more comprehensive due to the unique characteristics of services. Consequently, the notion of trust was indicated to have a role in this process, something that will be further discussed in the next section.
5.2 The Role o f Trust for Building a Ser vice Brand
In order to analyze the role of trust in the brand building process of services, we will begin this section with an analysis about the relation between services brands and the concept of trust. After that we will continue with a discussion about the concept of trust and the brand building process of services.
5.2.1 The Re latio n B e twe e n Se rvic e s B ra nds a nd Trust
In the frame of references, it was suggested that the unique characteristics of services give rise to the thought that the brand building process may be somewhat more comprehensive when it comes to services than it would be in the case of products. With this reasoning as a basis, the following line of thought was presented regarding the relation between the concepts services brands and trust (see section 3.2.3):
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Unique characteristics of services
Service brand more of a promise
Evaluation of services more difficult
High level of perceived risk,uncertainty
High need of reassurance of promise
Building relationship based on trust
Figure 4. Relation between Service Brands and Trust (own compilation)
Our intention is now to discuss this model in a thoroughly manner, taking the empirical findings into consideration. In order to facilitate for the reader, the discussion of this model will be divided into two sections: The first section will deal with the three upper boxes, discussing the unique characteristics of a service and its implications. The second section will discuss the three bottom boxes regarding risk and uncertainty and the need of trust related to these issues. 5.2.1.1 Implications of the Unique Characteristics of a Service It was suggested in the frame of references (section 3.2.3) that the unique characteristics of a service could imply that a service brand is more of a promise and that delivering this promise could be more complicated than in the case of products (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). Regarding this issue, several of our interviewees brought forth different interesting thoughts that could support this notion. For example, the Brand Consultant noted the intangibility aspect pointing out that a service is more about a performance than a physical product (Pär Bergkvist). Also the Director of Publicity at SEB emphasized the intangibility that characterizes a service when noting that a service cannot stand 99
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for itself (Britta Lundqvist). The aspect of intangibility was also noted by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, who indicated that it is much harder to show the value of a service since it cannot be touched (Mattias Karldén). The characteristic intangibility as well as heterogeneity was also brought forth by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated that since different people are involved in the process of delivering a service, the outcome is different every time and in addition the customer cannot see the actual service in front of him (Anna Nygren). The aspects that were brought forth in the above-mentioned empirical statements together with the theoretical aspects discussed in the frame of references about the services unique characteristics could in our opinion support the notion that a service brand could indeed be seen more as a promise. In our opinion, a promise could be easier to embrace for the customer when he has a concrete product that can be held, felt, seen and tasted. However, as some of our interviewees have mentioned, a service has specific characteristics and consequently this may imply that the customer needs to rely more on the promise that the service brand signals. In the frame of references, it was pointed out that the characteristics of services and the fact that they are high in experience and/or credence qualities, contribute to making the evaluation process of a service more difficult (Zeithaml, 1991), something that ought to make the evaluation of the service brand promise even more difficult (section 3.2.3). Various respondents included in our empirical study addressed the evaluation problem that a service could imply and especially in the case of financial services. An example that was pointed out by one of the Sale Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag was the fact that in the case where the customer buys insurance he might never utilize it and then he will not know 100
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how the offering works (Eva Sowa). A similar reasoning was proposed by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated that a customer does not know if the offering has been good or bad until the insurance needs to be utilized (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, the reasoning proposed by the interviewees could correspond to the theoretical notion experience qualities. The reason for this is that as noted by the respondents, insurance is a service that is difficult to evaluate before it needs to be utilized. About the evaluation process of a service, the Director of Publicity at SEB mentioned that when it comes certain bank services, such as fund investments, the customers are actually buying expectations about growth (Britta Lundqvist). A similar reasoning was presented by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, who emphasized that the benefits of the service provided by a financial advisor will not reveal themselves until much later and that it is therefore especially difficult to initially show the value of the offering (Mattias Karldén). In our opinion, these examples may indicate that this type of service is high in experience qualities and also credence qualities. The reasoning behind this statement is that what the advisor is offering is some type of expertise knowledge, which in our opinion is more or less impossible for the customer to evaluate even after the purchase and consumption has taken place. We suggest that this reasoning could also be applied to other services where some kind of expertise knowledge is required since as mentioned above, this implies that it is very difficult for the customer to evaluate the offering. To sum up this section, we can say that so far, the empirical findings seem to be in concordance with our notions regarding the fact that a service brand could be seen more as a promise and that the evaluation process becomes more difficult. Moreover, the empirical findings have brought forth that when it comes to 101
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financial services, these issues are brought to its head because of the high level of intangibility, heterogeneity as well as experience and credence qualities. 5.2.1.2 Risk and Uncertainty Entail the Need of Trust As was suggested in the frame of references (section 3.2.3), our reasoning that the service is more of a promise and that the evaluation is more difficult could imply a high level of perceived risk and uncertainty for the customer who then may need a high degree of reassurance that the promise will really be fulfilled. Several aspects of interest concerning this matter were brought forth during our empirical studies. The Director of Publicity at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services brands, it is difficult to form an opinion about what you buy and therefore this opinion is based on how well known the brand is (Britta Lundqvist). One of the customers proposed a similar reasoning, stating that it is harder to evaluate a service than a product and therefore other people’s experiences are important to determine if the particular service is good (Lina Gustavsson). In our opinion, both these statements evolve around the issue of the difficulty related to the evaluation process of a service brand. As is indicated in Lina Gustavssson’s reasoning, a product is easier to evaluate since search qualities are often high in contrast to services, which implicates the need of a reassurance from other people’s experiences that the service brand could fulfill the promise. Consequently, in accordance with the respondents’ statements, we suggest that the customer needs to rely on factors such as the reputation or other people’s experiences of the service brand because this may give the customer an idea of what he can expect to get.
Eva Sowa, one of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, also presented the issue regarding high degree of risk and uncertainty when it comes to services 102
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brands. She pointed out that, in the insurance sector, it is the clients that have experienced the outcomes of the service brand that can tell others that it works (Eva Sowa). Also a Financial Advisor at SEB emphasized that when it comes to insurances, the customer will hopefully never need to use the purchased offering (Anna Nygren). With these statements in mind, one can say that this type of service ought to be especially high in experience qualities which could imply a risk since the customer will not experience if the brand promise is fulfilled until much later after purchase. Therefore there ought to exist a high need of reassurance from other people’s experiences that the service brand promise could be fulfilled. Regarding the issue of the evaluation process and the risk and uncertainty related to it, as mentioned in the previous section, for example when it comes to expertise knowledge from financial advisors and such, the degree of credence qualities ought to be very high. Consequently, this may also imply that the risk and uncertainty in these cases ought to be very high, thereby increasing the need of reassurance that the service brand promise will be fulfilled.
We have mentioned above that reputation as well as other people’s experiences can serve as a means to reassure the customer that the service brand promise could be fulfilled. However, in our opinion this reasoning ought to be taken one step further where building a relationship based on trust could be crucial when it comes to services brands. The reasoning behind this statement is the following (see section 3.4): As is pointed out by Kapferer (1994), when it comes to services, relationships are a particularly important link in the brand building process. The reasoning by de Chernatony & Segal-Horn (2003) about the staff being the brand’s main deliverer may further emphasize Kapferer’s (1994) statement. As argued by Lewis & Weigert (1985) interdependence assumes the existence of social relationships, which means that without relationships, there is no need to trust. Consequently, the concepts of relationship and trust are closely 103
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related to each other. Therefore, it could be suggested that when it comes to service brands, trust is particularly important since the customer is involved in a relationship with the service brand that is highly personified by the staff. Regarding the importance of relationships and trust when it comes to services brands, some of the respondents commented on this matter. The Brand Consultant pointed out that it is the people behind the service brand that inspires the customer to continue the relationship with the service brand (Pär Bergkvist). He also stated that since the individuals in the organization represent the service brand; if the staff goes out of the room, so does the brand. Also, the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv addressed this issue by stressing that trust in a service brand is created through personal relationships with the customer (Mattias Karldén). Furthermore, he emphasized that it is the staff that actually is the particular service brand for the customer. In our opinion, these statements support our notions regarding the importance of developing a relationship based on trust between the customer and the staff, i.e. service brand, as a means to reassure the customer that the service brand promise could be fulfilled and thereby help to reduce the perceived risk and uncertainty. As has been indicated throughout this chapter and in the frame of references (see section 3.2.3), when it comes to services brands there is a high risk and uncertainty involved. This argument could be fortified by the trust literature where it is argued that trust arises from situations involving uncertainty and risk (Coleman, 1990: in Cowles, 1997, Nootebook, 2002, Hosmer, 1995) In addition, vulnerability is argued to be a consequence of risk and uncertainty (Huemer, 1998) since trust implies being vulnerable to someone whose behavior one cannot control (Lorenz, 1988).
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About trust and the aspects of risk and uncertainty as well of the vulnerability in the process of choosing a service brand, some of our respondents commented on these issues. The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv presented a similar reasoning stating that trustworthiness is crucial when a customer entrusts part of his economy to the financial advisor (Mattias Karldén). As is indicated in his reasoning, when it comes to financial service brands, the evaluation process is more difficult since as mentioned before, this type of service has a high degree of experience qualities as well as credence qualities (Zeithaml, 1991). As a consequence, there is a high degree of risk and uncertainty related to this type of service brand as well as vulnerability in the sense that the customer entrusts his money to another individual. Moreover, a customer further confirmed this reasoning when she pointed out that in the financial sector, it is especially important for the customer to trust the service brand than in any other service sector, since the customer has no control of what the company is doing (Lina Gustavsson). This line of thought is in accordance with Lorenz’ (1988) reasoning about vulnerability being related to trust since the individual has no control of the other party’s behavior. In our opinion, the existence of a relationship based on trust between the customer and the service brand, i .e. the staff, would serve to reassure the service brand promise. Above, it has been argued that there is an evident relation between services brands and the concept of trust, a line of thought that in our opinion has been supported with the help of our empirical findings. What has been discussed is that the unique characteristics of services make the customer’s evaluation of the service brand promise more difficult. Consequently, there is a high perceived uncertainty and risk related to the service brand, which in turn implies a high need of reassurance that the service brand promise will be fulfilled. In order to reduce the customer’s perceived risk and uncertainty, we argue that building a 105
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relationship based on trust is essential. Consequently, in our opinion, trust has an essential role in the brand building process.
5.2.2 Trust as an E le me nt in t he B ra nd B uilding P roc e ss of Se rvic e s
As mentioned in the frame of references, Melin (1999), Kapferer (1994) and Aaker (1996) argue that the main objective of the brand building process is to attract a large number of loyal customers. Furthermore, it is claimed that when customers are loyal over time, brand equity is created (ibid). It has been discussed before that according to Melin (1999) there are six elements in the consumer’s decision-making process that describe the process for developing brand loyalty in the consumer’s mind (ibid). As we suggested in the analysis about the relation between services brands and trust (see section 5.2.1), a relationship based on trust is crucial in order to reduce the consumer’s perceived risk and uncertainty related to the service brand. Consequently, we suggest that one of the elements that could affect the consumer’s decision-making process is how much a consumer trusts the particular service brand. Furthermore, the development of the consumer’s trust in a service brand ought to contribute to creating consumers’ loyalty in the service brand and thereby contribute to the creation of brand equity. So, how is trust in the service brand developed, then? This issue will be addressed below taking into consideration the empirical findings and the trust literature presented in the frame of references. About the evolution of trust, Lewicki & Bunker (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) propose that this is a process divided into different stages. Ring & Van de Ven (1992: in Nooteboom, 2002) present a similar argument stating that trust develops gradually in a slow process. When it comes to the issue of how the consumer’s trust in the service brand develops, our empirical findings show 106
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indications of being in accordance with the above-mentioned theoretical notions. As mentioned in the frame of references, Dwyer, et al (1987) have developed a framework that describes the development of business relations in which trust has an essential role. In our opinion, this framework could be suitable to discuss the creation of the consumer’s trust in a service brand. Therefore, it is our intention to below present a suggestion of how this process could be seen having this framework as a basis. As was mentioned in the frame of references, when it comes to the process of building a trustworthy business relationship, Dwyer, et al (1987) argue that the first stage, the awareness phase, is that the customer recognizes the other actor as a potential exchange partner through for example advertising. However, it is argued that it is not until the customer actively searches for information and makes the first purchase that the trust development process is initiated, a phase referred to as the exploration phase (ibid). Dwyer, et al (1987) point out that implicit stimulants of trust such as for example brand names could serve to evoke trust, although direct experience could be the main basis for the customer being able to judge trustworthiness. Furthermore, it is argued that in this phase the relationship is fragile in the sense that it could be easily terminated (ibid), a reasoning that is in accordance with Ring’s (1996) reasoning about fragile trust. What is argued by Ring (1996) is that if the expectations are not met, trust in the other actor will easily break down. About stimulants that can be used to evoke trust in the exploration phase mentioned by Dwyer, et al (1987), Zucker (1986) presents a similar reasoning. She states that brand names as well as positive reputation can be seen as symbols that are used by firms to signal trust. Some of our respondents have stressed the importance of reputation and other people’s experiences when it 107
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comes to deciding which service brand to choose. For example, as has been mentioned before, the Director of Publicity at SEB stated that since it is difficult to form an opinion about the specific service that is being bought, the customer bases his opinion on how well known the brand is (Britta Lundqvist). Also, one of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag pointed out that reputation and what the customer hears from others is important for creating trust in a service brand (Eva Sowa). The importance of other people’s experiences was pointed out by one of the Financial Advisors at SEB who noted that when it comes to services brands, what other people say about the brand is essential for choosing a particular service brand (Anna Nygren). With the reasoning of our respondents in mind about the importance of reputation and brand names, we suggest that the reasoning of Dwyer, et al (1987) about the importance of these issues also applies to the process of developing trust in a service brand. Regarding the reasoning of Dwyer et al (1987) about others experiences’ not being enough to judge trustworthiness, Lorenz (1988) presents a similar reasoning. He states that one cannot solely rely on reputation to determine trustworthiness but instead, own experience and time are important factors (ibid). These issues were also addressed by two of our interviewees when commenting on how trust in a service brand is created. The Director of Publicity at SEB emphasized that when it comes to services brands, trustworthiness can to a certain extent be built through advertising but it is not until the customer himself has experienced the service brand that he can really feel a sense of trust (Britta Lundqvist). One of the Financial Advisors at SEB presented a similar reasoning, stating that it is how the customer is treated that determines if trust in the service brand is created (Per Palmqvist).
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When it comes to the exploration phase presented by Dwyer et al (1987), Kennedy et al (2001) have commented on this stage, stating that based on the first experience with the individual salesperson, the buyer either develops trust or distrust. A customer addressed this issue when discussing the creation of trust in a service brand (Lina Gustavsson). She noted that when initially buying a service brand the employee who the customer meets has an essential role if a sense of trust appears or not (ibid). Furthermore, she mentioned that if trust in the specific employee is not created initially, then one does not want to continue the relation (ibid). In our opinion, when taking into consideration the reasoning that in the case of services brands, the staff is considered to be the actual service brand (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003), it is especially important that the customer develops trust in the service brand deliverer the first time contact with the service brand is established. Dwyer et al (1987) argue that in the next phase, the expansion phase, the foundation of trust that emerged in the exploration phase lead to increased interdependence. Furthermore it is stated that as a result of the parties being satisfied with each other in the previous phase, the motivation to maintain the relationship is increased (ibid). In addition, since the actor is satisfied with the relationship, the numbers of replacement alternatives are reduced (ibid). In our opinion, Lewicki & Bunker’s (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) reasoning about cognitive trust could be applicable to this phase. It is pointed out that when the actors develop a knowledge base about each other after repeated interaction, cognitive trust could emerge (ibid). It is stated that in this case the relationship has proven to be consistent and reliable and therefore the trustor can feel comfortable about the relationship (ibid).
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Regarding the importance of a relationship when it comes to the development of trust in a service brand several of our interviewees commented on this issue. The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv noted that trust in a service brand is something that is built up during a long period of time in a process between individuals (Mattias Karldén). Moreover, he stated that in order for trust to arise, personal contacts over time with the customers are necessary (ibid). Also, the Brand Consultant pointed out the importance of a relation when he stated that it is actually the relationship that brings forth a feeling of security (Pär Bergkvist). Furthermore, he stated that if the service company is good at relationships and interpreting the needs that exist, security arises (ibid). Moreover, he argued that if these needs also can be satisfied then trust arises (ibid). Both respondents emphasize the importance of a more deepened relation in order for trust in a service brand to develop. In our opinion, the statements made by the respondents related to the importance of a satisfactory relationship in order for the customer being motivated to continue the relationship with the service brand, i.e. the staff is in accordance with the reasoning about the importance of the expansion phase when it comes to developing trust in a service brand. The final phase in the reasoning of Dwyer, et al (1987) is referred to as the commitment phase. It is argued that in this phase, the interdependence between buyer and seller is the most advanced and that the actors involved have achieved a level of satisfaction where other partners that could provide similar benefits are almost excluded from the choosing process (ibid). Dwyer et al (1987) point out that the actors still are aware of other alternatives but that they are not engaged in frequent testing, in other words customer loyalty can be said to have been achieved. In our opinion, the concept of resilient trust presented by Ring (1996) could be applied to this phase. He argues that resilient trust emerges from perceptions derived in the course of developing a relationship (ibid) and is 110
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related to for example loyalty. Furthermore, he states that this type of trust survives a situation where the expectations about the other actor’s actions are not satisfied (ibid). When it comes to the reasoning about consumer loyalty in the phase of commitment emphasized by Dwyer et al (1987) as well as Ring (1996), this issue was commented by some of our respondents. For example the Brand Consultant noted that in the case of services brands, the loyalty of the customer could be related to some kind of brand trust, which then converts into trust in an individual (Pär Bergkvist). This reasoning leads us to believe that trust in the service brand on this level, i.e. resilient trust, may be closely related to trust in the individual that is the service brand deliverer and hence it could be more about a personal relationship. The same respondent takes this reasoning one step further by pointing out that there is a risk involved about service brand trust being converted into trust in an individual since it could then be questioned if the customer is loyal to the particular service brand deliverer or to the service brand he represents (Pär Bergkvist). In our opinion, it is then essential that trust in the service brand in the commitment phase is constantly related to the specific service brand that the staff represents. This way the customer continues to relate his trust to the service brand and what it stands for, instead of relating the specific individual that delivers it. Regarding this issue, when asked about the staff’s role in the development of a service brand, a Financial Advisor at SEB addressed the importance of acting consistently when using the service brand name and in the right context in order to portray a conception of professionalism (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, this reasoning could indicate that it is essential that the staff utilize the service brand in the right manner in order for the customer to keep relating his trust to the specific service brand.
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As we have argued before, a coherent corporate culture and a clear brand identity is crucial when building a service brand. In our opinion, our reasoning mentioned above about the importance of staff building trust in the service brand and not on the specific brand deliverer, puts even more focus on the importance of the corporate culture and brand identity. Consequently, in order for the staff to be able to utilize the service brand in the right manner and act consistently with it, there is a need of a clear brand identity supporting the staff. Some of the interviewees commented on this issue. The Brand Consultant stated that when it comes to developing trust in a service brand it is important that there exists a common vision in the organization and that everyone knows the issues that are of importance when delivering the service brand (Pär Bergkvist). He further stated that the consumer’s trust could be affected if different employees handle the customer’s request in different ways (ibid). This issue was also noted by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated that it is of significance for developing the consumer’s trust in a service brand that the employees know what the company stands for (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, these statements support our reasoning about trust putting more emphasis on the importance of a coherent corporate culture and a clear brand identity.
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6
Conclusions
In this final chapter, our intention is to discuss what we believe are the contributions of this thesis. We will also present suggestions for further research related to the studied phenomenon.
6.1 Contributions o f the Thesis
Regarding the contributions of this thesis, we have suggested that when it comes to the process of building a service brand, the emphasis of the elements in this process differs somewhat compared to the building of product brands. In our opinion, the reason for this is due to the unique characteristics of services i.e. intangibility, heterogeneity, perishability and inseparability (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). From our discussion about how the services characteristics affect the process of building a service brand, it can be said that brand identity and thereby a coherent corporate culture is the most prominent element in this process. Thus it has been pointed out that the service deliverers, i.e. the staff, have an essential role in the process of building a service brand. In addition to the importance of the element mentioned above, we have argued that trust has an essential role in the process of building a service brand. The reason for this is that due to the unique characteristics of services, the service brand is more of a promise that is difficult for the customer to evaluate. In our opinion, this implies that the risk and uncertainty related to a service brand is high, especially in the case of services that are difficult for the customer to evaluate even after consumption, such as in the case of financial advice. We 113
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have therefore argued that one way to reduce the consumer’s perceived risk, is to build a relationship based on trust. It is then crucial that the staff delivering the service brand promise evokes a sense of trust and acts in a manner that is in accordance with the core values of the service brand. Consequently we argued that the development of the consumer’s trust in a service brand ought to contribute to creating consumers’ loyalty in the service brand and thereby contribute to the creation of brand equity. When it comes to the process of developing a consumer’s trust in a service brand it was suggested that a positive reputation could serve to initially signal trust. However, reputation is not enough to determine trustworthiness and therefore the consumer’s own experience is essential for developing trust in a service brand, in which the actual encounter with the service brand, i.e. staff is especially important. Furthermore, we argued that a satisfactory relationship is important in order for the consumer being motivated to continue the relationship with the service brand.
6.2 Concluding Re flections and Reco mmendations
Taking into consideration our findings regarding the role of trust in the process of building a service brand, our intention is now to briefly highlight important aspects that could be interesting for services companies to take into consideration when it comes to the branding process of services: Staff Understanding their Role in Trust Creation We have argued in this thesis that the specific characteristics of services imply a high perceived risk and thereby vulnerability related to the consumer’s decision making process. Consequently, it is important that the staff is fully aware and 114
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have knowledge about their own role in the process of creating the consumer’s trust in a service brand. Every Encounter Counts The crucial role of the staff in the process of creating trust in a service brand implies that every encounter with the customer is an important step in this process, where trust either increases or decreases. It could be said that every encounter is a step towards creating resilient trust and thereby consumer loyalty to the service brand and consequently contribute to the creation of brand equity. Staff Promoting Trust in the Service Brand It was proposed that when resilient trust is developed, there is a risk that trust in the service brand is converted into trust in the service brand deliverer, i.e. the staff. This means that the consumer develops a loyalty in the particular individual instead of the service brand that is represented. However, in our opinion, if the staff believes in the service brand he represents and identifies with it, he will be able to represent it in a trustworthy manner and thereby promote the consumer’s trust in it.
6.3 Suggestions for Further Research
Throughout this thesis, thoughts related to the topic of our thesis have emerged. Therefore, it could be of interest to indicate some thoughts that could serve as a basis for further research. As has been mentioned, our empirical study has focused on the financial service sector. In our perception, it seems that there is an increasing trend towards offering financial services through the Internet, which implies that the human 115
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interaction becomes limited when buying this type of services. As has been suggested in this thesis, due to the unique characteristics of services, there is an essential need of building a trustworthy relationship in the case of services brands. As has been discussed, a relationship based on trust is important in order to reduce the high-perceived risk from the consumers’ point of view that a service brand is related to. In our opinion, it could then be interesting to study the risk involved when there is no concrete relationship that the consumer can relate to, but yet a need for reassurance about that the right brand is being chosen and that the promise of this service brand will be fulfilled.
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Ambler, T & Styles, C. (1996). Brand Development versus New Product Development: towards a Process model of Extension Decisions. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 14, No. 7 Berry, L., Lefkowith, E. & Clark, T. (1988), In Services, What's in a Name?. Harvard Business Review, Vol. 66, Issue 5. Blankson, C. & Kalafatis, S. (1999), Issues and Challenges in the Positioning of Service Brands: a Review . Journal of Product and Brand Management. Vol. 8, No. 2 Blomqvist, K. (1997), The many Faces of Trust. Scandinavian Journal Management, Vol. 13, No. 3 Carman, J. M. & Langeard, E. (1980), Growth Strategies for Service Firms. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 1 Cowles, D. (1997), The Role of Trust in Consumer Relationships: Asking the Right Questions. Management Decision, Vol. 35, Issue ¾. Child, J. (1998) Trust and International Strategic Alliances: the Case of SinoForeign Joint Ventures in Lane, C. & Bachmann, R. (1998), Trust within and between Organizations: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Applications. Oxford University Press, Oxford. de Chernatony, L. & Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1999), Experts’ View About Defining Services Brands and the Principles of Services Branding. Journal of Business Research, 46 de Chernatony, L. & Segal-Horn, S. (2001), Building on Services’ Characteristics to Develop Successful Services Brands. Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 17, Issue 7/8. de Chernatony, L. & Segal-Horn, S. (2003), The Criteria for Successful Services Brands. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 37, No. 7/8
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Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (2000). The Service Brand as Relationship Builder. British Journal of Management, Vol. 11, Issue 2. Delgado-Ballester, E. & Munuera-Alemán, J.L (2002), Brand Trust in the Context of Consumer Loyalty. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, 11/12. Dwyer, F. Schurr. P & Oh, S (1987). Developing Buyer-Seller Relationships. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 51, April. Greene, W. E. (1994), Internal Marketing . Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 8, Issue 4 Hosmer, L.T. (1995), Trust: the Connecting Link between Organizational Theory and Philosophical Ethics. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 20, Issue 2 Humphrey, J. (1998), Trust and the Transformation of Supplier Relations in Indian Industry in Lane, C. & Bachmann, R. (1998), Trust within and between Organizations: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Applications. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Jevons, C. & Gabott, M. (2000), Trust, Brand Equity and Brand Reality in Internet Business Relationships: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 16 Kennedy, M.S. Ferrell L. & LeClair, D.T. (2001), Consumers’ Trust of Salesperson and Manufacturer: an Empirical Study. Journal of Business Research, 51. Lewis, J.D. & Weigert, A. (1985), Trust as a Social Reality. Social Forces, 63/3. Lorenz, E.H. (1988), Neither Friends nor Strangers: Informal Networks of Subcontracting in French Industry in Gambetta, D. (1988), Trust; Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations. Basil Blackwell Ltd Luhmann, N. (1988), Familarity, Confidence, Trust: Problems and Alternatives in Gambetta, D. (1988), Trust; Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations. Basil Blackwell Ltd Madhok, A. (1995), Opportunism and Trust in Joint Venture Relationships: An Explanatory Study and a Model. Scandinavian Journal of Management, Vol.11, Issue 1.
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McAllister, D.L. (1995), Affect- and Cognition-based Trust as Foundations for Interpersonal Cooperation in Organizations. Academy of Management Journal, vol. 38, Issue 1. McDonald, M. de Chernatony, L. & Harris, F. (2001), Corporate Marketing and Service Brands: Moving Beyond the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods Model. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, No. ¾ Melin, F. (2002), Varumärket som Värdeskapare in Holger, L. & Holmberg, I. (2002), Identitet: om varumärken, tecken och symboler. Nationalmuseum & Raster Förlag, Stockholm. Milne, G.R. & Boza, M. (1999), Trust and Concern in Consumers’ Perceptions of Marketing Information Management Practices. Journal of Interactive Marketing, Vol. 13, No. 1 Onkvisit, S. & Shaw, J. (1989), Service Marketing: Image, Branding, and Competition . Business Horizons, January-February Parasuraman, A. (1987), Customer-Oriented Corporate Cultures are Crucial to Services Marketing Success. Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 1, No. 1 Ring, P.S. (1996) Fragile and Resilient Trust and Their Roles in Economic Exchange. Business & Society, Vol. 35, Issue 2 Salzer-Mörling, M. & Strannegård, L. (2002), Det utmärkta teckenspråket in Holger, L. & Holmberg, I. (2002), Identitet: om varumärken, tecken och symboler, Nationalmuseum & Raster Förlag, Stockholm. Yousafzai, S., Pallister, J. & Foxall, G. (2003), A Proposed Model of E-trust for Electronic Banking. Technovation, Vol. 23, Issue 11. Zeithaml, V. A. (1991), How Consumer Evaluation Processes Differ between Goods and Services in Lovelock, C.H. (1991), Services Marketing, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall International Inc., London. Zeithaml, V. Parasuraman, A. & Berry, L. (1985) Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49, Issue 2. Zucker, L (1986), Production of Trust: Institutional Sources of Economic Structure, 1840-1920. Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 8
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Books
Aaker, D. (1991), Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the value of a brand name. The Free Press, New York. Aaker, D. (1996), Building Strong Brands. Simon & Schuster UK Ltd London Alvesson, M. & Sköldberg, K. (1994), Tolkning och Vetenskapsfilosofi och Kvalitativ Metod , Studentlitteratur, Lund. Reflektion.
de Chernatony, L. & McDonald, M. (1998), Creating Powerful Brands in Consumer, Service and Industrial Markets. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd Oxford Denscombe, M. (2000), Forskningshandboken – för Småskaliga Forskningsprojekt inom Samhällsvetenskaperna, Studentlitteratur, Lund. Eriksson, L-T. & Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (2001), Att Utreda Forska och Rapportera, Liber Ekonomi, Malmö. Gambetta, D. (1988), Trust; Making and Breaking Co-operative Relations. Basil Blackwell Ltd, Oxford. Grönroos, C. (1990), Service Management and Marketing – Managing the Moments of Truth in Service Competition . Lexington Books, Lexington. Grönroos, C. (1996), Marknadsföring i Tjänsteföretag. Liber Ekonomi AB, Malmö. Holmberg, C. (1987), Om Forskning in Patel, R. & Tebelius, U. (1987), Grundbok i Forskningsmetodik, Studentlitteratur, Lund. Huemer, L. (1998), Trust in Business Relations: Economic Logic or Social Interaction? Boréa Bokförlag, Umeå. Kapferer, J-N. (1994), Strategic Brand Management – New Approaches to Creating and Evaluating Brand Equity. The Free Press, New York. Kapferer, J-N. (1997), Strategic Brand Management – Creating and Sustaining Brand Equity Long Term . 2nd Edition, Kogan Page Ltd, London. Kvale, S. (1997), Den Kvalitativa Forskningsintervjun, Studentlitteratur, Lund
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Lane, C. & Bachmann, R. (1998), Trust within and between Organizations: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Applications. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lundahl, U. & Skärvad, P-H.(1999), Utredningsmetodik för Samhällsvetare och Ekonomer, Studentlitteratur, Lund. Melin, F (1999), Varumärkesstrategi- Om konsten att utveckla starka varumärken . Liber Ekonomi AB, Malmö Molander, B. (1988), Vetenskapsfilosofi- En bok om vetenskapen och den vetenskapande människan. Bokförlaget Thales, Stockholm Nooteboom, B. (2002), Trust – Forms,Foundations, Functions, Failures and Figures. Edgar Elgar Publishing Ltd Cheltenham, UK. Normann, R. (1992), Service Management: Ledning och Strategi i Tjänsteproduktionen. Liber-Hermods AB, Malmö. Patel, R. & Davidsson, B. (2003), Forskningsmetodikens Grunder. Att Planera, Genomföra och Rapportera en Undersökning , Studentlitteratur, Lund. Patel, R. & Tebelius, Studentlitteratur, Lund. U. (1987), Grundbok i Forskningsmetodik,
Payne, A. (1993), The Essence of Services Marketing. Prentice-Hall International Inc., London. Sanner, L. (1997), Trust between Entrepeneurs and External Actors. Sensemaking in Organising New Business Venture. Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University. Swedish Law (2000), Swedish Intellectual Property Law , §1 Vml. Fakta Info Direkt Sweden AB, Stockholm Tillmar, M. (2002), Swedish Tribalism and Tanzanian Agency – Preconditions for Trust and Cooperation in a Small-Business Context. Department of Management and Economics, Linköpings Universitet. Wallén, G. (1996), Vetenskapsteori och Forskningsmetodik, Studentlitteratur, Lund
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Interviews
Käll, Carolina, Financial Advisor, Customer Services, SEB Linköping (2003-12-08) Nygren, Anna, Financial Advisor, Private Banking, SEB Linköping (2003-12-08) Palmqvist, Per Financial Advisor, Corporate Division, SEB Linköping (2003-12-05) Lundberg, Jonas, Financial Advisor, Private Banking Enskilda Banken, SEB Linköping (2003-12-05) Karldén, Mattias, Regional Manager SEB Tryggliv (Insurance), Stockholm (2003-12-08) Lundqvist, Britta, Director of Publicity, SEB Head office Stockholm (2003-12-16) Hedberg, Karin, Market Communicator, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping (2003-12-05) Sowa, Eva, Sales Director , Private Insurance, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping (2003-12-05) Wennerberg, Göran, Sales Director, Corporate Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping (2003-12-05) Insurance, Östgöta
Bergkvist, Pär, Consultant, President Värdera Varumärkesutveckling, Linköping (2003-12-12) Gustavsson, Lina, Customer at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Föreningssparbanken (2003-12-08) Lindström, Göran, Customer at If Skandia, SEB (2003-12-18) Widlund, Christian, Customer Föreningssparbanken (2003-12-08) at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag,
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Appendix 1
Interview Guide – Co mpany Representatives a nd Brand Consultant
Name? Position? 1. –What characterizes a service?
2. –How would you define a brand? What is the function of a brand? 3. –Which aspects, if any, stand out when it comes to services brands and product brands respectively? 4. –Which are in your opinion, the most important aspects regarding a customer’s decision-making process for choosing a service brand? –Do you reckon that some aspects are more distinctive in some service sectors than others? –Which factors are the most important within the sector where you work, i.e. the financial sector? 5. –What is in your opinion, trust in a service brand? –In your opinion, how is trust in a service brand created, i.e. which aspects do you think are important for trust in a service brand to be created? 6. –If you consider the organization behind the service brand, how can the organization contribute to create trust in a service brand?
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
–In your opinion, how can a company contribute to improving the service brand’s trustworthiness? 7. –When considering your role as a professional, how can you contribute to the creation of trust in the particular service brand?
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Appendix 2
Interview Guide – Custo mers
-Name? -In which bank and insurance company are you a customer? 1.–What characterizes a service?
2. –How would you define a brand? What is the function of a brand? 3. –Which aspects, if any, stand out when it comes to services brands and product brands respectively? 4. –Which are in your opinion, the most important aspects regarding a your decision-making process for choosing a service brand? –Do you reckon that these aspects vary depending on which type of service your decision concerns? –Which factors are the most important within the financial sector, i.e. bank and insurance? 5. –What is in your opinion, trust in a service brand? –In your opinion, how is trust in a service brand created, i.e. which aspects do you think are important for you to trust in a service brand?
doc_946246428.pdf
A brand is often the most valuable asset of a Corporation. Brand owners manage their brands carefully to create shareholder value, and brand valuation is an important management technique that ascribes a money value to a brand, and allows marketing investment to be managed (e.g.: prioritized across a portfolio of brands) to maximize shareholder value.
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Anna-Maria Malmgren Giselle Sucre
Avdelning, Institution Division, Department
Datum Date 2004-01-22
Ekonomiska institutionen 581 83 LINKÖPING Språk Language Svenska/Swedish X Engelska/English Rapporttyp Report category Licentiatavhandling Examensarbete C-uppsats X D-uppsats Övrig rappor t ____ ISBN
ISRN Internationella ekonomprogrammet 2004/21 Serietitel och serienummer Title of series, numbering ISSN
URL för elektronisk versionhttp://www.ep.liu.se/exjobb/eki/2004/iep/021/ Titel Title Förtroendets roll i tjänstevarumärkesuppbyggande processen The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand Författare Author Anna-Maria Malmgren and Giselle Sucre
Sammanfattning Abstract Background: In the existing branding literature there is no distinction made between theories for building product- and services brands although services have very different characteristics compared to products. The services characteristics imply that the customer has a high need of reassurance that the right brand choice is being made, which ought to bring forth the role of trust in the relationship between the customer and the service brand. Purpose: The purpose is to analyze the process of building a service brand and the role of trust in this process. Delimitations: The study will include the financial service sector since the complexity of services is brought to its head in this case. Realization: In total, 13 interviews were conducted with company representatives at SEB and Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, a Brand Consultant and customers of financial service companies. Results: We suggest that when it comes to the process of building a service brand, the emphasis of the elements differ somewhat compared to the building of product brands, where the emphasis is put on brand identity and in particular trust. When it comes to trust, a positive reputation could initially serve to signal trust but it is the actual encounter with the staff that determines the trustworthiness of the service brand. Nyckelord Keyword Services, Branding, Brands, Trust, Financial Service Sector, Per Åman
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Table of Content 1.Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background and Discussion of the Problem ....................................... 1 1.2 Purpose ............................................................................................ 3 1.3 Delimitations .................................................................................... 4 1.4 Target Audience ............................................................................... 4 1.5 Disposition of the Thesis ................................................................... 4 2.Methodology.......................................................................................... 6 2.1 Reflections on Science...................................................................... 6 2.2. Hermeneutics and Positivism............................................................ 9 2.3 Methodological Approach............................................................... 12 2.4 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approach.............................................. 16 2.5 Type of Study................................................................................. 17 2.6 Collection of Data........................................................................... 19 2.6.1 Secondary Data ........................................................................ 19 2.6.2 Primary Data............................................................................ 20 2.6.2.1 Selection of Objects of Study............................................. 21 2.6.2.2 Procedure for Collecting Data ............................................ 24 2.7 Has Validity, Reliability and General Applicability Been Achieved?. 25 3.Frame of References............................................................................ 27 3.1 The Concept of Branding ................................................................ 27 3.1.1 What is a Brand?...................................................................... 28 3.1.2 The Process of Building a Brand ............................................... 30 3.1.2.1 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective .............. 32 3.1.2.2 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective ............... 35 3.1.2.3 Summarizing the Brand Building Process ........................... 39 3.2 Services Branding ........................................................................... 40 3.2.1 What is a Service?.................................................................... 40
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
3.2.1.1 Summarizing the Services Characteristics........................... 45 3.2.2 Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process............ 45 3.2.2.1 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective ............... 46 3.2.2.2 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective .............. 50 3.2.2.3 Summarizing Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process......................................................................................... 52 3.2.3 Summarizing Services Branding ............................................... 54 3.3 The Concept of Trust ...................................................................... 55 3.3.1 What is Trust?.......................................................................... 56 3.3.2 Approaches to Trust ................................................................. 58 3.3.2.1 Calculative View of Trust.................................................. 58 3.3.2.2 Social and Affective View of Trust..................................... 60 3.3.2 Different Views on the Creation of Trust................................... 62 3.3.2.1 Institutional and Impersonal Arrangements ......................... 63 3.3.2.2 Personal Relationships....................................................... 65 3.4 Services Branding and Trust: Overall Notions.................................. 70 4.Empirical Findings.............................................................................. 73 4.1 Distinctive Features of Services....................................................... 74 4.2 Services Brands vs. Product Brands: Distinguishing Aspects ............ 75 4.3 The Customer’s Decision-Making Process and Service Brands......... 79 4.4 Services Brands and Trust............................................................... 84 4.4.1 Different Aspects on Trust Emergence...................................... 84 4.4.2 The Organization and Trust Emergence..................................... 90 5.Analysis ............................................................................................... 92 5.1 Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process .................. 92 5.1.1 The Brand Building Process of Services: Internal Perspective .... 92 5.1.2 The Brand Building Process of Services: External Perspective ... 95
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
5.1.3 The Brand Building Process of Services: Summarizing Reflections ........................................................................................................ 97 5.2 The Role of Trust for Building a Service Brand................................ 98 5.2.1 The Relation Between Services Brands and Trust...................... 98 5.2.1.1 Implications of the Unique Characteristics of a Service....... 99 5.2.1.2 Risk and Uncertainty Entail the Need of Trust...................102 5.2.2 Trust as an Element in the Brand Building Process of Services..106 6.Conclusions ....................................................................................... 113 6.1 Contributions of the Thesis.............................................................113 6.2 Concluding Reflections and Recommendations ...............................114 6.3 Suggestions for Further Research....................................................115 Bibliography Appendix 1 Appendix 2 List of figures Figure 1. The Brand Building Process Figure 2. The Intangibility and Tangibility Continuum Figure 3. Continuum of Evaluation for Different Types of Offerings Figure 4. Relation between Services Brands and Trust 31 41 44 99
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Introduction
1
Introduction
In this initial chapter we have the intention to put forward the underlying causes that have served as a basis when developing our research questions. This discussion will result in the key issue of the thesis and accordingly the purpose. Subsequently, the limitations of the study will be elucidated followed by a clarification of the primary target group. To conclude, we will briefly present the outline of the thesis.
1.1 Background and Discussion o f the Problem
Today, developed countries are experiencing a trend towards what can be referred to as a service economy, where the service sector contributes to more than two thirds of its total GDP (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn 2001, Grönroos 1990, Normann 1992). Concurrently with this development, services marketing is becoming increasingly recognized as a discipline (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1985). However, despite the rapid evolution of the service sector, only 23 % of the world’s top brands are services brands (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). This implies that even though the service economy is predominant, and although there has been a focus towards the development of the discipline of services marketing (Parasuraman, 1987), it is the products that are in focus when it comes to successful branding (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003), a fact that raises the question of why this is the case. A brief review of the existing branding literature indicates that these theories discuss the process of building brands in rather general terms, i.e. there is no distinction made between theories for building product brands and services 1
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Introduction
brands. However, according to many authors, services have very different characteristics compared to products and are more complex in their nature (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Parasuraman, 1987, Zeithaml et al, 1985 Blankson & Kalafatis, 1999), something that may imply differences when it comes to branding strategies (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001, Dall’Olmo, 2000).
One of the most prominent characteristics that add to the uniqueness of the service is the fact that since services as opposed to products are performances, they cannot be seen, felt tasted or touched (Parasuraman, 1987, Zeithaml et al, 1985). In addition, services are produced and consumed at the same time as well as they cannot be stored (ibid) which further complicates their nature. Moreover, the performance of the service is rather variable in its character (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). Even though the intensity of the features above differs depending on the character of the particular service, the complexity is brought to its head in the case of financial services (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). When it comes to this type of services, the benefits that are offered have often a rather high degree of intangibility and are sometimes even bought long before the customer can receive them (as for example in the case of pension funds and life assurance) (ibid). In other words, this type of services to a great extent implies promises that may or may not be fulfilled (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999), which in turn ought to implicate a certain existence of risk and uncertainty from the customer’s point of view (Dall’Olmo, 2000). Consequently, the customer has a high need of reassurance that fulfillment will occur and that the right brand choice is being made (ibid).
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Introduction
The discussion above leads us to reflect upon the role of trust in the relationship between the customer and the service brand. Within the growing literature about the concept of trust there are, depending on the school of thought that is applied, contradicting views about the definition of trust as well as a disagreement about its functions and creation (Blomqvist, 1997, Cowles, 1997, Kennedy et al, 2001, Nooteboom, 2002, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Tillmar, 2002). The concept of trust has long been acknowledged in social science and psychology (Blomqvist, 1997). In recent years the importance of trust has also been recognized when discussing business relationships. However, the focus within this area has mainly been directed towards the role of trust within the organizational level and within the business-to-business context (Cowles, 1997, Jevons & Gabott, 2000, Kennedy et al, 2001). Consequently, there is a gap in the literature about trust between consumers and organizations even though the importance of trust in this type of relationship is evident (Kennedy et al, 2001). In our opinion, the role of trust ought to be of importance when it comes to services and the branding of such due to its unique nature.
With the above-mentioned reasoning in mind, we have elaborated the following research questions, which we have the intention to analyze: - Which elements are emphasized in the brand building process of services? - What is the role of trust for the building of a service brand and how could the customers’ trust in a service brand be developed?
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of our thesis is to analyze the process of building a service brand and the role of trust in this process. 3
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Introduction
1.3 Delimitations
Our intention is to empirically study the financial service sector since, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, the complexity of services is brought to its head in this particular case.
1.4 Target Audience
This thesis is primarily directed towards scholars, students and practitioners within the area of Business Administration that have an interest in the field of Branding.
1.5 Disposition o f the Thesis
In this section, a disposition of the structure in the thesis will be briefly presented in order to facilitate the reading.
Chapter 1- Introduction: In this first chapter we have described the background of the study, which has concluded in the research questions and accordingly the purpose of the thesis.
Chapter 2-Methodology: In this chapter we will present our scientific perceptions about knowledge and reality and how this has affected the way we have approached our research. In addition, we will describe the mode of procedure for collecting and processing the empirical findings of our research study.
Chapter 3- Frame of References: Our intention in chapter three is to discuss on a theoretical level the process of building services brands as well as the concept of 4
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Introduction
trust. Consequently, the frame of references will be divided into four sections discussing the issues of Branding, Services Branding, Trust and finally a section where these issues are brought together. Chapter 4- Empirical Findings: In this chapter, we will present the results of the acquired data regarding the issue of service branding and its relation to trust.
Chapter 5- Analysis: In the analysis, the theoretical notions presented in the frame of references will be further developed taking into consideration the findings of the empirical study.
Chapter 6- Concluding Discussion : In the final chapter, our intention is to discuss what we believe are the contributions of the thesis. We will also present suggestions for further research related to the topic of this thesis.
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Methodology
2
Methodology
In the previous chapter, we addressed the issue of the purpose with our research. Hence, in this chapter, our intention is to discuss our scientific view when conducting this research. Hence, we will explain our thoughts on science and reality. In addition, this chapter will deal with our practical mode of procedure when collecting the empirical data. The idea is to provide the reader with an opportunity to critically examine the results that will be discussed later on in this thesis.
2.1 Reflections on Science
The concepts of knowledge and science are commonly occurring in various contexts in everyday life. However, when faced with the task of writing a thesis, one begins to reflect more profoundly upon what these concepts are really about. The main question then is how can one write a thesis that in some way can be considered to generate knowledge about a specific phenomenon? How can one write a thesis that can be considered scientific? It could then be of interest to briefly bring forth the concepts of knowledge and knowledge production as well as the notion of what can be considered scientific.
According to Holmberg (1987), one acquires knowledge by registering different characteristics of the nature around oneself throughout life. He further argues that we learn from the social contexts around us by observing our fellowmen and the interaction between them (ibid). By collecting impressions of different types, we build up experience, which we can further use to interpret and make conclusions about the world around us (ibid). According to Holmberg (1987) 6
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Methodology
this is in broad outline how knowledge is generated. However, he claims that knowledge production can be divided into everyday life knowledge production and scientific knowledge production and that there are differences as well as similarities between these two types of knowledge production (ibid). One of the similarities is, according to Holmberg (1987) that both the ordinary person and the scientist want to find and describe the phenomena around us and understand the processes that occur. About the differences, when it comes to everyday life, Holmberg (1987) argues that acquiring experiences may imply that we put together occurrences that may not really be connected and that we draw conclusions that rest on a weak basis. Consequently, he states that knowledge about processes in the everyday life often form patterns that are difficult to grasp. Scientific knowledge on the other hand, is according to Holmberg (1987) produced on the basis of specific modes of procedure, which consequently implies a more categorical production of knowledge. Furthermore, he argues that in order for the knowledge to be considered scientific it should belong to an acknowledged field within a particular discipline (ibid). Wallén (1996) presents a similar reasoning regarding this matter. He claims that scientific knowledge differs from everyday life knowledge production in the sense that the conditions of which scientific knowledge is based on are examined systematically (ibid). Furthermore, Wallén (1996) states that in order for knowledge to be considered scientific, discussions about the methods and authenticity need to be included so that the science then could yield some type of collective knowledge that other researchers can take part of, control the accuracy of and further build on. Above, the notion of knowledge in terms of what can be considered as scientific has been elucidated. In this reasoning, focus seems to be on the importance of applying specific modes of procedure. With this in mind, we believe that it could be of interest to further elucidate what can be considered scientific by 7
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Methodology
presenting Molander’s (1988) nine dimensions regarding this matter. Consequently, below, we will briefly discuss these dimensions: According to Molander (1988), in order to be able to call a person scientific the person should be well familiar with certain scientific theories and methods-and also apply them. Furthermore, Molander (1988) argues that when it comes to a statement, it can be true or false but cannot in itself be considered scientific. However, if the statement is included in a scientific theory, formulated in a scientific conceptual apparatus or confirmed by scientific methods, the statement could be considered scientific (ibid). The criteria for concepts and terms to be regarded as scientific is related to requirements on accuracy and that there exists no ambiguity. Molander (1988) further points out that a theory can be seen as scientific if it includes statements that in a uniform and coherent manner describe a phenomenon within a certain field of research. The dimension approach and perspective can according to Molander (1988) only indirectly be regarded as scientific to the extent that they are supported by scientific theories. Also, Molander (1988) points out that in order for research to be considered scientific, it is important that there exist specific methods that are used to process material to acquire or verify data. Molander (1988) further argues that the execution of a specific research can be called scientific if one applies scientific theories and methods and if generally impartial modes of reasoning and drawing conclusions are applied. Finally, a thesis is scientific according to Molander (1988) if the presentation of it is such that the reader could assess the tenability in the sense that it is possible to easily follow the argumentation. In addition, all the sources of reference and other types of evidence should be carefully accounted for.
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Methodology
Our intention with this thesis is of course to produce scientific knowledge. Consequently, higher demands are placed on us in the sense that, accordingly with the authors’ views mentioned above, it implies that specific modes of procedure and methods are applied (Holmberg, 1987, Wallén, 1996, Molander, 1988). As mentioned earlier, when it comes to scientific knowledge production, there are specific requirements regarding authenticity of the research (Wallén, 1996). In addition, as mentioned above, tenability and clarity are essential for a thesis to be considered scientific (Molander, 1988). Consequently, in the rest of this chapter our intention is to further elucidate the modes of procedure that have been applied when writing the thesis in order to fortify that our thesis could be seen as scientific.
2.2. Hermeneutics and Positivism
Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (2001) argue that regarding science, there are two main scientific approaches: positivism and hermeneutics. It is argued that the former assumes absolute knowledge as an ideal while the latter originates from relative knowledge (ibid). Moreover, Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (2001) claim that while the positivistic approach seeks to explain and describe, the hermeneutical approach seeks to acquire a comprehensive understanding, or an insight.
The concept of positivism was introduced by the French sociologist August Comte in the beginning of the 19th century (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001, Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994) who argued that it is possible to produce knowledge that is positive as well as developing for society (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). The positivistic approach is based on the idea that knowledge should be real and accessible for our senses and built on 9
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logical reasoning (ibid). In addition, knowledge should be able to be verified (ibid). The central idea in the positivistic approach is that there exists a true reality that we can acquire knowledge about through observations (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). It is argued that positivistic research is conducted according to the hypotheticaldeductive model, which implies that hypotheses, which are tested empirically with the help of scientific methods, are derived from theories (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). In addition, the idea of reductionism characterizes this approach; the whole can be studied by reducing the problem into different parts that are studied separately (ibid). Another characteristic of the positivistic approach is that the research should be objective, in other words it should be independent of the researcher that conducts the research and his personality or attitude should not affect the results (Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). Kvale (1997) points out that when it comes to the positivistic approach, the researcher’s influence should be eliminated or minimized as much as possible. Patel & Tebelius (1987) argue that the positivistic view of knowledge could be said to be the following: scientific knowledge provides us with the possibility to predict events. Furthermore, those predictions should be stated in terms of probability, which are based on logical analysis of the data (ibid).
The hermeneutical approach regards the interpretation and understanding of the human existence and reality (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). It is argued that reality can be understood through language as well as human actions (ibid). In contrast to the positivistic approach, the hermeneutical approach does not seek to explain but instead the idea is to understand our own and other individuals’ perceptions by interpreting how the human life is expressed in the written and spoken language (Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). It is argued that 10
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people have intentions that are expressed through language and actions (ibid). Thus, a dialogue between individuals is essential when it comes to the hermeneutical approach (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001). It is pointed out by Patel & Tebelius (1987) that hermeneutical research is subjective, in the sense that the researcher consciously uses his preunderstanding or values, knowledge and experiences, as a tool in order to interpret the acquired material. They further argue that the researcher’s preunderstanding is essential in the process of interpreting the acquired information (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). The hermeneutical approach is further characterized by what is referred to as holism (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul,2001), which is based on the idea that it is only possible to understand the object and his actions when it is connected to the whole (Sköldberg, 1994). The researcher alternates between the whole and the parts in order to acquire an understanding that is as comprehensive as possible (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001). This reasoning can be illustrated by what is referred to as the hermeneutical spiral which can be explained in the following manner: the meaning of the parts is based on the whole at the same time that the parts determine the meaning of the whole (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). The same reasoning can be applied to the researcher in the sense that the preunderstanding anticipates the interpretation, at the same time that the researcher is influenced when interpreting the object of analysis which also leads to a new interpretation and increased understanding (Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001). Furthermore, it is argued that the parts of the hermeneutical spiral are part of the whole, which is continually growing (Patel & Davidsson, 2003).
Striving towards the notion of objectivity could in our opinion be appealing when it comes to research since i t, in accordance with the positivistic approach 11
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implies that the researcher’s influence on the results is minimized (Kvale, 1997). However, we believe that this is very difficult to achieve since when facing the task of for example writing a thesis, the authors always have some type of previous knowledge that in turn is revised throughout the thesis. Consequently, in our opinion, it is nearly impossible to avoid the notion of subjectivity, which we in addition find essential when interpreting a specific phenomenon. When conducting our research we have in the main interpreted existing theories as well as brought these theories together with our interpretations about individuals’ perceptions about the phenomenon in question. This means that conducting a dialogue is crucial in order to bring new insights of the phenomenon that is studied and that we hope to produce additional knowledge about. These new insights have in turn affected our view of the phenomenon in question. Consequently, we believe that it is necessary when conducting research not to act as spectators and describe the phenomenon, but instead it is important to become part of the process through a dialogue with individuals that could bring new ideas about the specific subject. In our opinion, this view is in accordance with the hermeneutic approach.
2.3 Methodological Approach
Earlier in this chapter, we briefly discussed the concept of knowledge production and what criteria that is needed for it to be considered as scientific. It was concluded that specific modes of procedure and methods were important in this process. According to Holmberg (1987), the knowledge production process evolves around two main concepts; one is referred to as deduction and the other is referred to as induction. These are according to Patel & Davidsson (2003) concepts that describe how the scientist relates theory and reality to each other. In order to provide an insight of our position in this matter, we will proceed in 12
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this section with a brief presentation of the concepts of deduction and induction followed by a discussion of our mode of procedure in our thesis. It could be said that a scientist that works in a deductive manner, follows the path of proof (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). This way of working is characterized by deriving hypotheses from the existing theories that will then be empirically tested in the specific case (ibid). Consequently, conclusions are made about individual occurrences from general principles and existing theories (ibid). Patel & Davidsson (2003) point out that it could be said that the scientist that works in an inductive manner follows the path of exploration. This implies that the scientist will study a particular object of research without prior anchorage in an established theory (ibid). A new theory will then be formulated with the help of the gathered empirical data (ibid). When it comes to our mode of procedure for fulfilling the purpose of our thesis, the following reasoning could be presented. The process of arriving at the purpose of our thesis started out with an interest in the area of branding of services, and specifically the brand building process when it comes to services. Consequently, this interest lead us to look into the existing research within the area which in turn gave rose to an interest in the concept of trust and its relation to services branding. With this in mind, the purpose was formulated. Once this purpose was formulated, we were faced with the choice of either proceeding with the empirical studies accordingly with an inductive approach or developing a theoretical base with the help of existing literature, which is in line with the deductive approach. When considering this choice we overviewed the pros and cons with each approach:
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When it comes to the inductive approach, Wallén (1996) points out that the intention should be to collect the empirical data in an unbiased manner, which we believe could be seen as an advantage when conducting research since this would imply that the research is not subjected to previous theoretical frames. However, the notion of unbiased research has been criticized by several researchers (Patel & Davidsson, 2003, Wallén, 1996). What is pointed out is that the researcher cannot work in a completely unbiased manner since he always initially has his own conceptions and ideas that will color the theories that he produces (ibid). Patel & Davidsson (2003) also emphasize another downside with this approach. It is argued that the scientist does not really know the scope and general applicability of his theory due to the fact that the information that has been used to formulate it is based on empirical findings in a particular situation (ibid). An advantage of the deductive approach is according to Patel & Davidsson (2003) that the objectivity of the research could be enhanced due to the fact that the scientist takes a starting point in the already existing theory. It is further stated that the research process then becomes less colored by the scientist’s own subjective perceptions (ibid). However, also when it comes to the deductive approach, researchers point out that there are also downsides. Patel & Davidsson (2003) emphasize that this approach implies that an already existing theory determines which information that should be collected, how one should interpret this information as well as how the result should be related to the already existing theory. Consequently, it is stated that this could affect and direct the research in a particular direction so that new interesting findings may not be discovered (ibid). Another drawback with the deductive approach is pointed out by Alvesson & Sköldberg (1994). They emphasize that since this approach takes its starting point in a general rule that is then presumed to be applicable in all 14
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cases, including the specific case of study, it could be more appropriate to talk about an establishment of facts rather than an explanation (ibid). Having the above reasoning in mind, which approach would we choose? It is pointed out by Alvesson & Sköldberg (1994) that when it comes to the inductive and the deductive approaches, it ought to be difficult to fit all types of research into one of these two alternatives. In our opinion, our research does not entirely fit into either one of the categories. Since we considered it necessary to have some kind of theoretical base when acquiring empirical data, the inductive approach seemed inappropriate for our research. Instead, the deductive approach seemed more suitable. The reason for this is that we wanted to initially use the existing literature about branding, services and trust, since these to some extent are topics that are not naturally related to each other. Consequently, in our opinion, it seemed natural to primarily bring the concepts together and reason about their interrelation on a theoretical level before undertaking the empirical study. However, what lead us to believe that our research could not be conducted entirely in a deductive manner was that our further intention was to use the empirical study to acquire additional insights about the purpose of our thesis. Then, in the analysis, these new insights would serve to revise and develop our theoretical notions that were generated in the frame of references. To sum up we believe that our mode of procedure when conducting our research diverges somewhat from the deductive approach since we use the empirical findings to further develop our theoretical notions. However, we hope that this divergence could serve to reduce the drawback presented by Alvesson & Sköldberg (1994) regarding the deductive approach, i.e. that our thesis concludes in an explanation of the studied phenomenon rather than only an establishment of facts.
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2.4 Qualitative vs. Quantitati ve Approach
According to Denscombe (2000), the distinction that usually is made between qualitative and quantitative research is too simplified since the conditions related with each of the categories are usually overlapping. Consequently, it is argued that it is difficult to place research in one of the two categories (Denscombe, 2000, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). However, the terms quantitative and qualitative are usually used to represent contrasting positions in research and each of these is related to different dimensions (Denscombe, 2000, Patel & Tebelius, 1987). It could then be of interest to explain the features that characterize the two types of research.
Quantitative research strives to measure phenomena that can be converted into figures that are then analyzed using statistical methods (Denscombe, 2000). Furthermore, quantitative research is associated with the necessity to detach specific factors from the whole in order to study their functions (ibid). It is argued that there is more focus on the researcher’s ideas about which dimensions that are of interest (Bryman, 1989: in Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994) and that the data exists independently from the researcher (Denscombe, 2000). When it comes to qualitative research, a fundamental idea is that there exists a possibility to acquire knowledge of an individual’s world through language (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). Consequently, the phenomenon that is observed or registered is converted into words, which is the basic unit of analysis (Denscombe, 2000). In addition, qualitative research is associated to a holistic perspective, which implies that the factors are studied in their specific context (ibid). Also, when it comes to qualitative research, the modes of procedure often put the perspective of the object of study in focus (Bryman, 1989: in Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994). 16
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Regarding our research, our intention is to acquire understanding about the phenomenon of services branding and the role of trust. We believe that it is then interesting to get an insight on and acquire knowledge of how different individuals view and interpret this phenomenon, which then makes it essential to put the object of study and his perspective in focus. In order to do this, a dialogue with individuals that could bring insights about the phenomenon is necessary. Our view is thus in accordance with the qualitative approach.
2.5 Type o f St udy
When conducting a research it is important to decide upon the disposition of the study, which includes for example reflecting upon the techniques that will be applied (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). The types of study that are most commonly referred to in the literature are survey-studies, experiments and case studies (ibid). When it comes to qualitative research the idea is to acquire understanding about a specific phenomenon and consequently within this approach case studies are of great importance (Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). As mentioned earlier, we find a qualitative research to be most suitable for our study and this makes it interesting for us to consider the choice of conducting a case study. Consequently, the main characteristics of a case study will be described below.
It is argued that a case study is characterized by the fact that only a few objects, such as for example a company or a sector, are included in the study (Denscombe, 2000, Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 2001, Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). According to Denscombe (2000), this implies that there are greater possibilities to obtain deeper insights and to explain why a specific result is obtained. Case studies signify an opportunity to acquire a deep-going 17
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description of relations, experiences and processes that appear in the specific unit of study (ibid). Furthermore, Denscombe (2000) points out that when it comes to case studies, the main idea is to elucidate the general picture by studying the individual case (ibid). Consequently, it could be argued that case studies tend to have a holistic perspective (Patel & Tebelius, 1987).
Taking into account the elements that characterize a case study, we believe that this type of study could be suitable for our research. The reason for this is that we believe that it could serve in order to look into in the most comprehensive manner possible the trust process when it comes to service brands. The next question regards however which specific case of study to choose. When deciding upon this matter, several aspects of importance are emphasised: Denscombe (2000) points out that since a case study demands that the researcher consciously chooses a specific case that will be studied, it is crucial that this decision is defended and that the researcher can justify that the chosen case is suitable for the purpose of the research (ibid). He further argues that the selection of the specific case can for example be based on its relevance for existing theories (ibid). This is based on the idea that case studies can be used in order to test or develop theories (Layder, 1993: in Denscombe, 2000). This implies that the most obvious base for selecting a case of study ought to be that it includes crucial elements that are specifically significant for the specific research (Denscombe, 2000). Taking the above-mentioned reasoning into consideration, we decided that the financial service sector, i.e. the bank- and insurance sector, would serve as our case study. The reason for choosing to include this specific sector in our study is that existing theories within the area of services brands indicate that the 18
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complexity of services is brought to its head in the case of financial services (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). Consequently, we believe that these theoretical aspects indicate that the financial sector ought to include crucial characteristics that are of interest for our specific study, which is in accordance with Denscombe’s (2000) argument about the basis for selecting a case of study. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, our intention has been to develop our theoretical notions that were generated in the frame of references with the help of insights acquired through the empirical study. Consequently, using the financial service sector as a case study has served to develop our theoretical notions, which is in accordance with Layder’s (1993: in Denscombe, 2000) above-mentioned reasoning.
2.6 Collection of Data
When writing a thesis the data that can be used can be of two types: secondary and primary data. Secondary data refers to the information that already has been documented about a certain phenomenon, but which has not been compiled primarily for the researcher’s specific study (Lundahl and Skärvad, 1999). Primary data, on the other hand, is information that has been collected from the original source for the researcher’s study in particular (Patel & Davidsson, 2003). For the purpose of this study, it was necessary to make use of both secondary and primary data .
2.6.1 Se c ondary Data
When it comes to the use of secondary data, we have limited our collection of material to scientific research publications from acknowledged periodicals and books. Lundahl & Skärvad (1999) point out that it is fundamental to have a critical attitude towards this type of data since the researcher himself has not 19
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collected it and the production process behind the data is therefore unknown to him. Consequently, we have tried to use as many sources as possible that deal with similar issues. This way, we believe that we to some extent could compare the reasoning of the different authors and thereby more easily examine the sources in a critical manner.
The collection of secondary data was initiated with a brief review of the existing services branding literature. We then received indications about that the literature concerning this concept seemed to be rather limited and lacked a discussion about the brand building process specifically when it comes to services. Therefore, we reviewed the work of some of the acknowledged researchers within the area of branding in order to acquire a knowledge base within the topic of brand building. Subsequently, the services marketing literature was reviewed to acquire an understanding of how these two concepts could be incorporated. Furthermore, when studying the services marketing literature, we started to reflect upon the possible relation between services brands and trust, which then resulted in the study of the concept of trust.
2.6.2 P rima ry Data
About the use of primary data , we found it suitable to use interviews in our study. So why did we choose to utilize this method for gathering our empirical data? Denscombe (2000) points out that if the researcher wants to collect deepgoing information from a smaller number of individuals, interviews are suitable. He further states that if the researcher wants to find out about emotions, experiences and sensations, interviews are the best alternative. In the case of our study, our way of thinking corresponds to the reasoning of Denscombe (2000). We perceived it necessary to get inputs on a more profound level about the service brand and its relation to trust and we wanted to get insights about how 20
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the interviewees perceived this phenomenon. About the procedure of selecting interviewees, it will be further discussed below. 2.6.2.1 Selection of Objects of Study When it comes to deciding which interviewees that should be included in a study, Lundahl and Skärvad (1999) bring forth two types of interviewees; the expert and the directly interested party. In this context, the expert is a person that has particular knowledge within the specific field of which the researcher is interested in (ibid). The directly interested party on the other hand is a person that is directly connected to the studied phenomenon, like for example employees in the department that is being researched.
As we have mentioned earlier, the financial service sector, i.e. the bank and insurance sector, will serve as our case study. Consequently, to acquire the most comprehensive picture possible, we tried to consider which key actors that come into contact with a financial service brand and in which way this contact occurs. As a result, we came to the conclusion that it was necessary to interview socalled experts that all have different relation to a financial service brand, in order to acquire comprehensive knowledge of the studied phenomenon. To further clarify our choice of interviewees, we believe that the following categorization could be made; Expert Knowledge, Backline Staff, Frontline Staff and Customers. About the category Expert Knowledge, we thought that it could be of interest to acquire knowledge from someone that had great theoretical and practical knowledge within the field of branding, i.e. an expert within the studied phenomenon. Consequently, we chose to interview a brand consultant that specializes within the field of brand development and that has a lot of 21
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experience in helping companies to build up their brands. In addition to acquiring information from an expert within the field of branding, we also considered it important to interview representatives from a specific financial service brand. Therefore we decided to conduct interviews with staff in different positions at two financial service companies; SEB and Östgöta Brandstodsbolag. Within these companies we thought it would be appropriate to interview people that have front positions and direct contact with the customers, here referred to as Frontline Staff. We had the opportunity to interview four financial advisors at SEB, Linköping. Even though these advisors work within different scopes in the company like Customer Services, Private Banking and Corporate Division, they all have direct contact with the customers and in addition they ought to have a lot of practical knowledge and experience about service brands. Regarding what type of interviewee these people represent, we believe that they could be seen as experts in the sense that they could all be considered to have particular knowledge connected to their specific role of profession.
In addition to interviewing employees on a frontline level, we also perceived it important to also include what we refer to as Backline Staff in the study. These are employees that are not in direct contact with the customers, but that instead work on a more strategic level with the particular service brand and could therefore be seen as having more theoretical expertise about this matter. Consequently, within this category we interviewed a Regional Manager and the Director of Publicity at SEB. Moreover, we interviewed the Market Communicator and two Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag. In our opinion, also these interviewees could be seen as experts related to their specific role of profession.
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About the final category, Customers, we believe that it would be interesting to try to get insight about the service brand and the trust process from the customer’s perspective as well. In a way they can also be seen as experts in their role of being just that. That is, customers. Therefore, we decided to also include interviews with three financial service customers.
So why did we try to include as many different key actors as possible in the study? In our opinion, if we had for example chosen to interview only consultants with expertise knowledge about the service brand, they probably would not have had the same practical experience of the relation between the customer and the service brand as for example an advisor from a financial service company. On the other hand, if we had only interviewed frontline staff, they would probably not have had the same theoretical understanding of the service brand and its building process. Thus we believe that this would have implied a higher risk that we would have acquired an incomplete picture of our studied phenomenon. About the number of customers included in our study, one could question why we have chosen to interview only three customers. In our opinion, conducting a more comprehensive study of customers’ perceptions i n this matter would have been preferable. However, because of the limited scope of this thesis, it was either including some customers or none. We chose to interview a limited number in order to acquire at least some insights about their perceptions since they in our opinion have essential knowledge regarding aspects of importance when it comes to the decision making process of a service brand. Having the above reasoning as a basis, our hopes were that we would get an as comprehensive picture of the studied phenomenon as possible.
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2.6.2.2 Procedure for Collecting Data As mentioned before, we came to the conclusion that using interviews as a part of the investigation was suitable when collecting the empirical information. It is pointed out that a common way to distinguish between different types of interviews is to consider the degree of standardization that is being used (Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). The degree of standardization basically depends on how much the interviewer interacts with the interviewees (Patel & Tebelius, 1987). When the level of standardization is high, i.e. standardized interviews, the formulation and order in which the questions are asked are predetermined (ibid). When it comes to unstandardized interviews the level of standardization is non-existent, which means that the formulation of the questions is very open (Lundahl & Skärvad, 1999). The third category, semi-standardized interviews, implies that the questions have then been predetermined but the interviewer can make follow-up questions to get additional information and more deep-going answers (ibid). Some questions are also aimed only towards certain people (ibid).
Since our intention was to acquire as much insight as possible in the interviewee’s views and interpretations of the studied phenomenon, we wanted to give the interviewees the possibility to answer as freely as possible, however, within the scope of the studied topic. Therefore, we considered that conducting semi-standardized interviews was suitable for our study. In total, 13 interviews were carried out, with an average of about 40 minutes. Two different interview models with predetermined questions that were designed having the theories in mind were elaborated; one for customers and one for the consultant and the company representatives. However, during the interviews, follow-up questions were asked in order to get a comprehensive picture of the interviewees’ thoughts. In order to minimize the risk for misinterpretations to occur, the 24
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interviews were tape-recorded. We also asked the respondents if we were allowed to quote them and, since the interviews were conducted in Swedish, if their answers could be translated to English. In addition, we asked if they wanted to read the transcriptions of the interviews in order to check for misinterpretations.
2.7 Has Validity, Reliability and General Applicability Been Achieved?
Earlier in this chapter, we have argued that a qualitative approach was most suitable for the purpose of this study. However, as pointed out by Patel & Davidsson (2003) this type of approach may imply some difficulties when it comes to the concepts of validity and reliability of the study. What is argued is that qualitative research is about understanding and interpreting a phenomenon, which implies that each study is unique (ibid). Consequently, to which degree validity could be considered to be attained in the study, depends on how carefully the researcher describes how the research is conducted and how the reasoning is built up (ibid). When it comes to the concept of reliability of qualitative research, Patel & Davidsson (2003) emphasize that this concept could be seen as interlaced with validity. According to these authors, the reason for this is that what characterizes qualitative research is interpretations and thus it is not crucial to acquire the same results every time an interview is conducted but instead to acquire new insights and knowledge (ibid). Therefore, Patel & Davidsson (2003) argue that the concept of reliability could be incorporated in the discussion of validity instead. When it comes to our efforts to attain validity, we have tried throughout the thesis to describe our line of thought and the choices that have been made. In addition, in this chapter we have tried to clarify
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in a comprehensive manner our standpoints in order to give the reader the possibility to judge the validity of our reasoning. When it comes to qualitative research and case studies, several authors question the notion of general applicability since a case study concerns only a specific case and is therefore not based on statistical samples (Patel & Tebelius, 1987, Denscombe, 1998, Kvale, 1997). Regarding this matter, Wallén (1996) emphasizes that there are differences between case studies and general research results (ibid). What is pointed out is that general research results usually imply a reinterpretation from the general knowledge to the more specific situation (ibid). However, regarding case studies, the idea is that the results should be transferred from a specific situation to another, which in reality cannot be done without further interpretation and processing of the results (ibid). Having this reasoning as a basis, Wallén (1996) argues that a proper methodology is necessary in order to be able to use the results as a model instead of applying it directly to another situation. When it comes to the methodology applied in our research, we have throughout this chapter discussed our lines of thought and therefore, accordingly with Wallén’s (1996) reasoning, we believe that our theoretically- and empirically based notions regarding trust and services brands, could contribute with interesting insights to other types of research within the area.
To sum up, in this section we have discussed the validity and general applicability of our study. We believe that this discussion together with the rest of this chapter can serve to justify that our research could be considered scientific, since accordingly with the guidelines mentioned in the first section, we have carefully described our choices related to the modes of procedure.
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3
Frame of Refere nces
Our intention in this chapter is to discuss the process of building service brands as well as the concept of trust. Consequently, the frame of references will be divided into four sections: In the first section we will put forward aspects of interest regarding the process of building brands. The next section will deal with the topic of services and subsequently services branding as a concept. The third section will introduce the reader to the issue of trust; its definition as well as its functions and creation. To conclude the chapter, our intention is to discuss our overall notions about services branding and trust that have evolved through the previous sections.
3.1 The Co ncept of Branding
The concept of branding and its strategic potential for companies has in recent years been very acknowledged (Kapferer, 1997, Melin, 1999, Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård, 2002). Even though the concept dates back to the end of the 19th century (Melin, 1999) it is argued that branding still is in its early stage of development in terms of strategic importance for the brand owner (Kapferer, 1997).
The importance of branding can be related to the brand’s role in creating value for the company (Aaker, 1991, Kapferer, 1997, Melin 1999) in the sense that it is can be seen as an eternal asset (Melin, 2002) that comprises all the positive and negative impressions that every potential buyer creates over time (Kapferer, 1997). Consequently, one of the most important functions of branding is to add meaning to the company’s offerings by creating unique associations to them 27
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(Melin, 2002). From the consumer’s point of view, the brand creates value since it facilitates the process of choosing between the many offerings in the market (ibid). Also, it is pointed out that the brand adds value to the customer by offering a sort of guarantee that expectations will be fulfilled since the quality is expected to be constant (Melin, 1999). Furthermore, the perceived risk for the consumer can be reduced when choosing a well-known brand (ibid).
Above, we have briefly discussed the functions of a brand and the importance of branding. So, how is a brand created, then? Before we move on to this matter, we believe that it is essential to briefly discuss how a brand can be defined.
3.1.1 What is a B rand?
There are many interpretations of the definition of a brand that each emphasizes different aspects of the concept. Hence, it could be of interest to have a brief discussion regarding different views about this matter in order to arrive at a definition that we find most suitable. The definition of a brand stated in the Swedish Intellectual Property Law can serve as a good starting point of discussion: “A brand may consist of all signs which may be reproduced graphically, especially words including personal names as well as figures, letters, numbers and the shape or outfit of a good or its package, provided that the signs can distinguish goods which are offered in one business from those that are offered in another.” (§1 Vml, our translation). As Melin (1999) points out, this legal definition is rather descriptive since it emphasizes a brand’s characteristics and functions, with a focus on the latter. The characteristics of a brand are also pointed out by Aaker (1991) who puts focus on the “physical” aspects of a brand stating that “A brand is a distinguishing name and/or symbol (such as a logo, trademark, or package 28
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design) intended to identify the goods or services of either one seller or group of sellers, and to differentiate those goods or services from those of competitors” (Aaker, 1991, p.7) In our opinion, this definition clearly emphasizes the differentiating function of the brand, something that Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård (2002) also point out by defining a brand as “…a company’s symbol that in addition to its visual form (logotype), is a carrier of value. This “value” is due to the fact that the brand is a sign of the company that identifies the company’s products and consequently separates them from others by creating associations and meanings” (Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård, 2002, our translation, p 151). The main focus of this definition seems to be the brand as a value carrier for the company that creates meaning for the customer. The meaning of a brand is discussed even more explicitly in Kapferer’s (1994) definition, which states, “A brand is not a product. It is the product’s essence, its meaning, and its direction and it defines its identity in time and space” (Kapferer, 1994, p.4). What in our opinion makes this definition interesting is that it focuses on the immaterial aspect rather than the more physical aspects of a brand. A definition that even further points out the immaterial aspects of a brand defines the brand as “ the promise of the bundle of attributes that someone buys…the attributes that make up the brand may be real or illusionary, rational or emotional, tangible or invisible.” (Ambler & Styles, 1996, p. 10) In our opinion, this definition is the most suitable one. The reason for this is that it catches the mere essence of what a brand stands for in the mind of individuals, namely a promise that is expected to be fulfilled. However, when discussing brand definitions, it could also be of importance to point out the brand’s function as a value carrier as was emphasized by Salzer-Mörling & Strannegård (2002). The reason for this is, as mentioned before, that the concepts of value and brand 29
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seem to be closely related. This matter, as well as the process of building a brand will be further discussed below.
3.1.2 The P roc e ss of B uilding a B ra nd
It has been pointed out that building brands can be considered as a process of creating value for both the customer and the company (Melin 1999, Kapferer, 1994, Aaker, 1996). This process is about creating what is referred to as brand equity (ibid). There is, according to Melin (1999) no acknowledged definition of brand equity. However, we find that Aaker’s (1996) definition could serve to elucidate the concept: “ Brand equity is a set of assets (and liabilities) linked to a brand’s name and symbol that adds to (or subtracts from) the value provided by a product or a service to a firm and/or that firm’s customers”. (Aaker, 1996, p 7)
Different authors have different views on how brand equity is created and which perspectives that need to be emphasized in the process. However, since our purpose of this section is to acquire a general understanding of the existent branding literature in order to move over to looking at branding and services, we will discuss some of the authors that we perceive as most recognized within the area. Consequently, we have decided to below attend to the work of Jean-Noël Kapferer (1994), David Aaker (1996), and Frans Melin (1999) concerning how brand equity is created.
When discussing the brand building process, Melin’s (1999) model (see figure 1) could in our opinion serve as a basis due to its rather comprehensive nature. The reason for this is that this model (as opposed to Aaker’s, 1996 and Kapferer’s 1994 reasoning) takes into consideration both the internal (brand-
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owner/company) and external (consumer) perspectives of the brand building process.
Internal Process Productattributes Commitment External Process
Brand Identity
Brand Sensitiveness
Core Values Brand Building in the Company
Brand Awareness Brand Equity
Positioning
Brand Associations
Brand Building in the Consumer’s Mind
Market Communication Internal Brand Loyalty The Brand-owner’s Perspective
Value Added
Brand Loyalty
The Consumer’s Perspective
Figure 1. The Brand Building Process (Melin,1999, p208)
The overall reasoning behind Melin’s model, as well as the reasoning of Kapferer (1994) and Aaker (1996) of the brand building process is that the main objective is to attract a large number of loyal customers. When customers are loyal over time, brand equity is created (ibid). Melin (1999) further argues that in order for the brand-owner to be able to attract this broad base of loyal consumers, it is essential to build a strategic brand platform, thereby adding to the brand equity. Below, we will begin discussing the external consumer perspective and then proceed, accordingly to Melin, with the internal brand31
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owner perspective. As mentioned before, Kapferer’s (1994) and Aaker’s (1996) points of view will be incorporated in the discussion. 3.1.2.1 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective Melin (1999) argues that no matter which target group that a company focuses on, it is essential to understand the elements that affect the consumer’s decisionmaking process, which will lead to brand loyalty. Consequently the external perspective of the brand building process is based on six elements that describe the process for developing brand loyalty in the consumer’s mind (ibid). In order for the brand-owner to be able to create genuine brand loyalty, one of the essential tasks is, according to Melin (1999) to try to trigger a consumer’s commitment or interest for the brand in question. The goal for the brand-owner should be that the consumer would attach as great importance as possible to the particular brand when choosing a product brand1 (ibid). However, Melin (2002) points out that the commitment of the consumer varies depending on the type of product. Consequently, he argues that products like everyday commodities are generally low commitment products and the consumers are therefore passive receivers of information. However, products that have a complex decisionmaking process give rise to high commitment and the consumers thereby tend to actively search for information (Melin, 1999).
The ultimate goal, Melin (1999) argues, is to decrease the consumer’s pricesensitiveness at the same time as the brand-sensitiveness is increased (i.e. the consumer chooses the offering with the brand as a basis and not the price). The brand sensitiveness is often the highest when the decision to buy concerns
1
Product brand is referred to as the particular brand and the particular product that it is attached to since a
consumer does not buy only a brand nor a product (Melin, 1999)
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technologically complicated products or when the economic risk is perceived as high (Melin, 2002). The consumer will then tend to choose the better-known brand with a renowned reputation (ibid). By improving the brand-sensitiveness, the greater are the chances that brand awareness is created (Melin, 1999). According to Melin, (1999), creating brand awareness in the consumers’ minds is crucial for the brand building process. This reasoning is supported by Aaker (1996) who lists brand awareness as one of the four brand equity assets that create value. Brand awareness refers to the different ways that the consumers remember a brand (Aaker, 1996). It is argued that due to a large number of brands existing in the market, it is important to get the consumer to at least recognize the brand, recall it, or preferably that he has the brand on the top of his mind (Melin, 1999, Aaker, 1996). The optimal result is that the consumer recalls only the specific brand (Aaker, 1996). Creating brand awareness is important since it creates a sense of belonging and familiarity for the customer, which is a precondition for the creation of preferences for certain brands (Melin, 1999).
Melin (1999) points out that in order to make the brand product seem attractive, it is important for the brand-owner to relate it with certain values, which will create positive brand associations in the consumer’s mind. This is the second brand equity asset that Aaker (1996) discusses. Brand associations refer to what the company wants the customer to relate the brand to and could include factors like product attributes or a certain spokesperson for the brand (ibid). The main reason that makes the concept of brand associations so important is that it contributes to avoiding competition based on price (Melin, 1999). Even if a consumer has never actually tried a certain product brand, he usually has some type of opinion of the brand (ibid).
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One of the most crucial brand associations that a consumer can have is perceived quality (Melin, 1999). This is the third brand equity asset that Aaker (1996) includes in his model of building brands. Perceived quality can be seen as the customer’s perceptions of the overall quality or the superiority of the offering, related to its intended purpose (Aaker, 1996). In order to transmit a notion about perceived quality, quality associations to the inner and the outer attributes of the product brand are useful (Melin, 1999). When it comes to the inner attributes, it is important to maintain a high and constant actual quality of the offering (ibid). The name and package of the offering, which are examples of the outer characteristics, can also affect the customer’s perception of the quality (ibid). Quality associations primarily emphasize the functional values of the product brand although emotional values such as lifestyle, geographical origin are also important (ibid). The idea is that the perceptions of the product brand should result in a positive and strong image in the consumer’s mind (ibid). Melin (1999) argues that the associations that the customer has to the brand, will serve as a basis for the value added , i.e. the premium price that the consumers are willing to pay to acquire exactly that brand. Further he argues that the goal for the brand-owner should be that the value added would create brand preferences that in the long term will be transformed into brand loyalty. Since brand loyalty creates a base for profitability and a stable market share, it is highly desirable for the brand-owner that the consumer is strongly attached to the specific product brand (Melin, 1999). Aaker (1996) also emphasizes the importance of brand loyalty and lists it as the fourth asset that contributes to the brand equity process. It is pointed out that there are five levels of brand loyalty, included in the loyalty pyramid (ibid), which will briefly be described below. The bottom level includes the buyer that 34
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is not loyal and consequently indifferent to the brand. In the second level the buyers are satisfied with the offering and see no need to change it although switching to another brand may occur if a better offer appears. In the third level the customers are also satisfied, however, switching to another brand implies costs in terms of money, time, etc. Customers that really like the brand can be found on the fourth level. These customers are in some sense usually emotionally attached to the brand. In the top level the committed customers can be found. Generally, these customers recommend the brand to others and usually the brand is important to them in the sense that they identify themselves with what the brand stands for. (Aaker, 1996) 3.1.2.2 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective In order for the brand-owner to be able to attract brand loyal consumers it is, according to Melin (1999), important to identify the most essential elements in the brand building process from the perspective of the brand-owner. Consequently, Melin (1999) lists six strategic activities that are crucial for the internal brand building process and these will briefly be described below: One of the most important aspects in the brand building process is about using product attributes of different types in order to develop a functional value added for the customer (Melin, 1999). It is pointed out that in all kinds of brand building, one should bare in mind that a brand always becomes known through the product it represents (ibid). Further, it is stated that the brand has no intrinsic value and hence it is not until the brand is related to a product that the value creating process can be initiated (ibid). Consequently, Melin (1999) argues that the use of product attributes is of great importance in terms of differentiating a brand. This implies the use of concrete characteristics of the product like for example design, color and logotype as means to communicate and individualize 35
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the brand’s visual identity (ibid). As has been mentioned earlier, one of the most crucial brand associations that a consumer can have is perceived quality. Consequently, one of the most important product attributes is quality, where the focus for the brand-owner should be to reduce the gap between the perceived quality and the actual quality so that the quality expectations are met (Melin, 1999).
The second important aspect of the internal brand building process is according to Melin (1999) about developing a strong sense of what the brand stands for, gives it meaning and makes it unique, in other words developing a strong brand identity. When discussing brand identity it is important to distinguish it from the concept of image (Aaker, 1996, Kapferer, 1994). These two factors are closely related to each other, but they take different starting points (Kapferer, 1994). While the topic of image takes a starting point in the customer’s point of view on how the brand is seen, the topic of identity deals with the question of what is the brand’s uniqueness (ibid). Hence, image can be seen as the result of what the customers have perceived in terms of a brand’s identity and should therefore not be the starting point when discussing how brand identity is created (Kapferer, 1994). It would be starting in the wrong end (ibid). It is stated that brand identity has become increasingly more important due to the fact that it mainly builds on developing emotional value added, which is harder to copy than when building mainly on for example product attributes (Melin, 1999, Aaker, 1996). However, to develop a unique identity is a complex process that requires large measurements of continuity from the brand-owner’s perspective (Kapferer, 1994). As is pointed out by Kapferer (1994); while a newly created brand can take any path it desires, such liberty is highly restricted after several years, when the brand has already acquired its own level of 36
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existence and identity. Hence, what makes the process of developing an identity difficult is the fact that the brand needs to be updated and maintained and yet remain permanent and unique in terms of what it stands for (ibid). So what are the most important aspects for the creation of brand identity, then? Kapferer (1994) has developed a so-called identity prism dealing with this issue. This prism consists of six facets that will be further discussed below.
As is explained by Kapferer (1994), the overall objective for the brand-owner is to develop a core identity that can be persistent over time. In order to do this however, the identity of the brand needs to be communicated from the brandowner. When building the identity of a brand, there are two sides to consider; the picture of the sender (i.e. brand-owner) and the picture of the recipient (customer). When discussing the picture of the sender, the point of departure should be the physique and the personality of the brand. The reason for this is that these are the factors that the brand-owner actually can control and communicate to the recipient.
The physique of the brand is derived from certain key features or functions that make up the brand. As stated by Kapferer, the physique is the brand basis and the tangible support of the brand whose function is to evoke a mental picture of the brand in the minds of consumers. For example, La Vache qui Rit (the laughing cow) evokes a picture of foil wrapped cheese portions in round boxes etc. The personality of the brand is referred to as the particular character of the brand. What is pointed out is that people tend to identify the brand with a person, i.e. personify the brand and consequently this process can be enhanced by the brand-owner through using for example spokespersons or figureheads. The overall goal with developing the physique and the personality of the brand identity is that it should correspond to the picture that is held by the recipient. It 37
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is important that the brand identity is a reflection of the consumer’s self image and how they want to be perceived. In order for the brand-owner to succeed with transmitting a strong brand identity, it is important that strong links between the product brand and the consumer are created. There are two different kinds of links for achieving this; relationship and culture. About relationship as a link for creating a brand identity, it is stressed that an exchange between persons, i.e. between the customer and the members of the organization, provides the opportunity to further portray the desired brand identity of the brand-owner. About the culture, it is stated that the brand has its own culture, which is derived from the organization behind the brand. This is especially true in the case where the brand and the organization bear the same name. (Kapferer, 1994)
The third important aspect of the internal brand building process is according to Melin (1999) to develop a differentiation value added, i.e developing the core value of the brand. This implies determining the factors that can contribute to strengthening the long-term competitive advantage of the brand (ibid). The core value will then be the communicative link between the brand-owner and the consumer and it is therefore important that the factors that are chosen are easy to communicate, unique and difficult to imitate (Melin 1999). The next aspect that is included in Melin’s (1999) model is positioning, which refers to the process of acquiring a unique position in the minds of the consumers. The fifth aspect, market communication implies the task of actually transferring the positioning message to the customer (ibid). As means to do this, advertisements, commercials and sponsoring are used (Melin, 1999). The final aspect in the internal brand building process is according to Melin (1999) internal brand loyalty. It is argued that a prerequisite for the customer to remain loyal to a brand is that the brand-owner is loyal as well, which means 38
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according to Melin (1999) that the brand-owner maintains a brand’s legal and commercial status (ibid). This is achieved by coordinating activities within four areas (ibid). The first one, trademark management refers to protecting the trademark exclusive right to the brand while identity management refers to controlling that there is coherence between the brand and the development of new products. Image management deals with working towards coherence of the brand image (consumer’s perspective) and the brand identity (brand-owner’s perspective). Finally, loyalty management refers to the measurements that the brand-owner takes in order to sustain a high consumer loyalty. 3.1.2.3 Summarizing the Brand Building Process We have now illustrated some of the main aspects that are discussed by Kapferer (1994), Aaker (1996), and Melin (1999) concerning the process of building a brand. To summarize, in our opinion Melin’s framework is indeed the most complete compared to Aaker and Kapferer. For example, in the case of Aaker’s discussion about brand equity, it is more concentrated towards the external perspective of Melin’s model, listing the four assets of brand equity as brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty. Furthermore, Kapferer’s (1994) discussion about how brand equity is created is highly concentrated towards the creation of brand identity. However, in this discussion, Kapferer highlights the importance of a relationship between the customer and the members of the organization for brand identity creation and subsequently the brand equity creating process, an aspect that is not included in Melin’s framework for building a brand. With this reasoning as a basis, Aaker’s and Kapferer’s reasoning was incorporated in Melin’s framework. Therefore, from now on, we will refer to this compilation of the three authors’ reasoning as the brand building framework.
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In our opinion, a common denominator in the reasoning by the three authors (e.g. Aaker, 1996, Kapferer, 1994, Melin, 1999) is a lack of explicit distinctions in terms of branding of products versus services. Instead, the two concepts are dealt with simultaneously. As mentioned in the problem discussion, we take a somewhat skeptical attitude towards the issue of whether it is appropriate to use the exact same reasoning for branding of services as for products, considering a service’s characteristics. Consequently, we will discuss this issue in the following section.
3.2 Services Branding
In order to clarify the issue of branding and services, we will begin this section by defining what is a service and what are the main characteristics that distinguish it from a product.
3.2.1 What is a Se rvic e ?
Even though there are numerous definitions such as this one, there is an ongoing debate whether there are such things as “pure” services (de Chernatony & SegalHorn, 2001, Grönroos, 1996). It is argued that concurrently with the growth of the service sector, the boundaries between products and services has become somewhat blurred (Grönroos, 1996). Consequently, it is pointed out that most services of today include some elements of tangible resources (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). This discussion can be further illustrated by using the continuum of tangible-intangible possibilities (Payne, 1993). What is pointed out by Payne (1993) is that there is a continuum of tangibility ranging from highly intangible to highly tangible and that both products and services differ in their degree of tangibility (see figure 2).
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• Intangible Elements • • • • • Tangible Elements • • •
Babysitting Education Legal Services Air Travel Fast Foods Cosmetics Soft Drinks Clothing Sugar
Figure 2. The Intangibility and Tangibility Continuum (Payne, 1993, p.8)
As can be seen in the continuum, sugar is described as a pure product with only tangible elements whereas babysitting includes only intangible elements (ibid). However, legal services and air travel are described to have some tangible elements even though the intangible elements are predominant (ibid). The following example can serve to further illustrate the matter of different degrees of tangibility when it comes to services: an airline cannot function without major tangibles such as the planes, check-in-desks, etc (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). The financial services provided by a bank on the other hand, have less tangible resources, where the major service is connected to the activity performed by the experts (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). Normann (1992) argues that one of the reasons for the change in the nature of the service is due to the increasing use of communication and information technology. This has made it possible to store some types of services (ibid), like for example in the IT industry. Also, because of this, the necessity of face-to-face interaction in the production and consumption of services could sometimes be lowered (ibid). The discussion above illustrates that the boundaries between services may have become more vague where most services of today have elements of tangibility. 41
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Even a recognized researcher within services marketing such as Grönroos (1990) defines a service rather vaguely stating the following: “A service is an activity or series of activities of more or less intangible nature that normally, but not necessarily, take place in interactions between the customer and service employees and/or physical resources or goods and/or systems of the service provider, which are provided as solutions to customer problems.” (Grönroos, 1990, p.27) With this comprehensive definition in mind, from this point onward, we will not further elucidate the different degrees of tangibility in different services and which implications these differences would have, since this discussion in our opinion is not relevant for the purpose of the thesis. Consequently, we confine the discussion in this matter by pointing out that there are different degrees of tangibility involved in different services, from services with very few tangible elements, such as in the financial sector (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999) to services with a higher degree of tangibility such as for example airlines (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001).
When discussing services, it is essential to point out the characteristics that distinguish them from products and make them unique in their character. Hence, below we will discuss the distinctive features of a service; intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity and perishability.
The most fundamental feature that distinguishes a service from a product is intangibility (Zeithaml, et al, 1985, de Chernatony, Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). This implies that since services are performances, they cannot be sensed in the same way as goods, meaning they cannot be seen, felt, tasted or touched (Parasuraman, 1987). The fact that the service is immaterial in its essence (Normann, 1992), results in customers defining it in an abstract and subjective manner (Grönroos, 1990). Intangibility 42
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can, according to Bateson (1979: in Zeithaml et al 1985), be seen as the most important criterion of a service since it is from this feature that all other unique features emerge. Another important characteristic that adds to the uniqueness of a service is the inseparability of its production and consumption (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony, Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). Consequently, while products are first produced, then sold and then consumed, most services are sold, then produced and consumed simultaneously (Parasuraman, 1987). The fact that the customer must participate during the production of many services, as is the case in haircuts or airplane trips, the inseparability factor “forces the buyer into intimate contact with the production process” (Carmen & Langeard, 1980, p. 8). The third feature that is distinctive to the service is the heterogeneity aspect (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). Since services entail social relationships in the sense that both personnel and customers are involved in the process (Grönroos, 1990), the essence of the service varies from time to time (Grönroos, 1990, Parasuraman, 1987, Normann, 1992). Consequently, the experience of a service is often unique and consistency is thereby hard to achieve (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). In addition, the human element cannot be measured in terms of quality as in the case of products (Berry 1980: in de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999). Finally, perishability is another characteristic that makes the service unique (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). This feature implies that the service cannot be stored 43
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(Normann, 1992, Parasuraman, 1987) in the sense that for example, if the seats of a plane are not purchased, the opportunity of taking advantage of the service has expired. Therefore, a situation where supply and demand is synchronized is difficult to achieve (Zeithaml et al, 1985). Furthermore, a service does not result in the transfer of ownership (Grönroos, 1990, Normann, 1992).
Zeithaml (1991) argues that due to the unique characteristics of a service, the evaluation processes for the consumer will be different for services than in the case of products. This is discussed through the use of a framework (see figure 3) where services and products are plotted along a continuum depending on the degree of difficulty to evaluate them. Consequently, three categories are distinguished in this continuum: search qualities, experience qualities and credence qualities. (ibid).
Figure 3. Continuum of Evaluation for Different Types of Offerings (Zeithaml, 1991, p.40)
The first category, search qualities, refers to the attributes that can be determined before making a purchase, like style, color and feel. Experience qualities, on the other hand, cannot be assessed before the purchase or consumption has taken place. Examples of these are taste and purchase satisfaction. Finally, Zeithaml refers to credence qualities as characteristics that can be impossible to evaluate 44
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even after purchase and consumption has taken place. Offerings that have a high degree of credence qualities are for instance medical diagnosis and financial services. As can be seen in the figure, most goods can be found in the left of the continuum, while services are found on the opposite side. Consequently, services are high in both experience and credence qualities but low in search qualities. (Zeithaml, 1991) 3.2.1.1 Summarizing the Services Characteristics To sum up the reasoning above, one can conclude that the evaluation process of services is far more difficult than for products due to its unique and distinctive characteristics. As was mentioned above, when it comes to products, the consumer has a higher possibility to evaluate the offering before buying it due to the existence of search qualities, than when it comes to services (Zeithaml, 1991). Services, on the other hand, are impossible to evaluate before the purchase and sometimes even after depending on what type of service that is performed (ibid). Consequently, the customer is forced to rely on other processes when evaluating services (ibid). As a result of this, we suggest that in the process of building a service brand, there may be a need to emphasize different aspects than in the case of product brands. Consequently, we will continue with a discussion about how the services characteristics affect the brand building process that was presented in the first section of the frame of references.
3.2.2 Se rvic e s C ha rac te rist ic s a nd t he B ra nd B uilding P roc e ss
As could be seen in the first section of this frame of references, the discussion of the brand building process left us reflecting upon whether it is appropriate to use the exact same reasoning for branding of services as for products. We then tried to deepen our understanding of the particular characteristics of services in the 45
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beginning of this section. Consequently, we will now apply this learning as well as the existent literature on services branding to the brand building framework that was presented in the first section. By doing this, we hope to put focus on possible differences. Consequently, we will begin the reasoning with discussing the different stages of this framework. Our intention is then to proceed with an overall discussion of the framework in terms of service branding. 3.2.2.1 The Brand Building Process: Internal Perspective Melin (1999) points out that using product attributes to differentiate a brand is one of the most important aspects of the brand building process. As mentioned before, services are performances and consequently services brands represent something that is intangible (Parasuraman, 1987). However, a way to make services brands more tangible, is to instead use as many physical elements as possible such as staff uniforms, building design, office décor etc, that can be associated with the brand (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998, Greene, 1994).
Melin (1999) also stresses that one of the most important product attributes that can be used is quality. It was mentioned earlier that since the service is highly heterogeneous in its nature (Zeithaml et al, 1985), keeping a persistent quality is considerably harder than in the case of products (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998). In other words, although technology enables the quality of product brands to be rather consis tent, this is not the case for services (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). Consequently, in the case of using quality as an attribute to differentiate the brand and thereby contribute to the brand building process, the specific characteristics of a service complicate the issue.
As was mentioned earlier, the creation of brand identity is crucial in the process of building a brand (Kapferer 1994, Melin 1999). Furthermore, the topic of how 46
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brand identity is created was further illustrated through Kapferer’s (1994) identity prism. Consequently, it is now our intention to briefly discuss Kapferer’s framework in terms of services branding. Kapferer (1994) points out that physique is the basis of the brand whose function is to evoke a mental picture of the particular brand in the minds of consumers. However, due to the specific characteristics of services, this aspect may not be as evident as in the case of products. As was mentioned before, the immaterial and intangible nature of services, make consumers define services in a rather subjective manner (Grönroos, 1990). This may imply that it might not be as easy for the brand-owner to evoke a clear picture of the brand identity in the minds of the consumers. One of the reasons for this may be that in services there are far more points of contact between the services brands and the customers (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Consequently, the customerfacing staff has a greater impact on brand perceptions when it comes to services (ibid). As a result of this, the level of coherence in the organization ought to be essential to evoke a clear picture of the brand in consumers’ minds. Regarding the role of personality, Kapferer (1994) points out that in the identity creating process people tend to personify the brand which implies the possible use of spokespersons for the brand in question. However, when it comes to the case of service branding, this process may be somewhat more comprehensive than for products. As we have mentioned earlier, in service branding, there are more points of contact involved than in the case of products (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Consequently, in the case of product branding, the personality of the brand can be created with more emphasis on the marketing department and its communications agency (ibid). However, in the case of service branding, the personality creating process comprises the whole 47
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organization and its members (ibid) thus evoking the issue of the importance of coherence within the organization. The discussion above about the importance of the physique and personality of the brand for the process of creating a brand identity may imply that, in the case of services, the emphasis of these aspects may be somewhat different. As mentioned before, Kapferer (1994) points out that in order to communicate the desired identity of the brand from the sender to the recipients, the concepts of culture and relationship are important links in the process. According to authors that discuss the branding of services, the existence of a coherent corporate culture is the key element in the brand building process of services (Parasuraman, 1987, McDonald, de Chernatony & Harris, 2001). It is pointed out that even though a strong corporate culture is important for all firms, such a culture is especially important for service firms (Parasuraman, 1987). The main reason for this is due to the particular nature of services and the fact that services are inherently people intensive (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003, Parasuraman, 1987, Zeithaml et al, 1985). Consequently, in services branding, a consistent perceived quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). It is even argued that the staff, in the context of services branding, can be considered as the firm’s brand deliverer, or indeed as the brand itself (ibid).
Kapferer (1994) argues that relationship is an important link for the brand-owner to communicate the desired brand identity and he also points out that this is particularly true for services brands. It is pointed out that one of the most common ways for consumers to form relationships with brands is through advertising (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). However, because of the fact that consumers interact more with staff when it comes to services brands, 48
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consumers’ relationships with the brand come both from advertising and the behavior of staff (ibid). Consequently, it is stated that by having staff whose values are aligned with those of the services brand, their behavior should encourage consumers to develop a relationship with the brand (ibid). The reasoning above about Kapferer’s (1994) identity prism applies in our opinion rather well for describing the process of creating brand identity of services brands. However, the nature of services may to some extent put more emphasis on some facets of the prism than others. In both the case of physique and personality, these concepts may depend more heavily on the existence of a coherent corporate culture and relationship building than may be the case when discussing products. About core values, positioning and market communication, Melin (1999) points out that these are important elements in the brand building process. However, the execution of these elements may be somewhat different when discussing services brands. It is pointed out in the service branding literature that positioning for services is more difficult due to the fact that vague, intangible benefits need to be communicated (Blankson & Kalafatis, 1999, de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). As has been mentioned earlier, when it comes to services brands, there are more points of contact than is the case for products (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Consequently, the consumers don’t use advertisements to as a high degree to interpret the brand, but more from all their points of contact with the organization, transforming the staff into more active participants in the positioning process (ibid), thus making the execution of the element market communication somewhat different. When it comes to positioning of services brands, it is thus stated that having an internal focus becomes especially 49
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important in the sense that it is crucial to get the staff to understand and be committed to delivering the core values of the brand (de Chernatony & SegalHorn, 2001). This means that the positioning ought to derive from the corporate culture which defines the core values thus encouraging forms of staff behavior that are preferred (ibid).
Regarding the element of internal brand loyalty, Melin (1999) emphasizes the importance of that the brand-owner maintains the brand’s legal and commercial status. However, in the case of service branding, it could be important to emphasize another aspect of internal brand loyalty as well. As mentioned earlier, in services branding, it is important that the values of the individuals within the organization are aligned with the brand’s values (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). When discussing services brands, it is important how things are done internally with the help of a strong corporate culture (de Chernatony & SegalHorn, 2001). Consequently, as is pointed out by Heskett (in de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001) when employees understand the brand values and how this affects their roles in the organization, the commitment to deliver the service brand is enhanced. Hence, when it comes to service branding, internal brand loyalty ought to be strongly related to the existence of a coherent corporate culture where the values of the staff are aligned with the brand values. 3.2.2.2 The Brand Building Process: External Perspective When it comes to the issue of commitment, Melin (1999) argues that it is important to try to trigger the consumer’s interest for the particular brand. He also points out that the level of commitment varies depending on the type of offering. This reasoning ought to apply also regarding the decision-making process in the consumer’s mind when it comes to services brands. There ought to be the same type of continuum in the case of services as in the case of 50
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products, reaching from services in which the consumers act more like passive recipients of information to services in which the consumers seek out information actively. Melin (1999) points out that the brand sensitiveness is generally the highest when it comes to products that are technologically complicated or where the economic risk is perceived as high. He also claims that the consumer will then tend to choose the better-known brand with a renowned reputation (ibid). This reasoning may also apply in the case of services brands. However, the nature of services may put even more emphasis on the importance of reputation. For example, as has been mentioned before, a service often does not involve a transfer of ownership, which implies that many services are bought long before they are experienced, such as pensions or life assurance (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). Consequently, services brands first need to develop an image and reputation to attract customers and then they need to retain these customers as competitors try to lure them away even before the service brand has been experienced (ibid). This may imply that when it comes to service branding, the role of reputation for the decision-making process could be even more important for creating brand-sensitiveness. About brand awareness it is argued by Melin (1999) and Aaker (1996) that due to a large number of brands existing in the market, it is important to get the consumer to at least recognize the brand, recall it, or preferably that he has the brand on the top of his mind. When it comes to services brands, the reasoning ought to be applied in the same manner
According to Melin (1999), product attributes and spokespersons are important for the creation of brand associations. As mentioned earlier, using these factors 51
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when it comes to services brands could imply some difficulties due to the specific nature of services. Keeping a persistent quality is more difficult due to the services heterogeneity (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998), which, as has been pointed out earlier may imply that using quality as a product attribute could be more difficult for services as compared to products. Due to this issue, creating brand associations also could be more difficult when it comes to service brands. As been pointed out when discussing has the element brand identity, keeping a consistent perceived quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Thus, in our opinion, the staff acting consistently could serve as a means to create brand associations when it comes to services brands.
Melin (1999) argues that the brand associations in the consumer’s mind constitute the basis for the premium price that the consumers are willing to pay, i.e. the value added. Since the element brand association is closely related to the element value added in the brand building process, this element could also be dependent on the staff acting consistently so that the service brand is perceived to be consistent in quality. Melin (1999) and Aaker (1996) emphasize the importance of brand loyalty for adding to brand equity. According to Melin (1999), value added creates brand preferences that in the long term will be transformed into brand loyalty. In our opinion, the same reasoning ought to be applicable when it comes to services brands. 3.2.2.3 Summarizing Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process To sum up the discussion above about the individual elements in the brandbuilding framework, when it comes to the important elements in the process of 52
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building a service brand seen from the brand-owners perspective, the most prominent element seems to be the creation of a strong brand identity. As has been mentioned before, building a strong and coherent corporate culture is according to the services branding literature the key aspect in the process of building a service brand (Parasuraman, 1987, McDonald, de Chernatony & Harris, 2001). Thus creating a coherent corporate culture could be regarded as nearly the backbone of the brand building process when it comes to services. On the other hand, the unique features that characterize a service could somewhat dampen the emphasis of product attributes in the services brand building process.
When it comes to the emphasis on the elements core values, positioning and market communication, these ought to be consistent with the brand-building framework presented in the first section of this frame of references. However, due to the unique characteristics of services, the execution of these elements could be somewhat different in the sense that the staff becomes more involved in the positioning process (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). About the element internal brand loyalty, Melin’s (1999) reasoning about the importance of maintaining the legal and commercial status of the brand may also be applied to services brands. However, as mentioned before, in addition, the aspect of a strong staff commitment ought to be of importance in the case of services brands. When it comes to the elements that affect the consumers’ decision-making process, the emphasis of these could partially differ due to the services unique characteristics. The reasoning about the elements commitment, brand sensitiveness and brand awareness discussed in the first section of this frame of references, may be applied also in the consumers’ decision-making process 53
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when discussing services brands. As mentioned earlier, it could be more difficult to create brand associations as well as value added since keeping a persistent quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently. Regarding brand loyalty, the reasoning may be applied in the same manner when it comes to service brands.
3.2.3 Summa riz ing Se rv ic e s B ra nding
We have now discussed the different elements that are included in the framework of the brand building process that was presented earlier in the frame of references, in terms of services branding. To summarize the section about services branding, we suggest that it can be said that in broad outline, the emphasis of the particular elements in this framework differs due to the specific characteristics of services. However, these unique characteristics also give rise to the thought that the brand building process may be somewhat more comprehensive when it comes to services than it would be in the case of products. The reasoning behind this line of thought will be discussed below. When the notion of what is a brand was discussed in the beginning of this chapter, one of the definitions emphasized the brand as “ the promise of the bundle of attributes that someone buys…the attributes that make up the brand may be real or illusionary, rational or emotional, tangible or invisible.” (Ambler & Styles, 1996, p10) However, it is pointed out that a service brand is more of a promise than a product brand, which is more of the actual item that “resides in your hand” (Anonymous in de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001, p 657). Consequently, delivering the promise of a service brand is more difficult than for product brands (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). As has been suggested before, the unique characteristics of a service, i.e. intangibility, heterogeneity, perishability and inseparability, contributes to 54
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making the evaluation process of a service more difficult (Zeithaml, 1991). As was mentioned earlier, services are high in experience and/or credence qualities, which implies that evaluation is difficult and in some cases even impossible (ibid), something that ought to make the evaluation of the service brand promise even more difficult. This in turn could imply a high level of perceived risk and uncertainty (Dall’Olmo, 2000). Therefore, the customer may need a high degree of reassurance that the brand promise will really be fulfilled (ibid). In this context, building a relationship is crucial to facilitate the evaluation of the brand promise and thereby reduce the perceived risk associated with the particular service (ibid). When it comes to the issue of perceived risk associated with a purchase, Dall’Olmo (2000) points out that corporate brand names can help to reduce this risk. She further argues that when quality cannot easily be evaluated, the use of a corporate brand can serve as a risk reducer and contribute to the process of creating trust (ibid). Consequently, building a relationship based on trust ought to be particularly important in order to reduce the risk for the consumer when choosing a service brand. So, what is meant by trust, then? And how does it emerge? These issues will be addressed in the following section.
3.3 The Co ncept of Trust
“ Trust…tends to be somewhat like a combination of the weather and motherhood; it is widely talked about, and it is widely assumed to be good for organizations. When it comes to specifying just what it means in an organizational context, however, vagueness creeps in.” (Porter, Lawler & Hackman 1975 : in McAllister, 1995, p. 1)
In our opinion, the statement above illustrates the rather complex nature of the concept of trust. As mentioned by Huemer (1998), mentioning a concept such as 55
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trust doesn’t necessarily mean that it is understood or explained thoroughly. It is pointed out that trust is an elusive concept that means different things to different individuals (Nooteboom, 2002, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Tillmar, 2002). As has been pointed out in the problem discussion, there are, depending on the school of thought that is applied, contradicting views about the definition of trust as well as a disagreement about its functions and creation (Blomqvist, 1997, Cowles, 1997, Kennedy et al 2001, Nooteboom, 2002, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Tillmar, 2002). In our opinion, with the above-mentioned discussion in mind, the concept of trust needs to be discussed in a rather thoroughly manner. Consequently, the intention with this section is to bring forth important aspects of the trust phenomenon. Hence, we will begin with a discussion about what is trust and how it could be defined. We will then proceed by elucidating the two basic approaches of the concept of trust. The section will end with a discussion about the different views on the creation of trust.
3.3.1 What is Trus t? The concept of trust is difficult to define and there is widespread disagreement about its definition (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, McAllister, 1995, Blomqvist, 1997, Yousafzai, Pallister & Foxall, 2003, Tillmar, 2002, Sanner, 1997). However, most definitions have three assumptions in common which will be further discussed below (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Milne & Boza, 1999): - a degree of interdependence between the trustor and the trustee - trust can be seen as a way to cope with risk or uncertainty - a belief or expectation that the other party in the relationship will not take advantage of the vulnerability that arises when the risk is accepted.
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The first assumption, that is interdependence, is based on the reasoning that the need to trust arises from the existence of social relationships, since individuals would not have a need to trust without relationships (Lewis & Weigert, 1985). It is when an individual’s activities depend on the fact that the other individual cooperates or acts in a certain way, that the expectations about that person’s trustworthiness become important (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It is proposed that the importance of trust arises from the uncertainty of human behavior (Nooteboom, 2002). Coleman (1990: in Cowles, 1997) asserts that situations involving trust are a subclass of those involving risk. It is stated that if the individual did not face risk, he would not be engaged in a trusting behavior (ibid). Furthermore, it is argued that when an individual trusts another person, risk arises because he will be exposed to the possibility that the other person may take advantage of him, i.e. behave opportunistically (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Lorenz, 1988, Yousafzai, et al, 2003) and the risk that his expectations will not be met (Nooteboom, 2002).
In addition, trust can be related to a situation of risk where the individual can loose for example time, reputation, money, information, etc (Tillmar, 2002). It is argued that trust is related to risk since the necessity of trust arises when a bad outcome would make an individual regret his actions, in other words, trust presupposes a situation of risk (Luhmann, 1988). According to some authors, the individual would be worse off if he does not trust than if he had trusted (Lorenz, 1988, Sanner, 1997, Tillmar, 2002). The issue of vulnerability is also central in several definitions of trust (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Sanner, 1997). This third assumption implies that a consequence of risk and uncertainty is vulnerability (Huemer, 1998). When trusting someone else to do something, the individual exposes himself to a risk of another individual’s possible ill will, which implies vulnerability (Sanner, 1997, Baier 1986: in Huemer, 1998). Trust implies the 57
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increase of an individual’s vulnerability to another person whose behavior one cannot control (Lorenz, 1988). Trust is argued to be essentially needed in uncertain situations since trust signifies to assume risk and becoming vulnerable to the person that is trusted (Hosmer, 1995).
3.3.2 Approac he s to Trus t
As has been mentioned in the problem discussion, there is considerable disagreement about how trust develops and what makes trust occur, depending on the approach that is presupposed. Basically, there are two fundamental and opposing views on the concept of trust: the calculative and the social and affective view of trust (Huemer, 1998). These two approaches could be seen as the basis of the concept of trust and will therefore be addressed below. 3.3.2.1 Calculative View of Trust The calculative view of trust, is the major economic perspective on trust (Huemer, 1998). It is argued that trust involves expectations based on selfinterest and that trust is not based on moral reasoning but is instead a strategic outcome (Huemer, 1998). In this view, humans are seen as rational actors that seek to gain maximal utility (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998). In this view, trust is often discussed in a context of opportunism, which implies that rational agents will try to avoid suffering from opportunism by calculating payoffs (Humphrey, 1998). In other words it can be said that trust involves expectations that are based on calculations weighing the costs and benefits of the individual acting in a certain way (Coleman 1990: in Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Gambetta, 1988, Nooteboom, 2002). It is also argued that the only grounds that an agent has for believing that the other individual will not exploit the vulnerability that arises in a trusting situation, is the fact that a nonopportunistic behavior will offer greater gains (Humphrey, 1998). Consequently, 58
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the calculative trust view highlights the issue of trust involving risk as well as the assumption that the individual is able to calculate potential gains and losses of an action (ibid). It is also argued that trustworthiness increases with the time of the relationship with the trustor (Coleman 1990: in Huemer, 1998). Within the calculative view, there are several types of trust and the following seem to be the most frequently occurring (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bahmann, 1998, McAllister, 1995, Tillmar, 2002): Knowledge based trust is included in the calculative view of trust and takes place when enough information for predicting others’ behavior is available, thus it is argued that information and interaction contributes to trust (Huemer, 1998). The cognitive aspect of trust is emphasized in what is referred to as cognitive based trust, which is grounded in beliefs about individuals’ reliability and dependability (McAllister, 1995). It is argued that cognitions (i.e. the mental processes by which knowledge is built up) are reflected in the expectations that individuals have about the social order and about interactions with other individuals (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Zucker, 1986). Consequently, it is stated that these expectations can form the basis of trust (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). In other words it can be said that when individuals share beliefs and thereby build mutual expectations, trust is produced (Luhmann: 1979 in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). Another type of trust that resembles cognitive based trust is process based trust. This type of trust discussed by Zucker (1986) rests on a common base of knowledge, which means that common background expectations are required for its production.
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Fragile trust is based on the individuals’ judgment of the probability of the other’s actions (Ring, 1996). Ring (1996) indicates that this type of trust is similar to McAllister’s definition of cognitive-based trust which is also related to predictability. It is argued that fragile trust allows economic actors to deal with each other in guarded ways, relying thus on formal or contractual means and on institutional safeguards2. Furthermore, it is pointed out that this type of trust can help provide a foundation to simplify and develop stability in for example economic relationships. However, reliance on fragile trust generates trust since it is based on calculation of the other actor’s trustworthiness and the less information there exists about the individual, the more it costs to determine if he can be trusted. When it comes to this type of trust, it is argued that if the expectations are not met, reliance on the other actor will likely break down. (Ring, 1996) 3.3.2.2 Social and Affective View of Trust The social and affective view of trust emphasizes social bonds, individuals identifying with each other and their desire to maintain respectful relationships (Huemer, 1998). It is argued that the feelings that individuals have about trust are social in nature and therefore the calculative conception of trust could be seen as inadequate as an explanation (Huemer, 1998). Moral obligation and ethical issues are emphasized in this view (Child, 1998, Hosmer, 1995) and it is argued that trust is based on an individual’s expectations that the trustee will exercise responsibility (Parsons, 1951: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). Consequently, it is stated that moral obligations have an important role in the development of trust (ibid).
2
Institutional safeguards can be defined as guarantees that are made on an institutional level as for example state
and federal regulations (Cowles, 1997).
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There are several types of trust that are mentioned in relation to the social and affective conception of trust. Those that seem to be the more commonly referred to will be briefly discussed below: Affect based trust builds on interpersonal care and concern for the welfare of individuals rather than on self-interest (McAllister, 1995). McAllister (1995) claims that this type of trust is based on emotional bonds between individuals and consequently, a relationship between the people concerned as well as communication are of great importance for the development of affect based trust (ibid). Resilient trust is argued by Ring (1996) to be similar to affect based trust in the sense that it is about a belief in other individuals’ good will or reliance in the moral integrity of others rather than on the probability of the trustor’s actions (Ring, 1996). It is argued that this type of trust survives a situation where the expectations about the other party’s action are not satisfied (ibid). Furthermore, resilient trust is related to openness, loyalty, integrity (honesty) and discreteness (the ability to maintain confidence) (ibid). Ring (1996) points out that the perceptions of these factors seem to be based on prior relationships between actors (ibid). In addition, they may emerge from perceptions derived in the course of developing the relationship (ibid). Lewicki & Bunker (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) argue that normative trust is based on shared values and identification. Furthermore, Lane & Bachman (1998) claim that this type of trust is based on people sharing common values and norms arising from kinship, familiarity or common background as well as interest (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It is argued that individuals support each other when they share values and n orms (Fukuyama, 1995: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It is even argued that without individuals sharing common values, trust cannot be developed (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). 61
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Characteristic based trust, which is discussed by Zucker (1986), is what is called free trust, which means that it cannot be invested in or deliberately created. This type of trust is tied to a person and depends on social similarity or cultural agreement, that is on that the actors share a common religion or family background that contributes to them having a world in common. Consequently, information about social similarity is necessary when it comes to characteristic based trust. Another type of trust, referred to by Zucker (1986) as institutional based trust, does not rest on personal characteristics or on past history exchange but on formal social structures, depending on individual or firm specific attributes. (Zucker, 1986)
3.3.2 Different Views on the Creation of Trus t There is no single answer in the literature about the notion of creating trust (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Nooteboom, 2002, Tillmar, 2002). Depending on the approach on trust that is assumed, that is how one views trust, it may be more or less possible to create trust (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998). It has been argued that those theorists that hold to the notion that trust is associated with the calculative view of trust in its pure form generally claim that trust is impossible to create (Huemer, 1998). As is explained by Zucker (1986), these theorists often view trust as being either present or absent. However, theorists that acknowledge the social and affective view of trust in its pure form usually claim that trust is an emergent process (Huemer, 1998, Lane & Bachmann, 1998). An issue that is related to the creation of trust is the extent to which trust can be produced via different forms of institutional and impersonal arrangements or whether concrete personal relationships are needed (Huemer, 1998). 62
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Consequently, below different views on the creation of trust will be discussed with this reasoning as a basis. 3.3.2.1 Institutional and Impersonal Arrangements When it comes to the issue of the creation of trust, Zucker (1986) has studied what can be referred to as trust primarily produced via institutional arrangements. She argues that trust is produced in a routinely manner and that this production is essential in order to understand exchanges in a social system. Furthermore, she states that trust is difficult for scientists to measure because it is explained in terms of antecedents that are difficult to measure, as for example the internalization of rules. Consequently, this implies that it is difficult for individuals to determine if they can trust or not in a specific transaction. This means that individuals and firms measure trust with the help of indirect measures such as indices or signals to decide upon the likely existence of trust. Zucker (1986) asserts that there are two types of trust that can be produced; institutional based and process based trust, of which each is related to specific indicators. (Zucker, 1986) These will be further discussed below. Institutional based trust can, according to Zucker (1986), be deliberately produced through written rules and formal hierarchy, professional certification. According to Zucker (1986), there are two subtypes of institutional based trust. The first is referred to as person- or firm specific and is based on membership on a subculture. An example of how trust can be signaled is through what is referred to as professionalization (e.g. professional association membership, professional certification). The second, intermediary mechanisms, rests on some kind of guarantee that the promise will be fulfilled as for example bank supervision of escrow accounts. It is argued that for example legal mechanisms reduce the risk associated to trusting and make this process easier. The 63
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information that is needed for this mode of trust production ought to be limited but detailed and specific. (Zucker, 1986) According to Zucker (1986), process based trust can be deliberately created through for example interaction over time. Its production rests on a common base of knowledge. This type of trust is tied to past or expected exchange and is related to an incremental process of building trust through the gradual accumulation of either direct or indirect knowledge about the other. Reputation, brand names and warranties of qualities are examples of what is referred to as indirect knowledge or symbols that are used by the actors as an attempt to signal trustworthiness. It is argued that firms can invest in process-based trust through positive reputation or brand names. Reputation is a symbolic representation of past exchange history while brand name is a deliberately created representation for reputation. Advertisement can be used to invest in these formal forms of process based trust. A large amount of person- or firm specific information is required. (Zucker, 1986)
The importance of potential partners sending out signals of trustworthiness such as reputation and brand names is also acknowledged by Lane & Bachmann (1998). It is argued that it is in the interest of these potential partners to make their trustworthiness known by sending out these types of signals (Lane & Bachmann, 1998). Moreover, it is claimed that in the case of business relations, trust is seldom offered spontaneously but instead requires a period of experience when knowledge of the other is accumulated either through direct contact or through third parties that are reliable (ibid).
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3.3.2.2 Personal Relationships Several authors emphasize the importance of personal relationships for the production of trust (Granovetter, 1985: in Huemer, 1998, Lorenz, 1988, McAllister, 1995). Granovetter (1985: in Huemer, 1998) claims that the most important element for the production of trust is not institutional arrangements, but concrete social relations. Moreover, Granovetter (ibid) argues that an individual is interested in whether the trustee is expected to deal honestly with him, which is related to whether former contacts have been satisfactory. Lorenz (1988) also emphasizes the importance of personal relationships when he argues that trust can be created intentionally by sacrificing short-term gains for the long-term benefits offered by mutual cooperation. However, it is stated that personal relationships do not necessarily need to involve friendship or caring or that bonds of friendship are necessary for trusting (ibid). Instead, Lorenz (1988) stresses the need for personal contacts as well as geographical proximity for an individual being able to decide whether to trust or not. Further, he claims that an individual cannot solely rely on reputation to determine trustworthiness, but that own experience and time are crucial elements (ibid). The existence of a personal relationship is emphasized when it comes to the development of affect based trust (McAllister, 1995). As mentioned before, affect based trust is based on the emotional bonds between people and is consequently a form which is most likely to develop and become deeper through relatively intensive personal relationships that take place under quite a long period of time (McAllister, 1995). Hence, mutual knowledge and the sharing of information is crucial for the development of this form of trust (ibid).
Ring & Van de Ven (1994: in Huemer, 1998) assert that trust is based in the moral integrity and confidence in another’s good will, hence trust is produced 65
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through personal interactions leading to social bonds. Furthermore, it is argued that trust develops gradually, evolving in a slow process where there is little risk and hence little trust in the beginning enabling individuals to develop their relations and engage in major transactions (Ring & Van de Ven, 1992: in Nooteboom, 2002). In this process, individuals evaluate their experience and then decide if they want to continue their cooperation (Ring & Van de Ven, 1992: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). A model of the evolution of trust in different stages has been proposed by Lewicki & Bunker (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Nooteboom, 2002). In this model, trust first develops with calculation as a basis and calculative trust develops (Lewicki & Bunker, 1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998). In this first stage, people are willing to take risk when entering into dependence on others since they know of the existence of institutional safeguards. It is suggested that many business and legal relationships remain at this stage with repeated but arm’s length transactions. If the validity of the trust is confirmed and repeated interaction and transaction is encouraged, the actors will develop a knowledge base about each other and thus the conditions for a transition to cognitive trust will emerge. At this stage the other partner in the relationship has proven to be consistent and reliable, hence the trustor can feel comfortable and consequently, the partner is predictable. The experience of the calculative relationship is crucial for how willing the individuals are to develop cognitive trust, i.e. if the experience is negative and trust is broken, probably the relationship will be terminated. When the knowledge of each other acquired has deepened and mutual confidence has developed, there may be a new transition to normative trust based on shared values and identification. The actors may be encouraged to identify with each other’s goals and interests and mutual affect will probably emerge. Generally, at this stage, the partners may become friends and thus this 66
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form of trust is not so common in business transactions where there is usually a difference in interest. (Lewicki & Bunker: 1996 in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) As we have mentioned earlier, several authors emphasize the importance of personal relationships for the production of trust (Granovetter, 1985: in Huemer, 1998, Lorenz, 1988, McAllister, 1995, Ring & Van de Ven, 1994 in Huemer, 1998). Dwyer, Schurr & Oh (1987) have developed a framework that describes the development of business relationships, in which trust has an essential role. It is argued that relationships evolve through four general phases; awareness, exploration, expansion and commitment (ibid). Each phase includes different levels of interaction which all have implications for establishing expectations, direct experiences and interdependence (Kennedy et al, 2001). The four phases will be briefly described below: The first phase, awareness, refers to the process where one actor recognizes that another is a feasible exchange partner. It is stated that situational proximity between the parties facilitate awareness because in the same manner as a family is more likely to become acquainted with neighbors, buyers are inclined to become aware of brands that are advertised frequently in media. In the awareness phase there has still not occurred any interaction between the parties. (Dwyer, et al, 1987)
The exploration phase, which is the second phase, is according to Dwyer, et al (1987), the so-called search and trial phase where relational exchange occurs. Consequently, it is when the buyer searches for information, makes the first purchase and initiates the process when trust is developed (ibid). Moreover, it is stated that it is after the product is bought, used and evaluated that trust either goes on or deteriorates (ibid). It is claimed that, “the exploratory relationship is 67
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very fragile in the sense that minimal investment and interdependence make for simple termination .” (Dwyer, et al, 1987, p. 16) In the exploration phase, the norms and standard of conduct that characterize the relational contract take shape (Dwyer, et al, 1987). It is stated that by adopting norms and create standards of conduct, the ground rules are set for future exchange between the emerging exchange partners (ibid). The aspects that could evoke trust include for example sellers’ use of implicit stimulants of trust such as brand names, trademarks and logos (ibid). However, it is pointed out that direct experience is probably the main basis for judging trustworthiness in the explanatory phase (ibid).
In the next phase, expansion , the benefits obtained by exchange partners continue to increase. In this phase the foundation of trust that emerged in the exploration phase now lead to increased interdependence. It is stated that the expansion process is a consequence of each party’s satisfaction with the other. Consequently, the exchange outcomes that occurred in the exploration phase provided a test of the other party to deliver satisfaction. When a party fulfilled the perceived exchange obligations in a satisfactory manner, that party’s attractiveness to the other increased and motivation to maintain the relationship was therefore increased. Moreover, the satisfactory outcome also reduced the number of alternatives that the exchange partner may use as replacement. (Dwyer, et al, 1987) The final phase referred to as the commitment phase, is the most advanced in terms of buyer-seller interdependence. Here, the exchange partners have achieved a level of satisfaction where other partners that could provide similar benefits are almost excluded from the choosing process. The actors involved in the relationship have not ceased to reflect upon other alternatives but keep being 68
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aware of other alternatives without constant and frequent testing. In other words, customer loyalty has been achieved. (Dwyer, et al, 1987) Kennedy et al (2001) has developed a conceptual model that specifically focuses on the development of trust close to the end of the exploration phase. In this model it is suggested that the buyer develops an attitude of trust or distrust based on the first experience with the individual salesperson and the organization. It is stated that for the majority of the purchases which imply a high involvement and that are used frequently as well as evaluated over time, exploration will continue after the initial purchase. Furthermore, it is argued that there are several factors that affect the buyer’s perceptions of trust, like for example the salesperson’s competence, the perceived ethical concern of the company and the level of familiarity with the product before the purchase. (Kennedy et al, 2001) Regarding the relation between brands and consumers’ trust, Delgado-Ballester & Munuera-Alemán (2002) argue that when it comes to brands, trust is the consumer’s feeling of security that the brand will meet his consumption expectations. This feeling can according to Delgado-Ballester & MunueraAlemán (2002) be based on the dimensions brand reliability and brand intentions. Brand reliability relates to the assumption that the brand has the capacity to satisfy the customer’s needs for example through constant quality. This dimension means that the brand is viewed as a promise of future performance that has to be constantly achieved if the company wants the brand to be trusted by the consumer. Brand intentions on the other hand, have more emotional roots and are therefore considered to be more abstract. This dimension implies that considering the fact that the buying and consumption for the consumer is related to a vulnerability to the company’s actions and decisions. Brand intentions is concerned with the belief that the company is not 69
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going to take advantage of the vulnerability of the consumer. (Delgado-Ballester & Munuera-Alemán, 2002)
3.4 Services Branding and Trust: Overall Notions
In the three main sections that comprise this frame of references, we have discussed the concept of branding, which then served as a basis for discussing services and branding followed by a section where the notion of trust was elucidated. So where does this leave us? Hence, in this final section our intention is to discuss the overall notions that have evolved through the previous sections.
As mentioned in the first section, when discussing the brand building process taking into account the perspectives of Melin (1999), Kapferer (1994) and Aaker (1996), there seems to be a lack of distinctions in terms of branding of products versus services. Consequently, in the following section, the reasoning about the specific characteristics of services was incorporated into the framework of the brand building process presented in the first section of the frame of references. This concluded in the reasoning that, in broad outline, the emphasis of the elements in the brand building process could differ due to the specific characteristics of services. Regarding the brand building process of services seen from the brand owner’s perspective, i.e. the internal perspective, brand identity and specifically corporate culture were brought forth as particularly important factors. When it comes to the external perspective, it was suggested that the emphasis of the elements in the consumer’s decision-making process could partially differ due to the services unique characteristics. In addition, it was proposed that the unique characteristics of services and the difficulty in the evaluation it implies, may implicate a higher level of perceived risk and 70
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uncertainty than could be in the case of products. With this reasoning as a basis, the issue of the importance of trust for the brand building process of services emerged. Consequently, the concept of trust, its definition and emergence, was elucidated in the third section. As was mentioned in the section regarding the concept of trust, interdependence, risk, uncertainty and vulnerability, are assumptions that are usually included in the definition of the concept (Lane & Bachmann, 1998, Milne & Boza, 1999). Concerning interdependence, it is argued that without relationships, there exists no need to trust (Lewis & Weigert, 1985). Kapferer (1994) points out that when it comes to services, relationships are a particularly important link in the brand building process. It is even argued that since the staff is the brand’s main deliverer, they can even be considered as the brand itself (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003), which may even further emphasize the importance of relationships in services branding.
It is also pointed out in the trust literature that trust is essentially needed in uncertain situations since trust signifies risk and becoming vulnerable to the person that is trusted (Hosmer, 1995). When it comes to services, as mentioned before, they are generally high in experience and credence qualities, which implies that they are impossible to evaluate before the purchase and sometimes even after, depending on what type of service that is performed (Zeithaml, 1991). This suggests that the difficulties of evaluating the service and thereby the service brand promise, may imply a higher perceived risk, uncertainty as well as vulnerability from the consumer’s point of view. This reasoning, may consequently suggest the need for the consumer to have a trustworthy relationship with the service brand, making the consumer’s decision-making process somewhat different when it comes to services brands. Consequently, 71
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since the service brand building process may be more related to building a trustworthy relationship, more pressure may be put on the internal process of building the brand. As a result, in our opinion, the brand building process of service brands may be more comprehensive. As mentioned before, the staff could be considered to be the link between the brand and the consumer (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). In order for the consumer to have a trustworthy relationship to the brand, which is according to de Chernatony & Segal-Horn (2003) personified by the staff, factors such as a coherent corporate culture and a strong brand identity may be even further emphasized in the process of building a service brand.
The intention with the above-mentioned discussion has been to, in broad outline convey our notions about the role of trust in the brand building process when it comes to services. However, a more comprehensive discussion about this matter will be further pursued in the analysis taking into consideration also the empirical findings.
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4
Empirical Findings
In this chapter, the insights from the performed interviews will be presented. Consequently, this chapter will include four different sections: the first section deals with the distinctive features of services, the second discusses the issue of services brands vs. product brands, and the third considers the consumers’ decision making process of services brands. Finally, the fourth section discusses services brands and trust. However, this chapter will begin with an overview regarding the interviewees. In total, 13 interviews were performed. Of these, 9 interviews were conducted with company representatives at different levels within two Swedish bank- and insurance companies: SEB and Östgöta Brandstodsbolag. In addition, a Brand Consultant as well as 3 customers of different banks/insurance companies were interviewed. A compilation of the respondents follows below:
Interviewees Carolina Käll Anna Nygren Per Palmqvist Jonas Lundberg Mattias Karldén Britta Lundqvist Karin Hedberg Eva Sowa The role of the interviewees Financial Advisor, Customer Services, SEB Linköping Financial Advisor, Private Banking, SEB Linköping Financial Advisor, Corporate Division, SEB Linköping Financial Advisor, Private Banking Enskilda Banken, SEB Linköping Regional Manager SEB Tryggliv (Insurance), Stockholm Director of Publicity, SEB Head office Stockholm Market Communicator, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping Sales Director , Private Insurance, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping
Göran Wennerberg Sales Director, Corporate Insurance, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping Pär Bergkvist Lina Gustavsson Göran Lindström Christian Widlund Consultant, President Värdera Varumärkesutveckling, Linköping Customer at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Föreningssparbanken Customer at If Skandia, SEB Customer at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Föreningssparbanken
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4.1 Distinctive Features of Services
When asked to explain a service, a Financial Advisor at SEB described a service as something that a customer buys but which is not concrete (Carolina Käll). Also the Brand Consultant indicated that a service is something that does not in the main comprises a physical product, but instead that the performance stands before the product (Pär Bergkvist). He further explained that a service can of course contain a product, but in this case it is most likely more of an application than a physical product. The Director of Publicity at SEB made the distinction between services and goods, where the service in this case is something that cannot be touched (Britta Lundqvist). Furthermore she pointed out that in order to mediate a service it has to be made tangible (ibid). A reason for this was said to be due to the fact that a service cannot stand for itself in the same way as goods, which can be bought and experienced at once (ibid). A service, on the other hand, she noted, cannot be touched or looked upon but is instead something that is often bought at once and experienced later (ibid). She further stated that this matter implies some difficulties in the case of for example insurances since the customer buys these with hopes that the service will never be utilized (ibid). The complexity of bank services when it comes to for example fund investments was also pointed out: “...and when it comes to certain bank services, it could be said that one solely buys the expectations about growth, for example in the case of fund investments…what the customer expects is an increase and that is actually what one buys, and that is what makes services difficult and makes it all more complex” (Britta Lundqvist, our translation)
The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, emphasized that it is much harder to show the value of a service compared to a product, especially when it comes to 74
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financial services such as having a financial advisor: “…It’s much harder to show the value of it [the service]. It cannot be touched at the same time as the value grows over time.” (Mattias Karldén, our translation). The problem, he continued, is that the benefits of the service that is provided by an advisor will not reveal themselves until much later; “…like, “Well, what do you know! It was a real good thing that I got that chap Kalle as an advisor two years ago; look; my economy is straightened out; good interest on the loans and we are saving for the kids”…but in this case it’s difficult to show value, especially initially in the encounter, that “now you will get me, Mattias as your advisor and it will cost you 2500 SEK a year”…it is above all extremely difficult to put a price on it…” (Mattias Karldén, our translation).
4.2 Services Brands vs. Product Brands: Distinguishing Aspects
About the definition of a brand, a Financial Advisor at SEB pointed out that a brand is so much more than just the brand name itself (Carolina Käll). The same respondent also said that either good or bad feelings could arise just by spotting the logotype of the brand. A colleague of hers at SEB also emphasized the notion of the particular feelings that the brand logotype awakes (Anna Nygren). She stated that the brand logotype is generally connected to positive or negative associations of some kind and that the brand reflects the whole personality of the company behind the brand (Anna Nygren). The associations aspect of a brand was further pointed out by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, who stated that: “…we [SEB] can have a very strong picture about what we stand for, but when we ask the customer about what he thinks when he thinks about SEB or Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken as was our former name, other things emerge…” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) 75
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A Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, emphasized the brand as a means to distinguish a company from its competitors in the customer’s mind (Eva Sowa). She also noted that the brand concept also comprises the staff: “…also the way we [the staff] work is part of a brand, through the way we appear in the eyes of the customer”. (Eva Sowa, our translation)
The Brand Consultant that we interviewed, Pär Bergkvist, expressed the brand as a promise and stressed that a brand should strive to be a promise. He also indicated that if the brand promises something that people demonstrably think is being fulfilled, then this is the basis of what could be referred to as a brand (Pär Bergkvist).
About what distinguishes services brands from product brands, many interesting aspects arose during the interviews. One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized that the brand is even more important for service delivering companies since there is no actual product that can be touched but instead it is more about a sensation of the particular service brand (Eva Sowa). In addition, she stated that for example in the case of an insurance company such as Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, the significance of a solid brand may be even greater than in the case of products: “…in reality we are selling security and therefore it’s really important that we have a solid brand so that people feel that they have that security that they have bought. Because, if they never experience injury or damage, then they don’t know how our offering works and then they have to feel secure in what they have [bought].” (Eva Sowa, our translation) Also one of the Financial Advisors at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services, the brand ought to have a more important role that in the case of products, since it is harder to have some type of perception about a service 76
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(Anna Nygren). She continued: “if you buy a pair of pants, you’re able to know the quality and how they look, but when it comes to a service it depends on who within the service delivering company you meet. It could be different at different times with the same company…it’s more vague because you cannot see the service in front of you…there are so many more dimensions when it comes to services compared to a product…” (Anna Nygren, our translation)
Another Financial Advisor at SEB also emphasized the role of the brand as especially important when it comes to services since in this case it is harder to refer to something in particular as opposed to in the case of products (Carolina Käll). She further explained: “…when it comes to a service delivering company, you probably think more about the people behind…for example, SEB; you don’t think of the premises of the bank, but instead about the people; maybe your adviser; more those types of aspects. But for example in the case of CocaCola, you think more about the actual product…” (Carolina Käll, our translation). The importance of the people behind the brand when it comes to service brands was also indicated by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated the following: “ The difference is that you think more about the people when it comes to services [brands]; you put it in relation to those who work there. In the case of product brands it’s different in that aspect.”(Jonas Lundberg, our translation). A similar argument was also presented by one of the customers that were interviewed: “I think that services brands are more connected to people…and that it should be safe and secure in some way. It’s more connected to people and emotions, too.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) The Brand Consultant that we interviewed highlighted aspects such as leadership and organization as being especially important in a service delivering 77
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company (Pär Bergkvist). He pointed out that if imperfections arise in the management process, there might be more direct replications towards the services brand while there may be more of a delay in the case of product brands. He continued “…if the management at CocaCola is put in a crisis situation, there is a fairly long lifecycle for the CocaCola can; in other words, the impression of the CocaCola can does not deteriorate the same day and neither does the taste. In the long run, the deliveries may become delayed and then the product brand starts to loose pace, but in a service producing company, a leadership decision or a leadership crisis has a more direct effect on what people perceive as the brand.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation).
The importance of coherent and clear corporate values and that everyone in the organization understand the meaning of these, was indicated by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv (Mattias Karldén). He commented that during some periods of time, for example when SEB became an internet-bank, the employees were quite uncertain about what the company stood for. Furthermore, he indicated that having unclear internal values could imply a risk; “Indistinctness when it comes to these kind of things, such as values in terms of what the company really stands for and what Thunell [the President of SEB] and all the others say? And; what do our walls say as well as; where do we want to be? And; what does that imply when me as an individual co-worker meet a customer? What should I do and what shouldn’t I do? When we become unclear internally; that we one day should behave in a certain manner and the next in another, then we loose ground directly, because the internal aspect is very important!” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) Moreover, he pointed out that a lack of concordance when it comes to corporate values in the organization would result in an unclear service brand. The reason for this, according to Mattias Karldén, is that the customer then will have different experiences 78
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depending on which local office that he enters: “It’s important that there exists a common backbone; this is what we stand for and this is what we don’t stand for” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) The interviewed Brand Consultant also pointed out that culture is a more important aspect when it comes to service delivering companies since this is the only thing that the company has to work with to fill the organization with enthusiasm about the service brand (Pär Bergkvist). Furthermore, he stated; “…in a product company it’s possible to fill the organization with enthusiasm by presenting the latest model or design; it can be put on the table and unveiled and people will come together and say, “Wow, what an improvement; this we are proud of!” A service brand, of course, becomes more abstract, and then the culture becomes almost as important as design.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation)
4.3 The Custo mer’s Decision-Making Process and Service Brands
When asked about important aspects in the consumer’s decision-making process when it comes to service brands, a Financial Advisor at SEB emphasized the importance of the prior contact with the particular service brand, especially in the case of for example a bank (Anna Nygren). She also indicated the importance of other people’s experiences when it comes to choosing a certain service brand: “I also think that what you have heard from other people’s experiences is important. And it has become even more important because people generally talk more about their experiences from service delivering companies. Before it may have been more confidential regarding which bank and insurance company that people had, but I think that nowadays people talk more about if they are satisfied or dissatisfied” (Anna Nygren, our translation). 79
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A Financial Advisor at SEB also emphasized the importance of other people’s experiences when choosing a service brand (Carolina Käll). She noted that this could be especially important within the financial sector, since there is a higher risk: “When it comes to the financial sector, money is very much at heart. It is more important than which hairdresser you go to because it is not as bad if you go to the wrong hairdresser once. In our sector [the financial sector] I think that you take more into consideration what you hear from others and what you read in the media. I believe that the more which is at stake for the person on a personal level, like for example as in the case of a bank, the more important it is to check the brand before. (Carolina Käll, our translation)
When asked about the consumer’s decision-making process when it comes to services brands, the Director of Publicity of SEB pointed out the importance of a well-known brand; “Since it is difficult to form an opinion of what you buy, that is the specific service, you form an opinion based to a large extent on the brand and in that case, how well-known the brand is and what it is famous for.”(Britta Lundqvist, our translation) One of the Financial Advisors at SEB expressed a similar reasoning, stating the following: “Firstly, I am convinced that it has to be a well-known brand. Of course, it depends somewhat on the type of service but generally I think that it must ring a bell that you recognize it from something genuine.” (Jonas Lundberg)
One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag pointed out the importance of reputation: It means a lot that people talk in town that they have good claims adjustment, that there is a reputation in town…The clients that have had accidents have to be able to tell the others that it works; that strengthens our brand.” (Eva Sowa, our translation) One of the customers that we interviewed also pointed out the importance of reputation when choosing a 80
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service brand; “I also rely a lot on what I hear from other people; if they think that a particular service company is good, then I consider that more than when it comes to products; for example, if somebody I trust says that the service is good. When it comes to products I can probably more myself determine if this particular product seems to be good.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation)
The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv claimed that one of the determining factors in the consumer’s decision-making process of a service brand is that the company behind the service brand maintains some kind of activity and takes initiatives towards the customer over time (Mattias Karldén). Furthermore, he pointed out that this is especially important in the financial service sector; “Our products, in particular, are rarely static; if you buy into a fund, it then develops on different levels. The same goes for an account; if you want to borrow money for buying a house, the interest rate changes over time and consequently, in our company you cannot see the client only once…and consequently you need to look over how you have invested your money and then you realize that the customer values the initiatives towards him very much.”(Mattias Karldén, our translation) The interviewed Brand Consultant pointed out the importance of personal commitment and personal contacts (Pär Bergkvist). He further stated that when it comes to the service delivering company, the service brand rises and falls with the human perceptions: “The people behind the service brand become the ones that in some way inspire the customer to maybe continue…if it is the first encounter, the first impression is to a hundred percent built on the people involved in the service company.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation) A Financial Advisor at SEB also indicated the importance of the people behind the service brand as an important factor in the decision-making process and stated; “…in a 81
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way, they are the ones that make up the brand.” (Jonas Lundberg, our translation) The reasoning about the importance of personal contact as an important factor in the decision-making process was also brought up by one of the customers that we interviewed. She pointed out that this aspect is especially important when it comes to financial services: “It should be easy to acquire information…and I think that the personal contact is very important when it comes to those [financial] types of services.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized the aspect of security as an important factor in the customer’s decision-making process when it comes to services brands: “For us within the insurance business, signaling security is very important. After all, that is what we sell. Everything we do must strengthen the security.”(Göran Wennerberg, our translation). His colleague Eva Sowa especially emphasized the aspect of security when it comes to the insurance business: “In our business price is very important…it could be difficult for the customer to choose one above the other when the products are so similar and then the security aspect arises.” (Eva Sowa, our translation) Also one of the Financial Advisors at SEB emphasized that the aspects concerning security ought to be more important in the financial sector: “Money is always a sensitive subject for people. Like; “who can I entrust with my money?” I think that with other types of services it’s easier to switch. For example, in the case of insurance companies, you usually don’t know if you think that the company is good or bad until you need to use the insurance, which you hopefully may never need to.” (Anna Nygren, our translation)
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The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv emphasized the importance of trustworthiness in the customer’s decision-making process of a service brand and that this is especially important when it comes to service brands within the financial sector; “…as a customer, you entrust a part of your economy which is central for everybody; no matter if you have a little or a lot of money, it is incredibly important that it receives good attention, because it affects your overall life a great deal. Thus, trustworthiness is almost crucial; if it doesn’t exist it is very difficult to get the clients to give us that type of trust at all, to entrust a part of the economy to our advice.” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) When asked which factors that could be especially important when choosing a financial service brand, a customer indicated the importance of clarity and trust: “…especially that you perceive a sense of trust for the people that you meet within the bank and insurance business. In those situations it is more important than when I go by train for example; because it is about money. Also, this thing with Skandia 3; then you start to think more about these things; if there are some companies that are better and so on. You think more about the issue of guarantees after this thing with Skandia. (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) She continued her reasoning by pointing out the vulnerability when saving money in for example pension funds, especially after the Skandia scandal: “You have no control of what they are doing, and I think that feels uncomfortable; you deposit your money and then you really have confidence that the money will accumulate…then you find out that they cash out these bonuses and fiddles away and such things! You cannot really control what they are doing and therefore it is especially important that you perceive a sense of trust more than in any other
3
During Fall 2003, directors at the insurance company Skandia Liv, were accused of systematically concealing
expenses in the firm’s accounts and collecting high bonuses. (Eriksson, 2003)
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service sector. It should all be in the open, with an evident sense of clarity; that you know what is going on. ” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation)
4.4 Services Brands and Tr ust
Regarding the issue of service brand and trust, we asked our interviewees questions about what trust for the service brand meant for them as well as how they believed it emerged. The idea was to present the aspects that could be of importance for the customers’ trust in a service brand to emerge. In addition, we asked our respondents about their perceptions of how the organization behind the brand could contribute to create trust in the service brand as well as the employee’s role in the process of creating trust in it. The aspects of interest regarding these issues will be presented in the following sections.
4.4.1 Dif fe re nt As pe c ts on Trust E me rge nc e
When asked about the notion of trust in relation to services brands, a Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized the importance of trust especially in the case of the bank and insurance sector; “It is very important that the consumers trust in us; that is after all what they are buying [at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag]” (Eva Sowa, our translation) The other Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag commented: “We are selling a service that cannot be put in a concrete form, so many times it’s the fact that they [the customers] trust in us; that is, when they end up in a situation in which we [Östgöta Brandstodsbolag] should deliver, they should feel quite sure that they will get it. In other words, that they are sure that we will pay them and that they feel that our conditions are the best in the market…They should be able to feel that they have chosen something good, something that suits them.” (Göran Wennerberg, our translation) 84
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An interesting aspect that was brought up by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv was that trust in the service brand is built up during a long period of time and that it is built up in a process between individuals. “…I don’t think that it is something that you go and buy by spending 2 billions in marketing, I don’t believe in that but I believe that trust is created over time through personal contacts with the customers and then trust arises. And that you [the company] do not commit a lot of foolish things over a period of time that become publicly known…if a lot of these things happen, many years of work with a lot of individual co-workers may be lost very quickly…I believe that it [trust] is something that is built up over time…when our sellers meet the customers” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) The issue of reputation was especially emphasized by one of the Sales Director at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag (Eva Sowa). It was for example indicated that what the customer hears from others, is of great importance for trust in the service brand to arise (ibid). She also pointed out the importance of openness and communication towards the consumer; “ The President [of Östgöta Brandstodsbolag] recently met our customers and told them that “this is how it is in this company, we have nothing to hide” and I believe that this is also very important in order to maintain trust.” (Eva Sowa, our translation)
Another important aspect for the emergence of trust in a service brand is according to a Financial Advisor at SEB, consistency in the consumers’ perceptions of the brand (Anna Nygren). She indicated that it could be of importance that the changes which the customer experiences are not too big. The reason for this was said to be that changes could imply anxiety for the customer (Anna Nygren). The aspect of stability as well as a long history of the service brand was also emphasized by one of her colleagues at SEB:“…other things that 85
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can give weight to a brand could be the fact that it is old and that it has been around for a long time; for example, SEB has been around for a long time and represents stability. Those things could be more important than you think for people.” (Carolina Käll, our translation) The Market Communicator at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag mentioned an example of the aspect of history when she indicated that trust in the service brand could be said to build up through generations. She noted that generally if the parents have been customers, there is a great probability that their children will also choose the same service brand (Karin Hedberg). A customer pointed out the importance of tradition for trust in a service brand to emerge (Lina Gustavsson). She stated that it is more difficult to trust in a service brand that has recently emerged, than trusting in a service brand that has existed for a long time. “For example, I’m a customer at Telia and they are very expensive which I think is bad, but I know what Telia is...I probably want that there is a tradition.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) An aspect of interest that was pointed out by the Director of Publicity at SEB was the notion that trust in the service brand is based on the customer’s own experiences. “Trust can of course be built via advertising and communication, but only to a certain extent. Therefore, it’s not until I have tried and experienced that I can really feel a sense of trust, so it’s probably the own experience that creates trust. It’s said that trust cannot be sold but that it is something that is acquired, and it is acquired through experiences” (Britta Lundqvist, our translation) A Financial Advisor at SEB suggested that the perception of the customer being treated in the manner that he wants to be treated in, influences his trust in the service brand (Per Palmqvist). The Market Communicator at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag emphasized: “it’s important that we are there directly for the 86
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customer as a support and are a partner to discuss with when the customer is a little worried and feels uncertain about something” (Karin Hedberg). A customer also emphasized the importance of how the customer is treated and the service that one receives and pointed out that this is the foundation for trusting in a service brand (Christian Widlund).
The importance of a relation in the process of creating trust in a service brand was noted by the Brand Consultant that was interviewed, who expressed it in the following manner:“ It’s actually the relationship that brings forth a feeling of security or a feeling of commitment…and of course it is when you experience that you are good at relations and that you are prepared to listen to the needs that exist. If you then can interpret these needs, well, then security arises. And if you then can satisfy them [the needs], then trust is created” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation) However, he further indicated that there exists some kind of boundary when it comes to relationships between the customer and the employee, where it is important that it is the customer that shows interest in the company and takes the initiative. Otherwise the relationship may be taken too far. “There always exists a boundary when it comes to relations…there is a boundary between friends and respect” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation) The importance of a satisfactory personal relation between the customer and the service delivering company when it comes to the creation of trust in a service brand, was also pointed out by the Market Communicator at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag; “...that you know that you are always able to get help quickly and in a satisfactory manner; that you are always taken care of.” (Karin Hedberg). A customer emphasized the importance of a trustworthy relation when buying a service brand and stressed that the employee who the customer meets has an essential role for trust in a service brand to be created (Lina 87
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Gustavsson). She mentioned an example where she decided not to engage in a financial business transaction since trust in the service brand was not created:“ Trust in her [the employee ] was not created, and then it didn’t matter if the rate of interest was lower.” (Lina Gustavsson, our translation) Furthermore, the same interviewee said that when she trusts a service brand she is willing to pay more for it. This was also emphasized by another customer who noted that when it comes to service brands, trustworthiness is more important than price (Göran Lindström). An interesting point that can be related to the employees’ role in the process of creating a trustworthy relationship was presented by one of the Financial Advisors at SEB (Jonas Lundberg). He suggested that trust in the service brand is connected to all the people within the organization; “Trust is everything in the company, if you look at the people who work within the brand, then it is everything; from those who appear and comment in the media to those who you have the local contact with; it is then trust is created.” (Jonas Lundberg, our translation). The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv presented a similar reasoning emphasizing the internal aspect when creating trust between the customer and the service brand. He further noted; “It’s how you say things, in which manner, when you do it; that is what makes the brand. It is you as a person who is SEB for this particular customer” (Mattias Karldén, our translation) The Brand Consultant that participated in our interviews also emphasized the importance of the employees when creating trust in the service brand and stated that: “…the service brand is the individuals [in the organization] and that means that if the individuals go out of the room, the brand goes out of the room 88
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and then you can say that if you have done everything right; what we have said about reputation and trust is greatly influenced by how the individual handles the first meeting, the relation, the fulfillment of delivery and in the perfect world the follow-up. And that means that the loyalty of the customer can be built on and related to some kind of brand trust and then this converts into trust in an individual”. (Pär Bergkvist, our translation)
The Brand Consultant further pointed out that since trust in the service brand is related to trust in the individual that delivers it, a problem could arise for the service-delivering company when the employee decides to change jobs. “ ...then you have done the whole chain of measures based on security that have contributed to the creation of trust and then this person [the employee] decides to change jobs; then the customer follows him. If they [the company] try to do everything right with culture and a base of core values, i.e. a common vision, implementation, that is, using all those types of attributes; then they build individuals; they invest in the individuals’ competence development and these people become successful and competent. And the service brand lives on all these people continue to be competent and if they for some reason decide to quit then you begin to reflect upon; where is the loyalty strongest? Is it related to the individuals or to the service producing brand?” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation).
Moreover, the Brand Consultant indicated that usually when a customer decides to change banks, it is because he is disappointed with one person at the service delivering company. He also emphasized that when the customer finds out that the person that he relates the service brand decides to change jobs, he might see it as a signal for him to change companies too. “…this person who has spoken so kindly about this, what can be the reasons for him to leave? And this is the services brand’s big, big threat; because I have built trust in someone for a long 89
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period of time I translate it to the conclusion that something has happen there [in the company] that is not good and what do I value the most? If it is this individual’s actions or way to handle my inquiries and wants, then I’m ready to follow him.” (Pär Bergkvist, our translation)
4.4.2 The O rganizatio n a nd Trust Eme rge nc e
When dealing with the issue of how the organization behind the service brand contributes to the creation of trust, one of the Financial Advisors at SEB indicated that it is of significance that all the employees know what the company stands for (Anna Nygren). She further emphasized the importance of concordance within the organization (ibid). Another Financial Advisor at SEB also said that it is essential for the employees’ beliefs to be in concordance with the broad outlines set at the managerial level (Jonas Lundberg). Furthermore, he argued that “...the most important issue for the management should be to build up the co-workers trust...I believe that it creates concordance and it creates security and that creates greater possibilities for that one as a co-worker acts in a better manner towards the customers you are in contact with.” (Jonas Lundberg, our translation)
The Brand Consultant that was interviewed also emphasized the importance of a common vision in the organization for the creation of trust (Pär Bergkvist). He pointed out the importance of everyone knowing which issues that are of importance when delivering the service brand. Furthermore, he indicated that if employees have different perceptions of the significant issues, the consumer’s trust could be affected in a negative manner. The reason for this is that if different employees handle the customer’s request in different ways, there is a risk that the service brand will not fulfill the customers’ expectations. (Pär Bergkvist) 90
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One of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag pointed out that honesty and harmony in relation to the business concept, are important when building on the consumers’ trust in the service brand: “If you have chosen a business concept, you have to see to it that it is not only about empty phrases but that you really fulfill it.”(Göran Wennerberg) He further argued that otherwise the customer could perceive that the service brand does not fulfill its promises, which could in turn affect the trust in the brand. When it comes to the employees’ perceptions of their role in creating trust in the service brand, a Financial Advisor at SEB noted the significance of being consistent when using the service brand name (Anna Nygren). She stressed for example the importance of using the logotype in the right manner, that is, in the right context in order for the customer to perceive the service company as professional.
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5
Analysi s
We concluded our frame of references with a discussion about our general notions regarding services brands and trust. After having conducted our empirical study we feel it is now time to bring our notions together in a more comprehensive discussion regarding the brand building process when it comes to services as well as the role of trust in this process.
5.1 Services Characteristics and the Brand Building Process
In the frame of references, it was suggested that the emphasis of the elements in the brand building process could differ due to the specific characteristics of services (see section 3.2.2.3). Our intention is now to further develop this reasoning by taking into consideration the empirical findings of this study. Thus, we will begin by discussing the elements of the internal perspective of the brand building process, followed by a discussion regarding the external perspective.
5.1.1 The B rand B uilding P roc e ss of Se rv ic e s: Inte rna l P e rs pe c tive
Regarding the first element, product attributes, we indicated in the frame of references that the unique features of a service could make the use of this element more difficult. However, it was argued that as a means to make the service more tangible, as many physical elements as possible could be used (de Chernatony & McDonald, 1998, Greene, 1994). It was also mentioned that due to the heterogeneity of a service (Zeithaml et al, 1985), using quality as a product attribute could be difficult. The issue of the difficulty of using product attributes when it comes to services was brought up by several of the 92
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interviewees. About the need to tangibilize a service, the Director of Publicity at SEB, strengthened this reasoning when she indicated that since the service cannot stand for itself in the same way as goods, it has to be made tangible (Britta Lundqvist). Moreover, a Financial Advisor at SEB stressed the heterogeneity aspect by pointing out that if you buy a product, it is easier to know the quality, but in the case of services, it is more difficult since it depends on the service brand deliverer how the quality is perceived (Anna Nygren). In the frame of references, we suggested that the element brand identity ought to be the most prominent element when it comes to the brand building process of services. The reason for this was argued to be that since services are heterogeneous (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003) and intangible in their nature (Grönroos, 1990), there is a need to put particular emphasis on the existence of a coherent corporate culture (Parasuraman, 1987, McDonald, de Chernatony & Harris, 2001). Our interviewees also pointed out this issue. The Brand Consultant stated that culture is a particularly important aspect when it comes to services brands, since this is the only aspect that the company is able to work with to portray what the brand is about (Pär Bergkvist). Also the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv addressed the issue of the importance of a coherent corporate culture and a common backbone when it comes to services brands (Mattias Karldén). He indicated that unclear corporate values could imply that the staff behaves differently each time they meet the customer, which in turn could result in an unclear service brand (ibid). As is indicated by the interviewees, the existence of a coherent culture is due to the services unique characteristics essential in the brand building of services. By developing a coherent corporate culture, the brand can be portrayed in a consistent manner despite its heterogeneous and intangible nature.
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Regarding the elements core values, positioning and market communication we indicated in the frame of references that the execution of these elements could be somewhat different when it comes to services brands. It was pointed out that in the case of services brands the staff becomes more active participants in the positioning process since there are more points of contact involved than in the case of product brands (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). Furthermore it was stated that it is therefore crucial to get the staff to understand and be committed to delivering the core values of the brand (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). Some of our interviewees pointed out the issue of a service brand involving many points of contact. A Financial Advisor at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services brands, the experience of the customer could be different every time depending on whom you meet within the organization (Anna Nygren). Her colleague presented a similar reasoning stating that when you think about a service brand you think more about the people behind the brand while in the case of products you think more about the actual product (Carolina Käll). The statements indicate in our opinion that in the case of services brands, the positioning has to be well anchored in the culture and in the identity while for example when it comes to positioning products, the marketing department can direct the positioning more since there are fewer points of contact involved in the process.
About the element internal brand loyalty, we suggested in the frame of references that the importance of maintaining the legal and commercial status of the brand could also be applied to services brands. However, it was suggested that internal brand loyalty in the case of services brands ought to be related to the existence of a coherent corporate culture (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001) where the values of the staff are aligned with the brand values (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999). The Brand Consultant emphasized this issue 94
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pointing out that when it comes to product brands, it is easier to fill the organization with enthusiasm with the help of technical product features and design but in the case of services brands, the culture becomes essential regarding this matter (Pär Bergkvist). This reasoning indicates in our opinion, that when it comes to services brands it is important to build internal brand loyalty having a strong corporate culture as a basis.
5.1.2 The B rand B uilding P roc e ss of Se rv ic e s: Exte rna l P e rspe c tive
In the frame of references, we indicated that the element commitment could be applied in the same manner in the case of services brands. Moreover, it was suggested that there ought to be the same type of continuum as when discussing product brands, reaching from services in which the consumers act more like passive recipients of information to services in which the consumers seek out information actively. A Financial Advisor at SEB addressed the issue of different levels of commitment when it comes to services brands. She stated that it is for example not as bad choosing the wrong hairdresser than choosing the wrong bank, since there is more at stake on a personal level in the latter case and then it is more important to check the brand before (Carolina Käll). This statement regarding service brands could in our opinion be applied to Melin’s (1999) reasoning about how low and high commitment to an offering gives rise to different levels of information searching. If using Carolina Käll’s argument, one could say that a financial service provider such as a bank requires high commitment and consequently a more active search of information about the service brand, while a hairdresser service requires lower commitment and then more passive information seeking.
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Regarding the element brand sensitiveness we indicated in the frame of references that the reasoning could also be applied when it comes to services brands. However, since services are often bought before they are experienced (de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo, 1999), more emphasis is put on the importance of reputation when choosing a service brand. Some of our respondents commented on the issue of reputation being especially important in the case of services brands. The Director of Publicity at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services it is difficult to form an opinion about what you are buying, therefore instead one forms an opinion with the help of how well known the brand is and what it is famous for (Britta Lundqvist). Regarding this issue, one of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag stated that a good reputation strengthens the service brand especially when it comes to insurances since it is the clients that have experienced the offering can tell others that it works (Eva Sowa). About brand awareness, brand associations and value added we suggested in the frame of references that when it comes to services brands, these elements could also be applied. However, it was suggested that brand associations and consequently value added could imply some difficulties in the case of services brands since keeping a persistent quality is reliant on all staff acting consistently (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003). As mentioned when discussing product attributes, a Financial Advisor at SEB pointed out that in the case of services brands it is more difficult to know the quality since how the quality is perceived by the customer depends on the service brand deliverer (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, creating brand associations in the consumer’s mind ought to be more dependent on the staff acting consistently and less on using for example spokespersons. Consequently, as mentioned before, in order for the staff acting consistently it is essential to have a strong coherent corporate culture.
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Regarding the element brand loyalty it was argued in the frame of references that value added creates brand preferences that in the long term will be transformed into brand loyalty (Melin, 1999). Furthermore, it was pointed out that since brand loyalty creates a base for profitability and a stable market share, it is highly desirable for the brand-owner that the consumer is strongly attached to the specific product brand (ibid) and in our opinion achieving brand loyalty is emphasized in the same manner in the case of services brands.
5.1.3 The B rand B uilding P roc e ss of Se rv ic e s: Summa riz ing Re fle c tions
Throughout this section, we have analyzed the brand building process when it comes to services. After this analysis it could be said that our notions about the elements that are emphasized particularly when it comes to the brand building process of services seem to be supported when taking into account the empirical findings.
In our opinion, the most prominent element in the brand building process of services is brand identity and consequently the existence of a coherent corporate culture. As has been indicated throughout the analysis in this section, the element brand identity could be said to influence the other elements in the brand building process of services in a more evident way than could be the case when it comes to products. For example, when it comes to the elements positioning and market communication, as mentioned earlier, positioning of product brands ought to be related more directly to the marketing department. On the other hand, in the case of positioning services brand, the staff become more active participants in the process, which in turn means that a clear brand identity becomes a more of a prerequisite in order for the positioning to succeed. When it comes to the element brand association, a similar reasoning could be applied. 97
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As pointed out by a respondent (Carolina Käll), in the case of service brands the customer often associates to the people behind the service brand. In our opinion, it is then important that the staff acts consistently when delivering the service brand, something that is dependent on a coherent corporate culture and a clear brand identity.
In the frame of references we indicated that the brand building process of services could be more comprehensive due to the unique characteristics of services. Consequently, the notion of trust was indicated to have a role in this process, something that will be further discussed in the next section.
5.2 The Role o f Trust for Building a Ser vice Brand
In order to analyze the role of trust in the brand building process of services, we will begin this section with an analysis about the relation between services brands and the concept of trust. After that we will continue with a discussion about the concept of trust and the brand building process of services.
5.2.1 The Re latio n B e twe e n Se rvic e s B ra nds a nd Trust
In the frame of references, it was suggested that the unique characteristics of services give rise to the thought that the brand building process may be somewhat more comprehensive when it comes to services than it would be in the case of products. With this reasoning as a basis, the following line of thought was presented regarding the relation between the concepts services brands and trust (see section 3.2.3):
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Unique characteristics of services
Service brand more of a promise
Evaluation of services more difficult
High level of perceived risk,uncertainty
High need of reassurance of promise
Building relationship based on trust
Figure 4. Relation between Service Brands and Trust (own compilation)
Our intention is now to discuss this model in a thoroughly manner, taking the empirical findings into consideration. In order to facilitate for the reader, the discussion of this model will be divided into two sections: The first section will deal with the three upper boxes, discussing the unique characteristics of a service and its implications. The second section will discuss the three bottom boxes regarding risk and uncertainty and the need of trust related to these issues. 5.2.1.1 Implications of the Unique Characteristics of a Service It was suggested in the frame of references (section 3.2.3) that the unique characteristics of a service could imply that a service brand is more of a promise and that delivering this promise could be more complicated than in the case of products (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001). Regarding this issue, several of our interviewees brought forth different interesting thoughts that could support this notion. For example, the Brand Consultant noted the intangibility aspect pointing out that a service is more about a performance than a physical product (Pär Bergkvist). Also the Director of Publicity at SEB emphasized the intangibility that characterizes a service when noting that a service cannot stand 99
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for itself (Britta Lundqvist). The aspect of intangibility was also noted by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, who indicated that it is much harder to show the value of a service since it cannot be touched (Mattias Karldén). The characteristic intangibility as well as heterogeneity was also brought forth by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated that since different people are involved in the process of delivering a service, the outcome is different every time and in addition the customer cannot see the actual service in front of him (Anna Nygren). The aspects that were brought forth in the above-mentioned empirical statements together with the theoretical aspects discussed in the frame of references about the services unique characteristics could in our opinion support the notion that a service brand could indeed be seen more as a promise. In our opinion, a promise could be easier to embrace for the customer when he has a concrete product that can be held, felt, seen and tasted. However, as some of our interviewees have mentioned, a service has specific characteristics and consequently this may imply that the customer needs to rely more on the promise that the service brand signals. In the frame of references, it was pointed out that the characteristics of services and the fact that they are high in experience and/or credence qualities, contribute to making the evaluation process of a service more difficult (Zeithaml, 1991), something that ought to make the evaluation of the service brand promise even more difficult (section 3.2.3). Various respondents included in our empirical study addressed the evaluation problem that a service could imply and especially in the case of financial services. An example that was pointed out by one of the Sale Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag was the fact that in the case where the customer buys insurance he might never utilize it and then he will not know 100
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how the offering works (Eva Sowa). A similar reasoning was proposed by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated that a customer does not know if the offering has been good or bad until the insurance needs to be utilized (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, the reasoning proposed by the interviewees could correspond to the theoretical notion experience qualities. The reason for this is that as noted by the respondents, insurance is a service that is difficult to evaluate before it needs to be utilized. About the evaluation process of a service, the Director of Publicity at SEB mentioned that when it comes certain bank services, such as fund investments, the customers are actually buying expectations about growth (Britta Lundqvist). A similar reasoning was presented by the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv, who emphasized that the benefits of the service provided by a financial advisor will not reveal themselves until much later and that it is therefore especially difficult to initially show the value of the offering (Mattias Karldén). In our opinion, these examples may indicate that this type of service is high in experience qualities and also credence qualities. The reasoning behind this statement is that what the advisor is offering is some type of expertise knowledge, which in our opinion is more or less impossible for the customer to evaluate even after the purchase and consumption has taken place. We suggest that this reasoning could also be applied to other services where some kind of expertise knowledge is required since as mentioned above, this implies that it is very difficult for the customer to evaluate the offering. To sum up this section, we can say that so far, the empirical findings seem to be in concordance with our notions regarding the fact that a service brand could be seen more as a promise and that the evaluation process becomes more difficult. Moreover, the empirical findings have brought forth that when it comes to 101
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financial services, these issues are brought to its head because of the high level of intangibility, heterogeneity as well as experience and credence qualities. 5.2.1.2 Risk and Uncertainty Entail the Need of Trust As was suggested in the frame of references (section 3.2.3), our reasoning that the service is more of a promise and that the evaluation is more difficult could imply a high level of perceived risk and uncertainty for the customer who then may need a high degree of reassurance that the promise will really be fulfilled. Several aspects of interest concerning this matter were brought forth during our empirical studies. The Director of Publicity at SEB pointed out that when it comes to services brands, it is difficult to form an opinion about what you buy and therefore this opinion is based on how well known the brand is (Britta Lundqvist). One of the customers proposed a similar reasoning, stating that it is harder to evaluate a service than a product and therefore other people’s experiences are important to determine if the particular service is good (Lina Gustavsson). In our opinion, both these statements evolve around the issue of the difficulty related to the evaluation process of a service brand. As is indicated in Lina Gustavssson’s reasoning, a product is easier to evaluate since search qualities are often high in contrast to services, which implicates the need of a reassurance from other people’s experiences that the service brand could fulfill the promise. Consequently, in accordance with the respondents’ statements, we suggest that the customer needs to rely on factors such as the reputation or other people’s experiences of the service brand because this may give the customer an idea of what he can expect to get.
Eva Sowa, one of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, also presented the issue regarding high degree of risk and uncertainty when it comes to services 102
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brands. She pointed out that, in the insurance sector, it is the clients that have experienced the outcomes of the service brand that can tell others that it works (Eva Sowa). Also a Financial Advisor at SEB emphasized that when it comes to insurances, the customer will hopefully never need to use the purchased offering (Anna Nygren). With these statements in mind, one can say that this type of service ought to be especially high in experience qualities which could imply a risk since the customer will not experience if the brand promise is fulfilled until much later after purchase. Therefore there ought to exist a high need of reassurance from other people’s experiences that the service brand promise could be fulfilled. Regarding the issue of the evaluation process and the risk and uncertainty related to it, as mentioned in the previous section, for example when it comes to expertise knowledge from financial advisors and such, the degree of credence qualities ought to be very high. Consequently, this may also imply that the risk and uncertainty in these cases ought to be very high, thereby increasing the need of reassurance that the service brand promise will be fulfilled.
We have mentioned above that reputation as well as other people’s experiences can serve as a means to reassure the customer that the service brand promise could be fulfilled. However, in our opinion this reasoning ought to be taken one step further where building a relationship based on trust could be crucial when it comes to services brands. The reasoning behind this statement is the following (see section 3.4): As is pointed out by Kapferer (1994), when it comes to services, relationships are a particularly important link in the brand building process. The reasoning by de Chernatony & Segal-Horn (2003) about the staff being the brand’s main deliverer may further emphasize Kapferer’s (1994) statement. As argued by Lewis & Weigert (1985) interdependence assumes the existence of social relationships, which means that without relationships, there is no need to trust. Consequently, the concepts of relationship and trust are closely 103
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related to each other. Therefore, it could be suggested that when it comes to service brands, trust is particularly important since the customer is involved in a relationship with the service brand that is highly personified by the staff. Regarding the importance of relationships and trust when it comes to services brands, some of the respondents commented on this matter. The Brand Consultant pointed out that it is the people behind the service brand that inspires the customer to continue the relationship with the service brand (Pär Bergkvist). He also stated that since the individuals in the organization represent the service brand; if the staff goes out of the room, so does the brand. Also, the Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv addressed this issue by stressing that trust in a service brand is created through personal relationships with the customer (Mattias Karldén). Furthermore, he emphasized that it is the staff that actually is the particular service brand for the customer. In our opinion, these statements support our notions regarding the importance of developing a relationship based on trust between the customer and the staff, i.e. service brand, as a means to reassure the customer that the service brand promise could be fulfilled and thereby help to reduce the perceived risk and uncertainty. As has been indicated throughout this chapter and in the frame of references (see section 3.2.3), when it comes to services brands there is a high risk and uncertainty involved. This argument could be fortified by the trust literature where it is argued that trust arises from situations involving uncertainty and risk (Coleman, 1990: in Cowles, 1997, Nootebook, 2002, Hosmer, 1995) In addition, vulnerability is argued to be a consequence of risk and uncertainty (Huemer, 1998) since trust implies being vulnerable to someone whose behavior one cannot control (Lorenz, 1988).
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About trust and the aspects of risk and uncertainty as well of the vulnerability in the process of choosing a service brand, some of our respondents commented on these issues. The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv presented a similar reasoning stating that trustworthiness is crucial when a customer entrusts part of his economy to the financial advisor (Mattias Karldén). As is indicated in his reasoning, when it comes to financial service brands, the evaluation process is more difficult since as mentioned before, this type of service has a high degree of experience qualities as well as credence qualities (Zeithaml, 1991). As a consequence, there is a high degree of risk and uncertainty related to this type of service brand as well as vulnerability in the sense that the customer entrusts his money to another individual. Moreover, a customer further confirmed this reasoning when she pointed out that in the financial sector, it is especially important for the customer to trust the service brand than in any other service sector, since the customer has no control of what the company is doing (Lina Gustavsson). This line of thought is in accordance with Lorenz’ (1988) reasoning about vulnerability being related to trust since the individual has no control of the other party’s behavior. In our opinion, the existence of a relationship based on trust between the customer and the service brand, i .e. the staff, would serve to reassure the service brand promise. Above, it has been argued that there is an evident relation between services brands and the concept of trust, a line of thought that in our opinion has been supported with the help of our empirical findings. What has been discussed is that the unique characteristics of services make the customer’s evaluation of the service brand promise more difficult. Consequently, there is a high perceived uncertainty and risk related to the service brand, which in turn implies a high need of reassurance that the service brand promise will be fulfilled. In order to reduce the customer’s perceived risk and uncertainty, we argue that building a 105
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relationship based on trust is essential. Consequently, in our opinion, trust has an essential role in the brand building process.
5.2.2 Trust as an E le me nt in t he B ra nd B uilding P roc e ss of Se rvic e s
As mentioned in the frame of references, Melin (1999), Kapferer (1994) and Aaker (1996) argue that the main objective of the brand building process is to attract a large number of loyal customers. Furthermore, it is claimed that when customers are loyal over time, brand equity is created (ibid). It has been discussed before that according to Melin (1999) there are six elements in the consumer’s decision-making process that describe the process for developing brand loyalty in the consumer’s mind (ibid). As we suggested in the analysis about the relation between services brands and trust (see section 5.2.1), a relationship based on trust is crucial in order to reduce the consumer’s perceived risk and uncertainty related to the service brand. Consequently, we suggest that one of the elements that could affect the consumer’s decision-making process is how much a consumer trusts the particular service brand. Furthermore, the development of the consumer’s trust in a service brand ought to contribute to creating consumers’ loyalty in the service brand and thereby contribute to the creation of brand equity. So, how is trust in the service brand developed, then? This issue will be addressed below taking into consideration the empirical findings and the trust literature presented in the frame of references. About the evolution of trust, Lewicki & Bunker (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) propose that this is a process divided into different stages. Ring & Van de Ven (1992: in Nooteboom, 2002) present a similar argument stating that trust develops gradually in a slow process. When it comes to the issue of how the consumer’s trust in the service brand develops, our empirical findings show 106
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indications of being in accordance with the above-mentioned theoretical notions. As mentioned in the frame of references, Dwyer, et al (1987) have developed a framework that describes the development of business relations in which trust has an essential role. In our opinion, this framework could be suitable to discuss the creation of the consumer’s trust in a service brand. Therefore, it is our intention to below present a suggestion of how this process could be seen having this framework as a basis. As was mentioned in the frame of references, when it comes to the process of building a trustworthy business relationship, Dwyer, et al (1987) argue that the first stage, the awareness phase, is that the customer recognizes the other actor as a potential exchange partner through for example advertising. However, it is argued that it is not until the customer actively searches for information and makes the first purchase that the trust development process is initiated, a phase referred to as the exploration phase (ibid). Dwyer, et al (1987) point out that implicit stimulants of trust such as for example brand names could serve to evoke trust, although direct experience could be the main basis for the customer being able to judge trustworthiness. Furthermore, it is argued that in this phase the relationship is fragile in the sense that it could be easily terminated (ibid), a reasoning that is in accordance with Ring’s (1996) reasoning about fragile trust. What is argued by Ring (1996) is that if the expectations are not met, trust in the other actor will easily break down. About stimulants that can be used to evoke trust in the exploration phase mentioned by Dwyer, et al (1987), Zucker (1986) presents a similar reasoning. She states that brand names as well as positive reputation can be seen as symbols that are used by firms to signal trust. Some of our respondents have stressed the importance of reputation and other people’s experiences when it 107
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comes to deciding which service brand to choose. For example, as has been mentioned before, the Director of Publicity at SEB stated that since it is difficult to form an opinion about the specific service that is being bought, the customer bases his opinion on how well known the brand is (Britta Lundqvist). Also, one of the Sales Directors at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag pointed out that reputation and what the customer hears from others is important for creating trust in a service brand (Eva Sowa). The importance of other people’s experiences was pointed out by one of the Financial Advisors at SEB who noted that when it comes to services brands, what other people say about the brand is essential for choosing a particular service brand (Anna Nygren). With the reasoning of our respondents in mind about the importance of reputation and brand names, we suggest that the reasoning of Dwyer, et al (1987) about the importance of these issues also applies to the process of developing trust in a service brand. Regarding the reasoning of Dwyer et al (1987) about others experiences’ not being enough to judge trustworthiness, Lorenz (1988) presents a similar reasoning. He states that one cannot solely rely on reputation to determine trustworthiness but instead, own experience and time are important factors (ibid). These issues were also addressed by two of our interviewees when commenting on how trust in a service brand is created. The Director of Publicity at SEB emphasized that when it comes to services brands, trustworthiness can to a certain extent be built through advertising but it is not until the customer himself has experienced the service brand that he can really feel a sense of trust (Britta Lundqvist). One of the Financial Advisors at SEB presented a similar reasoning, stating that it is how the customer is treated that determines if trust in the service brand is created (Per Palmqvist).
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When it comes to the exploration phase presented by Dwyer et al (1987), Kennedy et al (2001) have commented on this stage, stating that based on the first experience with the individual salesperson, the buyer either develops trust or distrust. A customer addressed this issue when discussing the creation of trust in a service brand (Lina Gustavsson). She noted that when initially buying a service brand the employee who the customer meets has an essential role if a sense of trust appears or not (ibid). Furthermore, she mentioned that if trust in the specific employee is not created initially, then one does not want to continue the relation (ibid). In our opinion, when taking into consideration the reasoning that in the case of services brands, the staff is considered to be the actual service brand (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2003), it is especially important that the customer develops trust in the service brand deliverer the first time contact with the service brand is established. Dwyer et al (1987) argue that in the next phase, the expansion phase, the foundation of trust that emerged in the exploration phase lead to increased interdependence. Furthermore it is stated that as a result of the parties being satisfied with each other in the previous phase, the motivation to maintain the relationship is increased (ibid). In addition, since the actor is satisfied with the relationship, the numbers of replacement alternatives are reduced (ibid). In our opinion, Lewicki & Bunker’s (1996: in Lane & Bachmann, 1998) reasoning about cognitive trust could be applicable to this phase. It is pointed out that when the actors develop a knowledge base about each other after repeated interaction, cognitive trust could emerge (ibid). It is stated that in this case the relationship has proven to be consistent and reliable and therefore the trustor can feel comfortable about the relationship (ibid).
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Analysis
Regarding the importance of a relationship when it comes to the development of trust in a service brand several of our interviewees commented on this issue. The Regional Manager at SEB Tryggliv noted that trust in a service brand is something that is built up during a long period of time in a process between individuals (Mattias Karldén). Moreover, he stated that in order for trust to arise, personal contacts over time with the customers are necessary (ibid). Also, the Brand Consultant pointed out the importance of a relation when he stated that it is actually the relationship that brings forth a feeling of security (Pär Bergkvist). Furthermore, he stated that if the service company is good at relationships and interpreting the needs that exist, security arises (ibid). Moreover, he argued that if these needs also can be satisfied then trust arises (ibid). Both respondents emphasize the importance of a more deepened relation in order for trust in a service brand to develop. In our opinion, the statements made by the respondents related to the importance of a satisfactory relationship in order for the customer being motivated to continue the relationship with the service brand, i.e. the staff is in accordance with the reasoning about the importance of the expansion phase when it comes to developing trust in a service brand. The final phase in the reasoning of Dwyer, et al (1987) is referred to as the commitment phase. It is argued that in this phase, the interdependence between buyer and seller is the most advanced and that the actors involved have achieved a level of satisfaction where other partners that could provide similar benefits are almost excluded from the choosing process (ibid). Dwyer et al (1987) point out that the actors still are aware of other alternatives but that they are not engaged in frequent testing, in other words customer loyalty can be said to have been achieved. In our opinion, the concept of resilient trust presented by Ring (1996) could be applied to this phase. He argues that resilient trust emerges from perceptions derived in the course of developing a relationship (ibid) and is 110
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Analysis
related to for example loyalty. Furthermore, he states that this type of trust survives a situation where the expectations about the other actor’s actions are not satisfied (ibid). When it comes to the reasoning about consumer loyalty in the phase of commitment emphasized by Dwyer et al (1987) as well as Ring (1996), this issue was commented by some of our respondents. For example the Brand Consultant noted that in the case of services brands, the loyalty of the customer could be related to some kind of brand trust, which then converts into trust in an individual (Pär Bergkvist). This reasoning leads us to believe that trust in the service brand on this level, i.e. resilient trust, may be closely related to trust in the individual that is the service brand deliverer and hence it could be more about a personal relationship. The same respondent takes this reasoning one step further by pointing out that there is a risk involved about service brand trust being converted into trust in an individual since it could then be questioned if the customer is loyal to the particular service brand deliverer or to the service brand he represents (Pär Bergkvist). In our opinion, it is then essential that trust in the service brand in the commitment phase is constantly related to the specific service brand that the staff represents. This way the customer continues to relate his trust to the service brand and what it stands for, instead of relating the specific individual that delivers it. Regarding this issue, when asked about the staff’s role in the development of a service brand, a Financial Advisor at SEB addressed the importance of acting consistently when using the service brand name and in the right context in order to portray a conception of professionalism (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, this reasoning could indicate that it is essential that the staff utilize the service brand in the right manner in order for the customer to keep relating his trust to the specific service brand.
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Analysis
As we have argued before, a coherent corporate culture and a clear brand identity is crucial when building a service brand. In our opinion, our reasoning mentioned above about the importance of staff building trust in the service brand and not on the specific brand deliverer, puts even more focus on the importance of the corporate culture and brand identity. Consequently, in order for the staff to be able to utilize the service brand in the right manner and act consistently with it, there is a need of a clear brand identity supporting the staff. Some of the interviewees commented on this issue. The Brand Consultant stated that when it comes to developing trust in a service brand it is important that there exists a common vision in the organization and that everyone knows the issues that are of importance when delivering the service brand (Pär Bergkvist). He further stated that the consumer’s trust could be affected if different employees handle the customer’s request in different ways (ibid). This issue was also noted by a Financial Advisor at SEB who stated that it is of significance for developing the consumer’s trust in a service brand that the employees know what the company stands for (Anna Nygren). In our opinion, these statements support our reasoning about trust putting more emphasis on the importance of a coherent corporate culture and a clear brand identity.
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Conclusions
6
Conclusions
In this final chapter, our intention is to discuss what we believe are the contributions of this thesis. We will also present suggestions for further research related to the studied phenomenon.
6.1 Contributions o f the Thesis
Regarding the contributions of this thesis, we have suggested that when it comes to the process of building a service brand, the emphasis of the elements in this process differs somewhat compared to the building of product brands. In our opinion, the reason for this is due to the unique characteristics of services i.e. intangibility, heterogeneity, perishability and inseparability (Zeithaml et al, 1985, de Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1999, Normann, 1992, Grönroos, 1990). From our discussion about how the services characteristics affect the process of building a service brand, it can be said that brand identity and thereby a coherent corporate culture is the most prominent element in this process. Thus it has been pointed out that the service deliverers, i.e. the staff, have an essential role in the process of building a service brand. In addition to the importance of the element mentioned above, we have argued that trust has an essential role in the process of building a service brand. The reason for this is that due to the unique characteristics of services, the service brand is more of a promise that is difficult for the customer to evaluate. In our opinion, this implies that the risk and uncertainty related to a service brand is high, especially in the case of services that are difficult for the customer to evaluate even after consumption, such as in the case of financial advice. We 113
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Conclusions
have therefore argued that one way to reduce the consumer’s perceived risk, is to build a relationship based on trust. It is then crucial that the staff delivering the service brand promise evokes a sense of trust and acts in a manner that is in accordance with the core values of the service brand. Consequently we argued that the development of the consumer’s trust in a service brand ought to contribute to creating consumers’ loyalty in the service brand and thereby contribute to the creation of brand equity. When it comes to the process of developing a consumer’s trust in a service brand it was suggested that a positive reputation could serve to initially signal trust. However, reputation is not enough to determine trustworthiness and therefore the consumer’s own experience is essential for developing trust in a service brand, in which the actual encounter with the service brand, i.e. staff is especially important. Furthermore, we argued that a satisfactory relationship is important in order for the consumer being motivated to continue the relationship with the service brand.
6.2 Concluding Re flections and Reco mmendations
Taking into consideration our findings regarding the role of trust in the process of building a service brand, our intention is now to briefly highlight important aspects that could be interesting for services companies to take into consideration when it comes to the branding process of services: Staff Understanding their Role in Trust Creation We have argued in this thesis that the specific characteristics of services imply a high perceived risk and thereby vulnerability related to the consumer’s decision making process. Consequently, it is important that the staff is fully aware and 114
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Conclusions
have knowledge about their own role in the process of creating the consumer’s trust in a service brand. Every Encounter Counts The crucial role of the staff in the process of creating trust in a service brand implies that every encounter with the customer is an important step in this process, where trust either increases or decreases. It could be said that every encounter is a step towards creating resilient trust and thereby consumer loyalty to the service brand and consequently contribute to the creation of brand equity. Staff Promoting Trust in the Service Brand It was proposed that when resilient trust is developed, there is a risk that trust in the service brand is converted into trust in the service brand deliverer, i.e. the staff. This means that the consumer develops a loyalty in the particular individual instead of the service brand that is represented. However, in our opinion, if the staff believes in the service brand he represents and identifies with it, he will be able to represent it in a trustworthy manner and thereby promote the consumer’s trust in it.
6.3 Suggestions for Further Research
Throughout this thesis, thoughts related to the topic of our thesis have emerged. Therefore, it could be of interest to indicate some thoughts that could serve as a basis for further research. As has been mentioned, our empirical study has focused on the financial service sector. In our perception, it seems that there is an increasing trend towards offering financial services through the Internet, which implies that the human 115
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Conclusions
interaction becomes limited when buying this type of services. As has been suggested in this thesis, due to the unique characteristics of services, there is an essential need of building a trustworthy relationship in the case of services brands. As has been discussed, a relationship based on trust is important in order to reduce the high-perceived risk from the consumers’ point of view that a service brand is related to. In our opinion, it could then be interesting to study the risk involved when there is no concrete relationship that the consumer can relate to, but yet a need for reassurance about that the right brand is being chosen and that the promise of this service brand will be fulfilled.
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McAllister, D.L. (1995), Affect- and Cognition-based Trust as Foundations for Interpersonal Cooperation in Organizations. Academy of Management Journal, vol. 38, Issue 1. McDonald, M. de Chernatony, L. & Harris, F. (2001), Corporate Marketing and Service Brands: Moving Beyond the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods Model. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, No. ¾ Melin, F. (2002), Varumärket som Värdeskapare in Holger, L. & Holmberg, I. (2002), Identitet: om varumärken, tecken och symboler. Nationalmuseum & Raster Förlag, Stockholm. Milne, G.R. & Boza, M. (1999), Trust and Concern in Consumers’ Perceptions of Marketing Information Management Practices. Journal of Interactive Marketing, Vol. 13, No. 1 Onkvisit, S. & Shaw, J. (1989), Service Marketing: Image, Branding, and Competition . Business Horizons, January-February Parasuraman, A. (1987), Customer-Oriented Corporate Cultures are Crucial to Services Marketing Success. Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 1, No. 1 Ring, P.S. (1996) Fragile and Resilient Trust and Their Roles in Economic Exchange. Business & Society, Vol. 35, Issue 2 Salzer-Mörling, M. & Strannegård, L. (2002), Det utmärkta teckenspråket in Holger, L. & Holmberg, I. (2002), Identitet: om varumärken, tecken och symboler, Nationalmuseum & Raster Förlag, Stockholm. Yousafzai, S., Pallister, J. & Foxall, G. (2003), A Proposed Model of E-trust for Electronic Banking. Technovation, Vol. 23, Issue 11. Zeithaml, V. A. (1991), How Consumer Evaluation Processes Differ between Goods and Services in Lovelock, C.H. (1991), Services Marketing, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall International Inc., London. Zeithaml, V. Parasuraman, A. & Berry, L. (1985) Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49, Issue 2. Zucker, L (1986), Production of Trust: Institutional Sources of Economic Structure, 1840-1920. Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 8
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de Chernatony, L. & McDonald, M. (1998), Creating Powerful Brands in Consumer, Service and Industrial Markets. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd Oxford Denscombe, M. (2000), Forskningshandboken – för Småskaliga Forskningsprojekt inom Samhällsvetenskaperna, Studentlitteratur, Lund. Eriksson, L-T. & Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (2001), Att Utreda Forska och Rapportera, Liber Ekonomi, Malmö. Gambetta, D. (1988), Trust; Making and Breaking Co-operative Relations. Basil Blackwell Ltd, Oxford. Grönroos, C. (1990), Service Management and Marketing – Managing the Moments of Truth in Service Competition . Lexington Books, Lexington. Grönroos, C. (1996), Marknadsföring i Tjänsteföretag. Liber Ekonomi AB, Malmö. Holmberg, C. (1987), Om Forskning in Patel, R. & Tebelius, U. (1987), Grundbok i Forskningsmetodik, Studentlitteratur, Lund. Huemer, L. (1998), Trust in Business Relations: Economic Logic or Social Interaction? Boréa Bokförlag, Umeå. Kapferer, J-N. (1994), Strategic Brand Management – New Approaches to Creating and Evaluating Brand Equity. The Free Press, New York. Kapferer, J-N. (1997), Strategic Brand Management – Creating and Sustaining Brand Equity Long Term . 2nd Edition, Kogan Page Ltd, London. Kvale, S. (1997), Den Kvalitativa Forskningsintervjun, Studentlitteratur, Lund
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Lane, C. & Bachmann, R. (1998), Trust within and between Organizations: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Applications. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lundahl, U. & Skärvad, P-H.(1999), Utredningsmetodik för Samhällsvetare och Ekonomer, Studentlitteratur, Lund. Melin, F (1999), Varumärkesstrategi- Om konsten att utveckla starka varumärken . Liber Ekonomi AB, Malmö Molander, B. (1988), Vetenskapsfilosofi- En bok om vetenskapen och den vetenskapande människan. Bokförlaget Thales, Stockholm Nooteboom, B. (2002), Trust – Forms,Foundations, Functions, Failures and Figures. Edgar Elgar Publishing Ltd Cheltenham, UK. Normann, R. (1992), Service Management: Ledning och Strategi i Tjänsteproduktionen. Liber-Hermods AB, Malmö. Patel, R. & Davidsson, B. (2003), Forskningsmetodikens Grunder. Att Planera, Genomföra och Rapportera en Undersökning , Studentlitteratur, Lund. Patel, R. & Tebelius, Studentlitteratur, Lund. U. (1987), Grundbok i Forskningsmetodik,
Payne, A. (1993), The Essence of Services Marketing. Prentice-Hall International Inc., London. Sanner, L. (1997), Trust between Entrepeneurs and External Actors. Sensemaking in Organising New Business Venture. Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University. Swedish Law (2000), Swedish Intellectual Property Law , §1 Vml. Fakta Info Direkt Sweden AB, Stockholm Tillmar, M. (2002), Swedish Tribalism and Tanzanian Agency – Preconditions for Trust and Cooperation in a Small-Business Context. Department of Management and Economics, Linköpings Universitet. Wallén, G. (1996), Vetenskapsteori och Forskningsmetodik, Studentlitteratur, Lund
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Interviews
Käll, Carolina, Financial Advisor, Customer Services, SEB Linköping (2003-12-08) Nygren, Anna, Financial Advisor, Private Banking, SEB Linköping (2003-12-08) Palmqvist, Per Financial Advisor, Corporate Division, SEB Linköping (2003-12-05) Lundberg, Jonas, Financial Advisor, Private Banking Enskilda Banken, SEB Linköping (2003-12-05) Karldén, Mattias, Regional Manager SEB Tryggliv (Insurance), Stockholm (2003-12-08) Lundqvist, Britta, Director of Publicity, SEB Head office Stockholm (2003-12-16) Hedberg, Karin, Market Communicator, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping (2003-12-05) Sowa, Eva, Sales Director , Private Insurance, Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping (2003-12-05) Wennerberg, Göran, Sales Director, Corporate Brandstodsbolag, Head office Linköping (2003-12-05) Insurance, Östgöta
Bergkvist, Pär, Consultant, President Värdera Varumärkesutveckling, Linköping (2003-12-12) Gustavsson, Lina, Customer at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag, Föreningssparbanken (2003-12-08) Lindström, Göran, Customer at If Skandia, SEB (2003-12-18) Widlund, Christian, Customer Föreningssparbanken (2003-12-08) at Östgöta Brandstodsbolag,
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Appendix 1
Interview Guide – Co mpany Representatives a nd Brand Consultant
Name? Position? 1. –What characterizes a service?
2. –How would you define a brand? What is the function of a brand? 3. –Which aspects, if any, stand out when it comes to services brands and product brands respectively? 4. –Which are in your opinion, the most important aspects regarding a customer’s decision-making process for choosing a service brand? –Do you reckon that some aspects are more distinctive in some service sectors than others? –Which factors are the most important within the sector where you work, i.e. the financial sector? 5. –What is in your opinion, trust in a service brand? –In your opinion, how is trust in a service brand created, i.e. which aspects do you think are important for trust in a service brand to be created? 6. –If you consider the organization behind the service brand, how can the organization contribute to create trust in a service brand?
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
–In your opinion, how can a company contribute to improving the service brand’s trustworthiness? 7. –When considering your role as a professional, how can you contribute to the creation of trust in the particular service brand?
The Role of Trust in the Process of Building a Service Brand
Appendix 2
Interview Guide – Custo mers
-Name? -In which bank and insurance company are you a customer? 1.–What characterizes a service?
2. –How would you define a brand? What is the function of a brand? 3. –Which aspects, if any, stand out when it comes to services brands and product brands respectively? 4. –Which are in your opinion, the most important aspects regarding a your decision-making process for choosing a service brand? –Do you reckon that these aspects vary depending on which type of service your decision concerns? –Which factors are the most important within the financial sector, i.e. bank and insurance? 5. –What is in your opinion, trust in a service brand? –In your opinion, how is trust in a service brand created, i.e. which aspects do you think are important for you to trust in a service brand?
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