Project on Environmental Action Strategy for Sustainable Development in Italy

Description
The growth rate of the world population shows an increasing trend although the pace is slowing down, while in some countries, such as Italy, it has come to a standstill. The most industrialized countries constantly deplete resources, such as water and energy from the environment.

ITALIAN
A
R
EPVB BLICA
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION
STRATEGY FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY
MINISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND TERRITORY
CONTENTS
FOREWORD 4
CHAPTER I: THE ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN IN ITALY 7
Sustainable development and environment 7
Ecologic foundations of sustainability 7
Environmental action 7
National strategy breakdown 8
CHAPTER II: ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION TOOLS 10
Application of the legislation on environmental protection 10
The integration of the environmental factor within sectoral policies 11
Environmental Assessment of Plans and Programmes
The integration of the environmental factor in the market 12
Ecologic taxation reform
Subsidies and environmental externalities
Quality and environmental certification
Awareness and decision-making skills of citizens 14
Local Agenda 21 processes 15
Indicators and accounting for environmental action and sustainable development 15
Sustainable development financing 16
Techno-scientific research for environment and sustainable development 17
CHAPTER III: CLIMATE AND ATMOSPHERE 18
Climate change and green-house gas effects 18
Stratospheric ozone 24
CHAPTER IV: NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY 26
Living natural resources 26
Biotechnologies
Soil, subsoil and desertification 30
Marine and coastal habitats 33
CHAPTER V: QUALITY OF LIFE AND ENVIRONMENT IN URBAN AREAS 42
Urban environment 42
Air quality 46
Indoor air quality and radon 48
Noise 49
Electromagnetic pollution 50
Genetically Modified Organisms 51
Food security 53
Contaminated sites remediation 54
Environmental crime 55
CHAPTER VI: EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND WASTE GENERATION 64
Use of natural resources 64
Water resources 67
Production-consumption cycles 71
Waste 73
CHAPTER VII: MONITORING THE ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 80
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The growth rate of the world population shows an
increasing trend although the pace is slowing down,
while in some countries, such as Italy, it has come to a
standstill. The most industrialized countries constantly
deplete resources, such as water and energy from the
environment. They also spread pollutants and waste
thus irreversibly affecting the quality of land, air and
water. However, while economic systems need an ever-
increasing growth, the environment demands balance
and stability. In order to reach sustainable development,
the self-subsistence and self-organization of ecosys-
tems must coexist with anthropic processes, otherwise
their imbalance will in turn lead to self-induced entropy.
Sustainable development and environment
The population of industrialized countries exploits ten
times more natural resources per capita than those liv-
ing in developing countries. The economic and demo-
graphic growth of developing countries, entailing new
consumptions, can only resort to natural resources. On
the other hand, nowadays and in the years to come, our
wealth standard requires unpolluted air, water and food,
unspoilt landscapes, enticing sea waters and shores,
towns wisely striking a balance between their huge his-
torical heritage preservation needs and their ever-
changing operational and organizational requirements.
At the end of the second millennium, our civilization con-
ceived sustainable development, designed to meet pres-
ent needs while preserving the expectations and
requirements of future generations , pursuing at the
same time different aims such as quality of life, peace,
an equitable wealth and a clean and healthy environ-
ment. This is not a brand new concept. In fact, many cul-
tures have thoroughly accepted the need to strike a bal-
ance among different economic, social and environ-
mental requirements. Today, this standpoint has been
restated in industrialized and developing countries
eventually aware of the exhaustibility of global natural
resources . However, sustainable development urges a
changeover of growth patterns and socio-economic
relations.
Ecologic foundations of sustainability
A developing economical system can be regarded as
sustainable only if it exploits natural resources up to a
set quantity and quality limit within the earth renewal
capacity by never exceeding this threshold. If this does
not occur, the economy will continue to use and to jeop-
ardize the quality of natural resources which sooner or
later will be exhausted or not anymore useable.
The earth, being a shut-down ecosystem with limited
natural resources, can only rely on solar energy. Every
natural resource, such as food, water, timber, ores oil and
natural gases, is restricted by the availability and
absorption capacity of the ecosystem. The ecologic
foundations of sustainability suggest to preserve the sta-
bility of internal processes of the ecosphere and implies
a dynamic self-organizing structure, for an undefined
long-term period, to avoid ever-increasing entropic con-
sequences.
The greatest acceptable values of deposition and con-
centration in the environment of human activity pollu-
tants and waste are known as critical loads and are set
according to the typologies, the specific chemical,
biodegradable and storing peculiarities and properties.
The greatest flow of natural resources extracted and dis-
posed from a given ecosystem represents its carrying
capacity.
Well-grounded fears suggest that in some cases the car-
rying capacity of the Earth is failing since we have
almost exhausted it. As the anthropic sphere is increas-
ingly stretching behind the earth through new technolo-
gies, innovations and explorations, a great deal of
destructive interactions are occurring at the border with
the ecosphere.
Environmental action
New sustainability-oriented projects are most needed in
order to reset ecological balances, to change consump-
tion and production patterns, to promote ecological effi-
ciency and to restore social equity conditions. The envi-
ronmental action, as part of this overall planning, aims
at: easing frictions between the anthropic sphere and the
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
The environmental action
plan in Italy
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earth, eliminating the exploitation of non-renewable nat-
ural resources, phasing out pollutants, enhancing the
value of waste through its reuse, recycling and recovery
of both energy and secondary raw materials, changing
the balances of generation and absorption of GHG emis-
sions, interrupting biodiversity erosion and desertifica-
tion processes, safeguarding landscapes and habitats.
However, although a few positive results have been
achieved, earth warming, biodiversity shrinkage, dis-
posal of household and hazardous waste, poor quality of
urban areas, increasing exploitation of natural
resources, and the spreading of environmental criminal-
ity have become crucial issues thus jeopardizing the
environment. Other factors negatively affecting the
health of both environment and the inhabitants are the
following: unhealthy food due to biotechnologies and
Genetically Modified Organisms, unconscious use of pri-
vate transport, increase of personal and mass mobile
communications and electromagnetic pollution. The
Environmental Action remains therefore a fundamental
pillar of a strategy for a new development model.
Since carrying capacities and critical loads cannot be
exactly estimated, the Environmental Action relies on the
precautionary principle, according to EU-set guidelines.
Sustainable development cannot be based on a mere
environmental action, nor it can promote only bans, rules
and limits. A sustainable economy must be focused on a
long-lasting stable development, including high employ-
ment rates, low inflation rates and international trade
stability.
Economic growth is generally measured by the GDP rate,
which does not register any environmental damages and
thus their social costs. The time has come to measure
our economic growth by a wide range of physical and
monetary parameters integrating environmental and
economic factors so as to show the results achieved in
protecting the environment and the quality of life as well
as the stock decrease or increase of natural resources.
Social sustainability has to do with distributive equity,
human and civil rights, social conditions of children,
teen-agers, women, elderly and disabled people, immi-
gration and cooperation between countries. Sustainable
development targeted actions and commitments are
closely linked to the implementation of policies to elim-
inate social exclusion and poverty. Such objective, as
expected by the 2001-2003 National Action Plan of
Interventions and Social Services, can be achieved
through a fair distribution of resources, a decrease of the
unemployment rate, the accomplishment of economic
measures by means of investments in the national
health system, in education and, in social programs that
guarantee the access to services and social cohesion.
The inspiring principles of the environmental action strat-
egy for sustainable development in Italy are the following:
integration of environmental issues into other
policy making processes;
the preference for an aware economic and
environmental lifestyle;
an increase in the global efficiency of resource
usage;
refusal of the “end cycle” intervention approach
and promotion of prevention policies;
general waste reduction;
stretching the lifetime of goods;
ending of material cycles of production-
consumption;
development of local markets and local
productions;
promotion of typical products and traditional
cultures;
involvement of social parties in setting goals,
commitments and sharing responsibilities.
National strategy breakdown
The national environmental action strategy ensures con-
tinuity to the EU action, namely through the Sixth Envi-
ronmental Action Plan, with the targets regarding social
cohesion, full employment and environmental protection
approved by the Council of Europe in Lisbon and Göthen-
burg. Moreover, according to the guidelines of Barcelona
2002 European Council , the strategy must ensure the
setting of tools needed for the concertation, participa-
tion, sharing of responsibilities at a national level and
reporting.
The objectives and actions of the Strategy must find their
continuity in a system of Regions, autonomous provinces
and local authorities according to the subsidiary principle
through the definition of sustainability strategies at every
level. In order to achieve these objectives, according to
their own peculiarities, it is strongly recommended to
adjust contents and priorities through co-operation and
partnership with local authorities and any involved party.
For this purpose, Regions must locate and divert from
their budgets the needed financial resources. In turn, the
Government itself must allocate its budget to support the
regional action wherever strategies ensure the fulfilment
of large-scale objectives and macro-actions. The same
guidelines may apply to special-autonomous Regions
and Provinces such as Bolzano and Trento, abiding to the
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
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principles issued in their own statutes.
The environmental action strategy distinguishes first its
operational tools of general purpose within four broad
priority subject matters, the same stated by the Sixth
Environmental EU Action Plan, as follows:
climate change and ozone layer protection;
protection and sustainable valorisation of Nature
and Biodiversity;
quality of the environment and quality of life
in urban areas;
exploitation of resources and waste generation.
The environmental action programme in Italy
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An effective environmental action strategy demands
every social party’s voluntary behaviour towards envi-
ronmental protection so as to overcome a mere “bid-
and-check” approach.
Environmental policy instruments need to be reviewed
in order to achieve the following aims: enhancement and
enforcement of the environmental protection laws; inte-
gration of the environment within sectoral policies and
markets; implementation of an ecologic taxation reform;
removal of unfair subsidies and softening environmen-
tal externalities; introduction of environmental account-
ing; improving the awareness, the knowledge and the
involvement of citizens through a stronger public infor-
mation; increasing the decision-making role for citizens;
implementing technological and scientific research oth-
er than promoting information and training.
The environmental action strategy, by meeting the
above-stated requirements, needs to be regarded as
a flexible tool able to constantly adapt to newly-aris-
ing environmental needs and chances. To this end, a
Forum will be set up, involving every concerned party,
aiming at:
ensuring a full participation;
monitoring the achieved results;
checking the effectiveness of the strategy;
proposing timely-needed amendments and
the updating of the strategy;
contributing in the creation of sustainable devel-
opment information, education and training.
Application of the legislation
on environmental protection
The framework of the environmental protection laws and
regulations, along with an effective techno-logistic
monitoring system, at the basis of the so-called “bid and
check” approach, can be regarded as inadequate to
ensure and support on its own a sustainable develop-
ment strategy, even though they must be still considered
as an essential requirement for any effective environ-
mental action.
The environmental protection requirements provided,
throughout the years, the set-up of new standards for
emissions, waste, sewage and other pollutants, with
positive effects on the environment, the modernisation
of plants and the development of new technologies, cre-
ating a strong incentive towards innovations. In order to
spread and consolidate this positive outcome, there is
the need to proceed with clear and effective goals apply-
ing the analysis principle which measures the impact of
the regulations on Public Administration, citizens and
enterprises, according to Act 50/1999, “1998 Stream-
lining Act”.
The present complex legal reference framework calls for
a streamlining revision. In fact, too many regulations do
not entail environmental benefits and lower the efficien-
cy of administrative and thus industrial systems. How-
ever, mutually agreed Environmental Texts can over-
come these obstacles and make the legal reference
framework easily enforceable and less uncertain, such
as the Italian environmental legislation.
Moreover, it is required that all infringements, occured
within the industrial sector throughout the years, are
revealed in order to carefully review the past, incoherent
and hardly-enforceable regulations.
The completion of a national network of agencies for the
environmental protection (ANPA/ARPA) is a priority goal
that must be achieved to ensure the availability of a
technical support entirely developed for all monitoring
activities, thus overcoming the present approach, made
of inspections to repress illegal activities. This in turn will
strengthen the role of the service provider, which repre-
sents a support tool for the management of environ-
mental policies and for the processes of citizens infor-
mation. A necessary national environmental information
system (SINAnet) is being accomplished by the National
Environmental Protection Agency and is gradually made
accessible on line to the general public through the web.
A strategic breakdown, made up by complex actions and
objectives skilfully designed and planned, implies an
effective monitoring of global changes, cross-sectoral
processes and development patterns. Although it will not
be an easy task, a strategy implementation audit must
point out the gap existing between a mere statement of
principles and a real action plan.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Environmental action tools
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The integration of the environmental factor
within sectoral policies
The integration of policies is a constitutional principle for
the whole of Europe. Art. 6 of the Amsterdam Treaty,
asserts: “requirements for environmental protection are
to be included in any definition and implementation of
EU activities and policies ……, especially to promote
sustainable development.”
The “Integration Principle” affirms that the environmen-
tal protection must not be considered as a sectoral pol-
icy, but as a common denominator for all policies. Envi-
ronmental action must be coupled with new actions by
other sectors, which must internalise the environmen-
tal concern.
The Environmental integration with any field pro-
gramme, plan and policy drawing as well as decision-
making procedures requires the introduction of a wide-
spread Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA),
which proved successful in the early stages of Agenda
2000-2006, and an in-depth revision and standardisa-
tion of the procedures functional to the decisions of the
Inter-Ministerial Committee for Economic Planning and
the State-Region Conference, supported by the full
involvement of environmental authorities for sustainable
development. Hence, within the State-Region Confer-
ence a permanent technical board has been set up to ful-
fil an important sustainable development task.
A further sustainable development basic principle pro-
motes vertical integration between different administra-
tive levels, as well as between public and private sec-
tors, according to the so-called “shared responsibility”
principle. This principle aims at strengthening and pro-
moting the role of every involved party as the recipient
and protagonist of actions promoting the environmental
development. Therefore, co-operation projects support-
ing the contribution of stakeholders and each party must
be promoted and carried out.
The institutional reorganization, assigning important
land and environment governance tasks to regions and
to local territorial authorities, urges more consistent and
functional planning, designing patterns and the intro-
duction of appropriate decision-making procedures. A
new scale of plans and contents is most needed, stem-
ming from the enforcement of sustainability Strategies
at every level coherent with the national-set scheme,
under the new system of autonomies, provide citizens
and enterprises with timely clear-cut transparent proce-
dures as well as a more dynamic and effective protec-
tion of land and environment resources. The criteria
which outlines objects and areas subject to partial or
total protection must be granted,- whether natural, cul-
tural, archaeological, landscape or hydro-geological ,
identifying a competent institution to establish terms
and techno-scientific grounds for the safeguard. How-
ever, an integrated scheme of protected areas and
resources must be periodically checked with the
involvement of citizens and their associations.
Environmental Assessment of Plans and
Programmes
The perspectives of realizing wide infrastructure works,
entailing irreversible ecosystem alterations, nonetheless
the consistent flow of investments to be allocated to
southern regions under Objective One over the 2000-
2006 period, enforcing the Community Support Frame-
work, highlight the need to resort to suitable tools to
assess and steer the sustainability of infrastructure
works and to minimise their impact on the environment.
The improvement of the assessment tools demands two
different categories of actions. The procedure for the
Environmental Impact Assessment must be systemati-
cally enforced by making it more effective, also by set-
ting up efficient environmental Observatories, aiming at
the assessment related to the compliance of environ-
mental compatibility judgements, and to monitor the
environmental concerns of the outstanding works dur-
ing their realization.
The assessment of the environmental impact of each
work cannot ensure an overall sustainability. The Envi-
ronmental Impact Assessment procedure is to be inte-
grated at the early stages with plans and programmes
that envisage, since their initial drafting, the required cri-
teria for environmental sustainability. To this end, new
methodologies programmes and plans of the Strategic
Environmental Assessment are to be developed, widen-
ing and arranging the ongoing initiatives regarding the
draft of guidelines, lists of indicators and computerized
data bases to overcome a mere environmental protec-
tion and address the planned modifications towards
sustainable development.
The SEA procedure envisaged by Directive 2001/42/EC
calls for an integrated and interactive cross-sectoral
approach which ensures the involvement of the public
during the consultation process, the introduction of envi-
ronmental qualitative objectives and modalities for their
practical fulfilment among urban and territorial infra-
structure planning and designing tools. The evaluation
process within SEA, following the planning and design-
ing procedures, will verify the coherence and the contri-
Environmental action tools
bution of policies, plans and programmes to the objec-
tives, criteria and actions defined by sustainable strate-
gies at each level.
The SEA enforcement within intervention programmes
of municipalities, provinces, metropolitan cities, regions
and states, through detailed negotiation procedures with
concerned communities, will renovate the perspective
between plans and programmes which imply environ-
mental and territorial transformations, also to ensure the
coherence and the contribution to locally-defined sus-
tainability strategies, also through local Agenda 21
processes.
The integration of the environmental factor
in the market
The demand of consumers and enterprises shows an
increasing interest for products and services with high
ecologic qualities. The Italian marketing success is due
to the functional aesthetic features of its products, there-
fore the new “global quality” competitive marketing
potentials has still not been thoroughly understood; the
concept encloses the following three stages: demateri-
alization, greening, that is the proactive integration of the
environmental factor, the qualitative innovation of the
manufacturing processes, the quality of services and
products. This is partially due to the difficulty for inno-
vation to penetrate the SMEs peculiar structure as well
as to our overall lack of fiscal, welfare and development
promotion policies.
The attitudes of the leading consumers ought to be
changed, among them first of all the public sector that
covers 15% of EU overall services and products, fol-
lowed by banks, universities, hospitals, etc. Therefore
the internalisation of environmental requirements into
Public Administration purchases must be considered a
compulsory step towards the integration. To this end,
adequate actions must be designed to set and make
available guidelines and data bases which promote
environmental quality in purchases and supplying
orders. Thus an ad Hoc legislative measure, the “Dele-
gation to the Government regarding infrastructures and
strategic productive settlements and other measures to
re-launch productive activities”, was approved on the
6th of December 2001, envisaging at its section 6, para-
graph 16, that any public office must buy at least 40%
of recycled handmade plastic items out of its yearly
demand, according to regional regulations which should
be issued within six months from the law enforcement
date. The 2001 Finance Act envisages supporting provi-
sions for the purchase of recycled products. Moreover,
the use of flexible environmental tools such as voluntary
agreements between PA and the industrial sector need
to be eased.
Ecological taxation reform
The key objective for any sustainable policy consists in
a re-definition of the economic incentives and disincen-
tives. To this end a thorough ecologic taxation reform
needs to be implemented, by gradually shifting the pres-
ent taxable base from the manufacture usage, that is
from value-added production generally speaking, to the
exploitation of natural resources. The possibility of cor-
respondently softening the tax burden on work is at the
base of what is known as “a double dividend ”, so-called
by the economists, that is an eventual workforce
demand increase coupled with a decrease of the envi-
ronmental pressures at a global economic level.
Figure 1
Environmental taxation trends In Italy
1990-based index numbers
20%
10%
0%
-10%
-20%
-30%
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Overall environmental taxation
Environmental taxation as compared to GDP
Note: Reference year’s values:
Overall environmental taxation 11.6%;
Environmental taxation as compared to GDP 2.9%
Source: Ministry of Treasury 2001.
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Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
2
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Similarly to the Carbon Tax implementing regulation, an
ecologic taxation is not going to worsen fiscal levies but
rather replace them, so that its measured introduction
will allow a gradual adjustment of consumption patterns
and technologies which are both slowly evolving
processes (see figure 1). However, the effects of these
new measures in the market access must be taken into
account, especially as far as developing countries are
concerned, and namely in any case where the phasing
out of business obstacles and unfair circumstances in
favour of environmental products and services, would
strengthen the trade, the growth and the environment.
The fiscal reform must enforce the principle of “polluters
pay” together with voluntary energy-efficiency agree-
ments, the acknowledgment of environmental credits to
those sectors which fulfil sustainable development cri-
teria, the incentive to emission trade permits so as to
achieve Kyoto’s targets without implying a planned pol-
lution trade and without favouring the containment of
end-cycle pressure factors: waste and emissions.
The use of resources is to be levied to favour demateri-
alization of our economy, the software, the thriftiness of
both final and industrial consumptions, the de-coupling
of the economic growth from-resource exploitation
through the introduction of environmental burden off-
setting measures also on a territorial basis.
Subsidies and environmental externalities
Negative environmental externalities are generated
whenever the environmental costs of production activi-
ties are higher than the overall social costs. Therefore
these costs lie heavy on the community at large. This
negative imbalance brings about competitive distortions
and increases the usage of natural resources and the
emissions, therefore the goal to achieve is to ease com-
panies towards the internalisation of their full externali-
ties. All activities that induce positive environmental
externalities must be supported, by using products of
long-lasting materials which benefit the economy in the
use of non-renewable resources and by adopting mate-
rials, which contain, after recycled, the same features.
The environmental standards of the market strongly
affect external environmental costs; there is no market
distortion if prices reflect the overall manufacturing costs;
if so, no environmental externalities occur. This is a very
rare opportunity for the company’s products to compete
at the same conditions, although they offer extremely dif-
ferent environmental standards and internalisations of
the costs. Firms operating with less internalisation costs
take competitive advantages from polluting.
Local or national deep-rooted outdated policies for pro-
duction and consumption subsidies must be radically
revised since in Italy they have caused most environ-
mental loads, the detriment of materials and an inten-
sive manufacturing exploitation. Nowadays a few subsi-
dies are granted to achieve environmental aims but
many others cause negative effects.
The set-up of national and regional funds for sustainable
development and environment can positively affect this
overall picture, such as the set-up by the European Com-
mission of EC EuroSeed and EuroTech Funds, designed
to back the international partnership of high-tech com-
panies through the investments of capital risk funds.
Quality and environmental certification
The environmental certification lies on the company’s
aware voluntary agreement on the integration of envi-
ronmental factors, on the concept of global-quality and
on a modern interpretation of competitiveness. This tool
aims at enhancing the environmental performances of
companies by stating the environmental policy commit-
ments and their implementation modalities, by introduc-
ing and realising schemes for environmental manage-
ment, by carrying out a periodical and systematic objec-
tive audit of the effectiveness of these systems, by pub-
lishing data regarding the environmental performances,
thus establishing an open dialogue between the public
and the involved parties. This instrument aims at inter-
nalising environmental qualitative goals in corporate
management and at changing the consumption and pro-
duction attitudes. Therefore, the introduction of ecola-
bels is meant to meet the market preferences of con-
sumers for products with a high environmental quality.
In Europe and in Italy, EMAS, the Environmental Man-
agement and Audit Scheme, is regarded as the reference
scheme for environmental certifications. Italy has
endorsed EU Regulation 1836/1993 - later updated by
Regulation 761/2001 - through the 1996 Ministerial
Decree which introduces EMAS II.EMAS is a voluntary
instrument, to be associated with direct regulation pro-
visions such as “command and control” measures,
finalised to internalise environmental quality objectives
into the managing processes of organisations and enter-
prises. EMAS provides companies with the opportunity
of a public recognition and the possibility to spread infor-
mation on the improvement of their environmental per-
formances. Every EMAS-certified manufacturing site is
recorded on the Gazette of the European Union and gets
a quality mark by the Commission for the registration of
EMAS sites and ecological marks, which operates in Italy
since 1997.
Environmental action tools
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EMAS may be regarded as a contract by which a com-
pany ensures environmental transparency and improve-
ment, a higher efficiency, a market competitive position
and enhanced relations with stockholders, concerned
parties and citizens. Over the medium-term this entails
financial benefits, lower insurance premiums, better con-
tract terms, a wider civil society consensus and sharing.
The new EMAS II certification allows in the meantime the
endorsement of ISO standards of environmental quality.
ISO quality standards come from the private sector,
where environmental studies led the ISO Technical Com-
mittee TC207, established in 1993, to standardize envi-
ronmental corporate management. Then ISO standard
14000 was worked out envisaging ecolabels for prod-
ucts and a lifecycle analysis, respectively referred to ISO
14020 and 14040. In fact ISO regulation addresses the
issues of first-type labels, (or third-type, i.e. European
and national ecolabel), the self-certification and a poten-
tial scheme of the environmental declaration of prod-
ucts, respectively through ISO 14024, 14021 and 14025.
The Italian latest available data, which refers to year
2001, records 83 EMAS registered sites (10 in 1999),
553 ISO14001 certified sites (243 in 1999) and 236
products (10 in 1999) manufactured by 16 different
companies obtained ecolabel certifications. In the EU
framework, the Italian delay is being compensated by its
ever-increasing trend of environmental enrolments, cer-
tifications and marks. This time lag is due to many dif-
ferent reasons, such as a technological gap, insufficient
investments in research, corporate atomisation, obso-
lete advertising strategies, public administration respon-
sibility, corporate incentives, delays in the eco-taxation
reform and inadequate credit policies. Therefore an envi-
ronmental commitment for entrepreneurial associations
and banks will contribute to reverse these unfavourable
circumstances in every sector, representing the twofold
condition for the fulfilment of essential targeted envi-
ronmental qualitative objectives to our sustainable pro-
duction and consumption growth.
Furthermore, environmental management systems can
be potentially applied to different geographical areas,
such as industrial districts and territorial manufacturing
systems, where small and medium sized enterprises
share similar goals. Administrative authorities and man-
ufacturing associations can develop initiatives to survey
the environmental impact and to co-ordinate the
endorsement of a joint management scheme among the
concerned parties. Thus joint implementation synergies
between environmental certifications and local Agenda
21 processes will contribute to this purpose.
Awareness and decision-making skills
of citizens
The environmental concerns, closely linked to issues
such as development and quality of life, are to empha-
size the need for changes in education, training and
information processes as a key factor to promote among
citizens the sharing of criticisms, proposals and deci-
sion-making processes. In Italy, to this end, relevant
actions are achieving greater importance and attention
thanks to the involvement of national, regional and local
authorities. Targeted actions for a wider awareness and
involvement of citizens and young people must be pivot-
ed by new planning guidelines to be concerted among
state, autonomous regions and provinces on Environ-
mental Information, Training and Education (INFEA). The
INFEA Technical Board will play a permanent comparison
and a sharing decision-making role in actions aiming to
promote a new awareness in personal and collective
responsibility as far as the implementation of environ-
mental qualitative standards and policies are concerned.
The role of schools, therefore the Ministry of Education,
Research and University, will be basic - in teaching young
people a durable management of natural resources.
Citizens must become aware of environmental issues
and of sustainability targets in order to ensure an effec-
tive participation to decision making processes. To this
end, public authorities, in particular local authorities, will
play a basic role in raising the awareness of sustainable
development implications, suggesting the most suitable
behavioural patterns and the best choices to be made.
Moreover, innovative solutions, goal-sharing behaviours
and a general public consensus must be actively pursued.
Residents and tourists are to be thoroughly informed on
their surrounding habitat features and on environmental-
ly-correct behaviours. This goal calls for suitable infor-
mation and communication campaigns through publica-
tions and computerised information access backed by
new technologies and scientific research.
Many visible signs let us think that citizens are undoubt-
edly acquiring a deeper environmental consciousness.
Evidence shows a positive trend in the evolution of
household private habits, such as separate garbage col-
lection (presently still not supported with incentives), an
increasing demand for renewable-energy, etc., support-
ed by numerous ecological rallies such as “Let’s clean
the world”, “Sunday walks”, etc. However, despite ini-
tiatives taken by Non-Governmental Organisations and
citizen committees, this deeper environmental con-
sciousness has not been matched with clear and
exhaustive environmental information campaigns by
public authorities nor with a stronger environmental
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
2
15
decision-making role for citizens.
Undoubtedly the introduction of the so-called interactive
computer-science technologies, would allow an
enlarged dialogue among public authorities, administra-
tions and citizens. The effective use of these new tools
plays a major role among the primary objectives of the
Italian environmental action plan in order to spread infor-
mation and reach an opinion consensus entitling citizens
to exercise their democratic rights.
Lifestyle changes demand economic feasibility condi-
tions, true incentives and disincentives, the informed
active involvement of each concerned party.
This new culture will be promoted by ad Hoc compe-
tences, training tools and professional skills thus fulfill-
ing sustainable development – targeted objectives. The
integration of environmental policies, among economic
and social ones, can spur the labour market and the
active awareness of workers. The promotion of an envi-
ronmental sustainability-oriented training system will
open new professional outlooks and stir employment by
linking environmental and territorial concerns to eco-
nomic growth requirements, as proved by the cases:
Energy and Mobility Managers.
Local Agenda 21 processes
Processes of citizen’s aware participation have been
achieved by local Agenda 21, a new way to plan sus-
tainable development-oriented actions through inter-
disciplinary, participatory and responsibility-involving
tools and methodologies. Local Agenda 21 has been
established in 1992 by UNCED and since then it has
spread all over the world. Being sustainable develop-
ment its founding philosophy, local Agenda 21 provides
strategies, objectives, tools, actions, criteria and tech-
niques to assess the outcomes. The outline of objectives
is closely linked to the actual achievement of action pre-
requisites such as consensus, interest, synergies,
human and financial resources.
Local Agenda 21 methodology foundation focuses on the
integration of environmental concerns into each eco-
nomical sector, such as industry, transport, energy,
farming, tourism, and into every social issue, employ-
ment, status of women and young people, training,
health, quality of life, especially as far as children and
elderly people are concerned. This process is broken
down into the following steps:
the co-ordination of social, economic and
environmental audit actions;
the organisation of a forum/open debate for
the aware participation of stakeholders;
definition of medium and long term strategies
for territorial sustainable development;
the endorsement of environmental action plans
including the operating plans and the actual
steps of every party;
monitoring and auditing the implementation
and the effectiveness of the Plan.
Therefore, the fulfilment of local Agenda 21 processes
will most effectively ensure a consistent contribution of
local planning to higher level sustainability strategies,
respecting the characteristics of each single area.
Indicators and accounting for environmental
action and sustainable development
Traditional economic instruments for wealth estimates
such as the GDP need to be supported with new envi-
ronmental quality indicators and this view has become
largely shared. Therefore, on one hand economic rea-
soning is being combined with an environmental sus-
tainable development analysis, while on the other hand
the statistical information needed as a support to the
decision making process is being worked out, while suit-
able accounting and statistical tools are being provided
to encourage integration. The consolidation of Italian
environmental accounting well matches the EU wide-
spread trend in this respect. However it does not only
apply to public decision makers or authorities but also to
private sectors, such as initiatives for the certification
and modernisation of processes.
The draft of the Framework Act on Environmental
accounting, currently under the Parliament’s scrutiny,
can be regarded as a far-reaching innovation that intro-
duces an integrated economic and environmental
accounting into the public administration. This “Frame-
work Act” calls political decision-makers to their full
responsibilities. This legal initiative has already brought
about a significant outcome, although it has not yet been
approved, such as the implementation of experimental
processes for local environmental accounting, implied
by the objectives of local Agenda 21. As far as data avail-
ability to backup decision-making, the development,
within national statistics, of environmental accounting,
indicators and statistics can be regarded as a new
strategic tool. The National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT)
–works out environmental accounting modules con-
cerning the accounting of material flows (MFA); the
environmental account matrix integrated with national
economic account (NAMEA); the expenditure estimate
for environmental protection (SERIEE-EPEA). These
Environmental action tools
2
16
modules are worked out according to EU standardized
concepts, definitions and grading. The actions developed
within international organisation are considered to be a
strategic reference for future advances. Therefore, a
special importance will be attributed to SEEA-2000, the
manual of integrated economic and environmental
accounting presently undergoing the scrutiny of the UN
Statistical Commission as well as the recommendations
worked out by an ad Hoc Task Force regarding the Euro-
pean environmental-accounting strategy.
Accounting and estimating significant aspects for sus-
tainable development requires the systematic use of
indicators. The use of indicators comes natural in many
human activities. In fact, they are measurable values
which set, in turn, useful values to understand aspects
and make suitable decisions; they reflect reality provid-
ing a partial, in some cases uncertain, picture of reality.
However, many indicators are needed because of the
complexity and variety of environmental and ecosystem
aspects. A sustainable development indicator undoubted-
ly differs from an indicator of the environmental state or
pressure
1
, since the former aims at different objectives,
targets and accomplishment times can be integrated on
a variety of aspects, also uneven ones which reflect envi-
ronmental and socio-economic aspects of development.
National and international organizations have worked
out a list of different indicators. The subject matter lists
of this Strategy are consistent with the indicators of the
Italian 2001 State of the Environment Report.
Indicators play a basic role in any reporting and audit of
the implementation of the strategy’s effectiveness. Both
instances must take into account the EU action standards
and obligations for sustainable development. To this
respect, the levels of environmental action must be dis-
tinguished from those of the overall action. For the envi-
ronmental action, recently planned by the Sixth Environ-
mental Action Plan, the European Commission has
adopted a restrained list of eleven environmental indica-
tors, named Headline Indicators
2
. The Strategy enlists
these indicators, displaying them wherever possible as
“EU HL”, marked with time series and EU sequence num-
bers; the same criterion applies to local indicators
referred to the “EU LC” acronym. As to the overall audit
action on the state of execution, the Strategy endorses
the principles of the 2002 European Council in Barcelona,
relating to the general process follow-up of sustainable
development
3
. The Council recommends the fulfilment of
“national strategies and local Agenda 21”, suggesting
“wide suitable national consultations to develop a broad
social consensus” and “the introduction of assessment
procedures through the use of indicators”.
Sustainable development financing
In Italy as in Europe, the environmental protection budg-
etary commitment has become a crucial issue regard-
ing the strategic agenda of competitiveness within a
debate on the environmental sustainability of develop-
ment. Beyond ordinary expenditure for land and envi-
ronment protection, the Financial Act 2001 envisages a
sustainable development fund for the Ministry for the
Environment and Territory, recently re-allocated through
the Deliberation of the Inter-Ministerial Committee for
Economic Planning dated March 28th 2002.
Banks can play an essential role in the creation of suc-
cessful paths towards sustainability. Many financial com-
panies have started to include environment, health and
safety among their strategic corporate choices. Banks
have acknowledged that the environmental behaviours
of companies affect, in the long term, the reliability of
investments.
Moreover, the Italian insurance market has established
an insurance coverage pool for civil polluting liabilities in
order to share their financial resources and technical
field skills.
The strategy of the financial sector envisages the insti-
tutionalisation of the integration of environmental fac-
tors in any loan granting and insurance policy through
the feasible following steps :
training and awareness projects regarding the
environmental issues: at present the local devel-
opment fund for the National Operation Plan has
already financed some projects and two memo-
randum of understandings have been signed with
banking institutes;
enhancing the bank’s promotion of environmental-
friendly policies such as green investments and
funds, evaluation procedures for the concession of
credits keeping into account the environmental
risks, loan-granting facilities for EMAS-recorded
companies;
an active involvement in projects aiming at
spreading the principle of environmental damage
liability;
initiatives finalised to regulate sustainability eval-
uation in banking loan-granting facilities (such as
banking investigations envisaged by Promotion
and Incentive Acts 488/1992, 341/1995,
588/1994, 1329/1965).
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
2
17
Techno-scientific research for environment
and sustainable development
Sustainable development challenges urge Italy to rein-
force commitments in environmental science and tech-
no-scientific research, according to the Fifth and the
Sixth Framework Programme, such as the VFWP on
European Research, assigning at least 50% of its funds
to scientific and applied research activities in order to
promote lifestyles and technological innovations for
sustainable development. The new National Plan for Sci-
entific Research envisages encouraging actions for
environment and sustainability. In this case, social and
administrative demand for scientific knowledge is
stronger than the performance capacity of scientific
institutions.
A different strategic approach needs to focus on the fol-
lowing priorities:
communication enhancement among researchers,
administrators and citizens;
improvement of Italy’s participation in
the international scientific institutions and
in technical body Conventions;
the explicit adoption of the environmental
paradigm by research institutes and universities
through new faculties, specialisations, etc.;
the strengthening of analysis, decision-making
and planning methodologies and instruments;
information and scientific knowledge web/internet
approach to underline the interdisciplinary
and multi-factor scope of environmental science;
an increasing major role in data acquisition,
processing and software for the National
Institute of Statistics, National Environmental
Protection Agency and Regional
Environmental Protection Agencies;
increase of domestic research funding and
of its relevant environment and sustainable
development shares.
Environmental action tools
1) The Pressure State Response pattern was first submitted by the OECD in the early 1990s and later enriched by the UN CSD through the “Driving Force” concept,
that is DPSR and DPSIR introduction patterns.
2) 2000 EC and EEA “Headline Environmental Indicators for the European Union” updating is expected soon.
3) 2002 Barcelona European Council “Chairman Conclusions”.
3
18
Climate change and green-house gas effects
4
Since the end of the19th century, the global average
temperature is increased between 0,4 and 0,8°C; more-
over, over the last few decades it is increased of 0,2°C
per decade. The climate change could be at the origin of
socio-economic effects such as famines, drastic agri-
cultural yield changes, the spreading of infective dis-
eases such as cholera and malaria.
A survey on regional effects points out gradual extension
of dryness in central-southern Italy with soil degrada-
tion, water-bearing strata salty infiltrations, agricultural
yield changes, frequent floods, an increase of coastal
erosion, severe rainfalls and floods as a consequence.
The emissions in Italy account for 2% of the global
release and carbon dioxide represents the worst dis-
charge. In 1990, UNFCCC reference year, Italy released
518.5 Mt CO2 equivalents, of which CO2 (84.4%), CH4
(7.8%), N2O (7.7%), regardless of soil exploitation sinks.
Figure 2 shows the Italian GHG emission trend pattern
and highlights the failure to achieve the 2000 European
Programme stabilization goal, promoted by the Italian
Presidency in 1990.
Priorities, objectives and actions
The Framework Convention on Climate Change was
approved and signed by 154 countries in New York on
the 9
th
of May 1992. The Kyoto Protocol represents, so
far, the Convention’s first and only implementation tool,
approved by the third Conference of the Parties (COP3)
held in Kyoto in December 1997. Both industrialized and
transitional countries (as enlisted in Annex1 of the Pro-
tocol) pledge to cut their main GHG anthropic emissions
by an overall 5.2%, between 2008 and 2012. Different
reference years have been chosen as follows: 1990 for
CO2, CH4 and N2O reduction; either 1990 or 1995 for the
reduction of HFC, PFC and SF6. The overall emission
reduction in European countries must reach 8%.
Figure 2
Italy GHG emissions in some sectors (EU HL 1)
1990-based index numbers
20%
10%
0%
-10%
-20%
-30%
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Energy
Industry
Soil use and forestation (LUCF)
Transportation
Agriculture
Waste
Total value
Note: reference year value
Energy- transportation and industry excluded: 238 Mt CO2 eq
Manufacturing industry: 121 Mt CO2 eq
Transport: 102 Mt CO2 eq
Agriculture: 43 Mt CO2 eq
LUCF: -20 Mt CO2 eq
Waste: 13 Mt CO2 eq
Other emissions - outside the table: 22 Mt CO2 eq
Overall amount: 519 Mt CO2 eq
Source: National Environmental Protection Agency, 2001.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Climate and atmosphere
4) Green-House Gases enlisted in Kyoto’s agreement are the following: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane/natural gas (CH4), nitrogen protoxide (N2O), hydro fluorocarbons
(HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Green-House Gases shielding effect is measured by CO2 equivalents. Carbon dioxide emissions are caused
by fossil fuel exploitation in every industrial and power activity, transportation, deforestation, land use change. Methane emissions come from waste landfills, zoo-
technical husbandry, rice crops; while nitrogen protoxide emissions come from agriculture and chemical plants. Hydro Fluorocarbons, Per Fluorocarbons and Sulphur
HexaFluoride are used in chemical and manufacturing plants, HFC to replace CFC, that is ChloroFluoroCarbons (see Stratospheric ozone 2).
3
19
At the Sixth Conference of the Parties – COP6 - held in
Hague on November 2000, the negotiation on flexible
mechanisms of implementation of the Protocol came to
a standpoint due to different opinions regarding the
national commitments for the reduction of emissions.
However, the EU reaffirmed at Göthenburg in 2001 that
the ratification of the Protocol remains a priority for each
country, at least every European one, even though it rep-
resents a first small step, not sufficient in order to solve
the problem of stabilising GHG worldwide concentra-
tions. At the COP6 bis (Bonn, 2001) and COP7 (Mar-
rakech, 2001) the breakdown of reduction targets has
not been changed but flexible mechanisms (Joint Imple-
mentation, Clean Development Mechanism and Emis-
sions Trading) and sinks connected to the use of land and
forest have acquired different weights and importance.
The Protocol, coming into force legally binds Italy to cut
its emissions by 6.5% as compared to 1990 figures,
thus 17% of its emission trends. Since Italian emissions
per-capita are the lowest compared with other industri-
alized countries, this commitment is remarkable. By
2012, Italy must reduce the emissions by 6.5% as com-
pared to 1990. According to the estimates of the Nation-
al Agency for New Technology, Energy and the Environ-
ment - ENEA - the overall emission trend for 2012 will
amount to 579 million tons of CO2 equivalents, therefore
a 6.5% reduction will account for 61 million tons of CO2
equivalents.
The Italian Parliament, with Act 120/2002, ratified the
Kyoto’s Protocol, fully implementing it through a Nation-
al Action Plan, approved by the Inter-Ministerial Com-
mittee for Economic Planning (CIPE) – and a report on
the fulfilment state of IEPC resolution 137/1998. This Act
attributed 75 million euro for the first three year period
to reduce and sink the emissions through pilot projects
and from 2003 the Act authorizes a yearly subsidy of 68
million euro to reduce GHG emissions in Developing
Countries. The new National Action Plan will update the
operational aspects of the environmental action strate-
gy for sustainable Development (actions, tools, field tar-
gets and monitoring).
The active involvement of Regions is essential. In 2001
the Italian Regions signed the Turin Protocol, pledging to
achieve the following targets:
reduction of GHG emissions ;
co-ordination projects and subsidies ;
identification of an optimal strategy to reduce
emissions within the Air-Quality Protection
and Remediation Plans;
elaboration of Energy-Environment Plans mainly
pivoted to renewable resources, technological
innovation, rationalization of energy
consumption and electric power generation;
increase in value of macroeconomic fiscal,
tariff and incentive tools;
promotion in the productive sector of
eco-efficiency and international co-operation .
The development of renewable energies must proceed
on singling out relevant economic subjects and intro-
ducing them in a framework of reliable clear-cut rules
and incentives based on environmental worthiness of
projects. Moreover, the market competitiveness of
renewable energies must be achieved by multiplying
investments in research and development.
For policies and measures in the climate change sector,
according to the precautionary principle, there is the
need to develop methodologies which can estimate
quantitatively the environmental benefits and costs
compared to the economic burdens. The monitoring
process in itinere related to the effectiveness of the
measures is equally essential. These evaluation mech-
anisms, which could be extended to energy policies
entailing environmental implications, allow the possibil-
ity to appropriately correct and update the interventions.
For each objective, the following “ad Hóc” provisions
and tools have been envisaged. However the suggest-
ed actions need to find an agreement at an European
level to avoid environmental dumping and dangerous
market imbalances.
Efficiency increase of thermo-electric equipment
Technological innovation allows a substantial improve-
ment of such equipment. This modernization process,
implying large investments, will benefit both the envi-
ronment and the economy of this sector, bringing about
the so-called “double dividend”. Adequate investments
are essential in order to bridge this gap as the recent
Californian crisis has proved.
The use of the best available techniques to protect the
environment and to produce energy, drawn by Directive
IPPC 96/61/EC, LD 372/99 and 79/99 and the measures
for the liberalisation of the market and the efficient use
of electric energy, Directive 96/92/EC, contribute to the
fulfilment of this objective. Measures needed to be tak-
en include the revision of incentives and taxation poli-
cies, the implementation of agreements, contracts and
program arrangements in order to promote the setting
up of an adequate number of new combined-cycle nat-
ural-gas-powered plants, replacing obsolete plants,
plants for industrial and civil electric power and heat co-
generation, residues and emulsion gasification plants,
Climate and atmosphere
3
20
according to the voluntary agreement attained among
the Ministry for the Environment and Territory, the Min-
istry of Industry and ENEL, the National Electric Power
Utility, in July 2000. All the thermo-electric equipment in
Italy whose present performance is lower than 40%,
accounting for at least 12.5 GW, must be replaced.
Reduction of energetic consumption within the transport
system. In any EU transport system sector, the GHG
emissions are expected to be rising due to a steadily
increasing demand and the current poor flexibility. The
transport policies envisaged by the EU White Paper and
the Italian General Transport Plan (PGT) set a number of
guidelines to ensure sustainable development of trans-
ports and to improve the effectiveness of the approved
policies. Therefore, the priority goal to be achieved is
represented by the creation of an efficient and sustain-
able transport system for both passengers and goods
through suitable technological, organizational, fiscal
and infrastructure measures. Italy has to rebalance its
transport system towards sustainability facing the sig-
nificant impairments represented by a strong wide-
spread road mobility, such as trucks, private vehicles
and urban public transport, whose size and extent are
unknown in any other EU country.
The Italian mobility habits in both industrial and civil
activities resist to any change since our development
pattern regards car oriented transport as a key aspect
for its progress. Between 1990 and 1998, the railway
circulation of passengers registered +4% mobility
increase (passengers per kilometre), while road and air
transport, respectively account increases for 24% and
40%. In urban areas, public transport, such as buses,
underground trains and surface trams, underwent a 5%
decrease as against a 25% increase of private-car
transport. In this context, it will be appropriate to fore-
see that the ever-increasing traffic share up to 2010 is
directed towards low environmental impact procedures.
GHG emissions in transport must be curbed essentially
through urban mobility planning actions, the improve-
ment of national transport service and the adoption of
standards which favour a reduction in the use of high-
polluting fuels. Only through “ad Hóc” stimulating meas-
ures and the creation of suitable opportunities it will be
possible to develop alternatives to road-transport. Modal
rebalance, which represents the main challenge, must
be mainly directed to investments for the infrastructure
sector and non-road transport network as well as inter-
ventions in the management and regulations and the
optimisation of the actual transport system. The railway
conveyance market needs to be promoted by encourag-
ing the competition among different transport systems
(air, sea and railway) and within the single transport sec-
tor. The long-distance transportation of goods, the pro-
motion of intermodal transport and integrated road-rail
and sea-rail transport techniques (heavy vehicles carried
by sea or train) requires investments on technologies and
organization, interoperability of the national network and
accurate manoeuvres regarding the prices of the serv-
ice. The sea transport could represent a feasible alterna-
tive, due to the opening of sea routes. According to recent
estimates, coastal trading, presently accounting for 2.4
Mt/year, should reach within 2010 10-12 Mt/year by tak-
ing up 32-38% of road transport. Voluntary agreements
stipulated between passengers and ship-owners have
significantly improved the environmental standards for
sea carriage eliminating obsolete ships, see the 2001
Voluntary Agreement among the Italian Association of
Industrialists (Confindustria) the Ministry for the Environ-
ment and Territory and the Ministry of Transport. Middle-
term urban planning must support concepts of urban
integration and permanence selecting policies and
stances which reduce the need to move both goods and
passengers.
Therefore the following projects ought to be timely
accomplished: railways and tramways for an efficient
mass transport in urban areas; improvement in the
maintenance and the adjustment of infrastructures; pro-
motion of private car sharing; introduction and imple-
mentation of cycle-pedestrian paths; limitation (Limited
Traffic Zone – ZTL) and a more efficient regulation of
urban traffic; shift from road transport of goods to rail
and coastal trading; development of equivalent telemat-
ic services of mobility. The General Transport Plan (PGT),
recently improved by the Ministry for the Environment
and Territory and the Ministry of Infrastructure and
Transport, the Urban Traffic Plan (PUT) and the Urban
Mobility Plan (PUM), adequately co-ordinated, represent
the implementing tools of such actions. The “Auto Oil”
EU Directive regarding road-vehicle emissions and
Directive 96/61/EC on air-quality protection recommend
electrically-powered vehicles or low-consumption pub-
lic transport, low-exhaust vehicles, diesel/gas oil and
petrol bio-additives and bio-fuels.
In this field, great evidence is put on the importance of
technological and scientific research in devising more
efficient clean gas, methane-driven or even hybrid
engines; the use of highly-recyclable and recoverable
lighter materials; the promotion of fast disposal for obso-
lete high-exhaust vehicles and the future introduction of
Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEV) based on fuel-cell and
hydrogen-cycle entailing environmental benefits such as
an overall phase out of GHG emissions. The Kyoto’s Pro-
tocol ratification Act 120/2002, prescribes these provi-
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
3
21
sions at section 2, paragraph 4. Nowadays the achieve-
ments of alternative drives provide us with a clear-cut
technological progress setting. Fuel-cell and hydrogen-
cycle drives can supply feasible alternatives through fur-
ther technological innovations in a medium term period.
Moreover, the reduction of oil-dependence and a
changeover to lower-polluting fuels represents viable
solutions to be pursued through substantial investments
in technology and research.
Increase of energy production from renewable sources.
To this end the EU White Paper (1997) sets as a mini-
mum target by 2010 the doubling of energy production
from renewable sources. According to the White Paper
for the energetic valorisation of alternative sources,
approved by the Inter-Ministerial Committee for Eco-
nomic Planning, the electric power generation from
renewable sources will shift from 10.2 Mtoe in 1997,
to16.7 Mtoe between 2008 and 2010 in terms of fuels,
due to a ever-increasingly use of alternative power
sources such as biomasses, wind, photovoltaic, geot-
hermal heat, hydro-electric power, waste and biogas.
Moreover, according to EC Directive 77/2001, the
amount of electric power produced from renewable
energy sources compared to the national gross con-
sumption of electricity in Italy should move from 16.0%
in 1997 to 25.0% in 2010. Programme agreements,
arrangements, contracts, territorial pacts must ensure
the implementation of development projects for renew-
able energy sources. Starting from 2002, leading manu-
facturers and importers must compulsory generate or
purchase through saleable green certificates a minimum
2% share for new plants from renewable energy
sources, complying with Law Decree 79/1999. Further-
more, the National Plan for the Valorisation of Forest and
Agriculture Biomasses, adopted by the Inter-Ministerial
Committee for Economic Planning, envisages that
120,000 ha should be allocated for the production of
biodiesel and 70,000 ha for bio-ethanol production,
besides the collection of forest wooden materials and
agricultural residues to produce electricity and heat from
biomasses.
Reduction of the energy consumption in the industrial,
housing and service sector. The above-mentioned IPPC
Directive on the “Integrated Prevention and Control of
Pollution” imposes the adoption of Best Available Tech-
nology (BAT) and the maximization of energetic efficien-
cy in the industrial processes. The EU Programme SAVE
promotes initiatives regarding energetic efficiency. In all
the final uses of energy the promotion of fuel mixtures
with higher percentages of hydrogen, starting with
methane, is important and it can be achieved through a
network improvement and adequate incentives.
In the industrial system, actions consist in: product and
process innovation, increasing use of Best Available
Technology, observance of the emission standards,
labelling energetic equipment, promotion of ecolabel
and ecoaudit, promotion of environmental management
system incentives, such as EMAS and ISO 14001, imple-
mentation of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), wide pro-
motion of voluntary agreements.
In civil, housing and service sectors, the reduction of
energetic consumption of heating and conditioning sys-
tems can be achieved with technological innovations, by
reducing thermal losses in buildings through the main-
tenance of heating appliances (Presidential Decree
412/93) and by implementing bio-climatic architectural
technology. Public lighting power consumptions could
be reduced by over 20%, as an average saving, only by
facing the problem of light pollution. Automatic temper-
ature regulation and control devices are to be installed
in buildings. As far as final consumptions are concerned,
information campaigns for citizens and consumers have
become essential to ensure an effective Demand Side
Management.
Absorption of CO2 emissions from forests. Agricultural
lands and forests, due to their capacity to absorb car-
bon, can play a key role in restraining and mitigating cli-
mate changes. Kyoto Protocol allows in its inventories
crop and forest soil CO2 sink deduction, although it has
left many questions still unsolved regarding in particu-
lar the methodologies to calculate the balances of car-
bon in agro forestry ecosystems. This priority issue has
been discussed, among other crucial points, at the COP6
meeting. The National Program to Enhance Agriculture
and Forest Biomasses and the European Forestry Strat-
egy – already partially implemented through Council
Regulation 1257/99 and EC Regulation 1750/99 on rural
development – support forestation of agricultural land
with species suitable for local conditions. The Inter-Min-
isterial Committee for Economic Planning has highlight-
ed the basic importance of forest protection and exten-
sion to ensure carbon sinks, among other national
actions to be taken to restrain Green-House Gas emis-
sions and preserve as well the Italian territory.
Reduction of the emissions in the non-energetic sector:
to this end, the 1998 Resolution of the Inter-Ministerial
Committee for Economic Planning has set the following
targets per action to be taken:
cut 13,500 t of N2O emissions from industrial
processes;
cut 0.4 Mt of CH4 emissions from waste
disposal sites, also through glass, paper
and plastic recycling;
Climate and atmosphere
3
22
cut 21,000 t of CH4 from agricultural breeding;
reduce HFC, PFC and SF6 emissions from
industrial processes.
The Italian participation to the co-operation programs in
the area flexible mechanisms. Italy is involved in singling
out co-operation projects, together with Developing
Countries and Countries in Economic transition, to ensure
the development of renewable sources, to enhance and
restore the existing thermo-electric power plants, to
implement infrastructures and programs for a quick urban
mass transport, to plant forests for energetic targets and
to increase the carbon absorption capacity. Moreover,
there is the need to define methods and measures for the
trading authorisation, according to the EU emission trad-
ing scheme, before its implementation in 2005.
Public information and training. The National Program for
Climate Change Information envisages initiatives from
both private and public sectors to work out and promote
information on the causes of climate change and on the
prevention strategies.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Table 1 Objectives, indicators and targets for the sustainability of climate change and stratospheric ozone.
OVERALL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Reduction of GHG emissions at
national level by 6.5%, compared
to 1999, to be accomplished in the
period 2008 - 2012
Training, information
and research on climate
Reduction of GHG emissions
by 70% in the long term period
Adapting to climate change
Reduction in the release of stratospheric
ozone layer-depleting gas
Increasing the efficiency of thermal power plants through:
new natural gas combined cycle;
new co-generation plants for civil and industrial purposes, re-powering of existing plants;
gasification of emulsions and residual products;
introduction of the hydrogen cycle (in medium term).
Reduction of energy consumption in the transport sector through:
enhance alternative means of transport for private use;
spread of low consumption vehicles;
adoption of fuel cells for electric motor propulsion;
shift passengers and goods transport from roads to railways/coastal fleets.
Increase the use of renewable resources for power production;
Use of biofuels as part of the traditional petrol and diesel;
Implementation of biogas recovery procedures within the existing disposal sites.
Reduction of energy consumption within the industrial, residential and service sector;
Reduction of thermal losses, among new and existing buildings.
Reduction of emission in the so-called non-energy sector;
Increase the use of natural gases for both civil and industrial use;
Cutting of N2O emissions within industrial processes;
Cutting of CH4 emissions within disposal sites;
Energy recycling and recovery from waste;
Cutting of CH4 emissions within agricultural farming;
Reduction of HFC, PFC, SF6 emissions within industrial processes and equipments.
CO2 uptake from forests and soils.
Participation to co-operation programmes in the framework of Kyoto’s flexible mechanisms.
Training and information to citizens.
Thorough examination of climate change related issues.
Establishment of climate-safe GHG emission thresholds.
Reduction of vulnerability against climate change.
Maintaing the ban of already phased out substances
(that is on CFC, halogen CFC, halogens, carbon tetrachloride,
methylchloroform and hidrobromo fluorocarbons).
Phase-out of HCFC and methyl bromide production, market introduction and exploitation.
Uptake of ozone depleting gas form dismissed goods and plants.
In depth study regarding origins and effects of climate
change. Reduction of the vulnerability to climate change
effects. The implementation of a “National Program for
Climate Research” is envisaged and should carry out the
following tasks: census of research activities; develop-
ment of new programs linked to the international com-
munity; study of the climate change effects on the Ital-
ian territory and in the Mediterranean area; definition of
national policies of adjustment to climate changes, as
emphasized in the Sixth EU Environmental Action Pro-
gram. To this end, the promotion of scientific and tech-
nologic research plays a basic role to devise domestic
policy facilities such as incentive grants for renewable
energy sources, an enlargement of the range of interna-
tional initiatives, the promotion of firms that use instru-
ments to improve their environmental performance.
The targets to reduce national GHG emissions were
quantified in terms of CO2 equivalent emissions to be
achieved through phased steps referring to years 2002-
2006 and 2008-2012 period. Objectives, target indica-
tors and actions have been stated in table 1, under the
3
23
Climate and atmosphere
INDICATORS TARGETS
CO2 eq emissions from combustion processes;
CO2 eq emissions per unit of energy produced;
CO2 eq emissions from losses of combustible.
CO2 eq emissions from the transport sector;
Consumption of oil equivalent tons in the sector.
Contribution of renewable resources to the national energy account
(MWh/year).
Total energy consumption in the industrial sector (Mtoe/year)
Total energy exploitation in the industrial sector (toe/million of euro)
CH4 and N2O emissions from agricultural activities;
CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions from waste treatment processes.
Annual increase of forest surface.
Numbers and amounts of co-operation programmes.
Initiatives and resources specifically devoted to information on climate
changes issues.
Percentage of resources devoted to research on climate changes related
issues such as mitigation of effects and adaptation.
CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6 concentration in the atmosphere.
CFC, whole halogen CFC, halogens, carbontetrachloride.
HCFC; HBFC, methylcloroform and methyl bromide production.
-4/5 Mt of CO2 eq by 2002;
-10/12 Mt of CO2 eq by 2006;
-20/23 Mt of CO2 eq by 2008/2012.
-4/6 Mt of CO2 eq by 2002;
-9/11 Mt of CO2 eq by 2006;
-18/21 Mt of CO2 eq by 2008/2012.
-4/5 Mt of CO2 eq by 2002;
-7/9 Mt of CO2 eq by 2006;
-18/20 Mt of CO2 eq by 2008/2012.
-6/7 Mt of CO2 eq by 2002;
-12/14 Mt of CO2 eq by 2006;
-24/29 Mt of CO2 eq by 2008/2012.
-2 Mt of CO2 eq by 2002;
-7/9 Mt of CO2 eq by 2006;
-15/19 Mt of CO2 eq by 2008/2012.
-0.7 Mt of CO2 eq by 2008/2012.
Reduction of GHG global emissions
by 70% compared to 1990 (-20/40% by 2020).
Bromide production, market introduction
and usage ban by 2005;
HCFC market introduction ban by 2010;
HCFC exploitation ban by 2016;
HCFC production ban by 2026.
3
24
1998 Deliberation of the Inter-Ministerial Committee for
Economic Planning awaiting the indications which will
derive from the implementation of Act 120/2002.
Stratospheric ozone
Ozone, that is O3, is a molecule made up by three oxy-
gen atoms. Troposphere ozone is a pollutant which
directly affects human health and the state of the envi-
ronment. The ozone in the stratosphere, instead, filters
ultraviolet solar radiation. The failed absorption allows
the UV-B radiations, dangerous for flora and fauna, to
reach the earth surface. The main effects are: immunity
deficiency system, skin cancer, sight impairment, impact
on oceans, namely on the life of plankton and any other
organism essential to the marine feeding balance, neg-
ative impact on flora, especially undermining atmos-
pheric nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms, atmospheric
pollution and material damages.
The level of the atmospheric ozone-layer is constantly
measured. Stratospheric ozone shrinkage, especially in
the Antarctic stratosphere, is linked in particular with the
emissions of artificial compounds such as halogen
hydrocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons being the most dan-
gerous ones, mainly used in refrigeration systems, as
spray can propellants, in the electronic industry, in the
preparation of paints and solvents, in some plastic man-
ufacturing and industrial processes. Huge stocks of CFC
and Halon, already produced and stored in plants and
operating equipments, represent a threat for the stratos-
pheric ozone layer.
Hydro Chlorofluorocarbons can be regarded as a viable
technical alternative to CFC exploitation, due to their low
ozone-depleting potential in the long term, although they
entail an atmospheric chlorine charge raise in the short
term and considerable green-house effects, whose CO2
equivalence parameter stands at 93-2000. Moreover,
methylene bromide may also considerably damage the
ozone layer; it is mainly released by agricultural usages,
such as soil fumigation, and by synthesized chemical
manufacturing exploited as raw material.
The ozonosphere depleting issue has been tackled
quite early so that international measures have been
promptly enforced, in view of undeniable negative
effects from UV-B radiation on human health and
ecosystems. The Montreal 1987 Protocol and its sub-
sequent amendments have curtained, even by means
of proclamations, the production and consumption of
Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) such as CFC, halo-
gen CFC, halogens, hydrobromofluorocarbons, hydro
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chlo-
roform, methyl bromide.
The National Legal Framework of Stratospheric ODP is
made up as follows: Act 549 - dated December 28
th
1993 - and its subsequent amendments by Act 179 -
dated June 16th 1997; Ministerial Decrees dated March
26
th
1996 and October 3
rd
2001. Act 549 singles out in
the program agreement with firms the most suitable tool
to fulfil the set objectives. Moreover, the schedule to
reduce and ban ODS is defined by Regulation (EC)
2037/2000 of the European Parliament and the Council
of Europe.
Priorities, objectives and actions
The following three basic objectives must be met:
interrupt production, promotion and use of ODS;
regulate collection, recycling and disposal of ODS;
constant international cooperation commitment.
The above-mentioned objectives must be achieved with
the following measures:
Elimination of the use of ODS. Substances which were
already-phased out must be kept under ban. Moreover,
the following actions will contribute in phasing out oth-
er substances: restrictions in the use of HCFC, PFC and
Figure 3 Ozone-layer depleting gas emissions
1990-based index numbers
100%
50%
0%
-50%
-100%
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
CFC
HCFC
Note: reference year values
CFC= 36.4 tons of Ozone-Depleting Potential, ODP
HCFC= 375 tons of Ozone-Depleting Potential, ODP
Source: 2001 National Environmental Protection Agency, 2001.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
3
25
Climate and atmosphere
HFC in the fire-fighting sector; definition of a technical
regulation to eliminate the use of such substances; pro-
posal of viable alternative techniques; editing reports to
integrate the list of hazardous substances; information
and education campaigns for citizens; consumer infor-
mation and product labelling. Such actions will be
financed through part of the State budget and an “ad
Hoc” technological innovation rotation fund.
ODS collection, recycling and disposal regulation. An “ad
Hoc” Research Fund to convert the production of sub-
stances will subsidize ODS separate collection, dispos-
al and recycling. The regulation for waste disposal sites,
Ministerial Decree 141, dated March 11
th
1998, bans the
disposal of ODS in landfills. Moreover, Act 549/1993 and
its subsequent amendments (Act 179/1997) compel that
all those who own ozone-depleting products, plants and
durable goods must gather them in licensed collectors
in order to separate, extract and collect hazardous sub-
stances. The durable goods which contain ozone-deplet-
ing substances are also subject to a deposit, while
exemption is granted for those who return such a
durable, when they buy a new one.
Constant international cooperation commitment, already
stated by the ratification of the Montreal Protocol and Lon-
don 1990, Copenhagen 1992, Vienna 1995 and Montreal
1997 amendments; while Peking 1999 amendments,
envisaging stricter targets, have not yet been ratified.
Furthermore, co-operation projects call for a stronger
commitment. To this end the following issues must be
carried out, through a biannual project starting from the
1st of January 2001, to transfer alternative technologies
to methylene bromide for soil fumigation and the imple-
mentation of capacity building in China, in accordance
with the agreement between the Ministry forw the Envi-
ronment and Territory (International Environmental Pro-
tection Section PIA) and the Chinese State Environment
Protection Administration, SEPA. Finally, the need to
ensure the elimination of problems such as ODS black
market and the transfer of dangerous obsolete tech-
niques towards Developing Countries.
ODS production and consumption represent key indica-
tors of progresses towards the fulfilment of the national
objectives. Table 1 shows the targets for the elimination
of production, market introduction and consumption of
methyl bromide and HCFC. Other harmful substances
have already been phased out, such as CFC, halogens,
other halogen CFC, carbon tetrachloride and methyl
chloroform.
Figure 4
Northern hemisphere
stratospheric ozone
concentrations,
2000’s data, compared
Source: WHO LAP-AUTH-GR, 2001.
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-70
4
26
Living natural resource
Biodiversity is defined, from the 1992 Rio de Janeiro
Convention, United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity (UNCBD), as a composition of genetic diversi-
ty, specific genders (natural or agricultural and zoo tech-
nical), ecosystems, landscapes and cultures, setting
man as part of natural processes. Therefore, the preser-
vation of nature is part of biodiversity related main
issues. To this regard, the Convention on Biological
Diversity emphasizes a significant integration issue that
is the great importance given to the sustainable use of
living natural resources. Italy through Act 124/1994 rat-
ified the Convention.
The implementation of International conventions and EU
Directives provides several preservation tools. In Italy,
the preservation of nature has improved due to the
Framework Act 349/91 on protected areas, which
marked the start-up of the active involvement of local
social, productive and political stakeholders in the man-
agement of protected areas (see figure 5).
Figure 5
Evolution of protected areas (number and surface)
in Italy (EU HL 2)
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
1993 1995 1996 2000
Surface percentage of protected areas
Source: Ministry for the Environment and Territory, 2002.
However, the enforcement of the Framework Act and the
subsequent legislative provisions have brought about a
number of obstacles. Weaknesses resulted in the long
and medium term planning strategy and planning capa-
bilities and in the overall (legal, technical and adminis-
trative) management of protected areas as well as all the
difficulties in the co-ordination of Park Management
Bodies and interested social parties. With the 426/98 Act
(New Environmental Projects), the involvement of local
communities and the promotion of sustainable econom-
ic actions through traditional activities (farm holidays
and eco-tourism), were further promoted.
Moreover, the Framework Act has set up many new pro-
tected areas thus entrusting regions with new commit-
ments. The regional social economic and environmental
diversity enriches the range of different approaches,
strengthening cultural and landscape biodiversity, thanks
to the peculiar contribution of agricultural practices to
habitat diversification and the creation of ecotones. The
EU approach has too long followed the opposite path,
thus damaging traditional productions as well as local
peculiarities and quality through inappropriate restrictive
rules, which have been recently and partially amended.
Over the last few years, the National System of Protect-
ed Areas has been integrated with Nature 2000 Network
under the 92/43 EEC Habitat Directive and the 79/409
Birds Directive which identifies sites of Community
interest. The resolution of the Inter-Ministerial Commit-
tee for Economic Planning, dated December 22
nd
1998,
endorsed, according to the priorities of the Community
Suppot Framework 2000-2006, a national ecological
network to promote and to develop local natural and cul-
tural resources. The European Commission has focused
its attention on the management of the Nature 2000 Net-
work sites system through the publication of the “inter-
petration guide of article 6 on the habitat directive” set-
ting a broad protection and preservation framework of
sites with procedure, prevention and proposal provi-
sions. The latter must support farmers as natural her-
itage safeguards and promote sustainable tourism,
codes of good agricultural practices, environmentally
low impact and organic farming.
Over the centuries, the Italian landscapes have acquired
deep-rooted cultural features making them a national
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Nature and biodiversity
4
27
biodiversity peculiarity. Therefore, the 2000 EU “Land-
scape Convention”, approved in Florence, acknowl-
edges the diversity and the quality of European land-
scapes as well as the promotion of peoples living habi-
tat. A deep understanding of the landscape is needed in
order to outline assessments and objectives, thus inter-
preting its peculiarities, dynamics and inner changes.
The concept of landscape takes on a basic importance
in establishing a good living habitat. Therefore, the indi-
vidual awareness of responsibility towards the protec-
tion and management of landscape rises. This Conven-
tion underlines that land protection will not oppose to
economic growth but it will rather encourage sustain-
able development and social involvement.
17.8% of the Italian population lives in the mountains.
The mountain area accounts for 54% of the Italian terri-
tory; national forests for 84%; regional and national
parks for 85%. The balance man-nature in mountain
areas has been kept for centuries, thus allowing the
establishment of a mountain economy, society and cul-
ture. While this has played a basic role for the preserva-
tion and the improvement of genetic and eco-system
wealth of the territory, it is nowadays becoming increas-
ingly weaker. The environmental and social crisis of the
mountains deeply affects the safety and the preservation
of the territory, bringing about geological disarray, land
slides and fires. The seasonal pressure of tourism weighs
significantly on the territory and reduces environmental
management and monitoring activities. The crisis of the
mountain economic system is caused essentially by sev-
eral aspects: de-population, lack of workforce (due to full
time employment outside the area and commuting), cri-
sis of wood and agriculture industries.
The biodiversity of the Italian mountains is extremely
rich, notably in the South, featuring socially and eco-
nomically depressed marginal areas abandoned by pro-
ductive activities, such as agricultural, forestry and
sheep rearing ones. Therefore, activities related to the
sustainable use and preservation of biodiversity shall
ensure the local development of these areas. Worth
mentioning the Convention on the Protection of the Alps,
ratified by Act 403/99, stands as the ultimate target on
the long way striven to consider the Alps as a whole
interdependent ecosystem made up by nature, economy
and culture. In fact the peculiarities in the Alps’ diversi-
ty outline the trans-national identity across geographi-
cal, regional and national borders. Moreover, also the
Apennines European Park (APE), promoted by the Min-
istry for the Environment and Territory, must be regard-
ed as a far-reaching project.
The fragmentation of the Mediterranean woodland caus-
es alterations in the natural evolution of the ecosystem.
This phenomenon is caused by an exhausting use of land
at times due to the presence of holiday resorts and oth-
er anthropic activities. However, Regulation 1257/99/EC
has abrogated EU economic incentives which had unwit-
tingly set dangerous genetic outlooks.
Over the 1990-1998 period, fires have ravaged an aver-
age of 57,000 hectares of woodland per year. Frame-
work Act 353/2000 on forest fires prescribes binding
restrictions on fire-stricken areas envisaging as a crime
setting fire to woodlands. Regulation 1458/2001/EC,
extending the regulatory provision 2158/92, dictates a
collection of data, regarding woodland fires, to be done
with comparable and even methodologies.
The “wood degradation” phenomenon which largely
affects Italy, is rather complex and only partially due to
atmospheric pollution; it represents a co-factor together
with anthropic, climatic and biotic factors. The atmos-
pheric pollution has spoilt approximately 65% of broad-
leaved woods and 57.3% of coniferous forests. The EC
Regulations 3528/86 and 1484/2001 set a network of
observation sites, the constant monitoring of forests, the
regular inventory of damages, the promotion of scientific
researches, surveying methodologies and pilot projects.
Most of the environmental pressures negatively affect-
ing living marine resources are concentrated along the
coastal areas as a result of demographic growth and
urbanization impact. The fragmentation and the loss of
habitats are due to the over-exploitation of resources,
usually only partially renewable, pollution, the direct and
indirect effects of chemicals, eutrophication, climate
changes, the introduction and the spreading of
allochthonous species, tourist pressure and the physical
alteration of coasts.
With regards to the protection of the marine environ-
ment, it is worth mentioning that the Convention of Bern
provides a list of fish species, invertebrates and Mediter-
ranean sea animals; while the “Habitat” Directive
92/43/EEC neglects EU-significant marine habitat and
species.
The biodiversity is threatened by the impact of alien
species on the autochthonous community. In Italy, the
introduction of foreign species has lead to a negative
impact and it has been proved by economic and scien-
tific evidence in a number of sectors such as agriculture,
forestry, fishing, nature preservation and land manage-
ment. In the marine area this problem has aroused con-
siderable interest and concern. In fact the sea is the most
Nature and biodiversity
4
28
suitable natural passive spreading vehicle for new
species. Therefore it has become a priority issue to
accomplish studies and researches targeted to the extir-
pation, containment and monitoring of invasive alien
species. In the same field, coordination and co-operation
with similar projects are most needed, such as the Offi-
cial Plan on Invasive Species IUCN, FAO, the Convention
of Ramsar (Wet Areas), Bern (European Wildlife), Con-
vention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the International Plant
Protection Project. Later on, the collection of scientific
data will outline a legal framework regulating the volun-
tary or occasional introduction and spread of potentially
dangerous or invasive species to protect the environment
and the public health in Italy. Much can be done in this
sector by preventing their occasional spreading through
general public information and awareness campaigns.
The preservation of biodiversity is undermined by a
number of factors concerning agricultural activities: the
decrease of farmed agricultural areas, crops concentra-
tion, pollution of non-agricultural activities and agricul-
tural abandonment of marginal areas. Moreover, this sit-
uation is even worsened by the shrinkage of the genet-
ic variety of plants used in agriculture.
Tourism is to be regarded as a twofold phenomenon
bringing about positive and negative effects at the same
time. Thus it may contribute to the socio-economic and
cultural growth or cause environmental degradation and
the loss of social identity. Critical conditions and envi-
ronmental stress due to tourism are gauged at a sys-
temic level by exploited resources, power, water, food,
land (soil, vegetation, etc.), engendered pressures,
coastal deterioration, concrete-spreading, solid waste,
atmospheric emissions, sewage, desertification phe-
nomena, salty infiltrations in the coastal plain areas and
the presence of too many facilities. Moreover, the incor-
rect management of tourist activities may penalise the
social and cultural identity of local communities, thus
undermining the land management tradition and culture.
Over the last few years, the tourist industry has been
paying a growing attention to sustainability issues thus
acknowledging the fact that environmental quality rep-
resents its main resource and that the loss of identity of
local communities negatively affects tourism. Therefore,
tourist companies must develop and use facilities
accordingly, thus paying respect to their “raw material”.
Within this framework, local tourism, with new norma-
tive instruments may highlight well-known or almost
unknown Italian tourist resources through the imple-
mentation of systems of local tourist districts.
Italy lacks of information on tourist pressure and its envi-
ronmental impact, as well as data organised geograph-
ically and chronologically. This failure is due to a
restrained use of strategic planning and an inadequate
control of development. Natural and built environments
are often fragile, the infrastructures are poorly equipped
and the obsolete resorts must be thoroughly improved.
The Italian widespread culture of short-term investment
policies has lowered the chance of making tourism a
strategic national resource. In Europe, the tourist indus-
try ranks first for its employment rate, turnover and
induced economic activities.
Biotechnologies
Nature and biodiversity set a peculiar path for the devel-
opment of biotechnologies. This innovation sector can
bring about many remarkable developments in a num-
ber of industries without any environmental release.
Some technological branches can lead to extremely
innovative developments such as bio mimetic materials,
bioelectronics and biosensors, neuro-electronic pros-
thesis, bio catalysis, fine chemicals, bulk chemicals, bio
fuels, RNA technology, de-pollution, decontamination
and energy. In the energy industry, biotech research
mainly focuses on the development of bio fuels and bio-
mass-derived hydrogen. The OECD recommends a wider
use of biotechnologies in the industrial sector.
Genetic engineering is not to be regarded as a unam-
biguous alternative; the research applied to tradi-
tional agriculture must be strengthened and inte-
grated to restrain the danger of biodiversity loss, to
limit soil erosion, environment pollution and waste of
water resources.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Priorities, objectives and actions are summarized in
table 3. The definition of indicators according to the
above-mentioned priorities and objectives is still in
process. The UNCBD devotes great attention to indica-
tors of status (quality and quantity of ecosystems), pres-
sure and response. These indicators better describe the
preservation and management initiatives of biodiversity
resources and natural environments, although they need
an adjustment to the national environmental situation.
Therefore, the setting up of suitable indicators demands
first of all a selection and processing of the available
data on biodiversity and nature in Italy.
The United Nations Commission for Sustainable Devel-
opment (UNCSD) recommends, as a biodiversity meas-
uring indicator, to adopt the percentage of endangered
species against native species to outline the level of
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
4
29
endurance or loss of specific diversity. The reliability of
this indicator is restrained by the actual monitoring
effectiveness of the overall species. The table 3 shows
the Italian Strategic Environmental Assessment indica-
tors. The implementation of the UNCBD in Italy has so far
been negatively affected by the lack of a National Plan
to co-ordinate and rationalise initiatives of preservation,
sustainable use and equal sharing of the benefits of bio-
diversity. The rationalisation and the sharing of biodiver-
sity information at a national level is fundamental to plan
any suitable biodiversity action.
Ecologically speaking, a connection system among Ital-
ian Natural Protected Areas is most needed because of
their fragmentation throughout the national territory and
the creation of new protected areas. This is required in
order to improve the effects of preservation and rebal-
ancing of the natural environment, as envisaged by the
National Ecological Network.
The preservation of landscape and habitat must be piv-
oted to many anthropic activities, such as land monitor-
ing and environmental improvement projects, which
ought to be backed especially in protected areas and
sites as suggested by EU Directive 43/92 on Sites of
Community Importance. To this end the following steps
are needed:
devise technical and legal tools for the
management of Sites of Community Interest
and Special Protected Areas, involving agricultural
entrepreneurs, through models, homogenous at
a national level, of impact assessment,
differentiated according to the bio geographic
area and the type of intervention;
increase and computerise the territory’s natural data;
promote the dissemination of results
and the spreading of knowledge;
update regional laws on biodiversity preservation,
considering the new available data on the
preservation of habitats and species;
include biodiversity preservation among
the ordinary requirements of economic and land
planning, structural funds and basin planning;
drawing maps and atlases of species and habitats,
which are part of Nature 2000 Network areas;
setting up regional biodiversity observatories
and fulfilling suitable monitoring projects;
encouraging ad Hoc training for personnel
working in the management of Sites of
Community Interest, Special Protected Areas and
Protected Areas;
promoting projects in Nature 2000 Network
areas through sustainable tourism activities and
good farming practices.
In mountain areas, activities of preservation and sus-
tainable use of biodiversity can be planned to ensure
local development. This does not exclusively imply curb-
ing and slowing down the depopulation of mountain
areas, but it also entails the functional planning, moni-
toring and surveillance of territory. Therefore, areas must
be singled out where forests can lead to productive tasks
rather than to a mere preservation. The pasture as well
should lead to both economic and preservation tasks,
such as ensuring dynamic processes and natural values.
Eventually, the improvement of vegetation on mountain
sides is decisive in basin planning and in restraining the
erosion phenomenon.
The qualitative improvement of the woodlands coenosis
is more effective in preventing forest fires than the use-
less fire-stop lanes - which can also damage slopes - or
grazing to clean forests which decreases the forest
renewal. River captures also can affect fire hazard,
whenever they significantly reduce the action of water
courses as fire-barrage.
However the restraint of linear infrastructures could
reduce the fragmentation of habitats. In fact their growth
has divided the environment into ever smaller pieces
part of a mixed mosaic, while there is the need to plan
and design the vegetation naturalness, by sewing up its
wounds and effectively restoring the functions of land.
The voluntary or occasional spread of exotic flora and
fauna, which might invade or damage the Italian envi-
ronment and health, ought to be kept under control
through legal tools. To this end, general public informa-
tion and awareness-arousing campaigns can play a
major role. In order to replace widespread highly-com-
peting infesting plants it is essential to limit the frag-
mentation of forest habitats and to regulate, giving con-
tinuity to occasional cleaning practices.
The tourist fruition, however desirable, ought to be care-
fully analysed, notably for sea and mountain areas, since
it entails negative effects, such as an excessive atten-
dance and disturbance, pollution, natural land deduction,
etc. Therefore, tourist facilities must be wisely located in
sightseeing areas featuring lower natural hazards and
values.
The management of the territory must cover the whole
country without any distinction between natural, rural,
urban and suburban areas or extraordinary, ordinary and
degraded landscapes. Projects must be shared by local
people and planned to range from mere nature preser-
vation to safeguard and upgrading brand-new designed
valuable contemporary landscapes.
Nature and biodiversity
4
30
Soil, subsoil and desertification
The impact of extreme natural phenomena on the land
is increasing due to the human interventions on its phys-
ical asset and also because of the ever-increasing com-
plexity of soil exploitation and territorial structures and
infrastructures (see figure 6). The climate change and
variability due to anthropic activities has increased the
frequency and the strength of natural disasters. More-
over, these problems are even worsened by the com-
plexity of the impact of natural phenomena which are
caused by several factors: demographic growth, con-
centrated in a few large cities; vulnerable population
increase (that is the elderly people, the disabled people,
etc.); new types of emergency linked to industrial acci-
dents; technological improvements, to reduce risks
although increasing complexity; new types of emergen-
cies linked to technological accidents which may lead to
environmental disasters; the increase of risks due to dis-
asters that can occur also in remote areas.
In the past, the so-called “emergency approach” has
lead to interventions in lower catchment basins in high-
ly urbanised areas. Therefore there is an urgent need of
interventions in mountain and hill areas where the ero-
sion actions are more significant. The overall arrange-
ment of the upper areas of catchment basin will bring
about the improvement of drainage systems in the
plains, even though just a few in Italy but they gather
most of the population and the public-private estates,
such as infrastructures and settlements. In the last few
decades, a lower rainfall rate compared to last century,
together with the number of river dams, have caused a
decrease of the solid flow of rivers which, in turn, con-
tributed to the present resumption of coastal erosion,
undermining the stability and the safety of our coasts.
This is due to the presence of too many infrastructures
and holiday resorts - such as roads, railways, urban front-
ends, harbours and docks - whose economic develop-
ment strictly depends on their closeness to the sea.
Between 1961-1990 semi-dryness conditions have
affected 5.5% of the Italian territory showing an ever-
increasing trend compared to the previous thirty years.
Therefore, the international commitments of Italy on
combating desertification specifically endorse suitable
interventions for soil protection. In Italy, the system of
competences on natural hazards is extremely compli-
cated, so much that, from 1994 on, seven different Min-
istries have been funded to meet flood emergencies.
Act 183/89 and its relevant administrative and legal pro-
visions attempted to strike a balance between principles
of land planning and the land’s safe management
although the enforcement emphasized strong delays
and inequalities. The main factors negatively affecting
the effectiveness are: a narrow vision of planning, con-
ceiving it as a mere restriction rather than a coherent
land planning, and an unclear regulatory framework
mainly envisaging field activities and almost exclusively
meant for peculiar circumstances. Wide range legal pro-
visions and planning tools -on waste, mining, water sup-
ply, tourism, agriculture, parks, etc: are all entitled to
deviate from other plans regardless of their qualitative
parameters. Also ex-post disaster interventions of the
Civil Protection often overlap ad Hoc basin planning
activities.
Among the internal factors, there is a concern for the fol-
lowing issues: the complexity of rules and innovations,
an unclear assignment of competence between State
and Regions, the gap between innovation, that is the the-
oretical drafting of laws, and the availability of inade-
quate technical structures and operational tools, poor
financial resources.
A new impetus came from Law Decree 180/98 and its
subsequent amendments that envisage urgent meas-
ures for the prevention of hydro-geological risks through
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Figure 6
Data on the Italian soil exploitation (EU HL 11)
1990-based index numbers
10%
5%
0%
-5%
-10%
-15%
-20%
-25%
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Road network
Crop land
Permanent crops
Forests
Meadows and pastures
Source: National Institute of Statistics, 2001.
4
31
land zoning. This Decree clearly assigns tasks and roles
to the Ministry for the Environment and Territory, thus a
central role in prevention policies - supported by the
National Agency for Environmental Protection and the
National Geological Service - by setting up a technical
steering and co-ordinating secretariat. Moreover, this
Decree recommends the review of Act 183/89.
With regards to the so-called “slow-triggering” geologi-
cal risks, many EU programmes promote and finance
projects which combat desertification also for other rel-
evant sectors concerning water resources, soil degrada-
tion, forests, climate change. The Presidential Decree of
the Council of Ministers, approved on the 26
th
of Sep-
tember 1997, set up the National Committee to combat
Dryness and Desertification Combat which worked out,
together with involved parties, the National Action Plan
approved by the Inter-Ministerial Committee for Eco-
nomic Planning in 1999. This Programme envisages
long-term integrated strategies by promoting the sus-
tainable management, preservation and restoration of
water resources and soils in order to improve living con-
ditions and land yield in dry, semi-dry and poorly water-
supplied areas. According to the resolution of the Inter-
Ministerial Committee for Economic Planning, dated 21
st
of December 1999, regions and basin authorities have
worked out a series of aiding proposals to combat dry-
ness and desertification. On the basis of those propos-
als, the National Committee drafted a national priority
scheme approved by the Joint Conference. These pro-
grammes envisage in-depth studies and surveys as well
as action plans, in some cases already launched, in order
to outline targeted strategies. Basic intervention areas
are the following: soil protection, sustainable manage-
ment of water resources, reduce the impact of produc-
tive activities, land rebalancing, social and economic
aspects, information, education and media awareness.
The Desertification Combat has an international priority
scope. The United Nations Convention to Combat Deser-
tification came into force the 26
th
of December 1996; 162
countries ratified it on the 13
th
of November 2000, among
them the European Commission as a UNCCD member.
Priorities, objectives and actions
The soil protection is an integrated activity, which relies
on a complex approach taking into account territorial,
physical and morphological features as well as social,
economic and institutional aspects of human settle-
ments. To this end, some general basic goals need to
be achieved:
developing effective prevention policies for
natural hazards both fast triggering (slides,
floods, etc.) and slow triggering (desertification
and coastal erosion, etc.) and also effective
interventions of sustainable mitigation;
backing the eco-compatible development of the
weakest areas, that is areas featuring a
non-sustainable development or urban areas
featuring high degradation and low living standards;
preserving land resilience
5
and the conditions
of natural habitats, redressing them if needed,
while encouraging the assumption of
local responsibility as a response to disasters;
promoting administrative devolution;
recognising the importance of the local economy;
adopting policy of agreement, starting from local
communities.
The need to promote territorial interventions, which
allow to rebalance the relationship with the environ-
ment, will set the basis for a consistent employment
growth and the development of new (almost unavailable)
professional qualifications. The prevention from natural
hazards and the protection of the soil has been long
regarded as our country’s major public work. On this
basis, incentives ought to be devoted to the weakest
areas, because of the insufficient technological and sci-
entific State interventions, the need of higher employ-
ment rates and the substantial financing envisaged by
the 2000-2006 Structural Funds. The full enforcement of
Act 183/89 will increase employment opportunities in
the following sectors: research, monitoring, planning,
engineering, implementation and execution.
The desertification indicators have been studied by a
number of research projects, meetings and workshops.
The UNCCD devoted particular attention to the accom-
plishment of the Convention and to impact indicators,
describing desertification, socio-economic and environ-
mental aspects.
Moreover, other indicators have been worked out to
measure structural vulnerability, bio-physic indicators
(mainly climatic) and socio-economic indicators; physi-
cal vulnerability indicators, based on the ratio of bio-cli-
matic or geomorphologic-political entities to Mediter-
ranean Basin and indicators of specific land vulnerabili-
ty compared to the main processes.
These broad objectives can be broken down into specif-
ic goals, actions and measures aimed at reducing the
consequences of natural disasters and desertification,
Nature and biodiversity
5) The ability to endure losses up to a set extent without any external intervention.
4
32
while raising the awareness and the commitment of both
citizens and administrations:
The development of legal tools and rules for a safe land
management. It is essential to co-ordinate general rules
whose present enforcement brings about uneven and
inconsistent planning procedures.
Increase the safety of high hazardous areas through:
non-structural actions, such as the de-localisation
of facilities and activities, the adjustment of urban
planning schemes (integrating land geological
hazards, at present not included in most cases)
and the increase of the resilience of local
communities;
structural actions and all such interventions
affecting the causes of natural calamities,
mitigating their effects through low-environmental
impact techniques and reducing the vulnerability
of exposed properties. Moreover, the improvement
of the regulations throughout the country and the
training of technicians is mostly needed. These
technicians must plan according to set standards
and furthermore they must check the correct
operational feasibility of the plans. A contribution
in such a direction is represented, the proposal
for the seismic reclassification of Italian territory.
Upgrading the existing buildings, through a subsidy
scheme for the owners of buildings in old towns within
seismic hazardous areas willing to improve their safety.
A national plan must be promoted to assess critical con-
ditions and single out intervention priorities regarding
public buildings and Cultural Assets.
To improve the safety of high-risk plants situated in signi-
ficant hazardous areas.
To improve the safety of infrastructure networks in
hazardous areas and strategic buildings, such as hospi-
tals, power supply plants, civil protection operational
centres and prefectures.
To establish tools to support decision-making networks
and to complete some networks, such as the case of
rainfalls, through innovative systems and real-time mea-
surement techniques, laboratories and other advanced
tools such as the scale modelling of the coastal erosion.
To support research in order to evaluate the needed acti-
vities for hazard-mitigation, through interdisciplinary
studies, socio-economic analysis, impact assessment,
starting from expected climate change.
To develop the zoning of regional and local hazards and
risks to be accomplished respectively by central and
local authorities, according to each risk type. The draf-
ting of extraordinary plans according to Law Decree 180,
later translated into Act 267/98 on floods and landslide
risks, must be regarded as an initial partial approach to
the zoning.
To measure progresses achieved compared to the past
experiences in order to outline future goals, such as
monitoring the Italian trend and therefore the effective-
ness of the actions undertaken.
To introduce systems for the quality certification in com-
pliance with ISO 9000 regulations. Notably, a “quality of
process” needs to be established in order to address a
comprehensive set of methodological actions and pro-
cedures to be endorsed by research, survey, intervention
and planning projects throughout the entire country.
To protect the coastal areas from the erosion, through
global and local interventions in order to preserve the
coastal ecosystems, also along coastal areas already
devoted to tourism, thus preventing natural imbalances.
This scheme includes also the protection against natu-
ral and man-induced subsidence events.
To recover the functionality of agricultural and natural
systems, in mountain, hill and plain areas, mainly
through forestation, recovery, care, and restoration of
forests; re-naturalisation of minute surface water down-
flow networks and courses as well as forest and water
care; incentives for the upkeep of river-bed protective
works and to agricultural, forestry and pasture activities
which contribute to the protection of soil; interventions
which ensure the ecological continuity of the river
system. A significant aspect is the drastic regulations for
riverbed water collection.
To keep up the maintenance of mitigation works. Most
of the past consolidation and reclamation interventions
have failed mainly due to the lack of ordinary and
extraordinary maintenance activities, which should have
preserved the project’s effectiveness. Therefore an
extraordinary plan for land management is to be adop-
ted pledging ordinary service labourers, such as road
upkeep workers, and highly skilled technicians to perio-
dically monitor the effectiveness of consolidation and
monitoring systems.
Insurance. In many countries ex-post disaster restora-
tion is covered by insurance instruments. Therefore, pre-
mium settlement mechanisms can be designed to
favour the local communities which efficiently imple-
ment prevention policies. The Italian insurance business
has worked out a field scheme and is willing to draft new
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
4
33
initiatives.
To reduce taxes for activities of land restoration. Simi-
larly, and interventions subsidising projects for the con-
solidation of existing patrimony should implemented.
To streamline procedures for land protection interven-
tions and improve the spending capacity of the imple-
menting authorities.
To set up an informative database in order to spread
knowledge, information and training.State and Regions
have already agreed upon this initiative, entrusted to the
Ministry for the Environment and Territory by Law
Decree 297/2000.
To develop guidelines, tools and procedures to be adop-
ted by local administrations and that will outline scien-
tific and methodological processes to which land inter-
ventions and executive planning must refer.
The adoption of consensus policies leading to land
management procedures and land consolidation inter-
ventions. This involves the development of information
networks, of capacity and consensus at a local level in
order to increase territorial resilience compared to law
and rule changes.
The introduction of a new land planning legal frame-
work, in particular when drafting long-term urban plan-
ning, since at present it still does not take into full con-
sideration the land’s geological hazards.
To improve the intervention capacity of local communi-
ties during natural disasters.
Most of the already-stated measures are effective in
combating desertification. As envisaged by the Inter-
Ministerial Committee for Economic Planning Delibera-
tion of December 21st 1999, the interventions must take
place in the following areas:
Soil protection. In the National Action Plan
to combat drought and desertification (PNA),
soil protection concerns in particular intensive
yield and marginal agriculture areas; areas
threatened by rapid erosion; areas degraded by
contamination, pollution and fire; uncultivated
and abandoned areas. The actions concern:
-
the updating of the national forest inventory, the
proposal of a new framework Act and a new forest
plan in order to support a sustainable management
and development of the forest heritage;
-
the development of nurseries to promote
Mediterranean species;
-
the promotion of land management procedures
dedicated to a more suitable exploitation of the
soil in agricultural and non-agricultural activities;
-
fire prevention and fire fight information
campaigns to point out the link between
desertification and fires;
-
the increase in value and the co-ordination
of Regional Services;
The reduction of the impact of productive
activities also to restrain desertification processes:
-
the containment of farming lands dedicated to
cultivation in sheltered environment; the creation
of extensive farming for those cultivations with
an excess of supply; the promotion of cultivation
of species according to their environmental
suitability (climate, soil type and orography)
to ensure maximum ecological effectiveness and
minimum use of chemical support;
-
the adoption of agricultural cultivation systems
more compatible with the environment:
planning cultivations and rationalising the
irrigation activities, adopting a correct agricultural,
zoo-technical and forestry practice code;
-
the increase in the use of the organic part of
urban solid waste derived from separate collection
to produce high quality compost;
-
monitoring the pressure of tourist activities
on vulnerable areas while promoting off-season
activities, a wider offer and a reduction in the
consumption of water.
Marine and coastal habitats
There is a close connection between mainland anthropic
activities and marine environmental quality. The Italian
people are increasingly populating the coastal area so
that settlements have spread along the Tyrrhenian and
the Adriatic shores. Therefore this demographic pressu-
re together with traditional and new conflicting coastal
exploitations has further confined the ecosystem, deple-
ting its resources and unevenly deteriorating it.
Most Italian coasts are subject to erosion and the spread
of subsidence phenomena, mainly along the northern (-
1 mm each year) and central Adriatic shores. Both phe-
nomena, due to natural causes and an unfair land
management, might undermine our country’s develop-
ment also in view of oncoming climatic emergencies.
Some Adriatic fragile areas, mainly the Venetian lagoon,
are affected by these phenomena caused by an increa-
sed dynamic of winds, rainfalls and tides rather than by
a sea level raising, at present still unrecorded. The Third
Assessment Report of the International Convention for
Nature and biodiversity
4
34
the Protection of Plants emphasizes the need to study
and analyse the effects caused by the raising level of
oceans on confined sea ecosystems.
The Italian legal system regulates wide sea stretches in
which integrated management policies could effectively
operate; the Italian full jurisdiction on these waters inclu-
des their surface, body, bed and under-bed. Italy, in the
continental shelf, is only entitled to explore and exploit
the subsea mining resources. Therefore the oil industry
exploits these areas.
According to estimates, the Mediterranean sea level has
increased by 12 centimetres in the 20
th
century, while its
expected increase over the next three decades stands at
12-18 centimetres, although it might be higher in sub-
sidising areas. This phenomenon will especially affect
low coastal areas, towns and deltas causing the follo-
wing consequences: a) increase of the wave energy
along particularly exposed coasts; b) consequences on
the advanced port structures; c) increase in the intensity
and frequency of floods in delta areas; d) the impact of
tides on coastal settlements; e) rapid coastal erosion and
coastal floods due to the higher frequency of storms; f)
sea water seepage into groundwater tables. However,
among the consequences of climate change we must
register also alterations of rainfall regimes, diffusion of
fires, desertification and soil degradation.
Biomass withdrawal. The first pressure factor for sea
ecosystems concerns the exploitation of biomass. An
excessive pressure practised by fishing activities and
due to the failure in selecting species and to over-fishing,
causes considerable modifications in the sea ecosystem
considering food chains and substratum alterations, in
biologic terms (biodiversity, biocoenosis) as well as in the
sediment structure. Therefore this in turn causes the
shrinkage of “target stocks” and minor catch species
compromising future profitability of the fishing industry.
Italy has adhered to the “Protocol concerning Specially
Protected Areas and Biodiversity in the Mediterranean”
adopted in 1982 in the framework of the Barcelona Con-
vention, amended in 1995. Anthropic activities and envi-
ronmental quality affect fishing; therefore this industry
is interested in protecting the environment to maintain
productivity and not to undermine the resilience.
Mining activities. The second pressure factor is caused by
the increasing exploitation of undersea hydrocarbon depo-
sits, especially in the Adriatic sea, in the Ionian sea and in
the Sicilian channel. Italy other than oil is searching for
natural gas, which represents the most important offshore
production. As far as environmental protection is concer-
ned, Italy has signed the Offshore Industry Protocol adop-
ted in the framework of the 1994 Barcelona Convention.
Maritime transport. The sea transport of oil has increa-
sed from 1,159 million tons in 1985 to 1,890 million tons
in year 2000. However, the trend of oil spillage in the sea
improved due to the prevention and control measures
adopted by IMO (Marpol Convention 73/78) adopted over
the last three decades and recently strengthened by EU
Safety Directives (safety Directives issued after the acci-
dent to the oil-tanker Erika). This positive trend can be
supported by phasing out one-hull crafts, by adopting
incentive schemes to replace small (whose tonnage is
below 5,000 tons) obsolete oil-tankers, by ensuring an
even enforcement of existing safety rules by any countr-
y’s ship sailing in the Mediterranean sea, by supporting
the adoption of voluntary procedures to continuously
improve safety and protection of the environment. Moreo-
ver, the pro-active responsible behaviour of the industries
must be encouraged through a programme agreement
(such as the voluntary agreement for the safety in the
transport of dangerous substances in year 2001) and the
introduction of environmental certifications.
As to other types of transport of goods, recent innova-
tions in the maritime transport have created the need to
set up two ad Hoc ports for container-ship (such as Gioia
Tauro and Genoa Voltri); to assign transhipment tasks to
certain ports (namely to Gioia Tauro, leader in the Medi-
terranean Sea, to Taranto and Cagliari as envisaged by
the General Transport Plan); to strengthen European
inland transit tasks (in Genoa Voltri, La Spezia, Livorno
and Trieste). These processes, together with a gradual
increase in the demand of transport in the Mediterra-
nean, contributed to increase the merchant-ship traffic in
the national waters, both cargo and passenger carriage.
Furthermore, the growth of Italian leisure crafts is increa-
singly affecting the most valuable sea habitat heritage
(both surface and sub sea) usually extremely vulnerable.
Coastal areas. Italian coasts are populated by approxi-
mately 32-33 million people, between residents and
tourists, representing the main human pressure on our
coastal system. The climate change increases the fre-
quency of natural disasters thus reinforcing their
strength. Damages brought about by these calamities
can be even worse if coastal facilities and infrastructu-
res are not designed and built taking into due account
environmental conditions and modifications. Italian
coasts, referring to the areas above-stated, are exploi-
ted in twenty different ways (see table 2); some of them
affect the coast alone while some others, increasingly
numerous and intrusive, affect also coastal waters.
Moreover, riverbed sand and solid drawings together
with interventions of regime regulation on water cour-
ses have undermined the river transport of solid mate-
rials and compromised the coastal ecosystem while
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
causing the subsidence of sandy shores.
Therefore the re-naturalization of water courses
represents the first step in order to rebuild the dyna-
mic balance of shores. However, emergency interven-
tions and beach reconstructions cannot resort to eco-
logically-unsuitable materials or works altering water
and landscape features.
Tourism. According to estimates, in Italy sea tourism
represented more than 40% of the overall hotel guests
in 1997. Tourism in Italy features seasonal peaks notably
towards seaside resorts and particularly high in July and
August. This phenomena overexploits natural resources,
causes traffic jams and overcrowding thus worsening
the quality of life. This in turn does not allow local admi-
nistrators to correctly plan and manage primary facili-
ties, such as water supply, water softening, the road net-
work, waste cycle and the transport system. Moreover,
only 24% of the national tourist movement and 14% of
the international one are directed towards shores in the
southern regions, accounting for 60% of the Italian
coastline, despite their favourable climate, historical and
cultural conditions, thus creating a considerable gap
between northern and southern Italy.
The present growth rate shows that available seaside
resorts will reach their saturation point in ten years. The
quality of bathing waters affects the expansion of this
industry; however the data in recent years emphasizes
a basic positive trend. Yachting, strongly expanding, cau-
ses an increasing demand for landings and relevant ser-
vices, ranging from hotels to technical aid and leisure
time resorts – as well as a growing craft traffic in our
coastal waters, thus a deterioration in the quality of life.
Yachting is becoming a mass recreational activity: this
area is registering a continuous growth. Available data
on yachting shows an overall 7.7% increase, that is
5,656 new registered yachts over the 1995-2000
period. At the same time, sailing licences recorded a
20.5% increase over the 1997-1999 period.
Moorings. The supply of berths in harbours is low and
therefore does not meet the demand. This gap must be
bridged mainly through the refurbishment and upgrading
of the existing docks and the creation of new docks only
where needed and outside the vulnerable areas. The Ita-
lian coastal and marine environments offer a massive
historical heritage thus attracting forms of cultural tou-
rism in Italian shores and regions; hence the fruition of
the coastal area with new advanced technologies (ferry-
boats and special submarine installations) represents an
example of the evolution in the use of coastal areas.
Fish farming. Over the 1993-1998 period, fish farming
in Italy increased 3.7 times, while shellfish farming
decreased by 40%. This particular use of coastal waters
demands high quality environments and may generate
pressure on the system while it excludes many other uses,
from docking or industrial to bathing uses. Therefore, the-
se activities need an ad Hoc safer regulation to cope with
an ever-increasing demand of permits for new plants.
Industrial areas and waterfronts. Coastal industrial sites
4
35
Nature and biodiversity
Table 2
Breakdown of the use of coastal areas
GEOGRAPHICAL
AREA
LEGAL
FRAMEWORK
Preservative fruition
1 Ecological heritage • • • • • •
2 Cultural heritage • • • • • •
3 Landscape • • • • • •
4 Non-material heritages • • •
Primary production
5 Agriculture • • •
6 Stock-raising • •
7 Woods and forests • •
8 Fish Farming • • • •
9 Fishing • • • • •
10 Mining • • • • • •
Secondary production
11 Water • •
12 Energy • • • • •
13 Manufacturing industry • •
14 Engineering • • • • • •
Services-producing sector
15 Residential settlements • • •
16 Transport • • • • •
17 Merchant docks • • • •
18 Airports • • • •
19 Pipes and cables • • • • • •
20 Tourism and
leisure time
• • • • •
21 Research • • • • • •
22 Defence • • • • •
M
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CATEGORY
23 Management • • • • • •
4
36
are undergoing conversion and shutdown processes. In
some cases, these available spaces are taken over by
other industrial activities, such as offshore engineering
and boatyards, or by non-industrial uses, such as resi-
dential areas, service facilities, conference areas and
leisure time resorts thus revitalising sea waterfronts,
favouring tourism, leisure time activities and advanced
services.
The Italian economic development has been backed by
the installation of thermal power plants near to fuel
unloading docks. However, the rationalisation and a
more efficient power scheme has gradually changed this
trend. In spite of this, sites of powerful operational plant
are still causing problems. Cooling waters indirectly cau-
se an increase of bio-mass; while the storage of solid
fuels, which leads to dangerous powder dispersal and
negative aesthetic factors, creates great conflicts with
bathing and leisure activities.
Nature reserves and marine parks. Act 979/82 on sea
protection and the Framework Act 394/91 on protected
areas singled out fifty valuable areas (listed areas) to be
protected. The set up of new protected areas shows that
sea and coast safeguard policies are improving, also due
to their new arrangement procedure and management
organisation rules. So far in Italy sixteen marine protec-
ted areas have been established, thirteen of them have
been entrusted to several parties, most of them repre-
sented by local authorities, two of them managed by
National Park Bodies. Moreover, La Maddalena, Asinara
and the Tuscan Archipelago National Parks include in
their perimeter marine areas of great dimensions and
with a significant preservation interest.
In open sea, sustainable development is implemented
through an ecological protection and suitable fishing
practices which should rely on international co-opera-
tion. In this framework, Italy, among the different priori-
ties, is mainly concerned with bio-diversity preservation
and combating pollution.
Over the 1973-1978 period, the MARPOL Convention on
Marine Pollution classified the Mediterranean sea as a
special area that is under ad Hoc protection provisions.
Therefore in the Mediterranean sea, each marine car-
rier and each country which operates in this region,
must comply with these rules and Italy is strongly moti-
vated to supervise them.
Moreover, Italy must respect the dispositions of Barce-
lona’s Convention on the protection of the Mediterranean
marine and coastal environment and the implementation
Protocols regarding dumping from airplanes and marine
carriers as well as sea emergency interventions.
Strictly considering biodiversity, Italy is concerned with
the protection of rare species, the excessive exploitation
of dominant species, the prevention against the intro-
duction of alien species and organisms. However, the
priority objective envisages fishing regulation in interna-
tional waters to allow the restoration of bio-masses and
the protection of rare species.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Sustainable coastal and territorial management must
aim at the three following objectives: ecological integrity
of land and marine environments; economic efficiency
and social equity. The priority aims to be pursued over
the medium term are:
preservation of biological diversity;
the recovery of the optimum conditions in the
coastal environment;
the preservation of different uses for the coastal
area, through the harmonisation of anthropic
activities and the reduction of the impact;
the achievement of environmental safeguard
objectives with sustainable costs for the social
and economic development;
the development of institutional skills and
human resources.
Hence a complex framework of detailed strategic objec-
tives emerges as follows:
protection and regulation of the use of resources.
In particular a durable management to safeguard
living resources and habitats from degradation;
the application of criteria of environmental
compatibility to the activities such as the
exploration and exploitation of mineral resources
from the seabed and the optimisation of the
use of water resources;
protection of the coastal areas which are subject
to withdrawal phenomena due to the imbalance of
sediments, subsidence induced by anthropic
activities and phenomena at a global level, such
as eustacy;
pollution reduction, starting from sources such
as urban settlements and industrial sites or
conveyed by the river system or sources
originated from the sea.
According to the carrying capacity of the coastal-mari-
ne ecosystem, the regulation and the management of
activities must envisage the following steps:
the reduction of the impacts of structures and
activities in the harbour;
a sustainable development reuse of shut-down
industrial sites, with a particular interest for
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
4
37
the revival of urban waterfronts and the recovery
of their cultural-historical heritage;
the protection and the preservation of natural
resources and of areas with a significant historical,
cultural and landscape value by supporting
an integrated land and sea management also
through the creation of protected areas;
the prevention of natural disasters, due to human
factors and to extreme events, through the
enforcement of planning measures and
emergency plan measures;
the promotion of sustainable fishing practices by
adopting times and spaces of biological protection;
the involvement of public and private sectors
and other stakeholders in a correct integrated
management of the coastline.
The drafting of guidelines, to promote sustainable deve-
lopment along the Italian coastal areas, is essential to:
develop strategic guidelines in compliance
with the legislation on natural resources and
sea protection;
confer on Italian politics a position of excellency
in relation to the technological and scientific
approach;
equipping decision-making centres with agile
operational instruments to ensure the coherency
of interventions.
The framework of essential provisions must include:
the strengthening and the harmonisation of
the legal and institutional framework aiming at
an integrated management of coastal and marine
areas;
the drafting and the adoption of action plans
which ensure the co-ordination among different
levels of management;
the consolidation of public information and public
training and specific targeted sectors on coastal
processes (natural and man-induced) through a
deep commitment of environmental associations,
mass-media, schools and administrations;
the implementation and the harmonisation of the
knowledge framework of coastal and marine
environment to work out a suitable control and
monitoring system; to this end, the Ministry of
the Environment and Territory together with the
Coastal Regions carry out the “Program for the
monitoring of marine and coastal environment”;
the promotion of long-medium term settlement
and socio-economic strategies in order to reduce
anthropic pressures on coastal areas through
the regulation of urban settlements and productive
activities, the delocation of highly hazardous
activities and the creation of incentives for those
which are compatible with the environment;
the preservation of wild areas;
the drafting of sectoral and sustainable
development environmental indicators to ensure
the compliance and achievement of environmental
objectives;
the development of technologies able to reduce
pollution created by urban settlements and
industrial activities;
actions especially devised to replace the
exploitation of natural and cultural resources and
the depletion of habitats with a fruition oriented
towards the preservation of nature;
the promotion of cultural and recreational
activities to avoid seasonal nature of tourist flows.
Indicators must be defined according to the components
they refer to (ecological integrity, economic efficiency,
social equity and cultural heritage protection) and the
ecological or socio-economic processes they are used
for. Moreover, the following factors must be taken into
due account: bio-geo-chemical cycles, bio-diversity,
human pressure, impacts caused by the use of resour-
ces. Key indicators have been listed in table 3.
Legal tools. Barcelona’s Convention deals with the inte-
grated management of sea environment and coastal
areas. The RaMoGe agreement, an Italian, French and
Monegasque Treaty, regulates the protection of seawa-
ter. Italy signed and ratified the Treaty respectively in
1976 and in 1980 (Act 746); Act 979/82 introduces the
concept of sea protection and protection of the coastal
areas against pollution but also as the promotion and
valorisation of the marine resources; Legislative Decree
112/98 clearly distinguishes between functions and
duties of national interest and the responsibilities con-
ferred on regional and local authorities. A central tool is
represented by the land use planning scheme: general
town planning scheme, major development schemes,
sectoral plans, emergency plans. Further useful tools are
the economic instruments, the voluntary agreement with
the sectors of the economy, technological answers,
communication, research and education.
Nature and biodiversity
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Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Table 3 Objectives, indicators and targets for the protection and sustainable use of nature, biodiversity, soil and sea
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Preservation
of biodiversity
Protection of the territory against
hydro-geological, seismic and
volcanic risks as well as coastal
erosion
Reduction and prevention
of the desertification
Preservation, protection and sustainable use of both biotic and abiotic natural resources;
Protection and preservation of the natural and cultural heritage,
with particular attention to the Mediterranean area;
Development of both traditional and innovative land management techniques towards
the preservation of the biodiversity;
Promotion of the biosafety;
Prevention and reduction or elimination of the impact on ecosystems, habitats and
native species against the introduction of non native species.
The overall understanding of ecosystems and scientific related issues,
with particular attention to the pressure exerted on the biosphere (flora and fauna)
and on the integrity of territories;
Improvement of the efficiency of monitoring, protection and surveillance systems.
Extension of cultivations, adoption of good agricultural practices, adoption of biological
and eco-compatible practices and a sustainable management of forests.
Recovery of the functionality of agricultural and natural systems in mountain, hill,
plain and sea areas;
Development of employment within the sustainable use of natural resources sector.
The development of a legal framework for the regulation and the safe management
of the territory;
Increase the safety of high-risk areas;
Adjust the existing building heritage;
Increase the safety of high-risk plants;
Increase the safety of infrastructure facilities in high-risk areas and of strategic buildings;
Create supporting tools to decision-making networks;
Development of the zoning of dangerousness and risks;
Promote research activities.
Protect coasts from erosion and coastal areas from natural and anthropic subsidence phenomena.
Recover the full functionality of farm and natural systems;
Look after the maintenance of mitigation works;
Insurances;
Reduce the taxation on territory reclamation activities;
Streamline procedures.
Set up an information database;
Development of procedures, tools and guidelines for Local Administration authorities;
Adoption of consensus policies towards stabilizing interventions and land management
methodologies;
Introduction of new regulations for land planning;
Improve the quality and the capabilities of interventions of local communities
against natural disasters.
Updating of the national forest inventory and the proposal of a new Framework Act and
a new forest plan;
Development of the nursery production;
The management of the territory which take into account the peculiarities of the specific soil;
Valorisation and co-ordination of Regional services.
Improve the efficiency of fire-prevention systems.
Adoption of environmental-friendly farm production systems;
Increase of the organic fraction coming from the separated collection of urban solid
waste and of agricultural waste for the production of high-quality compost;
Monitoring of the pressure exerted on vulnerable areas by tourism activities.
Hydraulics and forestal arrangement of mountain basins.
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39
Nature and biodiversity
INDICATORS TARGETS
Percentage of endangered species out of total native species;
Surface of intensively cultivated lands;
Use of the soil: shift from natural to built area;
Agro-pastoral surfaces per altitude;
Logged surface out of total woodlands;
Floodplain areas surface occupied by settlements and infrastructure facilities;
Transformation of natural, historical and cultural space;
Percentage of protected areas out of the national territory.
Surface of organic farming and brushwood areas out of total surface;
Forester surface certified for the sustainable management.
Number and surface of protected areas, earth and marine parks;
Number of persounel for the management of parks and activities
in the protected areas.
Number of employees involved in the management of parks and
activities within protected areas.
Number of municipalities for which the state of natural disaster
have been declared;
Number of people stroken by extreme hydro-geological events;
High risks areas with regards to the legislation in force.
Change of the coastline.
Total money values and ratio between State investments for emergency
interventions and investments for prevention works.
Number of municipalities for which the state of natural disaster
have been declared.
Extension of burned areas.
Reduction of endangered species to 1% of the total number
of species;
Having achieved the reduction of 10% by 2000, the same
reduction by 2012 is predictable together with a deep
analysis of environmental benefits and an open confrontation
with stakeholders.
Development of efficient prevention policies and of sustainable
mitigation interventions (reduction of human, natural, social
and economic losses due to natural disasters).
Functional and landscaping recovery of the land and coast;
Favour the eco-compatible development of the weakest areas.
Acknowledge the importance of local economies;
Support the resilience of the territory;
Adopt a consensus policy at local level.
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40
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
follow Table 3
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Reduction of the pollution on inland
waters, marine environment and soils
Reduction of the anthropic
pressure on natural systems,
farm and forest areas,
sea and coasts
*ICCAT, stands for International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna.
Reduction and prevention of risks linked to the marine transport of hydrocarbons
and other dangerous substances.
Comply with environmental compatibility criteria for the exploitation of hydrocarbons.
Reduction of the impact of telluric pollution.
Reduction of the impact of sea-farming.
Improvement of the quality of bathing water.
Reduction of soil consumption, especially close to shorelines and most sensitive areas,
due to productive activities, infrastructure facilities and building activities;
Recovery of urban and residential buildings;
Revitalization of urban waterfronts;
Recovery and re-use of historical harbour areas for tourist and recreational purposes
and for advanced services;
Use of the harbour area fall into disuse;
Optimisation of the existing motorway network;
Renaturalization on non built urban areas;
Reclamation and environmental recovery of polluted sites.
Reorganization and management of tourism flows which exert extreme impacts
on systems and natural resources;
Promote good practices on the use of resources and containment of environmental
pressures due to holiday resorts.
Reduction of exploitation activities of resources and fish.
Reduction of the impact due to port activities and structures.
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41
Nature and biodiversity
INDICATORS TARGETS
Kg of TN and TP per tons of biomass produced each year.
Percentage of bathing shoreline.
Recovered or renaturalised areas (percentage of Km).
Number of sustainable holiday resorts activated or realized;
Number of resorts certified with EMAS, ISO 14000 and quality labels.
Percentage reduction of fishing fleet;
Percentage margin in weight and number of species and fishes
by unit of effort;
Percentage of young fishes caught and unloaded;
KW/h of fishing;
Tons by fishing tackle.
-100% by 31/12/2008.
100% of national shoreline.
-7% by 31/12/2001.
50% more than ICCAT* regulations on minimum size
allowed.
5
42
The quality of life, not only of human beings, relies on
the quality of environment, air, water, soil and food.
Human health itself cannot merely be explained as “a
lack of illness or insanity but it ought to be positively
defined as a social, mental and physical welfare”(WHO).
The way the environment affects our health is quite com-
plex, therefore many cases are still under investigation to
be thoroughly understood. However, people increasingly
think of environmental quality as a key welfare factor.
Long-term exposure to pollutants of environmental
matrix is likely to induce allergies, respiratory diseases,
degenerative and hormonal imbalances, disorders for
children, teenagers, elderly and disabled people. More-
over, a substantial number of severe pathologies are due
to environmental pollution. Therefore any health protec-
tion policy neglecting environmental quality would prove
to be inadequate. This will be the aim to be pursued for
sanitation reasons complying with preventive and pre-
cautionary principles, as well as ensuring acceptable liv-
ing standards for the population. The exploitation of nat-
ural resources itself is more gratifying in every day’s life
and not only in exotic areas or leisure time.
Human welfare is above all undermined by critical loads
on urban environment. For this reason towns have
become the best testing ground for general strategies of
sustainable development and for participatory initiatives
of citizens, namely local Agenda 21, attaining also
important ethic and strategic aims.
A large number of environmental key factors affect liv-
ing standards, especially in man-made areas. Some
social behaviours, such as unlawful building and field
crimes, bring about linked complex territorial and envi-
ronmental problems to be tackled with smart innovative
solutions.
Urban environment
The conditions of “urban environment” have increasing-
ly worsened so as to rank among the most critical envi-
ronmental issues. Recently this problem has become a
priority for the European and national political agendas.
Major investigations on Italian urban environment have
pointed out concentrations of coastal settlements
(accounting for 14% of the Italian territory where 30% of
its population lived in 1991) and the spreading of met-
ropolitan areas, where the main municipality maintains
the cultural, productive and administrative key role,
while citizens are moving their residence to the out-
skirts, but are still dependant on the main municipality
(in centre). As a result, a crucial point, made of issues
related to mobility, noise, atmospheric pollution and traf-
fic jams, the decline in the quality of urban living condi-
tions, is significantly reconfirmed. The use of public
transport is substantially declining while urban mobility
accounts for an ever increasing share of global mobility
and that of motor vehicles (30% of its total).
Therefore, in many urban areas the concentration of
nitrogen oxide emissions exceeds the yearly thresholds
and often also the general alarm and/or attention values
(1.6 million tons in 1985 accounted for 2.1 million tons
in 1992). In the last few years, however, the raise of nitro-
gen oxide emissions has slowed down due to the pro-
gressive renewal of vehicles circulating; recently carbon
monoxide emissions have reached a stable 9 million
tons per year and may further decrease over the medi-
um and long term as a result of more stringent rules on
emissions for motor-vehicles.
Eventually, the spread of unleaded petrol and catalytic
mufflers has curbed lead concentrations showing a slow-
er pace compared to any other European country. How-
ever other atmospheric pollutants are surging such as
summer photochemical smog, ozone, benzene and PM10
concentrations, as against EU new regulatory limit values.
It must be stressed that the same critical conditions
apply to urban noise records, largely exceeding their lim-
it value (many residential areas have even exceeded lim-
it values set for industrial sites).
Urban issues at stake such as waste, water pollution, soil
contamination, natural and technological hazards, emis-
sions which induce climate change, shrinkage of natu-
ral species and habitats have already been thoroughly
discussed. Within this framework, tools for governance
and for planning present urban development have
proved to be inadequate, due to different points of view
and administrative zonings which do not cope with envi-
ronmental issues and the most recent territorial modifi-
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Quality of life and environment
in urban areas
5
43
cations (i.e. an extreme administrative fragmentation
showing that the 72% out of 8,102 municipalities fea-
ture less than 5,000 inhabitants in Italy).
Finally, available analyses on the performance of local
policies point out a gap between central-northern
regions and southern regions, where town buildings are
spreading or undergoing a urban change but their
growth lacks the needed environmental policies to keep
these activities under control. In 1999, more than one
hundred municipalities in central-northern regions man-
aged to recycle over 50% of generated waste, while the
share of southern regions accounted for less than 3% of
the overall national recycling. Moreover, their waste dis-
posal through an atomised, often-uncontrolled landfill
system allows criminal organisations to prosper. Sur-
veys have shown that 70% of the families living in met-
ropolitan areas of the North-East can walk to a green
spot from their homes in 15 minutes, against approxi-
mately 40% of people living in the South and only 28.5%
in Palermo and 33.6% in Naples.
However, the changes in the Italian settlements are quite
restrained compared to European and non European
countries. Moreover Italian towns have kept in time
some of their most peculiar features such as their small-
medium size, well-knit communities, outstanding his-
torical and environmental texture, urban culture, man-
agement skills of most local authorities. These factors
mitigate the ongoing processes while contributing to a
potential positive shift. Many urban areas can rely on a
valuable strategic resource that is their own huge cul-
tural, historical and monumental heritage which
increasingly attracts tourists; as a result, in ten years
incomes from museums have tripled.
Recently, some regional and national government bodies
have increasingly shown their willingness to draft a
strategic plan while local authorities have launched envi-
ronmental initiatives eventually meeting worrisome
requests from lower level (field organisations, citizens)
and from the top one (EU). This positive trend witnesses
an increasing number of new environmental actors of
local administrations coupled with new strategic drafts
from governmental and regional levels.
Priorities, objectives and actions
The following overall objectives adapt to Italy the four
general priorities set by the European Commission in the
“Community Framework for co-operation to promote
sustainable urban development ”(COM 605/1998):
Territorial rebalance. A balanced urban and
country planning to be pursued at a
national level taking into account geographical
peculiarities, curbing the exploitation of natural
areas and soils, promoting the optimal
management of physical resources and qualitative
standards for urban settlements. This shall solve
conflicting relations among different towns,
urban areas, rural and natural areas according
to polycentric principles, functional integration,
environmental sustainability and co-operation;
Enhanced urban environment quality.
The protection and improvement of the quality of
the environment in which we live (such as its air,
noise, waters, green areas, landscape and
aesthetic features) reduces the main negative
agents by ensuring adequate sanitation standards,
while reclaiming, in an environmental and social
way, buildings and public areas, restoring
buildings, Nature and common parks: this shall
imply “ad Hóc” interventions and measures
supporting the social integration and autonomy
of children, teenagers, elderly and disabled;
Sustainable use of environmental resources.
Promoting the sustainable use of natural
resources (i.e. power, water, raw materials, etc.)
by reducing pressures exerted on them also in
view of their overall exploitation rebounds, adopting
innovative solutions and behaviours,
according to the needed adjustment of services
and infrastructures;
Increase in value of local socio-economic
resources and their even distribution. Promoting
urban employment along with a sustainable
socio-economic development by strengthening
integrated planning, through synergetic growth
and co-operation of local economies
environmentally-targeted, fair distribution of
services and resources, enhanced urban social
integration, cohesion, sense of belonging,
cohabitation and liveability. In this view typical
social crafts must remain located in town
boroughs while good practises and environmental
commitments of enterprises must be supported;
Improve democratic participation and social
quality. It is essential to improve the integrated
environmental management skills and the local
popular participation to decision-making
processes, support the present environmental
innovation efforts of some urban areas and
promote the implementation in the urban areas
showing a greater delay.
Starting from the above-mentioned priorities, the spe-
cific goals of the environmental action plan have been
singled out referring to the following two basic principles
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
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of local environmental sustainability: the improvement of
urban and environmental quality and the reduction of urban
metabolism pressures on local and global resources.
Table 4 summarises these specific goals. Moreover, the
enlisted indicators have been selected to monitor and
improve in time the Strategy for sustainable develop-
ment. Therefore this list includes every type of indicator.
According to the present distribution of powers, the
steering and co-ordination functions are under central
state jurisdiction, representing a strategic element which
the national policy of sustainability for urban areas shall
rely on. Key functions will implement these specific
action lines. Every action line is a set of coherent sub-
actions better defining the contents and the action field.
First action line: strengthening and promoting sustainabil-
ity guidelines of Local plans (territorial and sectoral) and
their integration into local Agenda 21 processes through:
integration of sustainability as a criterion/
objective at a planning level for the territorial
economic development (sectoral plans and town
planning). Over the same territory a series of new
instruments, procedures, sectoral and separate
planning, overlaps each other bringing about
conflicts, inefficiencies and decision-making
paralysis. Local authorities are ever increasingly
endorsing through local Agenda 21 sustainable
development principles, which are not to be
regarded as a further planning level but rather as
a participative model to integrate environmentally-
sustainable targets into local planning.
The success of this action line is gauged by the
geographical spread and number of experiences
aimed at integrating sustainability in sectoral
plans, such as territorial, transport, waste plans
and so on;
strengthening of environmental sectoral planning
and its integration into Local Agenda 21 processes:
reintroducing local environmental planning
through Plans such as atmospheric and acoustic
treatment, urban traffic, power, waste, etc.
Promoting an increased co-ordination efficiency
and integrated approaches between sectoral and
territorial plans. Outlining and updating targets
and objectives of local plans, whenever not covered
by EU rules, in compliance with regional legislative
autonomy. Spreading more advanced planning
practices and methodological innovations aiming
at integrate sectoral planning and their utilization
to support local Agenda 21 processes in order
to improve their public-participation and action-
oriented feature. Outlining suitable instruments
which promote planning while strengthening
central monitoring of local plans.
Second action line: strengthening and promoting sus-
tainability guidelines of action Plans aiming at urban and
environmental re-qualification through:
enhancing the sustainable content of European
Structural Funds regarding the urban areas in
Objective 1 regions. Strengthening central and
regional government skills so as to steer
financial resources of Structural Funds towards
sustainability; preventively evaluating their
strategic environmental impact in relation to the
objectives set by this Plan for each environmental
factor;
auditing and re-launching the already-established
urban upgrading plans of the Ministry for Public
Works, monitoring the environmental
effectiveness, improving the strategic consistency,
social and environmental approach, co-ordinating
the plans with other environmental initiatives,
refinancing and spreading them;
re-launching nationally-established reclamation
plans: that is their monitoring, new financing,
spreading, improvement finalized to the promotion
of an integrated approach (land reclamation works,
demolition recycling, new urban functions,
construction planning of sustainable buildings);
identifying new and also experimental tools to
upgrade urban environment so as to address
priority or emerging issues not covered by any
specific subsidy yet. Among these:
- sustainable mobility projects, widening cycle-
pedestrian paths, increasing the diversification
and the availability of services for collective
transports, such as minibus by reservation call,
car sharing and carpooling, mobility
management, etc;
- promoting projects for environmental sustainability
in tourist, historical and coastal towns;
- natural reclamation projects and promotion of
ecological networks in urban and suburban areas;
- projects to speed-up and backup actions for
acoustic re-mediation;
- integrated upgrading projects in unauthorised
building areas;
- promotion of eco-compatible construction
techniques, of bio-engineering and
bio-construction techniques which will result into
energy and material savings, appropriate sanitary
standards, qualitative improvement of buildings;
the adoption of measures to allow full
independence and to favour social life for children,
teenagers, elderly and disables in urban
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
5
45
contexts - by interventions that, according
to Act 285 /1997, envisage:
- involvement of weak social classes in the
creation of projects (participation planning);
- accomplishment of safe routes;
- adoption of housing solutions fit to physical
disability and the removal of architectural
barriers in urban contexts as well as in
educational and public buildings;
- setting up spaces, meant in particular for
children which participate in their designing
and planning.
Third action line: use of fiscal levies and economic
measures to promote local sustainability by:
improving present fiscal and loan measures
associated with the upgrading of urban buildings,
after monitoring their present efficiency;
enhancing incentive schemes for tariffs, taxes
implying the exploitation of environmental
resources, the consumption of goods and services
such as water, waste, electricity, public transport,
private cars, electrical appliances in order
to develop a system which encourages or
discourages behaviours of citizens and
entrepreneurs with respect to the environmental
objectives;
implementing the introduction of eco-efficient
practices and alternative energy sources in
accommodation facilities, tourist settlements,
recreational and sport centres;
supporting the introduction of innovative
management tools, such as Project financing,
service contracts, etc.
Fourth action line: promoting a sustainable managerial
and administrative innovation within the system of local
institutions through:
outline and promotion of organisational
innovations in the local public administration;
gradual migration from traditional field and
hierarchical competence assignment to a more
flexible approach adjusting to evolution and
fulfilling specific “targeted functions” identified
and agreed upon through sustainable planning
processes of development, such as local Agenda 21;
applying to local policies, procedures of strategic
environmental assessment, such as plans,
programs, regulations, administrative acts;
outlining procedural contexts and types along
with general criteria adaptable to different
local circumstances to preventively assess the
impact of local policies on local and global
sustainability goals;
introducing “conveniences” and reward
mechanisms. Setting goals to assess the
performance of the local public personnel, along
with economic incentives bound to environment
and sustainability achievements; priority allocation
in national public financing for bodies - such
as local Agenda 21- having started an integrated
and shared planning;
supporting the co-operation among metropolitan
and municipal authorities and government
initiatives through a new approach envisaging
tables of equal confrontation among provinces
and municipalities, backing provinces or
government bodies operating in wide jurisdictions
due to the co-ordination role or backup role of
authorities for small-medium sized municipalities
as far as sustainability is concerned.
Fifth action line: improving the environmental government
skills and participation to decision-making processes at
a local level through:
achievement, review and possible re-launch of
actions recently promoted by the central State,
to ease the endeavours of local authorities with
regards to local Agenda 21 and joint integrated
planning, and to reduce the difficulties of the
most delaying areas. We, refer to initiatives
of national authorities, already established and
under way, such as Prizes for Sustainable Towns
and for Children’s Town; support the creation of
alliances and networks amongst local authorities;
Urban Quality Observatory and the national
system of urban indicators; scientific support
to local Agenda 21 in small and medium size
towns; financing “ad Hóc” shared environmental
plans; local Agenda 21 guidelines; observatory
and data bank of local good practices;
targeted training for public administration;
targeted information for citizens through the Italian
state television and radio channels; Acts on
environmental accounting; support and
co-ordination of the EU project on local indicators;
new initiatives to promote innovative tools
of integrated environmental management in the
Public administration: such as “ad Hóc” economic
incentives (i.e. tender co-financing) and technical
aid (i.e. guidelines, training, pilot projects, etc.)
to spread analysis and knowledge filing systems
(i.e. sustainability indicators, ecological footprint,
environmental accounting, etc.); participation
planning experiences such as local Agenda 21;
innovative tools to promote dialogue between
public administration and citizens;
techniques and tools to promote partnerships
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
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46
with no-profit sectors and improvement tools
for the relationship between public and private;
environmental certification and innovation
of public administrations for activities under
their direct competence such as pilot projects
to implement environmentally-oriented
purchasing policies among local authorities;
EMAS or ISO 14001 procedures applied by the
Environmental Action Plan parties under
the exclusivity of the Public Administration
authority; EMAS and ISO procedures enforced by
state companies which offer public services;
support the active role of local administrations
favouring environmental innovation within local
enterprises: such as the promotion of EMAS and
ISO environmental certification within enterprises
of public and/or private services; information
campaigns on EMAS and clean technologies;
accentuate the environmental role of unique
counter, developing benchmarking and a
management system of permit/licence targeted
to promote positive agreements (lower taxes or
local penalties in exchange of high environmental
performances).
Air quality
Atmospheric pollution causes the degradation of air
quality and of depositions which damage soils, surface
water, vegetation, materials and architectural heritage.
Nitrogen and sulphur depositions result into acidification
and eutrophication phenomena. Nitrogen oxides and
volatile organic components exposed to sun rays gener-
ate ozone. This in turn reduces respiratory functions and
causes mucous inflammation. High ozone concentra-
tions damage crops by reducing the crop yield, the
forests by decreasing their photosynthetic activity, plas-
tics, paints and textile fibres.
Therefore, once discharged, these substances are car-
ried by the wind and scattered by storms and eventual-
ly transformed by the presence of water and light or by
their mutual interactions. Thus concentrations or depo-
sitions in the soil found in a given area, come from near
or far-away places, hundreds of kilometres away, giving
rise to a trans-boundary pollution. According to esti-
mates in 1997, 75% of sulphur, 70% of nitrogen oxides,
47% of ammonia released in Italy cross national borders.
While 58% of sulphur, 30% of nitrogen oxide and 12% of
ammonia depositions in Italy come from other countries.
In Italy the EU policies and the conversion of industrial
processes have brought to lower lead and sulphur emis-
sions and, in turn, substantial lower lead and sulphurous
anhydride concentrations in the atmosphere, while
emissions from common sources such as transport and
agriculture have been increasingly restrained, with the
exception of lead emissions.
The interactions between the economic system and air
quality can be understood taking into account:
energy production mainly relies on fossil fuels;
Italian industrial system is mainly based on
SMEs, whose size and territorial scattering hardly
allow the development of technological innovation
to reduce the impact on the environment;
share of transport emissions is predominating
and not showing any significant downward
swing;
private transport exceeds public transport in
urban areas;
tourist pressure on valuable sites causes intense
emissions due to traffic;
the Italian artistic and historical heritage is con-
centrated mainly in towns, so it is significantly
exposed to highly-polluting concentrations
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Figure 7
Pressure factors on air quality in Italy:
acidifiers and ozone precursors (EU HL 3 and 4)
1990-based index-numbers
5%
0%
-5%
-10%
-15%
-20%
-25%
1990 1993 1996 1999
Acidifiers: NOx, SO2 and NH3
Ozone precursors:
No-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds,
NOx, CH4, CO
Note: reference year values
NOx, SO2 and NH3 = 6.1 Mt eq
NO-METHANE VOLATILE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS, NOx, CH4, CO= 9.3 Mt TOPF
Source: National Environment Protection Agency, 2001.
5
47
and damaging depositions;
degradation, in terms of quality and healthiness
of urban spaces, strongly affects social life;
the peculiarity of the Mediterranean area
aggravates ozone and dust pollution phenomena
due to the overall weather and climate conditions.
SO2 emissions, mainly discharged by power and manu-
facturing industries, decreased ever since 1980, also as
a consequence of the conversion to methane of house-
hold heating systems; instead, between 1980 and 1992
emissions of nitrogen oxides constantly increased,
showing only later a decreasing trend. Pollution from
road transport accounted for a major share of the total
quota. Road transport is the main polluting source for
Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds, generating
46% out of an overall 2,276 kiloton emissions in 1997,
followed by solvents accounting for 25%. Benzene, a
natural compound of the oil and derivatives, is one of the
best known Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compound; it
may be generated during oil refining process and it is
released during combustion and evaporation processes;
it causes cancers, including lymphomas and leukaemia;
however 65% of these pollutants come from road trans-
port. Moreover, in 1997 road transport produced 72% of
carbon monoxide, CO, 46% of Volatile Organic Com-
pounds, 53% of nitrogen oxides and more than 24% of
carbon dioxide emissions.
“Suspended dusts” and “particulate matter” are gener-
al terms referring to a wide range of different substances
from a physical and chemical point of view, different-
sized liquid or solid particles. Approximately, about 70-
80% of total suspended particles has a diameter below
10mm. At present no statistical data regarding long-
term polluting powder emissions are available in Italy,
while some EC Autooil 2 outlooks estimate approxi-
mately 250,000 tons per year, 20% of which origin from
the industrial and transport system.
In 1997, 71% of carbon monoxide, CO, was generated
by road transport, while a mere 13% by fixed household
and industrial burning sources. In 1991 CO emissions
peaked to over 8,000 kt/year.
Over 1988-1997, ammonia/NH3 emissions kept steady,
reaching an overall yearly release slightly below 500
kt/year. In 1997, 92% of the emissions were released
by agriculture and breeding while the share of emissions
from manufacturing processes decreased by 60% over
the last decade. Nitrogen compounds in depositions
spread into water as nutrients affecting algae growth
and the quality of drinkable water.
Most heavy metals and persistent organic compounds
are hardly soluble in water, so they concentrate in bot-
tom sediments and organisms where they perform a tox-
ic activity. Nitrates and sulphates are the main cause of
acid depositions, mainly deriving from nitrogen and sul-
phur oxides generated by the combustion of vehicles,
households and industries.
Water acidity, above set levels, intoxicates organisms
and worsens the toxicity of other compounds, such as
heavy metals.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Framework Directive 62/1996/EC on air quality, pre-
scribes a complex system of laws and methodologies,
endorsed by Law Decree 351/1999, together with the
international commitments pledged by Italy, favour the
outline of strategies to reduce the atmospheric pollution.
Energetic, industrial and agricultural sectors can support
the use of Best Available Techniques, through incentives
and taxations to reduce emissions. Regarding the trans-
port sector, road mobility must be restrained especially
in urban areas. General objectives to be pursued are:
reducing pollutant emissions in the atmosphere;
no value must exceed critical loads and levels
set by international protocols;
keeping pollutant concentrations within such limits
as to exclude severe and chronic pathologies;
ensuring a constant improvement of air quality
over the years so as to prevent damages to the
artistic heritage, natural ecosystems and crops.
The set of indicators is made up by hourly concentra-
tions of different pollutants; EU and national regulations
establish value limits for each pollutant, which may be
exceeded only for a few days within a year. Sectoral indi-
cators are useful to check the quality and quantity of
emissions; urban environment indicators are particular-
ly important. The AOT40 indicator is used to assess the
impact of atmospheric pollution on agricultural and
forestry species, by measuring the exposure to tropos-
pheric ozone beyond 40 ppb value limit concentration.
The scientific achievements on atmospheric pollution
and consequences affected significantly EU legislation
and Convention Protocols on Transboundary Pollution;
regulated pollutants increased; the usefulness of mod-
els of analysis, simulating the dispersion, has been
acknowledged and the interdependency of events,
which once was dealt with separately (acidification,
eutrophication, tropospheric ozone and climatic change
effects) has been understood. Reductions in pollutant
emissions are established according to the capacity of
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
5
48
receptive systems to absorb certain depositions. Proto-
cols and Directives are pivoted on a model analysis bro-
ken down into the following four mutually integrated
modules: emissions, critical value limits or air quality
objectives, atmospheric conveyance, dispersion and
chemical alteration, abatement costs. This setting up
resulted into the identification for each country of emis-
sion reduction objectives which may vary according to a
cost-effectiveness analysis and the vulnerability of
ecosystems, which led to the Göthenburg’s Multi-pollu-
tants and Multi-effects Protocol signed the 1st of
December 1999.
The scheduled quantitative objectives and actions are
enclosed within the Protocols of Geneva’s Convention on
Transboundary Pollution (NEC- National Emission Ceil-
ings), within the directives stemming from EC Frame-
work Directive 62/1996 on each pollutant concentration,
within the Directive 72/92/EC concerning tropospheric
ozone (see table 5). Obviously every country can adopt
more demanding objectives taking into account partic-
ular requirements, such as the case of natural and archi-
tectural heritage.
Among medium-term priority actions, particular impor-
tance is given to the integration of policies as well as to
the improvement of the range of tools needed to audit,
control and analysis. Actions for improving air quality
can be divided into four categories:
actions finalised to improve the knowledge of
phenomena and their origin as well as to monitor
changes;
actions finalised to reduce emissions from
electric power generation (alternative sources)
and industrial pollutants, resorting to the best
available techniques;
actions setting emission limits or bans to certain
pollutants;
actions aiming at drastically cutting the
transportation share, especially urban traffic
share, so as to prevent the worsening of air quality
through mobility rationalisation, the promotion of
lower polluting transport modes, the introduction
of zero or low emission vehicles, engines and fuels.
Technological and enforcement tools are ruled by two
main approaches:
an integrated planning for urban and
metropolitan development: applying atmospheric
impact assessment and Strategic Environmental
Assessments to town planning, since every
settlement generates and attracts traffic flows.
On a large-scale, within local authorities
resorting to Geographical Information Systems
integrated with forecasting-analysing models;
application of forecasting and modelling tools:
the outline and assessment of strategies to
reduce emissions must be based on instruments
simulating pollution phenomena and on the
analysis of settings and costs, displaying links
between sources, air concentrations and soil
depositions.
These actions demand tools and resources under gov-
ernmental competence, such as drafting a legislative
provision with relevant guidelines and backup schemes
to promote the adoption of new methodologies by local
authorities. Moreover, granting funds must rely on the
fulfilment of air quality objectives.
Indoor air quality and radon
The exposure to pollutants in confined environments,
such as residences and working places, result prevail-
ing compared to the exposure in outdoor environments,
since most people live indoor 80% of their time. The
World Health Organisation recently estimated that 30%
of the buildings in industrialised countries show prob-
lems which could cause disorders and/or diseases for
the occupants.
Confined environments are affected by chemical, bio-
logical and radioactive pollutants, such as radon, a noble
gas released by soil, water and building materials. Radon
and smoking are regarded as the main risk factors for
the induction of lung cancer. Reducing air changes to
save energy, utilisation of unsuitable materials and tech-
nologies can raise pollutant concentrations.
Directive 89/106/EC, adopted by Presidential Decree
246/1993, introduces the “indoor air, health and sanita-
tion requirement” so as to prevent hazards induced by
harmful agents in indoor areas. Directive 96/29/EC,
adopted with Law Decree 241/00, dictates the protec-
tion from radon for citizens and workers. State and
regional laws together with some municipal sanitation
and construction regulations deal with energy and envi-
ronment aspects linked to the building industry. Act
61/98 imposes to earthquake-stricken regions, inter-
ventions to meet eco-architecture and energy saving
specifications. The recovery plan for degraded bor-
oughs, the so-called “District Contracts” devised by the
Ministry of Public Works, urges upgrading for public res-
idential area.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
5
49
Priorities, objectives and actions
The best remedies are the traditional ones: monitoring
sources, plant maintenance and indoor ventilation.
Appliances must be regularly checked by skilled per-
sonnel. The building design must be based on an indi-
cator list and concentration limits in confined environ-
ments according to the specific use. Diagnostic tools and
mathematical models must allow the evaluation of the
spread of indoor pollutants and the risks of exposure.
The main objectives are the following:
reducing indoor exposure in high radon release
areas;
striking a balance between health and comfort
conditions and power saving requirements;
converting the building industry through
the promotion of Eco-compatible products.
As to radon, the essential measures to be taken are:
identification of geographical areas with a high
radon potential;
detection of potential sources and relative access
of radon in buildings;
outline of survey methodologies and monitoring
techniques (protocols of measure);
drafting guidelines for interventions of prevention
inside new buildings and the improvement of
existing buildings.
Concerning the regrading of buildings, two categories of
actions are envisaged:
The development of systems for monitored,
safe and efficient ventilation in buildings which host
service activities:
control and ventilation of sources to optimise
indoor air quality and the use of energy in
the buildings;
development of monitoring systems of air condi-
tioning and air quality.
Technological innovation and introduction of assess-
ment tools for indoor environmental quality in residen-
tial buildings:
singling out indicators for environmental quality
state of buildings;
improving a survey protocol for an efficient
characterisation of buildings;
validating diagnostic tools;
assessing the damages caused by construction
materials and components.
Noise
The noise level in urban areas has increased, exceeding
in many cases ordinarily bearable limits. Acoustic pollu-
tion has spread in space, affecting outskirts and sub-
urbs, and in time, during the night, holidays and during
the time for recreational activities.
In 1984, 130-million people of OECD countries were
exposed to unacceptable noise levels. At present, the
elements allow us to assume that this figure has sub-
stantially increased. This has been due to spreading
urbanisation, population density and traffic growth. In
OECD countries, vehicles have tripled (cars, trucks, bus-
es and motorcycles) in the last twenty years while air
traffic has increased ten times in terms of passengers
per kilometre in the same period.
Noise and air pollution reach the highest peaks in met-
ropolitan areas, thus causing damages and distur-
bances. Road circulation and industrial sites bring about
the uttermost noise contamination, while this usually
decreases within civil buildings. Noise exposure greatly
differs from town to town or within the same town
between boroughs according to the habits and lifestyles
of the inhabitants.
According to WHO, night noise must undergo at least a
5 dB(A) reduction, although most Italian towns fail to
comply with such issue. The “Framework Act on Acoustic
Pollution” 447/95 has first introduced in Europe the con-
cept of acoustic limits for the following categories:
emission, intended as a maximum noise level
from an acoustic source, according to the
acoustic zoning of the territory, determined in
its closeness;
intake, related to the acceptable value limits
for receptors, released into the environment by
several sources, according to the territorial
acoustic zoning;
differential, a value to be added to the above
stated value limits, which establish a maximum
allowed increase from a single source, throughout
the day and night, within living environments;
attention, a short-time value limit beyond which
local authorities are obliged to take steps and
implement remedial plans;
quality, target values for territorial planning and
remedial activities.
The framework act has not been fully implemented yet,
however all value limits have been established, togeth-
er with measuring and survey techniques (such as
methodologies and equipment), criteria and priorities for
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
5
50
remedial plans and interventions, regulations for the main
transport infrastructures, roads (incomplete), rail way
networks and airport systems, for recreational resorts
and civil housing. Furthermore the role of local and cen-
tral administrations and of qualified subjects have been
defined for monitoring and regulating activities.
Technical acoustic tools for monitoring and measure-
ments have reached a satisfying level of development,
in particular for noise spreading modelling and sound-
level measurement tools. Technological progress has
developed accurate and complex systems which allow
measurement methodologies with a high level of preci-
sion and completeness of the information. Moreover, the
establishment of qualified technicians on noise emis-
sions in the environment, requiring different specialisa-
tion levels, precise targets and responsibilities, has sig-
nificantly stretched the chances of employment.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Overall reduction of emissions and exposures is the first
priority, according to different areas and urban functions,
complying with national law binding limits. Moreover, the
share of population exposed to excessive noise levels
needs to be restrained.
Change in consumption patterns and behaviours, such
as consciously renouncing to some consumer goods and
noisy habits, will prove essential to bring the environ-
mental quality standards to acceptable levels. In fact, the
noise problem has often been underestimated, although
this might be due to an inevitable adaptation process.
However, noise-induced damages can range from a
possible increase of audibility limits, to nervous and cir-
culatory pathologies. These risks represent a negative
inheritance of the society in which we live, that irreme-
diably jeopardises the quality of life of people and the
relationships, creating great difficulties in activities such
as learning and communicating.
The problem of urban noise can be hardly tackled due to
the complexity and the presence of numerous sources.
The acoustic management of the urban enviroment
emphasizes the following priorities:
acoustic zoning: a territorial subdivision into
homogenous areas of urbanisation and subject
to different acoustic limits, both during day
and night;
acoustic mapping: an acoustic data collection
related to the territory to be compared to the
limits of acoustic zoning (see previous point);
drafting the “risk maps”, which allow to assess
the actual impact on the health of people exposed;
planning upgrading interventions, in particular
for airports, road and railway networks;
acoustic impact assessment for the realisation,
modification or improvement of outstanding
works, such as airports, roads and railways, or
for any other actions which affect the urban
acoustic climate.
Territorial planning must outline the areas in the territo-
ry with a different dynamic evolution, eventually rede-
veloping noisy areas by matching social, economic,
technical and political competences.
A correct approach is linked to prevention; therefore
decision-making processes on territorial actions ought
to take into account acoustic issues at all levels (select-
ing architectural types, the structure of settlements, and
road networks). Acoustic remediation and zoning plans
demand wide interconnections with any other territorial
governance tool, such as town planning, mobility and
energy plans (integrated policies).
Any action undertaken must be linked to local Agenda
21 processes: to define environmental targets or for their
achievement through the creation of consensus, interest
sharing, synergies, new tools, human and financial
resources.
Noise generations must be tackled by changing person-
al behaviours and lifestyles towards a correct fruition of
verbal communication and the security of suitable stan-
dards of comfort and rest to be achieved through edu-
cational campaigns.
It is essential to invest in monitoring the implementation
state of legislation at a Local Administration level in order
to detect defaulting situations or particularly critical con-
ditions which might lead to a new improved allocation of
funds for environmental reclamation.
Electromagnetic pollution
According to the scientific findings of WHO, static elec-
tromagnetic fields, due to extremely low frequencies or
high intensity radio frequencies and microwaves, may
undermine human health due to the warming of tissues,
discharges and induced waves. On the other hand con-
sequences on human health from the exposure to low
intensity magnetic and electromagnetic fields have not
been scientifically proved
6
. Therefore, risk perception on
these hazards have prompted the WHO to urge further
researches on the exposure to electromagnetic fields in
order to assess their potential consequences on human
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
5
51
health, recommending standard research methodologies.
Acute and provisional effects from high intensity expo-
sures are well-known; effects from long lasting low
intensity exposures are perceived as highly hazardous
thus rousing widespread concerns. Health and environ-
ment monitoring is essential to ensure compliance with
rules as well as a correct information for citizens and
administrators.
Framework Act 36/01 on the protection from exposures
to electromagnetic fields, presents as a core issue the
precautionary principle:
envisages exposure limits, attention values
7
and
quality targets
8
, to protect the health of citizens
and workers;
envisages the creation of a national and a
regional inventory on electromagnetic sources
as tools for territorial planning and monitoring
emissions;
rules on the institution of remediation for
present plants;
entrusts the network of Regional Environmental
Protection Agencies with surveillance and
monitoring tasks for plants;
envisages labelling for commercial products,
specifying their exposure value to generated
electromagnetic field in order to better protect
consumers.
Decrees which implement the Framework Act point at
exposure limits to electric fields of 3 to 3,000 MHz of
20V/m (60 V/m for electric fields lower than 3 MHz), set-
ting values of attention and quality at 6 V/m for highly
crowded places or with a level of permanence above
four hours per day. Moreover, suggested exposure limits
as to industrial frequency magnetic fields (50 Hz)
account for 100µT; attention values and quality objec-
tives respectively stand at 10 and 3µT. A widespread sci-
entific literature, in particular the reports of the National
Institute of Health, points out a close link between chil-
dren’s leukaemia and magnetic fields.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Health hazards must be tackled through a two way
process: by promoting emission reduction and energy
saving, by implementing monitoring and knowledge
development policies to pursue the following targets:
exposure reduction when the conditions which
are defined as the most critical;
the reduction of conflicts through a detailed
information and the implementation of tools
of local concertation;
the improvement of the efficiency of sources.
The essential actions are:
design of innovative tools; outline of quality control
and standard protocols along with cross
calibration of measuring tools;
training of qualified personnel on the entire
national territory;
starting-up redevelopment for unregulated
circumstances
9
together with
the installation of new UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System) sources;
monitoring the emission sources.
In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, a
National Thematic Centre (CNT) on physical agents has
been established. It must co-ordinate the achievement
of a National Electromagnetic Register, collecting data
related to geographic localisation, to national EM radia-
tion sources and their physical characterisation.
Genetically Modified Organisms
The development of new technologies of recombinant
DNA allows the production and use of Genetically Modi-
fied Organisms (GMO). These organisms are made up by
a new combination of genetic materials.
The present two folded debate deals, on one hand, with
bio safety and bioethics, obviously entailing economic
aspects; on the other hand, with a potential contribution
to development and sustainability. The introduction in
the environment of new species makes it difficult to fore-
cast long-term ecosystem rebounds. Decisions must be
taken after an accurate risk assessment, according to
precautionary principles. Bio-diversity protection relies
on the evaluation of the introduction of peculiar GMO to
previously assess its possible environmental conse-
quences. At a national, international and European Union
level, given complex factors and potential interactions at
stake, a precautionary approach is prevalent, as a lack
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
6) “Low intensity” means under those values envisaged by the Council of Europe 1999’s Recommendation.
7) “Attention values” not to be exceeded in housing and schooling areas and in prolonged permanence places.
8) “Quality objectives” that is plants’ and appliances’ emission values to be achieved over the short, medium and long term, through available technologies’ and
remediation methodologies’ resort, taking into account potential long-term consequences.
9) Law 36/01 Executive Decree tends to focus decontamination interventions on the people exposed to above 3µT industrial frequency magnetic fields,
allocating 1,500 million euro.
5
52
of damage evidence shall not hinder further steps
towards human health and environmental protection.
Main concerns on GMO releases in the environment are:
health hazards: food and fodder safety and
toxicity, induction of allergies, development of
drug resistance, in particular antibiotics, from
pathogens;
environmental hazards: transgenic instability and
unpredictability of genetic expression, undesirable
persistence and transgenic dispersion (genetic
pollution hazard) induction of resistance/tolerance
in target organisms, susceptibility induction
in organisms not targeted, increase in the use
of chemical compounds in agriculture;
agricultural hazards: appearance or increase of
weed infestations, increase in the use of pesticides,
alteration in nutritional value of fodder or
foodstuff, bio-diversity loss and the reduction
of types of employed cultivations, conflicts in
the regulation of typical products;
general problems: costs increase, ethical and
legal concerns, difficulties of identification by
consumers and of acceptance by the public opinion;
patents and intellectual property problems:
patents for vegetable species and related farmers
economic dependence, especially in developing
countries.
Spreading and marketing of transgenic plants is under
discussion within the United Nations Conference on Bio-
diversity; in turn the 1999’s Cartagena COP5 has worked
on this issue to draft a paper agreed upon as Montreal’s
Protocol on Bio-safety in 2000. Sixty-four countries,
among them Italy, have signed this Protocol in May
2000, in Nairobi. This Protocol envisages a participated
agreement among countries on GMO transboundary
movements implying environmental release and “ad
Hoc” rules on GMO contained raw materials. For the first
time, the Protocol clearly prescribes the precautionary
approach and resort to information system that is Bio
safety Clearing House as an official tool to exchange bio
safety information among involved parties. Other inter-
national agencies deal with GMO related issues, such as
FAO, through its Commission for Vegetable Genetic
Resources, and Codex Alimentarius, FAO and WHO joint
board, in particular involved in food security.
The EEC Directive 90/219 - endorsed by Law Decree
91/93, later modified by the EC Directive 98/81, adopted
by Law Decree 206/01 - regulates GMO contained use in
order to protect workers and the environment during
research and manufacturing activities. EC Directive
2001/18, which disciplines GMO deliberate release in the
environment, is under adoption and has recently
repealed the EEC Directive 90/220. GMOs and their deriv-
ative products designed for human feeding are subject
to an assessment procedure according to EC Regulation
97/258 that is “novel food and novel food ingredients”.
In Europe, since the EC Regulation 97/258 came into
force, over 1,600 experimental applications for environ-
mental release have been notified, of which 275 in Italy
(up to September 2000), so that Italy ranks second
among European countries, after France and before the
United Kingdom. Most applications refer to modifications
of genetically modified plants increasing their resistance
to insects or their tolerance to some herbicides.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Priority objectives are:
promoting technical and scientific knowledge
and supplying correct exhaustive information to
the general public;
adjusting national measures to those
commitments endorsed at an international level,
in particular applying assessment procedures on
GMO hazards before their market introduction;
monitoring and testing the environmental impact
of releases of biotechnological products and
safety of foodstuffs on sale.
The following set of measures must be implemented:
promoting public and private research on bio
safety of biotechnological applications in the agro
industrial, zoo technical and fish farming sectors;
developing biotechnological applications removing
GMO environmental release, for the environmental
safeguard and recovery (such as water and soil
depuration and reclamation treatments, water
and soil matrixes, deep desulphurization
of distillates and crude oils) as well as in the
energetic sector (as new fuels);
drafting a National Bio safety Research Plan to
supply exhaustive solutions to the potential
impact of GMOs;
starting up a multi-centred information system
especially designed for decision-makers,
technicians, information providers, media-jour
nalists, educators, consumers and public opinion;
setting up a National Surveillance System on the
environmental impact of food security release
and of genetically modified products;
setting up an “ad Hoc” school to train and update
monitoring operators;
urging voluntary agreements among concerned
parties on the release of GMO products;
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
5
53
notifying operations to assess and transfer risks,
as envisaged by Cartagena’s Protocol on Bio safety;
outlining tracking procedures for GMO
manufacturing processes, that is labelling their
processing rather than their final products,
just as organic farming;
drafting an environmental liability bill covering
damages induced by GMO.
Food security
Food security should be intended in its wide and strate-
gic meaning as a guaranteed individual and collective
food healthiness, closer to the perceptions of con-
sumers. Food security recalls the need for a correct and
balanced diet, public information (through schools and
media), preventive actions regarding food risks, the right
of consumers for aware and motivated choices in such
a context where both enterprises and consumers take
on their own responsibilities.
Concerning food security, EU positions - stated in the
“White Paper on Food Safety”- and guidelines for a glob-
al integrated approach (“from fields to the table”) which
develops along the whole food chain, concerning every
party and industry liable for food safety, have been
acknowledged by Regulation 178/2002. In this formal
context, involved authorities have been entrusted with
monitoring tasks as well as with the implementation of
national control systems.
Priorities, objectives and actions
The key point for a strategy on food security consists of
reliable fodder and food tracking that is “ad Hoc” pro-
cedures allowing the monitoring of risks and the removal
of fodder and food from the market if it shows health
hazards. This integrated approach will lead to a more
dynamic, effective and consistent food policy, eliminat-
ing the inflexibility which restrained so far the timely
tackling of food hazards.
Risk analysis must include factors such as evaluations,
management (regulations and controls) and public infor-
mation. Decision-making procedures must also take into
account factors such as the precautionary principle,
environmental considerations, animal well-being, sus-
tainable agriculture, consumer expectations, suitable
information, etc.
However essential requirements for strong safety stan-
dards must comply with the safeguard of food peculiar-
ity, as enlisted by the Ministry of Forestry and Agricul-
tural Policies which recently issued the list of 2,171 Ital-
ian typical products (Ministerial Decree dated July 18
th
,
2000). Moreover, food safety measures must not impair
competition favouring large size enterprises to the detri-
ment of small size enterprises.
The following steps are needed to achieve the above-
stated aims:
setting up a system to monitor and supervise
food security integrating all sources, co-ordinating
and harmonising any action taken (by Local
Health Agencies, Zoo prophylaxis Institutes,
Carabinieri Anti-Adulteration Unit, Fraud Repression
Service of the Ministry of Forestry and Agricultural
Policies, Regional Environmental Protection
Agencies and other local authorities);
implementing a nation-wide food research
program, with regards to advanced technologies,
safe production and distribution processes,
assessment measures on contamination, chemical
risks and exposure, the role of nutrition in health
protection, harmonised systems of food analysis.
This research plan must also protect food
peculiarities and traditional production processes
as well as craftsmanship of enterprises, taking
into account foods of animal-origin and foods
for weaning babies;
supporting the spread of self-checking corporate
procedures (HACCP), as prescribed by EC
Directive 93/43, adopted in Italy with Law Decree
155/97, for all food process companies;
setting-up an independent food authority to act
as a national reference in compliance with the
European Regulation 178/2002, entrusted with
hazard assessments and communication issues
on food safety. For this purpose, competences
presently assigned to different ministries
(respectively to the Ministry of Health, Ministry
for Forestry and Agricultural Policies, Ministry
of Productive Activities) and bodies (the National
Institute of Health, Zoo prophylaxis Institutes,
Local Health Agencies, National Research Institute
on Food and Nutrition, Frauds Repression
Headquarters, Carabinieri for Environmental
Protection, etc) must be promoted and co-ordinated;
setting-up an efficient monitoring system, to be
jointly managed throughout the country. Official
controls must apply to each party involved in the
food production chain, from farming to
distribution and final consumption. To this regard,
the EC suggests a series of rules concerning
operational criteria, approaches, co-operation in
developing and managing the monitoring systems,
so as to offset failures of the national system;
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
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54
setting up an “ad Hoc” school to train and update
monitoring operators;
ensuring evenly-efficient systems for health
control at the EU boundaries in order to prevent
the risk of sanitary and environmental dumping;
supplying consumers with a correct exhaustive
information. To consider consumers as one of
the main concerned parties is essential:
- consumer information must include labels and
adverts, providing consumers with detailed key
information to allow an aware choice;
- risk communication;
- correct information on the nutritional value of food;
- informing the public on the principles for a
correct diet and nutrition, especially as far
as early childhood is concerned;
- information campaigns to train teachers and
for food education in schools.
Restraining the use of pesticides through organic farm-
ing, integrated control and the introduction of good agri-
cultural practices.
Legislative aspects raised by the EU White Paper on Food
Safety must be implemented through:
new legal framework for food and fodder
safety;
legislation for the evaluation, authorisation
and new food labelling (in particular for those
containing GMO);
animals health and well-being;
food sanitation;
residues and contaminants;
additives, flavourings, conditioning and irradiation;
products packaging;
emergency measures and alert systems.
Contaminated sites remediation
The contamination of sites causes an intake of polluting
substances into the main environmental matrices, espe-
cially soil, body surface water and ground water. Reme-
diation of sites and areas polluted by urban and indus-
trial waste does not only concern Italy, since a great
number of environmental emergencies occur in devel-
oping countries which do need co-operation and tech-
nological support. Up to 1980, Italy lacked an “ad Hoc”
Legal Framework; therefore uncontrolled dumping,
stockpiles of unsuitable waste and raw material, spilling
of dangerous substances by industrial plants created
thousands contaminated sites to be upgraded. The
analysis of Regional Remediation Plans, worked out by
regions in the early 90’s, points out the following aspects:
potentially contaminated sites: approximately 9,000;
first priority sites, short-term interventions:
approximately 500;
second priority sites, medium-term interventions:
approximately 1,100;
estimated cost for short-term interventions:
approximately 400 million euro;
estimated cost for medium-term interventions:
approximately 500 million euro.
Costs are quite underestimated, especially for the medi-
um-term interventions.
Interventions to upgrade polluted areas have been first
ruled by Act 441/87, urging regions to draft Regional
Remediation Plans to get an overall exhaustive picture
of polluted sites and areas. Ministerial Decree - dated
May 16
th
1989 - extended the census to unproductive
industrial size overlooking the operational ones. The
types of categories are represented mainly by landfillds
(72%) and industrial areas (28%), altought most of these
are dismissed.
This matter has been regulated by Legislative Decree
22/97, whose basic points concern intervention proce-
dures and sanctions, designed particularly for whoever
causes the exceeding of the acceptable limits; acknowl-
edgement that remediation interventions are an actual
burden while remediation costs are endowed with a spe-
cial preferential right over movable and real-estate priv-
ileges on polluted sites; setting-up a register office of
sites to be reclaimed which shall be drafted by regions
according to notices and investigations carried out by
their control bodies; the definition of remediation inter-
ventions of national interest and the approval procedure
of their relevant projects. Ministerial Decree 471/99, in
compliance with Legislative Decree 22/97, article 17,
and its subsequent amendments and integrations, has
clearly regulated the technical, procedural and adminis-
trative issues of remediation interventions.
The Ministry for the Environment and Territory, accord-
ing to the State-Region Conference and after having
consulted the competent Parliamentary Commissions,
has approved the National Program for environmental
remediation and recovery of polluted sites, in compli-
ance with Act 426/98. The same Law has singled out
fourteen sites of national interest. Later, Act 388/2000
(2001 Financial Act) added Sesto San Giovanni, Naples
Bagnoli - Cordoglio and Pioltello - Rodano, and other
sites pointed out by the program.
Funds must be devolved to regions, including yearly
shares of commitment limits for the amortization of
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
5
55
loans obtained by local authorities, according to criteria
and procedures disciplined by appropriate regulations.
Concerning sites contaminated by asbestos, the prob-
lem is linked to the dimension (since asbestos and fri-
able concrete asbestos alone account for approximate-
ly 30 million tons) as well as to technologies for their
recovery or disposal treatment.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Priority objectives are:
to improve monitoring and knowledge degree
of polluted sites, especially by assessing
the present risks for health and environment
and linked to the expected uses;
to set the conditions to favour, in time, the execution
of projects, especially in urban areas;
to develop research and experimentation
of technologies based on the use of biological
processes with a low environmental impact
(bioremediation), which do not entail complex
infrastructures and can easily be used also
in areas having small dimensions.
This priority framework requires the following actions:
drawing an exhaustive cognitive framework. The
data bank of national and local polluted sites,
indicated by Regional Remediation Plans, must
set the basis for a register office enlisting sites to
be recovered and the site already reclaimed.
Archives records drafts and enforced projects as
well as the technological techniques adopted
with regards to typology of pollution;
promoting experimentation on remediation
technologies with a low environmental impact.
The need of investments for remediation is
extremely high: 1.2 billion euro over the next
twenty years for public sites indicated by the
Regional Remediation Plans; 8-11 billion euro for
private sites; 2 billion euro for sites of national
interest. The costs of remediation technologies
with a low environmental impact are quite
reasonable, therefore some funds could be
invested in developing these technologies. The
employment rebound is significant. Projects of
material recycling must be backed by appropriate
legislative tools and support mechanisms;
standardisation incentives, characterisation
processes, industrial monitoring and control
schemes through legislative tools to
finance enterprises willing to set up applied
research networks in the field of environmental
monitoring and control;
accelerate authorisation and administrative
applications;
drafting a clearer and stricter legislation on
environmental damage;
prevention of widespread territorial pollution
caused by unsuitable agricultural practices,
through a compulsory environmental and
sanitary record of potentially polluting fertilisers,
among other provisions;
training highly specialised professionals.
EU provisions on remediation, focused on a small num-
ber of targets and priority subjects, can allow Europe to
gain a share of world market through the valorisation of
initiatives of the Member States while keeping their
decision-making independence. Throughout a United
Nations initiative, the list of EU enterprises operating in
the remediation sector and their specialisation field has
been updated
10
.
Environmental crime
Italy draws each year an updated statistical framework
outlining the environmental crimes and their geograph-
ical distribution; among European countries this might
be the first initiative. In 1994 the Carabinieri, Legambi-
ente and Eurispes emphasized, for the first time, mafia
interferences in two cycles of great environmental
impact: waste life-cycle, from collection to disposal, and
the cement life-cycle, from pits to bids. Since 1996 this
research turned into a yearly Eco-Mafia Report jointly
made by Police Units and Social, Economic and Building
Research Centre (Cresme).
Monitoring data together with legal orders and acts of the
Environmental Protection Unit (NOE) stressed evident links
between criminal activities and the seriousness of envi-
ronmental degradation phenomena in many Italian areas.
This survey pointed out that once the territorial racket
grip was limited to the extortion of business and entre-
preneurial activities, while since 1990 it has stretched to
natural resources.
These potential profit chances have turned into a busi-
ness, where eco-mafia follows a closed system, from
illegal pits to dumping sites: exhausted pits are filled
with waste coming from all over the country. The 1999
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
10) “Compendium of soil clean-up technologies and soil re-mediation companies”.
5
56
investigation found out the following data:
Police activities found out 26,508
environmental crimes;
environmental crimes in traditional mafia regions
account for 42.1%, that is Campania, Puglia,
Calabria and Sicily;
Campania is most affected by different illegal
environmental phenomena, such as its criminal
offences, accounting for 18.3% out of the
overall cases discovered by the Italian Police
(against 14.6% of 1998) and 6,155 unauthorized
houses built in 1999, accounting for 18% out
of the total national data;
33,571 illegal houses, worth 2 billion euro,
have been built in Italy, 56% of them in the above
mentioned traditional mafia regions with
a territorial consumption of 454 hectares;
detected criminal clans, operating in the eco-
mafia three main fields, that are cement and
waste cycles and animal racket, amount to 138.
The potential market of eco-mafia has been estimated
at 26 billion euro per year.
Over the period 1994-1999, the data analysis of the joint
investigation carried out by the Police pointed out the
“hard core” of environmental illegal activities, estimat-
ed at about 27,000 crimes per year, an average of
15,000 people prosecuted and over 3,000 seizures. Par-
ticularly, over the 1994-1996 period, the territorial sur-
veillance of Police found out 77,850 crimes, prosecuted
53,455 people and executed 7,227 legal attachments.
Since 1997, scattered national and regional data have
become available so that ascertained overall crimes
amounted to 28,457, prosecuted people to 10,826 and
executed seizures to 3,491. 44.3% of ascertained
crimes concentrates in the four traditional mafia regions
Puglia, Calabria, Sicily and Campania.
In 1998, ascertained crimes and executed seizures
peaked respectively to 30,957 and 4,443 while prose-
cuted people dropped to 9,392. However, environmental
crimes (42%) did not undergo any change in the four
regions which are the most affected by Mafia racket. In
1999, according to recent data, crimes dropped to
26,508 while prosecuted people rose to 17,447; howev-
er legal seizures and the share of mafia in the four
regions stood unchanged at respectively 4,694 and 42%.
Moreover, animal racket has just recently become
another criminal activity, ranging from illegal dog fights
to the trade of protected species; several NGOs investi-
gate this racket field, such as WWF, International League
for the Protection of Birds and Anti-Vivisection League.
Beyond the quantitative evaluation of these phenomena,
the updated analysis are available on the penetration of
mafia organizations as well as estimates on the eco-
nomic turnover of their activities.
The illegal management of cement and waste life-cycles
requires the active involvement of legal people, either
actual companies or sham ones, contaminating the mar-
ket before the environment itself, distorting the supply-
demand mechanisms, hindering the creation and growth
of companies that are lawful, efficient and technologi-
cally-reliable. Within this illegal phenomena framework,
unlawful companies operate juxtaposing their environ-
mental services to lawful companies. Environmental
criminality can be regarded as a factor of serious mar-
ket distortion, jeopardizing sustainable development
chances, strongly opposing to actions which promote
archaeological, historical and natural heritage.
Priorities, objectives and actions
An efficient environmental security system must active-
ly commit local and regional administrations along with
citizens. The features of the environmental heritage cre-
ate the need for this joint effort, being public properties
defined, spread out and complex. Therefore the
improvement of their safety scheme must be supported
by campaigns which build a new culture of environ-
mental legality.
Given the novelty and the complexity of these crimes, the
prevention of environmental crimes and their repression
activities must include security actions together with
numerous training and information initiatives.
These initiatives shall make the phenomena of environ-
mental criminal assault and the seriousness of their neg-
ative consequences widely known thus raising public
awareness. In fact the response ability of local communi-
ties relies on danger awareness and on the knowledge of
defensive choices. The dangerousness of environmental
crimes dooms our lives but this is not yet clearly perceived.
Environmental investigation tools need to be substan-
tially enhanced, as also underlined by the second
National Security Plan on “Southern Italy Safety for its
Development”, worked out by the Italian Ministry of
Internal Affairs in compliance with the Community Sup-
port Framework, which will be funded by national and
EU “ad Hoc” resources. This Plan grants to the safeguard
of natural and cultural heritage a strategic value. Envi-
ronmental safety must envisage the streamlining and
strengthening of the present punishment scheme along
with the following three strategic points:
the development of advanced surveillance and
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
5
57
monitoring technologies;
adequate personnel training;
the updating and the strengthening of data
management and communication systems.
With regards to repression activities, the environmental
pollution offence envisaged by a government bill sub-
mitted in April 1999, aims at introducing offences
against the environment in the Penal Code, ranging from
the destruction of natural heritage to illegal waste traf-
ficking and environmental fraud.
In order to combat organised crime and illegal activities
linked to waste life-cycle, Act 399/2001 has set up an “ad
Hoc” Parliamentary Investigation Commission endowed
with the same judiciary powers and restrictions to check
administrative transparency in waste disposal and man-
agement utility tenders, detecting present regulation
breaches while bringing in legislative measures. This
commission must report its implemented actions to the
Parliament on an annual basis.
Environmental safety must commit every social and
institutional party operating in territorial surveillance and
management according to its peculiarities and compe-
tences. The ultimate target to be pursued should be the
set-up of a regional and provincial network which could
be supported by the experiences of Asti, Alessandria
and Salerno provinces and Basilicata region: the set up
of Environment and Legality Observatories.
Such Observatories aim at gathering every party
involved in this field on the knowledge and protection of
environmental resources and the management of envi-
ronmental services, such as waste collection and dis-
posal as well as depuration of waters. Parties playing dif-
ferent social and institutional roles, such as local author-
ities, Police, judiciary, prefectures, associations, trade-
unions, must co-operate within Observatories and set up
their executive committees.
The activities of the Observatory are planned each year,
according to a precise working schedule; from the col-
lection and review of data coming from a toll-free num-
ber, the drafting of questionnaires for local administra-
tions since municipalities run environmental services
and carry out municipal surveillance; from collected
data processing and detection of critical areas, to proj-
ects for the improvement of environmental training for
administrators and technicians, and moreover proposals
for the improvement of local and regional regulations, if
needed. Therefore the regular synergic work of Obser-
vatories differs from ordinary tasks of their members.
Eventually, each Observatory should be linked up to the
national environmental security scheme so as to receive
and communicate useful information and data.
This plan envisages specific activities for each police
force, municipal police forces included. However train-
ing initiatives must not be limited to repressive appara-
tus; this would be an actual mistake, emphasized by the
fact that today one of the worst failures of the surveil-
lance system is represented by the shortage of admin-
istrative trained staff in environmental prevention and
monitoring at every level. Nowadays many infringe-
ments are administratively punished but the low effec-
tiveness of these repressive measures might nullify sur-
veillance activities altogether.
Actions promoted by the Ministry of Internal Affairs
according to the 2000-2006 Community Support Frame-
work can be regarded as an actual turning point for
Objective 1 regions, although issues related to the com-
bat against environmental crime must be thoroughly
tackled at a national level.
In fact environmental safety relies on territorial surveil-
lance and monitoring. Unfortunately it is affected by the
following failures:
the present surveillance system is almost
exclusively pivoted to petitions and exposures,
making this activity randomly pursued all over
the country;
a coherent data bank of environmental criminal
assaults has not yet been set up;
the investigation activities, in particular the most
complex such as the overall detection of
hazardous areas and the analysis of phenomena,
usually meet insuperable difficulties, due to the
lack of suitable technological tools. An emblematic
example is represented by forest fires, arsons
in most cases, whereas lacking an updated map
of regional and municipal fire-stricken areas,
construction bans cannot be enforced.
The Community Support Framework approach will be
widened by developing suitable projects and programs
supplying the needed information, so as to avoid their
redundancy. The complexity and the range of environ-
mental safety parameters demand a great deal of target
screening, the analysis of available resources, collected
information filing and exploitation. This risk together
with the need for the optimization of available resources
will require a preliminary grid adoption to steer the
development of projects:
localization of satellite detection systems
currently available, with regards to both technical
specifications and ownership;
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
5
58
the outline of available satellite data bank
scheme and updating systems;
the outline of access permissions to data banks
and application procedures to retrieve information;
the integration of satellite, air and land
surveying systems, according to a thorough
examination scale of investigation activities.
This preliminary screening action starts with the priority
objective of monitoring and controlling activities. The four
main environmental criminal assault phenomena are:
illegal solid and liquid waste land or water fill dis-
posal, especially waste “grave-burial” phenomena;
unauthorized building;
pits/quarries and other mining activities;
pollution of coastal areas and rivers.
Once the basic information on the above mentioned phe-
nomena of stricken areas has been gathered, their
diachronic reading, through already available data bank
of satellite images, can prove extremely useful. This will
also allow the evaluation of their average progress as
well as a closer investigation of suspected illegal phe-
nomena up to actual territorial inspections to be carried
out in the detected areas.
Law Draft 3960, submitted by the government in April
1999, clearly distinguishes between mere breaks of reg-
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Table 4 Urban living and environment quality indicators and objectives
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Urban and territorial rebalance
Urban environment
quality enhancement
Sustainable use
of natural resources
Social-economical resources
promotion and their fair distribution
Improving a social and
democratic involvement
* EU LC xx indicates a correspondence with the ten indicators envisaged by the European Project “Towards a local sustainability framework”, the so called the European
Integration of Field Plan with local Agenda 21 processes;
Polycentric rebalance of territorial functions (so as to cut mobility demand).
Curbing and redressing building pressure and other causes deteriorating and
worsening urban, historical, cultural and building estate quality.
Urban area reuse and environmental restoration interventions extent.
Historical, cultural and environmental estate wider accessibility and redressing;
Enhancing the qualitv of urban texture.
Reduce inhabitants exposure to pollution (air, water, acoustic and soil)
and its gradual elimination.
Reduce the hydro geological/technological hazard.
Containment of environmentally high-impact mobility;
Metropolitan traffic control and boost alternatives to private mobility;
Development of mobility-replacing telematic services;
Development of an urban infrastructure easening the mobility of cycles and pedestrians.
“Environmental cost” minimisation and quantity reduction of waste and exploited
resources (energy, water, materials).
Exploited resources recycling and recovery increase.
Spreading “environmental-friendly” consumption and behaviours.
Boosting employment, enterprises and activities oriented to sustainability.
Improvement of resources, services and fair-distribution;
Strengthening social integration, cohesion, liveability, cohabitation and sense
of belonging in urban areas.
Renewal and enhancement of integrated environment management skills and of
community participation to decision-making processes;
Promote managerial innovation and sustainability-oriented administration within local
authorities;
Improve the participation to the decision-making processes and
environmental-governance skills within local authorities.
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59
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
ulations in force and actual crimes. Generally speaking,
environmental crime covers those illegal behaviors
affecting the environment to a limited extent, that is
widespread bad habits such as fly tipping; in such cas-
es the needed punishments are not as effective as edu-
cational media and information campaigns.
Those regulation breaches, classified as environmental
crimes, encompass mere illicit deeds since they bring
about severe air, water, soil, flora and fauna degradation
or other such consequences or risky/dangerous circum-
stances. Then if the event takes place, this increases the
punishment to three-ten years of imprisonment in case
of environmental disaster.
At an international level, the G8 has established a nar-
rower co-operation between police forces and the judi-
ciary, through the so-called Law Enforcement Project on
Environmental Crime, which is a permanent working
group. At EU level, Eurojust, a new legal co-operation
body has been set up, assigning several action fields and
among them, environmental crime.
Eventually, in 2000 National Anti-Mafia Public Prosecu-
tor’s Office together with the Council of Europe have
sponsored the first Pan-European Symposium - held in
Caserta - summoning prosecutors pledged in organized-
crime fight; in their final motion they have underlined
environmental crimes seriousness and urged a hard-
tackling strategy.
INDICATORS*
Common Indicators – DG Environment, Expert Group on Urban Environment, February 2000.
Motor vehicle incidence in local passenger mobility (EU LC 3).
Urban natural areas (in urban contexts) protected against urban expansion (EU LC 9).
Urban contaminated or degraded areas (in urban contexts) currently recovered and reused (EU LC 9).
Available access to services, historical - cultural goods and green areas (EU LC 4).
Good air quality days (EU LC 5);
Local plans and reports air improvement and emission cut;
Population exposure to acoustic pollution (EU LC 8);
Zoning and Plans of acoustic redevelopment;
Underground and surface water pollution;
Depuration capacity (see Water Resources).
People exposed to hydro geological hazards;
People exposed to industrial and technological hazards.
Motor vehicle incidence in local passenger mobility (EU LC 3).
CO2 emissions local share (EU LC 2);
Energy consumption per capita and per worker;
Renewable Actions and plan to efficiency;
Water consumption (and collection) per capita and per worker (see water resources).
Urban waste generated, per capita;
Share of separately collected fractions.
Public transport use;
Sustainable products spread (EU LC 10).
Environment-oriented companies and employees;
Environmentally certified, EMAS/ISO 14000, public and private companies (EU LC 7).
Citizens satisfaction (EU LC 1);
Social equity and economic welfare indicators;
Health and social security indicators.
Number of joint activities promoted towards sustainability and its spreading;
Projects progress;
Amount of public funding to projects.
Table 5 Living quality, environmental safety & quality objectives, indicators & targets
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Atmospheric polluting emissions cut
and pollutants threshold maintenance
in order to avoid damages to human
health, ecosystems and cultural heritage
Reduction of acoustic pollution
and exposed citizens
Reduction of exposure to
electromagnetic fields where human
health and environment are treated
*NEC stands for National Emissions Ceilings
5
60
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Compliance to Standard of International Protocols and to EU Directives thresholds.
SO2 emissions cut.
NOx emissions cut.
Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds emissions cut.
NH3 emissions cut.
CO2 emissions cut.
Benzene emissions cut.
PM10 emissions cut.
Tropospheric ozone concentration cut.
Cut and prevention of radon exposure and indoor pollution.
Complying with limits imposed by national laws.
Decrease the percentage of citizens exposed to excessive noise level.
Change in consumption models and behaviours;
New transport technologies and low acoustic emissions motorizations;
New technologies for active and passive noise monitoring.
Increase the public awareness on exposure induced health risks;
National collection of electromagnetic exposure levels;
Equipments and plants emissions cut.
INDICATORS TARGETS
5
61
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
Atmospheric concentrations of: SO2, NO2, O3, benzene, PM10, lead and BaP;
Emissions of: SO2, lead, NH3, NOx, Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds,
heavy metals and POP;
Deposition (soil and water) of sulphates and nitrates.
Emissions of SO2 from the industrial and energetic sector;
SO2 emissions of mobile sources;
Air concentrations: hourly and daily averages, yearly average and 98
th
percentile, winter average;
pH of surface water;
Critical loads of acid and eutrophying nitrogen.
NOx emissions from transport;
NOx emissions from stationary sources;
Air concentrations: hourly and daily averages, yearly average and 98
th
percentile, winter average;
Critical loads of acid and eutrophying nitrogen.
Emissions of NMVOC from the industry (solvents) and mobile sources.
Agricultural NH3 emissions.
Transport CO2 emissions.
Fuels benzene percentage;
Urban areas benzene percentage.
Manufacturing and mobile sources of fine dust release;
PM10 concentrations in industrial and urban areas and in road infrastructure.
VOC, NOx and PM emissions;
Metropolitan town-leeward and rural areas O3 concentrations;
Vegetation damage and agricultural yield drop evidence;
Critical loads.
Indoor pollutants concentration;
Radon concentration.
Population exposure levels to daily noise;
Population exposure levels to night noise.
Low-frequency magnetic fields intensity in highest exposure areas;
Radio frequency electric fields intensity in highest exposure areas;
Attention values for permanence in buildings of at least four hour at 6 V/m.
Reduction of polluting emissions according to levels and
timeframes set by Protocols
Bringing concentrations below EU Directives levels.
Emission: 1330 kt /year since 2000 (NEC* Directive);
1042 kt /year (Oslo Protocol);
475 kt /year by 2010 (NEC* Directive) and
500 kt /year by 2010 (Gothenburg’s Protocol);
Concentrations: limits and reference values
(Presidential Decree 203/1988);
Limits set by the Directive 199/30/EC.
Emissions: 1Mt /year by 2010;
990 kt /year by 2010 (NEC* Directive);
Concentrations: limits and reference values
(Presidential Decree 203/1988);
Limits set by the Directive 199/30/EC.
Emissions: 1159 kt /year by 2010, (Gothenburg’s Protocol
and NEC* Directive);
Targets set by 99/13/CE Directive on organic solvent use.
Emissions: 419 kt /year by 2010 (Gothenburg’s Protocol
and NEC* Directive).
Concentrations: limits and reference values (Presidential
Decree 203/1988);
10 mg/m
3
average maximum concentration on 8 hours
by 2005, (2000/69/CE directive).
10 µg/m
3
present quality target;
5 µg/m
3
as yearly average(2000/69/CE Directive).
40 µg/m
3
present quality objective;
20 µg/m
3
by 2010 in compliance with 1999/30/CE Directive.
Concentrations: limit values and levels under the PMD 28/3/83
and Ministerial Decree 16/5/96;
Long term objectives and target values for 2010
(02/3/CE Directive): AOT40 at 6 mg/m
3
per hour for crops.
Within 15 years: complete implementation of redevelopment
plans for transport services and related infrastructures
(under MD 29
th
November 2000, article 2, letters a.3 and b.3);
Within 5 years: thorough implementation of redevelopment
plans for transport services and related infrastructures not
included in the previous paragraph (under MD 29th November
2000, article 2, letters a.3 and b.3), in compliance with limit
values set by enforcement regulations under the article 11 of
act 447/95.
Exposure limits: 5 kV/m e 0.1mT;
Attention values: 10µT;
Quality target: 3µT.
Exposure limits: 60 V/m (0.1-3 MHz);
20 V/m (up to 3GHz) e 40 V/m over 3 GHz;
Living quality improvement target in highly-crowded outdoor
areas: 6 V/m, 16 mA/m and 0.1 W/mq.
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62
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Table 6 Combatting environmental crimes: objectives and indicators
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Strengthening of environmental crimes
legislation and its relevant enforcement
Promotion of democratic participation
and awareness to environmental
security scheme
follow Table 5
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Sustainable use of GMO
Spreading knowledge and awareness
on GMO and biotechnologies
Food security and quality
Reclamation of polluted sites and areas
Strengthening and enforcement of environmental crimes legislation.
Ecosystem and health protection and prevention against GMO and biotechnological products hazards.
International Trade bio safety.
Development of research in food security.
Reduction in pesticides use by promoting organic farming and integrated control;
Setting-up effective monitoring systems on food security.
Consumer correct information on food security.
Safeguard of Italian food industry craftsmanship and product peculiarity.
Set-up of independent food authority.
Set-up of effective monitoring system.
Achievement of zoning and monitoring reclaimable sites;
Experimentation on remediation technologies of low environmental impact.
National interest interventions achievement.
Enhanced effectiveness of local and regional regulations.
Set-up of an effective environmental security systems.
Strengthening instrumentation detecting environmental crimes.
Promotion of environmental legality culture.
Growth of aware seriousness on environmental criminal assault phenomena and
relevant negative rebounds.
Updating and strengthening of data management and communication systems
on environmental criminal assault phenomena .
5
63
Quality of life and environment in urban areas
INDICATORS TARGETS
INDICATORS TARGETS
Detected and prosecuted environmental crimes;
Executed legal seizures.
64
In developed countries that represent a reference for
developing ones, the production and consumption activ-
ities exploit environmental resources - such as air, water,
ores, fuels, land, etc.- in an inefficient and un-sustain-
able way, while increasing sewage discharges.
The analysis of production and consumption patterns of
developed countries emphasizes a low-efficiency in the
use of natural resources, resulting into the environmen-
tal scattering of the most used resources. The degree of
efficiency in the use of natural resources, along the
entire lifetime of products, that is their tapping, pro-
cessing, consumption and disposal/recovery stages, can
be substantially increased and both the final consumer
and the efficiency of enterprises will benefit from this.
In order to support growth, the global economic system
focused on the minimisation of costs of the primary
resources thus encouraging enterprises to exploit them
in an inefficient way. Therefore, the excessive abstrac-
tion of natural resources has brought about deep
changes of the typical material flow in the metabolism
of ecosystems, thus reducing the renewal of resources
while negatively affecting both human health and the
economy as a result of the following effects:
loss of value induced by environmental
degradation;
the need for remediation;
a reduced availability of renewable and
non-renewable resources;
an increasing need for health protection
of the population.
Environmental and economic reasons urge a substantial
reduction in the use of resources, as well as in the flow of
materials and pollutants discharged into the environment
by human activities. A more efficient use of natural
resources in the industrial sector and a shift towards a serv-
ice efficiency satisfaction in the consumer’s consumption
pattern must fulfil the above-mentioned aims and maintain
the final consumption at a high qualitative standard.
From a social point of view, the inefficient and excessive
use of natural resources violate the principle of equity as
well as the right to access for both developing countries
and future generations.
Use of natural resources
Italy, as other developed countries, has reached and
maintains such levels of consumption higher enough to
alter any ecological balance. The excessive and improp-
er use of resources concerns both non-renewable and
renewable resources such as inert materials, fossil
fuels, other ores such as water, land and timber.
In many cases the use of renewable resources exceeds
their regeneration capacity; this applies to water, timber
and energy bio-masses. Most non renewable resources
exploited in Italy (about 90% of energy materials and
minerals) are imported. Therefore their reduction or
replacement with renewable ones would largely benefit
our economic system. Moreover, 20% of the world pop-
ulation exploits 80% of the overall natural resources.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Exploitation of natural resources
and waste generation
6
Figure 8
Italian consumption indexes
1990-based index numbers
30%
20%
10%
0%
-10%
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
GDP
CO2 emissions
Fertilisers
Primary energy
Mobility of goods and passengers
Sources: Italian National Agency for New Technologies,
Energy and the Environment; National Institute of Statistics;
National Environmental Protection Agency, 2001.
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
It was estimated that the world economic system
exploits twice as much natural resources as sustainable
use of the earth ecosystem allows. Moreover, 20% of the
world population exploits 80% of the overall natural
resources. Therefore, the equity access principle can be
tackled only by ensuring a more efficient use of natural
resources and an equal-footing access.
Developed countries should increase the efficiency of
both production and consumption sectors appealing to
their wider research and development skills so as to
export sustainable-growth technologies into developing
countries rather than low-efficient environmentally-
dangerous processes.
At EU level, a gradual Eco-efficiency schedule has been
suggested through a reduction of the exploitation of nat-
ural resources by 25% within 2010, by 75% (factor 4)
within 2030 and by 90% (factor 10) within 2050. These
strategies aim at restraining the entry of materials
exploited by the world socio-economic system, on a
national, regional, industrial, urban and household basis
while safeguarding and maintaining the actual living
qualitative standards. Moreover this goal can be better
achieved by changing the improper excessive present
consumption of material goods and aimlessly wasteful
lifestyles thus improving in this respect also the quality
of our life. These strategies anticipate a widespread
technological modernisation and innovation of the
industrial system therefore they demand to every
involved party a thorough support and persuasion.
Research and technological development on production
processes will largely support the implementation of this
strategy as follows:
reducing the consumption of raw materials
and resources, especially non-renewable ones;
stretching the lifetime of products;
gradually replacing commodities with
Eco-efficient services;
emphasizing the recycling and the reuse of
no-longer usable products and all their
composing materials by supporting a real growth
of the recycled materials market.
Along this path and through oriented steering actions of
the demand, sustainable development policies will be
focused on clear, accurate and understandable quantita-
tive targets, thus de-coupling development from the eco-
nomic growth and dematerialising the economic system.
The factor 10 pattern covering the next fifty years envis-
ages for the productivity of resources an increase of
4.5% per year. This model requires a clear-cut techno-
logical development resumption and a new self-suffi-
ciency culture, that is a higher quality of life based on
less material goods and more adequate services in
countries, like Italy, featuring nowadays unsustainable
middle-term lifestyles.
Present manufacturing pattern makes economic dema-
terialization extremely difficult, since it relies on the sale
of high quantities of products and goods which are short
lasting and continuosly replaced.
Present trends show a resource-consumption decrease
in the production of goods and services and a fair de-
coupling between economic growth and resources - see
field resource-consumption indexes, in figure 9 -
although these advantages are overrun by the increase
of global consumption. An absolute de-coupling involves
a clear-cut swing in the use of resources while a relative
de-coupling entails an use of resources lower than the
growth rate.
6
65
Figure 9
The development of energy resources in Italy (EU HL 10)
1990-based index numbers
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
-4%
-6%
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Primary consumption
Final usage
Energy intensity
World primary consumption
Note: reference year values.
Primary consumption: 152 Mtoe
Final usage: 118 Mtoe
Power intensity: 0.195 ktoe/ euro
World primary consumption: 8,623 Mtoe
Source: Italian National Agency for new Technologies,
Energy and the Environment, 2001.
Agriculture, zootechnology,
forests, hunting and fishing
6
66
Dematerialization requires a shift from short life term
product sale to the sale of services, through the use of
long life term material products. This is an example of a
double benefit/dividend, that improves both the quality
of life for consumers and the advantages for enterpris-
es, by decreasing the share of materials and the envi-
ronmental burdens and by increasing employment rates.
This transformation demands a public opinion informa-
tion and guidance campaigns, so that people will not
perceive the provision of alternative lifestyle as a threat
to their personal freedom, preventing them from a use-
less negative perception of changes.
The European Environmental Agency
11
has adopted indi-
cators, worked out by some European countries, con-
cerning the extent use of environmental resources (Total
Material Requirement, TMR) and a given product or
service material intensity (Material Input per Unit Ser-
vice, MIPS). Estimated TMR refers to the whole of Europe
and its interior exchange flows which offset each other.
These indicators include the share of materials exploit-
ed from environment which will not be conveyed into
final products. The application of indicators allows to
monitor the performance of the economic system, in
comparison with the use of resources, as well as the cal-
culation of material input per yielded wealth unit.
Some Italian consumption profiles, and some data
regarding the intensity of resources have been stated
respectively in figure 8 and in table 7. An estimate has
been made on the overall material flow both in 1995 and
in the previous decade, and a survey in 1998 on Direct
Material Input index, building materials excluded, states
that is about 420 Mt/year, i.e. about 8 t/year per capita
(EUROSTAT).
Over the same decade, GDP increased by 4% while the
demand of productive system resources decreased by
13%. This trend must be carefully assessed since it has
been substantially backed by the gradual replacement
of oil products with natural gas for direct energy use and
electricity generation and by the progressive de-locali-
sation in other countries of the primary industry sector,
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Table 7
The input of materials and the relevant GDP ratio per economic activities
(kg of resource input per GDP million in 1988)
Section I: national materials Section I I : imported materials
B
i
o
-
M
a
s
s
e
s
E
n
d
o
g
e
n
e
t
i
c
S
t
e
a
m
E
n
e
r
g
e
t
i
c
O
r
e
s
34 1,721 19 0
Ores, energy,
iron metallurgy, cement
2,541 3 283 217
Chemicals, rubber, etc. 397 21 37 17
Metals, machinery,
transport means
185 4 26 9
Food and drink industries 127 613 29 12
Textiles, timber and paper 92 20 28 9
Buildings 1,478 3 16 9
Trade and shops 54 47 17 10
Conveyance and
communications
56 7 13 35
Other saleable services 62 3 11 4
Non saleable services and
Public Administration ones
76 11 13 7
10 66 11 20
156 8 4 323
153 43 59 76
149 10 6 31
35 186 6 28
19 103 14 22
179 13 5 24
9 19 1 9
20 8 2 78
10 3 2 8
16 8 2 15
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s

Agriculture, zootechnology,
forests, hunting and fishing
Ores, energy,
iron metallurgy, cement
Chemicals, rubber, etc.
Metals, machinery,
transport means
Food and drink industries
Textiles, timber and paper
Buildings
Trade and shops
Conveyance and
communications
Other saleable services
Non saleable services and
Public Administration ones
I
m
p
o
r
t
e
d
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s

N
o
n
-
E
n
e
r
g
e
t
i
c

O
r
e
s

B
i
o
m
a
s
s
e
s
U
n
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
E
n
e
r
g
e
t
i
c
O
r
e
s
N
o
n
-
E
n
e
r
g
e
t
i
c

O
r
e
s

11) European Environmental Agency (EEA): “Environmental Signals 2001”.
an industry featuring a high input of raw materials,
towards the replacement of manufactured with already
refined or semi-processed products.
The National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) has taken the
first steps to establish a national material accounting,
while some companies, within innovation and process
certification projects, are adopting accounting systems
for some resources, mainly for water and power, along
with the initiatives to decrease the use of resources
linked with the need of waste reduction.
A restraint in resource consumption of the Italian eco-
nomic system, which processes resources in order to
manufacture goods and services, allows the reduction of
purchasing costs for imported raw materials, a national
budget’s liability, thus stirring up the research and devel-
opment of new high-efficient processes and products
improving therefore their competitiveness.
Promoting the use of services, rather than the acquisi-
tion of products, increases the share of skilled man-
power in the service industry sector and in foreign prod-
ucts related services and reduces the import of con-
sumer goods thus creating social advantages and a pos-
itive trade balance.
Factor 4 and factor 10 projects set dematerialization tar-
gets, (see table 8).
Water resources
The amount of available water supply accounts, given its
present governing capacity, for 52 billion m
3
of which
approximately 40 billion m
3
are actually being exploited.
Italy, such as any other Mediterranean country, shows a
significant irrigation usage, that is 20 billion m
3
, even if
over the last decade irrigated areas and unit consump-
tions have emphasized either a stabilisation or a reduc-
tion trend, especially in northern Italy. Projections show
an expected decrease in the demand of water from the
Po basin by 2011 of approximately 10-40%.
No data are available on the consumption of water for
industrial purposes, but the gradual reduction trend set
in the 1970s still seems to be operating: between 1972
and 1986, paper, rubber and synthetic fibre industries
and sugar mills underwent substantial cuts of respec-
tively 4%, 80% and 56%. Between 1994 and 1997, the
chemical industry recorded a 5% cut against a 10% pro-
duction increase.
The latest available statistics regarding consumption of
water for civil use go back to 1987, which clearly outline
both an increase of water exploitation, as compared to
the consumption of the previous decade, and a
decreased efficiency in the distribution. However, recent
findings of the Water Research Institute (IRSA) records a
stabilisation of water exploitation. Between 1970 and
1980, the quality of surface water showed a fair
improvement as a result of the reduction of industrial
burden and the activation of purification systems; this is
particularly true in the industrial sector, even though a
national scale shows a medium low quality level.
Although in the past twenty years many purification
plants have been built, there is no evidence of a strong
and relevant improvement in the quality of the ecosys-
tems and metabolism of the Italian water as shown in
other European countries. There are no regular data
regarding the quality of ground water to allow projec-
tions, however a medium long term worsening is expect-
ed due to the present severe soil contamination levels:
therefore this is a very serious problem to be tackled.
Purification plants have substantially increased: 4,875
operational secondary or tertiary treatment plants in
1993 as against 3,823 in 1987, recording a 20%
upswing, even though non operational plants are
increasing too. The share of equivalent population con-
nected to the sewage system is 77%, while 63% is serv-
iced by operational plants.
Priorities, objectives and actions
Generally speaking, there is no shortage in the Italian
water resources, however the traditional water demand,
for household, irrigation, industries, energy, navigation,
have increasingly been coupled with the demand for
environmental use such as water quality protection,
landscape safeguard and promotion, ecosystem and
bio-diversity protection, amusements (tourist resorts,
fishing and canoeing) (see figure 10).
For this reason, it is a priority to restore or preserve water
regimens compatible with the protection of ecosystems,
the recreational uses and land asset. In many Italian dis-
tricts this will imply less exploitation of natural water
flow (see figure 11), especially of good and high quality
sources. Therefore, less demand is a priority goal, that is
the amount of resources needed to meet the dissipative
usage; for this purpose saving, re-using and recycling
interventions must be implemented.
Framework Directive 2000/60/EC on waters, for some
aspects anticipated by Legislative Decree 152/99, sets
up a framework for EU action on waters. This Directive
6
67
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
6
68
establishes ad Hoc environmental targets for surface
and underground water resources, extending the con-
cept of protection so as to include all the ecosystems
connected with water habitats. These targets must be
pursued and achieved according to precise deadlines
and in compliance with the technical annex. The good
qualitative standard of the overall water resources must
be achieved within fifteen years from the date that Direc-
tive came into effect. The Regional Safeguard Plan,
under the Legislative Decree 152/99, will plan protective
measures restoring the sustainable balance of water
and reducing worst polluting loads on surface and
ground waters.
Infrastructures will allow any potential water resource
exploitation through considerable investments and the
raise of systemic fixed costs, that is invested capital
renewal and maintenance. These costs, also if perceived
as a burden, will be inevitably borne by future genera-
tions. That is why a financial and economical sustain-
ability should be achieved, so that invested capital fund-
ing, management and renewal costs are fully borne by
generations benefiting from their relevant advantages.
This ideal target can be approached striking a balance
between the fulfilment of the above-mentioned environ-
mental goals and below-stated ethical ones, that is, on
one hand aligning rates to such a level as to initially cov-
er at least management and amortisation fees, while on
the other hand restraining the growth rate of the capital
assets as far as water services are concerned. The more
the rates get closer to marginal costs, externalities
included, the more efficient will be the allocation of
resources.
Social and ethical sustainability: this definition implies a
series of concepts explained as follows. Water demand
corresponding to fixed rate must be fully met. However,
as to water civil usage, water is to be regarded as a
necessity, so each fundamental need ought to be met at
affordable economic conditions, avoiding the concept of
water as a luxury good. The above-stated principle, that
makes recipients bearing relevant service fees, might
penalise some areas because of their higher rates;
therefore the principle of infra-generation equity must
be satisfied involving a fair national solidarity bond
among individuals, water supply services and geo-
graphical areas. Therefore, a balance must be drawn
between financial independence requirements and the
fulfilment of demands, discouraging dissipative settling
and manufacturing patterns.
Operational targets are broken down as follows:
Reducing leakages in conveyance, storage and distribu-
tion systems. This objective requires the following steps:
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Figure 11
The use of surface and underground water in taly
(EU HL 10)
Total Cubic Metres
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
1980 1985 1990 1997
Area proportional to the exploited quantity
Source: National Environmental Protection Agency, 2001.
Figure 10
The water quality of large rivers
(EU HL6): Nitrogen and phosphor concentrations
1990-based index numbers
200%
150%
100%
50%
0%
-50%
1985 1990 1995
total amount of nitrogen total amount of phosphor
Note: reference year average values:
Total amount of nitrogen = 6.8 mg/l
Total amount of phosphor = 0.21 mg/l
Source: Ambiente Italia Research Institute, 2001.
6
69
the census of existing supplying sites and
related abstraction measurement;
the provision of more efficient control and
monitoring systems (that is video-surveillance);
a rationalisation and optimisation
of water systems management, notably total-use
tanks, through computing model tools;
ordinary maintenance of the existing networks;
the partially wide reconstruction of water
distribution systems, particularly in the civil sector.
This objective is prescribed by several laws, Act 36/94
and Legislative Decree 152/99, but none of them can
impose sanctions on governing authorities. However, an
economic disincentive is needed, since present water
duct leakages represent a stronger priority than that one
of water waste.
Reduction of final consumptions. It is a priority in the
agricultural sector, the most water-demanding, and this
goal calls for the following measures:
an input for the re-naturalisation of soil
interventions, taking into account the territorial
characteristics;
changing to lower water demanding crops;
the improvement of the irrigation techniques;
the application of detection, monitoring,
forecasting and management systems computing
model in order to ensure an optimised use of
resources, that is the right quantity at the right time;
new data on the real use of water resources;
the modernisation of irrigation networks;
the imposition, at an agricultural policy level,
of restrictions and disincentives, or, vice-versa,
the provision of economical, financial and
organisational incentives, such as access
to markets, information, etc.;
the need to impose a pattern of rates based
on the amount of water actually used.
Both civil and industrial sectors need incentives to pro-
mote the installation of low consumption equipments
and to influence the behaviours of individuals, families
and enterprises, also through informative and promo-
tional campaigns. A useful tool would be a meter instal-
lation in each residential unit to record the consumtions.
Industrial sector needs the promotion of interior recy-
cling manufacturing processes. To this end, Act 36/94
and Law Decree 36/99 supply the needed provisions.
Moreover, the cost of rates play a key role so their revi-
sion would be an effective disincentive tool. Further-
more, a more rational water resource exploitation must
be promoted by backing the introduction and spreading
of Best Available Techniques; incentives to recycle water
in all the stages of manufacturing processes; the reuse
of valley conveyed waters and the return of sewage
waters featuring same qualitative characteristics as the
exploited waters.
Legislative Decree 152/99 envisages the revision of con-
cessions based on the integrated comparative assess-
ment of different options; “integrated” means that dif-
ferent aspects, technical-engineering, economic, envi-
ronmental, cultural and socio-economic, must be jointly
taken into account. Contracting-out specifications are to
be enforced and carefully monitored, providing poten-
tially affected citizens with legal binding warranties.
Sewage water reuse. It is fundamental for agricultural
use, since it returns natural resources to the environment
or to other potential use, restraining also tertiary disin-
fecting treatments, thus avoiding nitrate and phosphor
purification treatments, with a strong reduction of eco-
nomic relevant costs, energy and /or territory saving, in
terms of impregnated areas. Sewage waters, used for
irrigation purposes, can feature high concentrations of
nutrients preventing the use of synthesized fertilisers so
as to restore bio-geo-chemical cycles. Moreover, indus-
trial reuse can be increased according to Legislative
Decree 152/99. Its provisions promote the reuse through
revisions of concessions, that is “not to use river and
strata water, but to recycle the available sewage waters”.
To this end, the maximum length of irrigation diversion
concessions must be revised, being the most numerous
ones, drinking use included, so as to allow a better plan-
ning of irrigation. A public financial commitment is need-
ed to bear the costs of purified sewage water distribu-
tion facilities; however in some cases, notably in water-
demanding industrial districts, voluntary agreements
have proved to be most useful and beneficial.
Reducing the polluting pressure. This objective implies
infrastructure actions, new purification systems, with the
improvement and replacement of the existing ones and
,in particular, of the managerial actions, that is the
improvement of the functionality of industrial plants.
Infrastructure actions must aim at the following targets:
equipping the largest municipalities with purification
plants; updating the inadequate treatments of the small
villages or equipping them with suitable ones if needed;
reduce the excessive urban suburbs sewage-collection
costs; endowing tourist resorts with purification/treat-
ment systems. Most of these cases will require low-cost
high-Eco-compatibility treatments such as phyto-purifi-
cation. The major problems for the industrial sector affect
southern Italy, notably food industries. Managerial
actions must envisage the selection of qualified govern-
ing authorities, increased surveillance and vocational
training.
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
6
70
Act 36/94 and the Legislative Decree 152/99 will repre-
sent the need for regulatory instruments. Notably the
Protection Plan, envisaged by Legislative Decree
152/99, must emphasise those water resources who fail
to comply with the set quality objectives, pointing out the
needed interventions. Discharging top limits can be
more restrictive according to their potential impact. This
Plan must affect the whole basin, reducing polluting
loads, setting diversions for minimum vital down flows,
exploiting land buffer abilities such as changes in the use
of soils, hedges, tree rows, grass belts spreading, as well
as the self-purification capability of streams such as the
re-naturalisation, the introduction of protected river-bed
and surrounding areas, resorting to major works, but
also to prescriptions and incentives.
The use of modelling instruments is needed to quantify
the underlying cause-effect links; for this purpose the
collection of quality and quantity data shall be
rearranged. The Safeguard Plan shall link up any con-
cerned party such as Optimal Territorial Domain Author-
ities and the corporate that manages civil loads, but also
those who control the industrial and agricultural loads:
enterprises, field associations, development corpora-
tions, remediation and irrigation consortia, regional
offices, etc. As to purification mud, their high disposal
costs have already restrained them. However, their solu-
tion to reduce production is still unknown and their mar-
ket has not been yet sufficiently developed.
The extension of many civil and industrial purification
plants could be carried out through valley-based phyto-
purification mud-free refining systems. The separation
of waste-water collection systems, by preventing the
flow of first rain waters and featuring high concentra-
tions of heavy metals, will allow the creation and devel-
opment of better-quality mud for agricultural reuse.
Improvement of both the network and the management
of meteoric waters in the urban areas. Legislative
Decree 152/99 envisages that Regions must impose
new settlements for separate collection networks;
therefore Regional Management Plans and building reg-
ulations must implement this directive by promoting the
gradual replacement of existing hybrid systems with
separate ones and the wide use of storage and treat-
ment facilities for first-rain waters, with the function of
re-naturalising urban water ducts. In view of high
replacement costs, there is a need for incentive mecha-
nisms and public subsidies.
The coverage of total costs. Galli Act has started with a
process of rate adjustment to long-term costs, which at
present is still under way, especially concerning sewage
and purification. The achievement of the transformation
of the present management system - reducing the pres-
ent 13,000 governance bodies to about 80-100 as
expected by the Optimal Territorial Domains - is a pre-
requisite to contain the rate increases in the most-dis-
advantaged areas. However, the reform implementation
delays have also postponed a rate-to-cost adjustment.
At the same time, rate regulations are forced to fluctu-
ate between a short-term policy and restrained incen-
tive potentials (Inter-Ministerial Committee for Econom-
ic Planning) and a long-term “standardised rate
method”, strongly criticised for its weak incentive mech-
anisms. However, the completion of the Optimal Territo-
rial Domain Authority must no-longer delay this strategy
or the rapid implementation of a rate-to-cost adjustment
- covering also investments - as well as of a consistent
and effective economical-financial regulation system
increasing the sector’s efficiency.
However, basic ethical and social sustainability target
needs an outspoken transparent rate adjustment, appar-
ently following two paths conflicting each others. On one
side the 1998’s LLPP guidelines aiming at reducing the
national differences of Optimal Management Areas
through cross-territorial area equalizing mechanisms
such as those envisaged in France for “les Agences de
l’eau”, that is rate environmental additional levies to fund
ad Hoc projects for most-disadvantaged areas, especial-
ly intended for southern Italy featuring a chronic infra-
structure delay; on the other side allowing the rate dif-
ferentiation within the same Optimal Territorial Domain
too so as to promote even and smaller rate-zones.
From a microeconomic point of view, a two-fold solution
is to be chosen, that is setting a fixed share, so as to cov-
er concession rights, and a variable one, more than pro-
portional to consumption.
Accessibility. Present social rate bracket privileges the
first consumption units regardless of the user conditions
thus subsidising the poor and the well-off consumers.
Therefore more selective equalising measures ought to
be adopted.
Artificiality reduction. Galli Act and almost every region-
al implementation Act allocate the needed new financ-
ing to local authorities through the Domain Plan; gov-
erning authorities, entrusted with the selected plan exe-
cution, will charge this cost and relevant financial fees
on their rates. This mechanism promotes the realisation
of new plans, since their costs do not affect the opera-
tor, discouraging investments to improve the use of
resources on the existing facilities, since these fees
would be paid by the management body itself. Howev-
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
6
71
er, governing authorities should partially bear the costs
of new investments, rather than automatically charging
them on rates, and be entrusted on the periodical
reports of investment programmes and relevant finan-
cial and rate schedules, since Optimal Territorial
Domain Authorities Plan is to be regarded as a long-
term strategic plan. The implementation of these prin-
ciples, acknowledged by 2002’s Finance Act on utility
tenders (Article 35, 1st paragraph), will call for modifi-
cations to Act 36/94 and to the Ministerial Decree dat-
ed November 22
nd
, 2001.
Fulfilment of demand and reliability of services. The
monitoring of contracts and service cards, entrusted to
an ad Hoc authority (replacing the present Surveillance
Committee that was lacking both in autonomy and pow-
er), must be associated with a benchmark of efficacy and
efficiency standard of services. As far as non-civil use is
concerned, the fulfilment of demand must be managed
according to their compatibility with the existing
resources and the sector policies.
Legislative harmonisation. Numerous sometimes
uneven rules, often worked out in different incoherent
contexts, have so far disciplined water resources; more-
over their implementation provisions did not match the
expectations. The unstable reference framework and the
deregulation of public services demand further techni-
cal and entrepreneurial contributions. The tool of con-
solidation acts can play an effective role in legislative
harmonisation and updating.
Pro-active attitudes. The involvement of the competent
parties needs a system of sanctions that can clearly and
efficiently detect transgressors of dumping rules, thus
avoiding a useless deterrence.
Production-consumption cycles
OECD has recently focused its attention on the integra-
tion of environmental costs in the final cost of products,
along their whole lifetime (LCC, Life Cycle Cost). There-
fore, it is required that product and management costs
are to be taken into account, such as energy consump-
tion, spare parts, needed quantity per single operation,
along with disposal expenses. Moreover, OECD has also
started an ad Hoc “Sustainable Consumption and Pro-
duction” programme, setting a priority target, that is the
purchasing and use of low environmental impact goods
and services by the public administration (Green Pro-
curement or Green Public Purchasing). Therefore, every
country has to come to terms with two conflicting
requirements: complying with newly-introduced product
purchasing criteria without violating international market
rules, with specific regards to the free trade of goods.
Several countries have already or are in the process of
integrating environmental requirements among their
Public Administration product selection criteria; pur-
chase managers are being equipped with a comprehen-
sive lists of reference and performance parameters for
each single product as well as peculiar environmental
data assigning additional points to ad Hoc environmen-
tally-certified products, featuring Ecolabel, EMAS and/or
ISO 14000 qualifications.
Recently, the International Standardisation Organisation
has set up an ad Hoc working group on an environmen-
tal aware design of products (Design for Environment,
DFE) issuing guidelines on this matter. From its outset,
the DFE procedure might be regarded as a product man-
agement system.
As to fiscal levy use, OECD data highlight that environ-
mental taxation ranges from 3.8% to 11.2%, while its
average value stands at 7% out of overall fiscal levies.
The remaining share is made up by 35% direct taxes,
32% excise revenue duties and 25% social security con-
tributions. OECD country’s environmental taxes account
for 1%-4.5% of their GDP. However, the following gen-
eral considerations arise from this overall picture:
lack of information on energy and material flows
as well as on the impact of both products and
services;
qualitative and quantitative information gap on
public administration consumption and the
purchasing procedures of different authorities,
especially at local level;
insufficient information on the environmental
patrimony of consumers and service consumption
habits.
Generaly speaking, the consumption of Italian families
show a gradual shift from goods to advanced services,
paying much attention to the ratio between costs and
benefits. As to Public Administration consumption, the
available data estimate the GDP public expenses share
at about 18%; while it can be assumed that, according
to experiences in other EU countries, public administra-
tion running costs account for a 50% of the overall
expenses, that is PA energy consumption and operating
services such as cleaning and maintenance. However,
the implementation of the environmental policy for the
public administration starts with the purchase and a cor-
rect use of products and services featuring a low envi-
ronmental impact.
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
6
72
The Sixth EU Environmental Action Programme defines
as a priority the approach to an integrated product poli-
cy based on the analysis of the lifecycles. This approach
proves to be basic to meet targets such as a sustainable
use of resources and cuts on the waste generation. The
Sixth Plan is supported by a series of Directives con-
cerning specific product categories such as motor-vehi-
cles and trucks, petrol and fuels, packaging, batteries,
detergents, building materials and crops.
In 1999, the EU Ministries of the Environment entrusted
the Commission with the task of drafting a Green Paper
on the development of an integrated product policy,
approved in February 2001. The Green Paper empha-
sizes the need to support an Integrated Product Policy
with the following three basic steps:
issuing correct prices including environmental
externalities;
stimulating the demand of green products;
strengthening the most eco-compatible
productions.
Every above-mentioned general objective entails a range
of possible actions and tools. After having consulted
each competent party in 2001, the European Union is
planning to publish its IPP White Paper in late 2002.
Among the Italian political initiatives promoting products
featuring a low environmental impact, great importance
must be attached to the legislative implementation of EU
directives on fuels for unleaded motor-vehicles, due to
the introduction of a differentiated taxation.
Moreover, also the following initiatives are worth men-
tioning: the promotion of motor-vehicles that respect the
given emission levels; National Packaging Consortium
(CONAI), production line consortia and co-operatives; the
introduction of the Carbon Tax; the set up of a National
Waste Observatory and Register; plan agreements with
some industrial groups and trade associations (such as
FIAT, Montedison, Pirelli and Transport Federation, Farm-
ers Federation, Italian Agricultural Confederation and
Italian Craft Confederation) in order to introduce or
develop Ecolabel products, services or practices.
In Italy Ecolabel became operational only in 1997. Analy-
sis on this delay have pointed out the inertia of the pro-
ductive system, scepticism regarding the label’s com-
mercial value, difficulties in co-ordinating production,
commerce, consumption and institutions. Therefore an
officially-designated subject must be found, beyond the
interests of the concerned parties, catalysing Ecolabel
promotion and diffusion actions.
SMEs showed much interest in Ecolabel because, unlike
corporates that can afford the mass-media promotion of
their products, they could significantly benefit from the
introduction of Ecolabel, since this tool can help them to
reach potential consumers.
Priorities, objectives and actions
A basic sustainable product policy task requires the
internalisation of the environmental impacts in the cost
of products in compliance with different methodologies,
presently being worked out, ranging from Swedish EPS
to EU ExternE, this latter concerning energy costs. How-
ever this implies an in-depth knowledge of the product’s
lifecycle environmental impact so as to evaluate its relat-
ed material flow and at the same time their harmful envi-
ronmental effects. The most common internalisation
method implies a fiscal charge shift for enterprises–
since this is usually charged on the final costs of prod-
ucts - including manpower, energy and raw material
expenses.
Furthermore, consumer-target campaigns can affect
habits and improve environmental knowledge so as to
steer choices towards lower polluting products. Eco-
nomic sectors such as tourism and hotel industries bear
peculiar responsibilities so that they may much con-
tribute to the introduction of new behaviours, to be later
followed by families themselves.
Some other product policy implementation tools are
Eco-labelling, a market promotion for products with a
lower environmental impact, public administration com-
mitment in enlisting environmental requirements among
required characteristics of selected products and serv-
ices (Green Public Purchasing) within EU-set rules.
Aims and targets to be achieved in five years are:
within the public administration (GPP) at least
30% of the purchased goods must meet the
ecological requirements;
taking into account replacements and resorting
to scrapping mechanisms, between 30% - 40%
of durable goods must be low energy
consumption items;
enterprises must apply environmental
accounting to products. Along this line ISO 14000
is developing type three Ecolabels.
The framework of policies and measures for the con-
sumption and production along with the adoption of
global quality principles are extremely complex and can
be broken down into the following steps:
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
6
73
Outlining a background knowledge through:
a data bank on the energy and the material
flows of the main national products;
a detailed analysis of the public administration
consumption and purchasing procedures,
reporting differences between central and local
authorities;
periodic studies on consumer habits, and on the
consumer attitudes regarding environmental
legislation comprehension and evaluation attitudes.
The promotion of supply. The “Consumer Public Admin-
istration” must be regarded as the most important pur-
chaser and user of low-impact goods (GPP). This entails
the modification of the public administration service and
item purchasing specifications, by enlisting environ-
mental requirements, obeying to the EU rules; the best
way would envisage a marking system by assigning a
specific value to the environmental performances of
products, but not automatically excluding environmen-
tally-uncertified items.
Designing fiscal actions and incentives for enterprises
that alter the retail prices of products, favouring prod-
ucts with a lower impact.
Working out technical instruments to be supplied to
enterprises, especially SMEs, in order to ease their LCA
and DFE widespread introduction through streamlined
methodologies, while setting up sector data banks gath-
ering information on the environmental performance of
processes and products, without excluding those who do
not possess these qualifications.
Promotion of demand through consumer-targeted infor-
mation and training actions by means of awareness
campaigns, involving the active participation of distribu-
tion systems and consumer associations, - i.e. purchase
and use guidance booklets. Moreover, long-term train-
ing initiatives should be envisaged for schools.
Waste
Waste represents the final stage of the economic
process. The material balance of 1998, as an example,
showed that the material input in the national produc-
tion-consumption system amounts to 863 Mt (Wupper-
tal Institut). The output of carbon in GHG emissions
amounted to 150 Mt; 20 Mt further materials contributed
to gas emissions. The solid and liquid material output,
that is waste, amounted to about 100 Mt, of which urban
waste accounted for 27 Mt and special waste for 68 Mt.
150 Mt are exploited by the socio-economic system, in
addition to building materials. Our economy’s overall
material processing yield, with the exclusion of recycling
and reuse processes, amounts to 68%, but excluding
building materials, it lowers to 37%.
Urban waste. The estimates of the National Waste Obser-
vatory for 2001 have foreseen an overall urban waste
production amounting to above 29 Mt with 508 kg per
capita, showing a 14% increase as compared to 1995.
The separate collection stood at 16.9%, that is 27% in
the North, 14% in the Centre and less than 5% in the
South, showing a 20% yearly average increase. Over 7%
of the urban waste is being exploited for energy pro-
duction. About 71% of the urban waste has been dis-
posed through landfills. The 1999 data show a material
recycling share amounting to 18.4% (National Environ-
mental Protection Agency and National Waste Observa-
tory). The 1999 survey has pointed out 41 licensed oper-
ational incinerators, 28 of which placed in the North, 10
in the Centre and 3 in the South, ensuring a global poten-
tial of 3 Mt, of which 79% in the North, 13% in the Cen-
tre and 8% in the South. The same survey had singled
out 786 operational landfills, greatly differing from one
geographical area to the other, that is 571 plants in the
South, establishing a negative record, followed by 137
plants in the North and 78 in the Centre.
Special waste. The regular collection of data on the spe-
cial waste from industrial and service activities started
in 1997 but it still requires further administrative and
regulatory initiatives to consolidate its procedure. Spe-
cial waste generation records go back to 1998, when
they accounted for about 68 Mt, including almost 4 Mt
of dangerous waste. Therefore, overall waste generation
raised by 11% as compared to 1997 data, while special
hazardous waste only increased by less than 5%. How-
ever, 65% special waste generation concentrates in the
North, where most Italian industries operate. In 1998,
special waste recovery share stood at 42%.
Urban waste is increasing at a lower pace than GDP rate;
at present special and overall waste data are insufficient
to compile a comprehensive statistics. The drop of the
intensity index, that is urban waste generation per GDP
unit, shows a de-coupling, although a slight one,
between economic growth and waste generation over
the 1995-2001 period. This phenomenon can be care-
fully evaluated as a positive trend (see figure 12).
Waste management shows inconsistent features in dif-
ferent Italian areas. Critical circumstances can be
detected in the following issues: the lack of training for
administrators and garbage collectors; ecological down-
stream framing delays, especially in the South; the insuf-
ficiency and inconsistency of plants for energy recovery;
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
6
74
management fragmentation; delays in the achievement
of the Optimal Territorial Domains; the introduction of a
short-term and low-cost system of urban sanitation ten-
ders; a slow application of the rate pattern; the insuffi-
ciency of monitoring and control activities; administra-
tive and procedural complications; inadequate informa-
tive and awareness campaigns; weak application of the
instruments for a democratic participation. Moreover,
another phenomenon to be restrained is represented by
organised criminality’s illegal waste carriage and dis-
posal, especially affecting the South and the islands.
Four southern regions are still under emergency state, in
spite of important operational processes, the manage-
ment-support administrative scheme still needs further
improvements.
The extreme fragmentation of the waste system is
delaying in its consistent industrialisation process. In
this scenario, private funds do not find the needed prof-
its, so the integration of waste cycle into the economic
system proves to be insufficient. A contribution for the
management of the industrial sector might be brought
about by a reform currently under parliamentary scruti-
ny of local public services. A further contribution can
result from the introduction of a streamlined licensing
system, administrative and bureaucratic management,
reference regulation and revision process.
Priorities, objectives and actions
The overall waste quantity needs to be restrained also
through incentives for suitable prevention initiatives;
waste generation must be de-coupled from economic
growth, applying sustainable production and consump-
tion patterns and increasing the efficiency in the use of
resources. Waste management must comply with every
concerned party’s shared liability principles. However, it
is necessary to intervene in the designing and manufac-
turing stages of goods to reduce their hazards for man
and the environment along with their whole lifecycle.
The EU 2000-2010 Sixth Environmental Action Plan sets,
as a waste sector priority, a sensible reduction of its
quantity and dangerousness. For this purpose, adequate
actions have been envisaged to affect the manufactur-
ing process of goods. As to waste management, EU
Directives 91/156, 91/689 and 94/62 place waste dis-
posal in a secondary position, while stressing the priori-
ty for recycling activities, material and energy recoveries.
The Italian government has implemented EU guidelines
with the Legislative Decree 22/97. Thereafter, waste
management is defined as the overall waste collection,
carriage, recovery and disposal, the monitoring activi-
ties, the surveillance of landfills and shut-down dispos-
al plants. Legislative Decree prescribes the achievement
of minimum separate collection targets in the Optimal
Management Areas, mainly corresponding to provincial
territories. Moreover, from an organisational point of
view, in each optimal territorial domain’s municipality,
keeping urban waste monopoly, suitable co-operation
and co-ordination procedures must be ensured in order
to rationalise waste management. Legislative Decree
22/97 introduces urban waste rate so as to ease this
process. Regions are entrusted with the need to prom-
ulgate the drafting management plan. However region-
al and local administrations were given few strategic
objectives concerning waste cycle management and
rationalisation, the redressing of territorial imbalances,
the technological innovation of the industrial system,
bureaucratic streamlining and the reduction of the
impact of the criminal activities.
Recycling and recovery activities are ruled by the ad Hoc
streamlining of licensing administrative procedures. The
increasing use of voluntary agreements can greatly con-
tribute to the strengthening of recycling and recovery
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Figure 12
Italian urban waste intensity and generation
(EU HL 8)
1995-based index nubers
15%
10%
5%
0%
-5%
-10%
-15%
-20%
Total urban waste
Urban waste generation per GDP unit
Note: reference year values.
Total urban waste: 25 Mt
Urban waste generation per GDP unit= 0.03 kg/euro
Sources: National Environmental Protection Agency
and National Waste Observatory, 2001.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
6
75
activities, through suitable incentives especially devised
to spread the application of such tool. Packagings are
separately ruled; such ad Hoc regulation restates EU
recycling and recovery targets for waste packaging,
expressly setting a National Consortium for Packaging to
run these activities. The 1998 Italian Act, implementing
the EEC Directive 157/91, introduced a Compulsory Con-
sortium of Lead Waste and Exhausted Lead Batteries
ensuring the collection, carriage and recycling of
exhausted batteries through syndicated plants.
Reduction of waste quantity and hazardousness. Specif-
ic targets pointed out by the Strategy for Redressing the
Industrial Sector, later transcribed into Regional Opera-
tional Plans and DOCUP worked out by regions in order
to exploit EU Structural Funds over the 2000-2006 plan-
ning period, can be still considered a viable drafting that
allows a wide application of prevention principles
finalised to check and improve the environmental stan-
dards of products as far as waste generation is con-
cerned through the following steps:
introducing environmental management
schemes within industrial processes and services
(environmental certification);
modifying process technologies to reduce
waste generation;
issuing regulatory, administrative and financial
instruments finalised to reduce waste generation;
reforming product environmental performance,
alongside process one, enhancing the recycling
and recovery potentials of waste materials
or their components.
The waste generation reduction objectives, whose quan-
titative targets are quite difficult to define as a result of
rapid field transformation, imply a halt to waste increase
at least, through the following tools:
the application and circulation within enterprises
of regulatory tools and environmental standard
certifications, supporting and encouraging a
network of small and medium sized enterprises
(IPPC, EMAS and ISO 14000);
a gradual introduction of urban waste rates,
proportional to generated waste, in order to meet
a two-fold target: affecting the behaviour
of citizens and business users while ensuring
transparency of costs of the management
service referred to each single task;
packaging makers and users lifelong product
liability/accountability.
The reduction of risks is essentially based on the
replacement of hazardous products and compounds,
through the introduction in the industrial process of the
best available techniques.
Material recovery. Recovery strategies make use of the
optimisation of urban waste collection systems. These
prove to be effective from a technical, economical, envi-
ronmental and waste recovery and recycling and market
development point of view. In order to develop it proper-
ly, the following stages must be improved: collection and
industrial recovery systems, a market for recovered
waste materials and products, through actions as follows:
specifying separate collection minimum targets
up to 35% by 2003;
streamlining procedures oriented towards
material recovery;
internalising recycling and disposal costs into
the price of products;
exploiting fiscal levies to discourage the use
of landfills and adjust the unit cost to the
treatment one;
achieving waste packaging targets as stated by
Directive 62/94 and its subsequent revisions, that
is 50%-65% weight to be recovered as material
or energy within the first stage, 25%-45% weight
to be recycled and 15% weight to be recycled
for every packaging material;
using innovative treatment technologies to
make qualitative materials at competitive prices;
supporting markets of recycled materials;
defining suitable standards to ensure qualitative
compost production.
Energy recovery. The fulfilment of this aim must be
encouraged through streamlined procedures such as
the use of Waste-Derived Fuel and green certifications.
This managerial procedure can substantially restrain the
overall impact of this sector. Therefore its promotion
must be backed so as to ensure first a technological
development curtailing environmental impact at most
while increasing power recovery efficiency too, and sec-
ondly supply an administrative and economic support to
the creation of new modern plants for the energetic
recovery of waste.
Landfill disposals. It is ruled by Directive 31/99 reform-
ing its mechanisms to reduce and prevent negative envi-
ronment and human health rebounds during the opera-
tional and post-operational management activity of
landfills. This Directive, whose national legal implemen-
tation is under way, prescribes for member states a
urban biodegradable waste landfill disposal cut in com-
pliance with the following targets: by 2006 up to 75%
weight as compared to 1995; by 2009 up to 50% and by
2016 up to 35%.
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
Table 8 Objectives, indicators, targets and actions for the sustainable use of natural resources
OVERALL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Reduction of resources exploitation
without affecting the quality of life
Preservation and restoration
of water resources
Improvement of the quality
of water resources
Sustainable management
of water resources
production/consumption system
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76
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Improvement of the efficiency of the production/consumption model (eco efficiency);
Reform of the fiscal policy, in terms of ecology, towards resources exploitation;
Introduction of external costs (environmental and not) within the overall price of raw materials,
products of the main production/consumption systems and construction projects;
Progressive shifting from the sale of consumption goods to equivalent services;
Application of indicators for material flows and material inputs for the evaluation
of economic policies.
Steering citizens consumption and PA purchasing models towards goods and services
with minimum use of materials.
A new legal framework for town planning and building towards the maintenance and the
re-use of the territory and building heritage.
Reduction of loss in the agricultural and civil sector.
Reduction of consumption.
Reuse, substitution of spring water quota with agricultural and industrial waste water;
A better real time management of withdrawals, accumulation, adduction and distribution;
Promotion of recovery interventions in wet areas, river banks, hedges and tree rows.
Reduction of the civil and industrial load to natural water.
Improvement of the purification skills in the civil and industrial sector.
Improvement of the reliability of the depuration in the civil and industrial sector.
Improvement of the network of dump collection in the civil and industrial sector.
Reduction of mud delivered to waste disposal sites in the civil and industrial sector.
Reduction of fertilizers and control agents in the agricultural sector.
Improvement of self depuration skills of the territory;
Improvement of the sewage system management;
Reuse of sewage sludge.
Protection, improvement and restoration of all water resources.
Protection, improvement and restoration of all underground water basins ensuring
a balance between the extraction and the induced recharge of aquifer.
Reduction of the accumulation of closed-end fund.
Covering costs;
Establishment of smoothing methodologies also independent to OTD
(Optimal Territorial Domain) dimensions;
Promotion of water saving, recycling and reuse.
Adoption of a tariff based on the marginal cost in the civil, industrial and agricultural sector.
Demand satisfaction.
Accessibility of a proper equipment for a fair price in the civil sector.
Reliability of supplies in the civil sector.
Equity (reduction of the tariff difference between disadvantaged areas and not).
Fiscal federalism.
Transparency of equal distribution mechanisms in the civil and industrial sector.
INDICATORS TARGETS
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77
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
Total Material Requirement (TMR) eventually linked to GDP as a general
indicator for the dematerialization of the economy;
Environmental space (as a pro capita resource);
Ecological footprint;
Material Input Per Unit Service (MIPS).
Percentage difference between withdrawal and use.
Consumption per GDP unit;
Consumption pro capita.
Percentage of covered demands with waste water.
Effective BOD/Acceptable BOD within the Protection Plan.
Percentage of civil and industrial population covered.
Percentage of control activities which reveal the exceeding of threshold
established by the Protection Plan.
Percentage of separated networks.
Sludge per served inhabitant;
Sludge per industrial GDP unit.
Annual consumption (per hectare and total) per toxicity level.
Extension of the territory able to manage the loads.
Percentage of those surface water basins classified with “good” and
“very good” state (according with the notice of the Attachment V of the
Directive 00/60/EC).
Closed-end fund per unit of sold water.
Percentage of coverings induced by the tariff (as distributed in OTD), by the
extra OTD compensation, by transfers from State to Regions.
(marginal cost - tariff) / tariff x100.
Water supplied/need;
Deficit of the soil humidity with respect to the optimal level.
Percentage of the family income spent to cover the costs of essential needs.
Days off services.
Difference between the maximum and the minimum tariff at national level.
Percentage of the cost of the service covered by the tariff or by transfers of
the Region.
Classification of equal distribution methodologies
Material Flows:
-25% by 2010;
-75% by 2030 (factor 4);
-90% by 2050 (factor 10);
Within PAs, at least the 30% of purchases shall match
ecological requirements;
30-40% of durable goods with reduced
energy consumption.
Achievement of a good state of surface water for all water
basins by 2015.
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78
Indicators. Legislative Decree 22/97 entrusts waste
monitoring to the National Waste Observatory, co-oper-
ating with the National Environmental Protection Agency,
to check generated waste flows, recycling and recovery
up to their end disposal. The National Waste Observato-
ry and the National Environmental Protection Agency
publish reports on urban waste, packaging, waste pack-
aging and special waste. Waste cycle assessment and
analysis indicators are mainly economical as follows:
waste system management and investment costs, pow-
er recovery and material recycling economic
returns/profits, waste category recycling and power
recovery economical efficiency, industrial sector waste
generation per worker.
Administrative action, ensuring waste management sys-
tem efficiency and efficacy, must be pivoted to outline
managerial and organisational models and executions
both at a regional and a local level, such as the Region-
al Waste Management Plan, the delimitation of Optimal
Management Areas, the issuance of local administration
joint co-operation regulatory provisions, etc. Improving
the operational capacity of Public administrations is nec-
essary, so much in its integrated cycle management and
planning stages as in its surveillance and monitoring
stages, so as to overcome some existing regulation lim-
its by promoting voluntary agreements and increased
awareness of the operators. The participation to the
decision-making processes and valuable target-sharing
tools such as local Agenda 21 can experiment patterns
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Table 9 Objectives, indicators, targets and actions for a sustainable management of waste
GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Reduction of production,
recovery of materials and
energy from waste
Reduction of urban waste production.
Reduction of special waste production.
Reduction of dangerous waste.
Recovery of materials and recycling of urban waste.
Recovery of materials and recycling of special waste dangerous and not.
Recovery of energy from waste.
The environmental and sanitary safety of waste disposal sites and the reduction
of the amount of waste disposed.
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79
of involvement of citizens and operators in the sustain-
able waste management through the integrated man-
agement of the waste cycle. Although the share of
households waste is not the highest, the aware partici-
pation of citizens has proved to be basic in steering con-
sumption and this in turn has brought about a choice of
lower-waste manufacturing patterns. In many cases
eco-efficient material use and waste management cul-
ture spreads throughout schools and families.
Exploitation of natural resources and waste generation
INDICATORS TARGETS
Total production;
Pro capita production;
Production/GDP unit.
Total production;
Pro capita production;
Production/GDP unit.
Total production;
Dangerous waste/total waste.
Separately collected fractions (SCF);
SCF pro capita;
Amount of each single fractions from SCF;
Mass concentration of SCF versus the whole production;
Amount of total material recovered;
Amount of material recovered per each single fraction;
Mass concentration of waste sent to recovery.
Total amount of material recovered;
Mass concentration of waste sent to recovery versus the whole
production;
Amount of recovered material/production sector.
Electric energy produced from waste;
Thermic energy produced from waste (CDR);
Amount of incinerated waste and contained calories;
Production and use of CDR.
Amount of disposed waste in sites/total amount of waste.
Reduction of dangerous waste with regards to 2000 data:
-20% by 2010;
-50% by 2020.
SCF objectives: a new directive on packaging is
under discussion;
Objectives related to packaging materials for 2003:
Recovery 45-65%;
Recycling 25-45%;
15% recycled of each single material.
Increase by 50% the amount of fractions recovered.
Doubling of the amount sent out for energy recovering
by 2006.
Reduction of the biodegradable materials stored with
regards to 1995 data:
-25% by 2006;
-50% by 2009;
-65% by 2016.
Waste appointed to the final disposal with regards
to 2000 data:
-20% by 2010;
-50% by 2050.
80
The early effectiveness of this Strategy will depend on
the efficiency of the ordinary and extraordinary monito-
ring procedures. In order to modify and to adapt the
Strategy objectives, a strong participation and a concer-
tation institutional framework is required among all inte-
rested bodies and authorities. Nowadays, there are many
complex and relevant balancing phenomena between
environment and development. As a result, monitoring
actions towards sustainable development are conducted
by means of a certain number of indicators, both gene-
ral and specific. The Strategy itself contains the whole
list of thematic indicators that describe all environmen-
tal processes relevant for sustainable development.
Sustainable development implies the integration of envi-
ronmental strategies with social and economic ones.
Göthenburg’s European Council (2001) has worked out
the institutional aspects of such integration, setting con-
vergence modalities of processes related to three sub-
ject areas of sustainability, started with the new Sixth
Environmental Action Plan (Helsinki, 1999), with the pro-
motion of processes of sectoral integration (Cardiff,
1998) and with the Structural Plan of Social and Eco-
nomic Development (Lisbon, 2000). The European strat-
egy is pivoted to the principle that social, economic and
environmental effects of each policy must be analysed
in a coordinated way and considered in decision-mak-
ing processes so that the three dimensions of sustain-
able development are equally measured and appropri-
ately reflected.
The European Council of Göthenburg asked the Euro-
pean Commission to evaluate each year the implemen-
tation state of the overall strategy for sustainable devel-
opment. This assessment procedure has first been
undertaken through EC briefing report to the Barcelona
Council in Spring 2002. For evaluation purposes, the
Council considered essential to resort to socio-econom-
ic structural indicators associated with key environmen-
tal indicators. The key environmental indicators of the
European Council, stated in table 10, represent the utter-
most environmental action criticalities and priorities of
each country, developed according to the four main sus-
tainable development action categories: climate change,
transport, health and use of resources.
According to the decisions agreed at the Council of
Barcelona 2002, the list of main environmental indica-
tors must be further enlarged. In December 2001, the
Council of European Ministers of the Environment has
invited Member States to develop further indicators,
within the list of indicators to be worked out and adopt-
ed by the Council, related to the health sector, with a par-
ticular emphasis on chemical products, to the sustain-
able management of natural resources particularly con-
cerning water, to both water and land biodiversity and to
the sustainable use of resources (see table 11).
The key environmental indicators of the shortlist (see
table 10) and the core set (see table 11) must provide a
brief, clear-cut overall picture of the European sustain-
ability state on environmental issues and allow bench-
marking. Although the first selected key indicators will
undergo regular revisions and completions, also accord-
ing to new available data, the Italian strategy must be
monitored in a homogenous and coherent way by using
the same indicators. Moreover, this choice will ease the
yearly Italian reporting of the domestic sustainability
state to the European Commission. Therefore, the indi-
cators of the European Council are included among the
list of indicators of the Italian Strategy.
Furthermore, the Italian Strategy associates to each
environmental quality indicator targets and timing,
whenever feasible. The same indicators must address in
the future impact evaluations on sustainability implied
by strategic and programmatic proposals. However, spe-
cial attention and further developments will regard
health and more general standard indicators, concern-
ing the quality of life and employment issues.
The driving element for sustainability and for the definition
of targets is essentially a decoupling trend between eco-
nomic growth and pressure on natural resources and on the
environment, especially in agriculture, energy and transport
sectors. The specific indexes on the pressure of economic
activities, in terms of material, soil, energy, water,
resources, waste production per units of economic wealth,
of added value or per capita, must reduce their growth rate
(partial decoupling) and finally stabilize or decrease
(absolute decoupling). These trends can be monitored
through their comparison with the historical series of indi-
cators, set according to the objectives and the timing.
Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
Monitoring the environmental action
for sustainable development
7
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81
Monitoring the environmental action for sustainable development
Table 10 List of sustainable development key environmental indicators set by Barcelona’s European Council (2002)
COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE
1 Aggregated emissions of green-house gases (6 gases) in terms of CO2 equivalents, as compared to Kyoto target
2 Energy intensity of the economy (per GDP unit)
ASSURING A SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SYSTEM
3 Volume of freight transport relative to GDP (passengers/km together with goods’ ton conveyance) in terms of intensity per GDP unit
4. Transport modal breakdown (passengers/km and tons/km )
TACKLING THREATS TO PUBLIC HEALTH
5. Air quality: exposure of urban population to atmospheric pollution
IMPROVING RESPONSIBLE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
6. Collected, landfill-disposed and incinerated urban waste in terms of kg/inhabitant
7. Gross production quota of renewable energy
Table 11 Open list* of key environmental indicators set by Barcelona’s European Council (2002)
TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE
GHG emissions (six different gases); sectoral breakdown as compared to GDP (the economy’s carbon intensity)
ASSURING A SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Transport volume to GDP ratio (vehicles/km)
Transport modal breakdown (vehicles/km)
Exposure of population to transport-induced high noise
Journeys’ average length and distance per person, per mode and per purpose
Transport infrastructure investments per mode (passengers and goods)
Internalisation of external costs
Consumptions of transport fuels
TACKLING THREATS TO PUBLIC HEALTH
Exposure of urban and rural population to atmospheric pollution
Emissions of ozone precursors, particles and SOx
Exposure to toxic chemicals, including pesticides
Consumption of toxic chemicals, pesticides included
IMPROVING RESPONSIBLE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Collected and landfill-disposed urban waste as against GDP
Collected, incinerated, landfill-disposed urban waste (highlighting energy recovery)
Waste prevention
Recycling rate of selected materials (that is glass and paper/cardboard)
* Indicators that the European Council is working on fot improvement.
Adequate technical and financial resources must be
allocated to activities and studies to monitor and check
sustainability, thus implementing European Council
guidelines for member states. These resources will
ensure the development of common assessment tools,
models and methods and their continuous and long last-
ing revision, paying great attention to the quality of
observation methods of the required data, to territorial
and regional differentials and to the analytic methods for
the elaboration of indicators.
A particularly important role will be assigned to commu-
nication and information in order to guarantee trans-
parency and ensure a wide aware participation to the
decision-making processes.
A leading role must be played by the new technologies
which allow to manage information on-line.
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Environmental action strategy for sustainable development in Italy
follow Table 11
Recycling rate of selected materials (including other materials)
Valorisation rate of selected materials
Generated hazardous waste
Fishing sustainability of selected sea species
Concentrations of N and P in rivers
Discharges of polluting agents (fertilizers, organic substances, chemicals) into water courses (pressure indicator)
Drinkable water quality
Water sectoral use
Indicators of resources’ productivity or material resources’ intensity
(GDP as against material resources’ overall requirements - according to type of resource)
Use intensity of material resources (as to overall economy)
Biodiversity index
Protected areas (as to biodiversity)
Consumption of pesticides
Organic farming
Nitrogen balance
Evolution in the destination of soils according to main categories, evolution of built areas
Contaminated and eroded areas

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