Description
Cultural factors have long been known to influence the communication and success potential of competition in conducting international business. Cultural awareness shapes how business firms behave in cross-culturally reflected international markets.
Cross-Cultural Issues in Marketing Communications: An
Anthropological Perspective of International Business
Kathy Tian
Beijing Foreign Studies University
Luis Borges
Saint Xavier University
Cultural factors have long been known to influence the communication and success potential of
competition in conducting international business. Cultural awareness shapes how business firms
behave in cross-culturally reflected international markets. It is broadly recognized that cultural
factors act as invisible barriers in international marketing communications. Understanding
cultural differences is one of the most significant skills for firms to develop in order to have a
competitive advantage in international business. This paper probes some key elements of cross-
cultural issues in international marketing communication and provides a framework for creating
competitive advantage for firms engaged in international business from an anthropological
perspective.
INTRODUCTION
Communication is one of the most important functions to master in order for any business to
be successful in today’s increasingly competitive markets, particularly for firms doing business
internationally. A firm’s profitability is in part determined by its marketing communication
strategies and skills. However, top managers in companies working internationally sometimes
neglect the significance that invisible barriers cultural differences create in marketing
communication. Cultural factors play an important role, functioning as invisible barriers.
Even as the world is becoming globalized, many nations have increasingly voiced their claim
to “a right to culture” in international businesses. It is predicted that national culture will be a
critical factor affecting economic development, demographic behaviour, and general business
policies around the world. Such claims at the macro level will be important for making trade
policy, protecting intellectual property rights, and creating resources for national benefits. At the
micro level, these claims could be invisible barriers for firms working in or wanting to enter
international markets. For example, the last summit of francophone nations in the 20
th
century
called for a “cultural exception” to GATT/WTO rules governing trade of goods.
110 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
These claims will affect public policy on international trade rules in these nations and might
initiate worldwide cultural protectionism for transnational trading. As the voice of cultural rights
increases, firms doing business internationally will face additional challenges in other
dimensions of culture. From a management perspective, it is important for companies to realize
that markets today are worldwide and cross-cultural. Being aware of and sensitive to cultural
differences is a major factor for success in the world marketplace. Failure to place marketing
strategy in the cross-cultural context of the countries where a company is doing business will
work to the detriment of brands and business relationships (Emery and Tian, 2003, 2002; Tian,
2000a).
If globalization is an inevitable process, then cross-culturalization will also be inevitable. On
the one hand, the world is becoming more homogeneous, and distinctions between national
markets are fading and, for some products, disappearing altogether. This means that marketing
communication is now a world-encompassing discipline. On the other hand, the cultural
differences between nations, regions, and ethnic groups, far from being extinguished, are
becoming stronger. This means that global/international marketing communication, a cross-
cultural process, requires managers to be well informed about cultural differences nationally,
locally, and ethnically in order to win in global markets.
International marketing communication is communication that crosses national boundaries
for business purposes. Communication among people from the same culture is often difficult
enough. Therefore, communication between people from different cultures from the point of
view of language, values, customers, and ways of thinking, will be far more difficult, with a
degree of miscommunication being almost inevitable (Ferraro, 2006). Problems in marketing
communication conducted cross-culturally often arise when participants from one culture are
unable to understand culturally determined differences in communication practices, traditions,
and thought-processing in another cultural context. Marketing communication literature focused
on advertising supports the hypothesis that advertising content differs between countries.
International advertising research has confirmed differences in advertising content between
countries. The premise upon which these studies are predicated indicates that advertisements, in
part, reflect individual countries’ social systems (Emery and Tian, 2003; McLeod and Kunita,
1994; Mueller, 1992; Ramaprasad and Hasegawa, 1992; Zandpour, Chang, and Catalano, 1992).
Values, norms, and characteristics embedded in advertising messages appear in various
cultures to a greater or lesser degree (Emery and Tian, 2003; Mueller, 1993). Therefore
understanding the importance of cultural values in advertising has great practical value in
marketing communication. Determining differences in cultural values should guide the
formulation of international marketing communication strategies (Munson and McIntyre, 1979).
Ignoring the cultural meaning embedded in advertising could lead to a misinterpretation of the
firm’s intended message (McCracken, 1987). Such miscommunication is mainly responsible for
businesses failing in international markets.
The importance of cross-cultural communication is evident for China marketing and
marketing China, since there are many factors that influence the relationship between Chinese
and non-Chinese businessmen. According to Harrison and Hedley (2008), there is an important
question of how to sell and market to Chinese companies effectively, both for new market
entrants and for those companies with existing operations in China. They point out several
factors, such as patience, flexibility, plenty of negotiation, and remembering the basics of
marketing, that underlie the preparation of adapting to the local environment.
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 111
The core of anthropology as a social science concerns culture and its relationship to human
behavior. Although there are many different definitions of culture employed by scholars from
various fields, such as political science, history, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and so on,
the common points made by cross-disciplinary scholars are clear. The essential core of culture
consists of traditional ideas that are historically derived, selected, and generated to support
attached values. Culture systems may be considered as products of action or as conditioning
elements of further action. They consist of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior
acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts (Feldhusen, 2008; Lillis and Tian, 2010).
The improvements in the Chinese economies in the last three decades are evident. Kotler
(2010) states that there was more than a tenfold increase in GDP since 1978. Foreign direct
investment (FDI) rose to nearly $108 billion in 2008. Facing this economic growth, the
importance of China marketing is much more internationalized, not only on the export side
where the growth became evident, but also in the growth of domestic marketing. The presence of
Geely, which acquired Volvo in 2010, shows the presence of a Chinese company in the
international market, and reinforces its strength in the domestic market, as it plans to build its
second plant in the northeastern city of Daquin (Reuters, 2011). The marketing forces are
moving from export to domestic and import, since the salaries are growing and the demand for
new products is increasing. China could become the world's largest economy as early as 2030.
Today’s world economy is deeply influenced by the economy of China and tomorrow’s Chinese
economy may continue to play a dominant role in the world economy (Kotler, 2010).
This paper, from an anthropological perspective, examines cross-cultural marketing
communication issues in “borderless” markets where national boundaries are no longer the only
criterion to consider when making international marketing, economic planning, and business
decisions. Consequently, understanding political and non-political borders is important for
“culture bound” products and industries, as well as those requiring local adaptation. This paper
probes the implications of a right to culture in international business practice by discussing the
effects of cultural values on communication. It also analyzes several key cross-cultural matters in
the imperatives of international marketing communication from an anthropological perspective,
and examines several strategies of cross-cultural communication in today’s world marketplace.
Based on this approach, the authors construct a framework for firms to use to break through the
invisible cultural barriers of marketing communication.
THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON MARKETING COMMUNICATION
The globalization of the economic world has made it important for marketing managers to
understand how to do business in different cultures. The ability of marketers and consumers to
communicate cross-culturally is critical for success. Marketing communication is a two-way
interactive communication. Marketers deliver information to the market they gather, collecting,
interpreting, and putting this information to use. Failure to do so may lead to a loss of business.
One classic case discussion about the successful marketing of color TV sets in the China market
by Japanese marketers can be used to support this argument (Tian, 2000b).
In the late 1980s and 1990s, Japanese-made color TV sets dominated the imported TV set
market in China. In the early 1980s, Japanese and European TV manufacturers made
comprehensive studies of the Chinese market. Based on their research, European marketers
decided not to market their products in China. They concluded that, given the low GDP per
112 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
capita in China, it was unlikely that the Chinese people would be willing to buy luxuries like
color TV sets. The Japanese TV set marketers decided otherwise, based on their research and
observations that the Chinese have a cultural tradition of savings being handed down from
generation to generation.
In addition, the Chinese save money for future consumption, unlike Western culture where
people spend future money for present consumption. Almost every family in China had been
saving for two to three years to realize the dream of owning a color TV set. Moreover, the
Japanese research revealed that, although Chinese companies manufactured color TV sets,
Chinese consumers had more confidence in imported products. Accordingly, the Japanese
marketers concluded that Chinese families would buy high quality Japanese color TV sets. As a
result, Japanese color TV marketers profited greatly in China because they understood a facet of
Chinese culture that their European competitors did not.
In an intriguing research study, Sheer and Chen (2003) examine the extent to which Chinese
and Western international business negotiators note the influence of cultural and professional
preferences on the process and outcomes of their interactions. The results of the investigation
showed some rather significant differences between Chinese and Western negotiators’
expectations and strategies. Westerners expressed more emphasis on adaptation than did Chinese
negotiators. For instance, Martin (1999) reports that in order to succeed in the Persian Gulf, most
American franchisers have had to allow for adaptability and flexibility so as to be culturally
sensitive, making sure that their operations and policy are appropriately adapted to the culture.
Lee, Yang, and Graham (2006) conducted research about tension and trust in international
business negotiations with 176 American and Chinese executives who participated in simulated
international business (buyer–seller) negotiations. The data collected reflect a series of cultural
differences between the two groups. The Chinese and American executives mutually felt tension
during the negotiation; however, for the Chinese, greater levels of tension led to an increased
likelihood of agreement, but also led to lower levels of interpersonal attraction and in turn lower
trust of their American counterparts. For the Americans, the felt tension marginally decreased the
likelihood of an agreement and, did not affect interpersonal attraction, but did have a direct
negative effect on trust. Zhang and Zhou (2010) inquire: “Are those Chinese companies simply
lucky survivors in chaotic price wars, or do they know something about how to wage price wars
that their Western counterparts do not?” In their study, they found that luck had nothing to do
with being a victor in a price war, but good planning and execution did. It is fair to say that
Chinese companies are much keener about price wars than the executives in the West.
In order to study similar impacts, we need first to examine culture itself. Marketing scholars
define culture as that which gives people a sense of who they are, of belonging, of how they
should behave, and of what they should be doing. Culture provides a learned, shared, and
interrelated set of symbols, codes, and values that direct and justify human behavior (Harris and
Moran, 1987). In marketing and consumer behavior research, the concept of culture has been
minimal; commonly, marketers and consumers ignore the depth and importance of the concept
and its place in analyzing human behavior (Douglas and Craig, 1995; Griffith and Ryans, 1995).
Some definitions of culture place it along a continuum, ranging from tradition-based to
modernity-based. This classification incorporates and relates dimensions of economic and
cultural boundedness. In this system, African, Asian, and Middle Eastern societies are
categorized as tradition-based, centralized, cooperative, agrarian, pre-industrialized systems.
Economically, modernity-based cultures are characterized as market-driven, competitive, post-
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 113
industrialized economic systems. The United States, Canada, and other Westernized societies are
considered to be examples of modernity-based cultures.
Regarding cultural boundedness, tradition-based cultures emphasize history and established
convention. By contrast, modernity-based cultures have weaker ties to history and tradition. At
the same time, conventions are ever-shifting (Bandyopadhyay and Robicheaux, 1993; Harris and
Moran, 1987). The cultural boundedness of tradition-based societies produces market systems
that differ markedly from market systems valorized by cultures that prioritize modernity over
tradition. Samiee (1993) suggests that economic and social factors influence the development
and adaptation of marketing institutions that relate to business transaction.
Understanding the cultural boundedness of business (i.e., the degree of willingness of a
culture to relinquish its traditional methods and adopt new ones) is imperative for successful
international marketing communication and for marketing to ethnic populations domestically
(Reese, 1998). Research conducted by one of the authors (Tian, 1987) in a minority region in
China (which is considered as “tradition-based culture”) demonstrates that culture influences
consumer behavior in the area of product distribution. The author noted that the cultural
orientation of the ethnic group consumers helped establish and maintain, through vendor loyalty,
a plethora of small retailers supported by inefficient, multi-tiered distribution networks. This
makes the Chinese state-owned retail business and foreign commercial institutions less profitable
than they could be.
Similarly, Griffith and Ryans (1995) report that cultural overtones in marketing operations
derive, to some extent, from consumer preferences. They suggest that “the cultural
characteristics of a target market will be responsive to certain culturally bound channel
structures, such as local stores, or bazaars…” (p.62). It will be difficult for marketers from the
U.S., for instance, to understand the market system in developing countries, as well as states that
may value traditional community ties over “modernity” for its own sake. As an instance, Griffith
(1998) reports that U.S. marketers were hard-pressed to understand the French government’s
decision to restrict retail store size and protect local mom-and-pop retailers, especially
considering the success of supermarkets there. He suggests that the government’s decision to
forego the economic efficiencies of distribution obtained by large-scale retail distribution
systems is in part cultural in nature. Unless perceived and understood, profound differences in
attitudes, expectations, and unworded messages will frustrate firms’ efforts to do business with
China, a huge and developing market that values aspects of tradition, as well as elsewhere in
tradition-based cultures (Emery and Tian, 2003).
It can be argued that government intervention, as in the case of France, is intended to protect
its society’s culture within the existing market system or structure (Griffith and Ryans, 1995).
However, in spite of some conflicts, there are societies, such as in some more areas of China, in
which traditional market bazaars and modern, efficient supermarkets co-exist. This harmony is
achieved only when the two systems become interdependent and supplementary (Tian, 1988).
Accordingly, the authors argue that although cultural factors affect marketing, their effect can be
minimized when marketers are aware of and sensitive to cultural differences.
Cross-cultural marketing communication is marketing communication among consumers or
customers whose culture differs from that of the marketer’s own culture in at least one
fundamental aspect of cultural such as language, religion, social norms and values, education,
and life style. Cross-cultural marketing communication demands that firms be aware of and
sensitive to cultural differences. To respect the right to culture by the consumers in various
cultures and marketplaces, marketers should understand that their customers have a right to
114 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
maintain, practice, and identify with their own culture. If the marketers want to succeed in cross-
cultural marketing, they must work in a way that respects the consumer’s values and their right
to cultural ties. For example, for Western marketers to communicate in a business setting, it is
important for them to respect the Chinese government’s claim for guoqin, which means that they
must “consider the special situation or character of China” (Yan, 1994). In another research on
refrigerators, Baoku, Lijuan, and Bingru (2011) state that peasants evaluate product attributes
differently in various regions and markets. In the case of the refrigerator market, segmentation is
very important. This is evidenced by the fact not only related refrigerators, but also high-tech
products China has a total of 53 state-level high-tech development zones (Tu, 2011). In sum,
marketing communication is not an independent behavior, but is related to all other business or
market behaviors. From the anthropological perspective, then, all market behaviors are culture-
bound. Buying and selling take place within the culture itself (Hamilton, 1987).
In order to match marketing with consumer preferences, purchasing behavior, and product-
use patterns, marketers benefit from understanding the market’s cultural environment. Business
firms should not focus on cultural differences merely to adjust marketing communication
programs to make them acceptable to consumers. This is to suggest that firms should also
identify cultural similarities, in order to identify opportunities and modify standard marketing
strategies based on marketing communication theory informed with cultural information.
Working skillfully with these cultural similarities and differences in the worldwide marketplace
is an important marketing task for businesses.
KEY ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION
Cross-cultural marketing communication requires that firms discover if markets are viable by
including in its business and marketing planning, the study of the culture in which the company
intends to do business. This involves identifying cultural factors that can be employed to support
marketing communication in the proposed markets. To succeed, the business uses pre-existing
factors and creates new ones that suit the situation. Classic anthropological theory claims that
while all human behaviors, including market behaviors, take place within a cultural context,
people are able to influence and even change, through their behaviors, the cultural context within
which their behaviors take place (Hall, 1976; Hamilton, 1987; Harris and Moran, 1987). For
instance, Geely might face some challenges in the development of the Volvo purchase and
Welch (2010) questions whether this endeavor will be successful given previous failures with the
automaker’s acquisitions such as the Daimler-Chrysler case. The Chinese luxury market is
booming and still has room for some other players to come in and build a brand. The brand is
upscale and Chinese consumers might even see Geely’s ownership as a preferable outcome. So
in the opinion of Welch’s interviewee Jim Hall, principal of 2953 Analytics in Birmingham,
Michigan, the company can grow sales and get fatter margins in China. Bloomberg (2007)
publishes that the advertising in China is westernized, from huge billboards to tiny screens in
taxicabs. Every day, many events are sponsored by companies, many of them Western, looking
to connect with local customers. On the other hand, the Google/cn withdrawal from China serves
as an example that it is important to understand all the intricacies of the country that one is trying
to dog business with. As Levy (2011) states, the Chinese logged onto Google.cn and typed in a
vulgar term for breasts. Google Suggest offered links that displayed raw nudity, and more. The
official typed in the word meaning "son," and one of the Google Suggest terms was "love affair
between son and mother." The links to this term yielded explicit pornography. The woman
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 115
serving tea in the conference room almost fainted at the spectacle. The lack of cross-cultural
communication is evident in this case.
Accordingly, culture influences marketing communication, just as marketing communication,
in turn, influences culture. Firms can be agents of change within a culture. The interactions
between marketing communication and culture can be examined from three perspectives. First,
culture defines acceptable purchasing and product-use behavior for consumers and business.
Based on their analysis of data collected in Denmark, Great Britain, France, and Germany,
Brunso and Grunet (1998) found that cross-cultural factors impact people’s food shopping.
Using business gifts as an example, in cultures such as Japan where a business gift is expected, a
host who is not presented with a gift will be insulted. However, an important feature of
marketing communication may work to the detriment of the company seeking business in other
cultures where offering a business gift could be interpreted as a bribe or inappropriate gesture,
and would offend the recipient (Arunthanes, Tansuhaj and Lemak, 1994).
Second, in anthropological theory where culture is at the center of all social interaction, it is
expected that the impact of culture on marketing communication per se would be easier to
identify than any other business variable. Advertising, for instance, is strongly influenced by
language, one of the key elements of culture. Moreover, advertising budget and structure are
based on buying habits and consumption style. Values and norms, media, and the state of the
material culture, in turn, influence these variables. Theorists, including Albers-Miller (1996),
Hofstede (1991), Pollay and Gallagher (1990), claim that culture affects the kind of roles and the
choice of themes depicted in advertising. These roles and themes are related to underlying
cultural values and norms; thus, every element of culture influences each facet of marketing
communication.
Third, marketing communication also influences culture, contributing to cultural borrowing
and change. According to Hooker (2008), “there is no better arena for observing a culture in
action than business. Cultures tend to reveal themselves in situations where much is as stake,
because it is here that their resources are most needed.” (p.1). As more markets become global
and the marketing mix standardized, the rate of cultural change will increase. Cultural changes in
contemporary China illustrate this point. For instance, it was widely believed that gender identity
might affect consumption behavior. However, a recent study of masculinity appeal by Emery and
Tian (2003) demonstrated that American respondents and Chinese respondents acted the same. A
possible explanation for this could be that the gender status in Chinese traditional culture has
changed. Marketing communications by Western firms could in part account, for such a cultural
change. Therefore, American marketers may succeed using the same masculine appeals to the
Chinese youth market that they do in the U.S.
Nonetheless, cultures tend to change slowly, and specific products may meet with protracted
resistance. Therefore, the primary task for firms is to locate similarities in various markets and
strategically make them available for entering into new cross-cultural markets. In cross-cultural
communication, marketers need continually to adjust their behaviors and marketing programs to
suit target markets. However, when entering foreign markets, firms frequently fall into the trap
of the “self-reference” criterion, which means their business representatives might be
unconsciously applying their own cultural experiences and values to marketing communication
in another culture. Even more dangerous than self-reference criterion is ethnocentrism, the belief
that one’s own culture is superior to any other, which will ruin efforts at marketing
communication.
116 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
Based on his wide experience, Gesteland (1996) identified four paired cultural models that
require special attention when doing business in diverse cultural settings, namely: 1) deal-
focused vs. relationship-focused cultures; 2) formal vs. informal business cultures; 3) rigid-time
vs. fluid-time cultures; 4) expressive vs. reserved cultures. In relationship-focused cultures, firms
do not do business with strangers. In such cultures, it is important to develop good contacts with
the right people. It takes time to develop personal relationships. This is important before entering
into business discussions. This feature of relationship is predominant in most of Asia, Africa, the
Middle East, and Latin America. In deal-focused cultures, the emphasis is on getting down to
business right away, even with strangers. Rapport between the parties develops during
discussions. In contrast to relationship-based cultures, such as Germany, Great Britain, Australia,
New Zealand, and North America, the written agreement is considered most important and
constitutes a bond.
Regarding formal versus informal business cultures, in formal cultures, mainly in Europe
and, most of Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America, societies are hierarchical, status-
conscious, and follow strict protocols. On the other hand, in informal cultures such as the USA,
Australia, and to some extent Canada, Denmark, Norway, and New Zealand, societies are
egalitarian and open, and value individual competence more than connections and status.
Gesteland (1996) also classified cultures according to their views of time. In a monochromic
culture, time is important. Discussions follow agreed-upon agendas and move rapidly in linear
fashion. Countries having this orientation to time are mainly in North America, Western Europe,
and North East Asia. In polychromic cultures, business discussions tend to follow their own logic
rather than a fixed outline. In these cultures, relationship is more valued than deadlines. For
business firms planning to negotiate in a polychromic culture, it is wise to build a substantial
margin of time into agendas. Polychromic cultures are mostly in Africa, Southeast Asia, the
Middle East and Latin America.
Although what Gesteland suggests is useful and practical, it is good to be aware of the danger
of stereotyping people from other cultures. Anthropological theory suggests that it is unwise and
short-sighted to project our own behavior onto substantially different cultures (Giovannini and
Rosansky, 1990; Hall, 1976; Hamilton, 1987). People in different cultures have different market
values and behaviors that defy typecasting by national origin alone. For example, through long
observation it has been found that consuming and buying patterns and other social/economic
behaviors of Chinese immigrants living in Canada are completely different from the patterns of
people living in China. Therefore, business firms need to have different market communication
strategies for each group (Tian, 1999). In some cases, the firms know that cultures are different,
but are unable to articulate how they differ. Research is the way to find out and to know what
levers to use in moving buyers/consumers. We assert that the anthropological approach is an
especially effective way to carry out cross-cultural marketing research (Tian, 2000a; Weise,
1999).
Anthropologist Hendrick Serrie has provided an excellent example of how an
anthropological understanding of local cultural patterns in southern Mexico prevented the costly
mistake of mass-producing a solar cooker developed for this area. Designed to reduce the use of
firewood for cooking by encouraging the use of solar energy, these solar stoves, with the
assistance of a four-foot parabolic reflector, produced levels of heat comparable to a wood fire.
Although initial demonstrations of the cooker caught the interest of the local people, a number of
cultural features militated against the widespread acceptance of this technological device. To
illustrate: 1) the major part of the cooking in this part of Mexico is done early in the morning and
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 117
in the early evening, times when solar radiation is at its lowest level; and 2) although the solar
stove was very effective for boiling beans and soup, it was inadequate for cooking tortillas, a
basic staple in the local diet. Thus, for these and other reasons, it was decided not to mass-
produce and market the solar cookers because, even though the cooker worked well technically,
it made little sense culturally (Serrie, 1986).
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Adler, Doktor, and Redding (1986) review the areas of comparative and cross-cultural
management and discuss the impact of cultural diversity on international organizational behavior.
Their findings suggest that with the growing shift of business from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Basin, East-West cultural differences are becoming increasingly significant for firms seeking to
be successful in conducting international business. According to them, research in developmental
psychology, sociology, and anthropology demonstrates that there are major differences that
affect the cognitive processes of people from different cultures. As such, in the era of the global
corporation, cultural diversity has to be recognized, understood, and appropriately used in
organizations. Along with their findings, we will argue that that cross-cultural management
would greatly benefit from anthropologically comparative studies that consider the impact of
cognitive aspects of culture on managerial practice.
In the 1950s, anthropologist Edward T. Hall was beginning a career that would be highly
influential in business in terms of cross-cultural communication. From 1950 to 1955, Hall served
as director of the U.S. State Department’s “Point Four” training program, a training program
designed to teach technicians who would be working outside North America. Hall clearly
understood the significance of cultural influence on communication effectiveness. Hall built a
career in the cross-cultural communication field and eventually wrote several seminal works in
business, anthropology, communication, and many other fields (Jordan, 2003).
Hall’s practice and influence in the fields of cross-cultural communication and intercultural
training have been monumental. He clearly understood that errors in cross-cultural
communication could destroy a business deal or a peace agreement. In his first book, The Silent
Language, he explained culture as communication, and communication as involving much more
than just language. Communication included nonverbal characteristics and had to be understood
in its cultural context (Hall, 1981). In later books, he explored the culturally different ways of
conceiving space and time, as well as the implications in business practice. Hall’s practice in and
theoretical contributions to marketing communication generated great impact and international
value in terms of cross-cultural factors. Many other anthropologists, such as Gay Ferraro (2006)
among others, have continued Hall’s work on communication in international settings.
Anthropologists’ interest in cultural studies grew out of academic purposes but has been
extended to business applications as well. The results of anthropological study on culture have
been widely applied in various fields of the business world. In the business world, a profound
understanding of cultural values in general and specific individual cultural characteristics in
particular can lead to greater success in the global market and economy. On the other hand,
cultural misunderstandings can be counterproductive for individual development, organizational
effectiveness, and profits, because cultural factors influence people’s motives, brand compre-
hension, attitude, and intention to purchase. Therefore, it is important that we clearly understand
the fact that in the global marketplace the effectiveness of communication depends on many
factors, however, the primary one among them is the capacity to understand our cultural
118 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
preferences and how they influence and are influenced by those from other parts of the world
(Emery and Tian, 2003; Lillis and Tian, 2009).
We argue that the anthropological approach is a very effective way to assess the impact of
culture on international marketing communications. We agree with Mariampolski (2006) that
culture is important as a heuristic principle for describing and classifying human behaviors, and
it is also an analytic concept to be used for explaining how individual choices result from the
interpersonal influences and the symbolic universe that delineates everyday life. According to
Mariampolski, culture operates on both the material and nonmaterial levels of human experience,
serving as the foundation for the behaviors, meanings, and tools of all human collectives. To
Mariampolski, cultural tools refer to all of the physical components of a group’s life experiences,
which include technology and materials, as well as the fundamental rules, codes, and techniques
for accomplishing daily affairs. Cultural meanings refer to the sense-making process how people
intellectually or emotionally understand the purposes, implications, and associations that
underline all of human behaviors and the tools individuals use in everyday life.
The most famous researcher of cross-cultural marketing communication, Geert Hofstede
(1991), has created a global model for helping business professionals to distinguish the culture
differences pertaining to individual countries. This often-cited model of cross-cultural
communication is commonly called the “four-dimension of culture model,” which addresses
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, and masculinity. Moreover,
some researchers, such as Redpath and Nielsen (1997), Rhodes, at al. (2004) among others, have
added one more dimension called “Confucian dynamism” into Hofstede’s model, with the
special intent of differentiating Chinese cultural values from Western cultural values.
In a previous study, Emery and Tian (2003) demonstrated that the significance of cross-
cultural differences in advertising, one of most important formats of marketing communication,
has become even clearer as we continue to move toward a globalized marketplace. It is important
that marketing personnel should not let old stereotypes drive advertising strategies; this is
particularly important in the Asian market, as China and Taiwan become formal members of the
WTO. The findings indicate that heuristics such as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are too broad
to capture the detailed differences required in launching an effective advertising campaign.
While Emery and Tian’s findings do not provide unequivocal recommendations for developing
advertising, they do provide some general information for marketing practitioners seeking to do
business in China. For example, one should consider the “seven appeals” (i.e., effectiveness,
safety, approachability, durability, naturalness, nurturance and assurance, in descending order of
importance). Conversely, the “ten appeals” (i.e., casualness, distinctiveness, community, status,
adventurousness, affection, family, danger, fantasy, and popularity, in descending order of least
importance) should be avoided. Thus, there is a strong need to consider market segmentation and
to consult with experts in Chinese consumer behavior before developing ads for the China
market.
Chaoyin, Jian and Ille (2011) state in a study on the telecommunications company “Qingqin
1+” advertising campaign that there is an emotional factor in advertising that can have a better
outcome than rational advertising in promoting the telecommunication service brand. This
confirms previous studies done on service advertising strategy. We argue that culture is deeply
rooted in the life of each organization and its members, and exerts tremendous influence on a
variety of day-to-day activities, such as how decisions are made, how resources are allocated, who
gets promoted, and what behaviors are considered appropriate. As such, culture can have a profound
impact on outcomes that are vitally important to an organization, including job satisfaction,
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 119
turnover, productivity and profitability. Clearly, if cultures are such powerful influencers of
behavior, managers must work hard to understand and manage them. From a practical standpoint,
building an awareness of both visible and invisible manifestations of culture is an important first
step in determining how to manage this key institutional resource (Lillis and Tian, 2010). According
to Perner (2011), culture is a problematic issue for many marketers since it is inherently nebulous
and often difficult to understand. Whenever one violates the cultural norms of another country, it
might become a deadlock for the continuation of business, because people from different cultures
may feel uncomfortable with this violation.
Business negotiation, another kind of important format for marketing communication, also
necessitates awareness of cultural difference. A recent study by Chang (2003) has concluded that
in Chinese society, people emphasize the “zero-sum game” in most of their business competition
activities. It is suggested that a successful negotiation should create a “win-win” situation. As
Thompson (2001) noted, a true win-win negotiation is one where any agreement reached by
negotiators covers most interests of both sides. However, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to
improve one party’s outcome, while simultaneously not hurting the other party’s result. As such,
honesty could be the first step toward a better agreement with the Chinese business community.
To be honest about one’s intentions, goals, and interests can help to build trust and create a
positive bargaining zone. Respecting culture difference and being patient in waiting for a
response will be the second step toward a successful negotiation. Lastly, but not finally, extra
services or practical favors cement friendship and sincerity in business transactions.
These two recent studies suggest that in the real business world, firms can profit by studying
the Hofstede culture model, which entails accepting cultural differences and practicing those
skills in marketing communication practices, enabling them to gain the expected or better
outcomes. There are innumerable factors that affect the international business environment but a
fundamental precondition of any successful international business enterprise is effective
communication, which more or less involves the businessperson’s awareness of other cultures.
As such, cross-cultural problems definitely provide greater challenges and opportunities for
business firms in the 21
st
century, even though these challenges might not be new to the
marketing communication field itself. The effectiveness of international marketing
communication can be strengthened when businesspeople become aware of cultural differences
and their impact on communications.
There are many unresolved problems or issues that need to be solved and discussed by
scholars and marketing professionals in theory as well as practice. In the theoretical area, the
following themes and issues need to be probed and discussed:
Cultural impact of markets: international versus domestic marketing communication;
Standardization versus adaptation in cross-cultural communication;
Cross-cultural dimensions of marketing communication research;
Cross-cultural aspects of marketing communication mix (advertising, promotion, sales,
public relations, trade shows, and commercials);
Cross-cultural aspects of marketing communication in the service sector;
Cross-cultural communication implications of the aftermarket;
Cross-cultural marketing communication education and professional training.
The seven topics or themes listed above can be viewed as guidelines for further theoretical
studies, although they will not be treated as exclusive for marketing scholars. More themes and
topics will be discovered as the theoretical discussions proceed. As marketing professionals, we
120 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
need to know clearly that although marketing principles will remain the same, there will
continuously be new challenges to marketing in the new century. The impact of cross-cultural
factors on marketing is one of such issues that demands serious study. In terms of marketing
practice, we suggest the following points as guidelines for marketers to minimize possible cross-
cultural marketing mistakes:
Be sensitive to do’s and don’ts, taboos, and regulations. Develop cultural empathy in
terms of marketing communication.
Recognize, understand, and respect another’s cultural difference.
Be culturally neutral and realize that different is not necessarily better or worse.
Never assume transferability of a concept from one culture to another. For instance, if
local businesspeople in developing countries indicate that they do not like Americans,
they may not mean that they do not want to buy American goods. It simply means they
are expected to say certain things in public, but that they may operate differently in
private.
Get cultural informants involved in decision-making. Cultural informants could be local
businesspeople or well trained anthropologists.
As indicated above, an anthropological approach is very effective in facilitating international
business. In fact, the implications of anthropological theories and methods in business practice
have become popular and increasingly accepted by the business world. Although the
anthropological approaches to cross-cultural communication are by no means entirely new to the
business world, they are becoming more familiar and are perceived as more reliable by business
leaders and marketers. How to apply anthropological approaches into cross-cultural marketing
communication practice is a topic that should be looked at not only by anthropology itself, but
also by the completely theoretical arena of marketing communication. The potential of
anthropological approaches applied to cross-cultural marketing communication is unlimited, but
yet still needs to be investigated by anthropologists and marketing communication professionals
conducting joint investigations (Jordan, 2003; Tian, Lillis, and van Marrewijk, 2010).
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS TO CHINA MARKETERS
The importance of the success of marketing communication is obvious in progressively more
competitive international markets. Marketing communication strategies and skills determine the
profitability of business organizations. Culture is one of the key factors that lies deeply rooted in
the life of each individual and exerts tremendous influence on a variety of human behaviors.
Cultural difference can have a profound impact on outcomes that are vitally important to the success
of a business deal. From a practical standpoint, building an awareness of both visible and invisible
manifestations of culture is a critically important first step in determining how to effectively conduct
marketing communications internationally and cross-culturally.
Cross-cultural communication is becoming even more important for the Chinese marketers in
this new century since China planned to more widely open its market to the world and export
more of its service and products to the world market. It is suggested that Chinese business
leaders are better prepared for cross-cultural communication and put it at their corporate strategic
level for marketing China and China marketing. It is true that in today’s business world, whoever
masters cross-cultural communication strategies and skills will win the competition.
While international business is often conducted through various means from culture to
culture, marketing communications can be enhanced when managers are cross-culturally trained
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 121
to be aware of areas likely to create communication roadblocks and conflict. International
business in general is enhanced when people from different cultures find new approaches to
solve problems by creating solutions that combine cultural perspectives and examine the problem
at hand from each other’s differing perspectives.
Moreover, it is key for cross-cultural business leaders to understand one’s business partners
well enough to make cultural adjustments to solve the conflicts (Hooker, 2008). Anthropologists
are professionally trained to be highly sensitive to cultural differences; the result of
anthropological study on culture has been widely applied in various fields in the real business
world. It is suggested that anthropological approaches offer highly effective applications and
solutions toward the understanding of cross-cultural issues in international marketing
communication.
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doc_930156565.pdf
Cultural factors have long been known to influence the communication and success potential of competition in conducting international business. Cultural awareness shapes how business firms behave in cross-culturally reflected international markets.
Cross-Cultural Issues in Marketing Communications: An
Anthropological Perspective of International Business
Kathy Tian
Beijing Foreign Studies University
Luis Borges
Saint Xavier University
Cultural factors have long been known to influence the communication and success potential of
competition in conducting international business. Cultural awareness shapes how business firms
behave in cross-culturally reflected international markets. It is broadly recognized that cultural
factors act as invisible barriers in international marketing communications. Understanding
cultural differences is one of the most significant skills for firms to develop in order to have a
competitive advantage in international business. This paper probes some key elements of cross-
cultural issues in international marketing communication and provides a framework for creating
competitive advantage for firms engaged in international business from an anthropological
perspective.
INTRODUCTION
Communication is one of the most important functions to master in order for any business to
be successful in today’s increasingly competitive markets, particularly for firms doing business
internationally. A firm’s profitability is in part determined by its marketing communication
strategies and skills. However, top managers in companies working internationally sometimes
neglect the significance that invisible barriers cultural differences create in marketing
communication. Cultural factors play an important role, functioning as invisible barriers.
Even as the world is becoming globalized, many nations have increasingly voiced their claim
to “a right to culture” in international businesses. It is predicted that national culture will be a
critical factor affecting economic development, demographic behaviour, and general business
policies around the world. Such claims at the macro level will be important for making trade
policy, protecting intellectual property rights, and creating resources for national benefits. At the
micro level, these claims could be invisible barriers for firms working in or wanting to enter
international markets. For example, the last summit of francophone nations in the 20
th
century
called for a “cultural exception” to GATT/WTO rules governing trade of goods.
110 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
These claims will affect public policy on international trade rules in these nations and might
initiate worldwide cultural protectionism for transnational trading. As the voice of cultural rights
increases, firms doing business internationally will face additional challenges in other
dimensions of culture. From a management perspective, it is important for companies to realize
that markets today are worldwide and cross-cultural. Being aware of and sensitive to cultural
differences is a major factor for success in the world marketplace. Failure to place marketing
strategy in the cross-cultural context of the countries where a company is doing business will
work to the detriment of brands and business relationships (Emery and Tian, 2003, 2002; Tian,
2000a).
If globalization is an inevitable process, then cross-culturalization will also be inevitable. On
the one hand, the world is becoming more homogeneous, and distinctions between national
markets are fading and, for some products, disappearing altogether. This means that marketing
communication is now a world-encompassing discipline. On the other hand, the cultural
differences between nations, regions, and ethnic groups, far from being extinguished, are
becoming stronger. This means that global/international marketing communication, a cross-
cultural process, requires managers to be well informed about cultural differences nationally,
locally, and ethnically in order to win in global markets.
International marketing communication is communication that crosses national boundaries
for business purposes. Communication among people from the same culture is often difficult
enough. Therefore, communication between people from different cultures from the point of
view of language, values, customers, and ways of thinking, will be far more difficult, with a
degree of miscommunication being almost inevitable (Ferraro, 2006). Problems in marketing
communication conducted cross-culturally often arise when participants from one culture are
unable to understand culturally determined differences in communication practices, traditions,
and thought-processing in another cultural context. Marketing communication literature focused
on advertising supports the hypothesis that advertising content differs between countries.
International advertising research has confirmed differences in advertising content between
countries. The premise upon which these studies are predicated indicates that advertisements, in
part, reflect individual countries’ social systems (Emery and Tian, 2003; McLeod and Kunita,
1994; Mueller, 1992; Ramaprasad and Hasegawa, 1992; Zandpour, Chang, and Catalano, 1992).
Values, norms, and characteristics embedded in advertising messages appear in various
cultures to a greater or lesser degree (Emery and Tian, 2003; Mueller, 1993). Therefore
understanding the importance of cultural values in advertising has great practical value in
marketing communication. Determining differences in cultural values should guide the
formulation of international marketing communication strategies (Munson and McIntyre, 1979).
Ignoring the cultural meaning embedded in advertising could lead to a misinterpretation of the
firm’s intended message (McCracken, 1987). Such miscommunication is mainly responsible for
businesses failing in international markets.
The importance of cross-cultural communication is evident for China marketing and
marketing China, since there are many factors that influence the relationship between Chinese
and non-Chinese businessmen. According to Harrison and Hedley (2008), there is an important
question of how to sell and market to Chinese companies effectively, both for new market
entrants and for those companies with existing operations in China. They point out several
factors, such as patience, flexibility, plenty of negotiation, and remembering the basics of
marketing, that underlie the preparation of adapting to the local environment.
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 111
The core of anthropology as a social science concerns culture and its relationship to human
behavior. Although there are many different definitions of culture employed by scholars from
various fields, such as political science, history, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and so on,
the common points made by cross-disciplinary scholars are clear. The essential core of culture
consists of traditional ideas that are historically derived, selected, and generated to support
attached values. Culture systems may be considered as products of action or as conditioning
elements of further action. They consist of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior
acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts (Feldhusen, 2008; Lillis and Tian, 2010).
The improvements in the Chinese economies in the last three decades are evident. Kotler
(2010) states that there was more than a tenfold increase in GDP since 1978. Foreign direct
investment (FDI) rose to nearly $108 billion in 2008. Facing this economic growth, the
importance of China marketing is much more internationalized, not only on the export side
where the growth became evident, but also in the growth of domestic marketing. The presence of
Geely, which acquired Volvo in 2010, shows the presence of a Chinese company in the
international market, and reinforces its strength in the domestic market, as it plans to build its
second plant in the northeastern city of Daquin (Reuters, 2011). The marketing forces are
moving from export to domestic and import, since the salaries are growing and the demand for
new products is increasing. China could become the world's largest economy as early as 2030.
Today’s world economy is deeply influenced by the economy of China and tomorrow’s Chinese
economy may continue to play a dominant role in the world economy (Kotler, 2010).
This paper, from an anthropological perspective, examines cross-cultural marketing
communication issues in “borderless” markets where national boundaries are no longer the only
criterion to consider when making international marketing, economic planning, and business
decisions. Consequently, understanding political and non-political borders is important for
“culture bound” products and industries, as well as those requiring local adaptation. This paper
probes the implications of a right to culture in international business practice by discussing the
effects of cultural values on communication. It also analyzes several key cross-cultural matters in
the imperatives of international marketing communication from an anthropological perspective,
and examines several strategies of cross-cultural communication in today’s world marketplace.
Based on this approach, the authors construct a framework for firms to use to break through the
invisible cultural barriers of marketing communication.
THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON MARKETING COMMUNICATION
The globalization of the economic world has made it important for marketing managers to
understand how to do business in different cultures. The ability of marketers and consumers to
communicate cross-culturally is critical for success. Marketing communication is a two-way
interactive communication. Marketers deliver information to the market they gather, collecting,
interpreting, and putting this information to use. Failure to do so may lead to a loss of business.
One classic case discussion about the successful marketing of color TV sets in the China market
by Japanese marketers can be used to support this argument (Tian, 2000b).
In the late 1980s and 1990s, Japanese-made color TV sets dominated the imported TV set
market in China. In the early 1980s, Japanese and European TV manufacturers made
comprehensive studies of the Chinese market. Based on their research, European marketers
decided not to market their products in China. They concluded that, given the low GDP per
112 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
capita in China, it was unlikely that the Chinese people would be willing to buy luxuries like
color TV sets. The Japanese TV set marketers decided otherwise, based on their research and
observations that the Chinese have a cultural tradition of savings being handed down from
generation to generation.
In addition, the Chinese save money for future consumption, unlike Western culture where
people spend future money for present consumption. Almost every family in China had been
saving for two to three years to realize the dream of owning a color TV set. Moreover, the
Japanese research revealed that, although Chinese companies manufactured color TV sets,
Chinese consumers had more confidence in imported products. Accordingly, the Japanese
marketers concluded that Chinese families would buy high quality Japanese color TV sets. As a
result, Japanese color TV marketers profited greatly in China because they understood a facet of
Chinese culture that their European competitors did not.
In an intriguing research study, Sheer and Chen (2003) examine the extent to which Chinese
and Western international business negotiators note the influence of cultural and professional
preferences on the process and outcomes of their interactions. The results of the investigation
showed some rather significant differences between Chinese and Western negotiators’
expectations and strategies. Westerners expressed more emphasis on adaptation than did Chinese
negotiators. For instance, Martin (1999) reports that in order to succeed in the Persian Gulf, most
American franchisers have had to allow for adaptability and flexibility so as to be culturally
sensitive, making sure that their operations and policy are appropriately adapted to the culture.
Lee, Yang, and Graham (2006) conducted research about tension and trust in international
business negotiations with 176 American and Chinese executives who participated in simulated
international business (buyer–seller) negotiations. The data collected reflect a series of cultural
differences between the two groups. The Chinese and American executives mutually felt tension
during the negotiation; however, for the Chinese, greater levels of tension led to an increased
likelihood of agreement, but also led to lower levels of interpersonal attraction and in turn lower
trust of their American counterparts. For the Americans, the felt tension marginally decreased the
likelihood of an agreement and, did not affect interpersonal attraction, but did have a direct
negative effect on trust. Zhang and Zhou (2010) inquire: “Are those Chinese companies simply
lucky survivors in chaotic price wars, or do they know something about how to wage price wars
that their Western counterparts do not?” In their study, they found that luck had nothing to do
with being a victor in a price war, but good planning and execution did. It is fair to say that
Chinese companies are much keener about price wars than the executives in the West.
In order to study similar impacts, we need first to examine culture itself. Marketing scholars
define culture as that which gives people a sense of who they are, of belonging, of how they
should behave, and of what they should be doing. Culture provides a learned, shared, and
interrelated set of symbols, codes, and values that direct and justify human behavior (Harris and
Moran, 1987). In marketing and consumer behavior research, the concept of culture has been
minimal; commonly, marketers and consumers ignore the depth and importance of the concept
and its place in analyzing human behavior (Douglas and Craig, 1995; Griffith and Ryans, 1995).
Some definitions of culture place it along a continuum, ranging from tradition-based to
modernity-based. This classification incorporates and relates dimensions of economic and
cultural boundedness. In this system, African, Asian, and Middle Eastern societies are
categorized as tradition-based, centralized, cooperative, agrarian, pre-industrialized systems.
Economically, modernity-based cultures are characterized as market-driven, competitive, post-
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 113
industrialized economic systems. The United States, Canada, and other Westernized societies are
considered to be examples of modernity-based cultures.
Regarding cultural boundedness, tradition-based cultures emphasize history and established
convention. By contrast, modernity-based cultures have weaker ties to history and tradition. At
the same time, conventions are ever-shifting (Bandyopadhyay and Robicheaux, 1993; Harris and
Moran, 1987). The cultural boundedness of tradition-based societies produces market systems
that differ markedly from market systems valorized by cultures that prioritize modernity over
tradition. Samiee (1993) suggests that economic and social factors influence the development
and adaptation of marketing institutions that relate to business transaction.
Understanding the cultural boundedness of business (i.e., the degree of willingness of a
culture to relinquish its traditional methods and adopt new ones) is imperative for successful
international marketing communication and for marketing to ethnic populations domestically
(Reese, 1998). Research conducted by one of the authors (Tian, 1987) in a minority region in
China (which is considered as “tradition-based culture”) demonstrates that culture influences
consumer behavior in the area of product distribution. The author noted that the cultural
orientation of the ethnic group consumers helped establish and maintain, through vendor loyalty,
a plethora of small retailers supported by inefficient, multi-tiered distribution networks. This
makes the Chinese state-owned retail business and foreign commercial institutions less profitable
than they could be.
Similarly, Griffith and Ryans (1995) report that cultural overtones in marketing operations
derive, to some extent, from consumer preferences. They suggest that “the cultural
characteristics of a target market will be responsive to certain culturally bound channel
structures, such as local stores, or bazaars…” (p.62). It will be difficult for marketers from the
U.S., for instance, to understand the market system in developing countries, as well as states that
may value traditional community ties over “modernity” for its own sake. As an instance, Griffith
(1998) reports that U.S. marketers were hard-pressed to understand the French government’s
decision to restrict retail store size and protect local mom-and-pop retailers, especially
considering the success of supermarkets there. He suggests that the government’s decision to
forego the economic efficiencies of distribution obtained by large-scale retail distribution
systems is in part cultural in nature. Unless perceived and understood, profound differences in
attitudes, expectations, and unworded messages will frustrate firms’ efforts to do business with
China, a huge and developing market that values aspects of tradition, as well as elsewhere in
tradition-based cultures (Emery and Tian, 2003).
It can be argued that government intervention, as in the case of France, is intended to protect
its society’s culture within the existing market system or structure (Griffith and Ryans, 1995).
However, in spite of some conflicts, there are societies, such as in some more areas of China, in
which traditional market bazaars and modern, efficient supermarkets co-exist. This harmony is
achieved only when the two systems become interdependent and supplementary (Tian, 1988).
Accordingly, the authors argue that although cultural factors affect marketing, their effect can be
minimized when marketers are aware of and sensitive to cultural differences.
Cross-cultural marketing communication is marketing communication among consumers or
customers whose culture differs from that of the marketer’s own culture in at least one
fundamental aspect of cultural such as language, religion, social norms and values, education,
and life style. Cross-cultural marketing communication demands that firms be aware of and
sensitive to cultural differences. To respect the right to culture by the consumers in various
cultures and marketplaces, marketers should understand that their customers have a right to
114 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
maintain, practice, and identify with their own culture. If the marketers want to succeed in cross-
cultural marketing, they must work in a way that respects the consumer’s values and their right
to cultural ties. For example, for Western marketers to communicate in a business setting, it is
important for them to respect the Chinese government’s claim for guoqin, which means that they
must “consider the special situation or character of China” (Yan, 1994). In another research on
refrigerators, Baoku, Lijuan, and Bingru (2011) state that peasants evaluate product attributes
differently in various regions and markets. In the case of the refrigerator market, segmentation is
very important. This is evidenced by the fact not only related refrigerators, but also high-tech
products China has a total of 53 state-level high-tech development zones (Tu, 2011). In sum,
marketing communication is not an independent behavior, but is related to all other business or
market behaviors. From the anthropological perspective, then, all market behaviors are culture-
bound. Buying and selling take place within the culture itself (Hamilton, 1987).
In order to match marketing with consumer preferences, purchasing behavior, and product-
use patterns, marketers benefit from understanding the market’s cultural environment. Business
firms should not focus on cultural differences merely to adjust marketing communication
programs to make them acceptable to consumers. This is to suggest that firms should also
identify cultural similarities, in order to identify opportunities and modify standard marketing
strategies based on marketing communication theory informed with cultural information.
Working skillfully with these cultural similarities and differences in the worldwide marketplace
is an important marketing task for businesses.
KEY ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION
Cross-cultural marketing communication requires that firms discover if markets are viable by
including in its business and marketing planning, the study of the culture in which the company
intends to do business. This involves identifying cultural factors that can be employed to support
marketing communication in the proposed markets. To succeed, the business uses pre-existing
factors and creates new ones that suit the situation. Classic anthropological theory claims that
while all human behaviors, including market behaviors, take place within a cultural context,
people are able to influence and even change, through their behaviors, the cultural context within
which their behaviors take place (Hall, 1976; Hamilton, 1987; Harris and Moran, 1987). For
instance, Geely might face some challenges in the development of the Volvo purchase and
Welch (2010) questions whether this endeavor will be successful given previous failures with the
automaker’s acquisitions such as the Daimler-Chrysler case. The Chinese luxury market is
booming and still has room for some other players to come in and build a brand. The brand is
upscale and Chinese consumers might even see Geely’s ownership as a preferable outcome. So
in the opinion of Welch’s interviewee Jim Hall, principal of 2953 Analytics in Birmingham,
Michigan, the company can grow sales and get fatter margins in China. Bloomberg (2007)
publishes that the advertising in China is westernized, from huge billboards to tiny screens in
taxicabs. Every day, many events are sponsored by companies, many of them Western, looking
to connect with local customers. On the other hand, the Google/cn withdrawal from China serves
as an example that it is important to understand all the intricacies of the country that one is trying
to dog business with. As Levy (2011) states, the Chinese logged onto Google.cn and typed in a
vulgar term for breasts. Google Suggest offered links that displayed raw nudity, and more. The
official typed in the word meaning "son," and one of the Google Suggest terms was "love affair
between son and mother." The links to this term yielded explicit pornography. The woman
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 115
serving tea in the conference room almost fainted at the spectacle. The lack of cross-cultural
communication is evident in this case.
Accordingly, culture influences marketing communication, just as marketing communication,
in turn, influences culture. Firms can be agents of change within a culture. The interactions
between marketing communication and culture can be examined from three perspectives. First,
culture defines acceptable purchasing and product-use behavior for consumers and business.
Based on their analysis of data collected in Denmark, Great Britain, France, and Germany,
Brunso and Grunet (1998) found that cross-cultural factors impact people’s food shopping.
Using business gifts as an example, in cultures such as Japan where a business gift is expected, a
host who is not presented with a gift will be insulted. However, an important feature of
marketing communication may work to the detriment of the company seeking business in other
cultures where offering a business gift could be interpreted as a bribe or inappropriate gesture,
and would offend the recipient (Arunthanes, Tansuhaj and Lemak, 1994).
Second, in anthropological theory where culture is at the center of all social interaction, it is
expected that the impact of culture on marketing communication per se would be easier to
identify than any other business variable. Advertising, for instance, is strongly influenced by
language, one of the key elements of culture. Moreover, advertising budget and structure are
based on buying habits and consumption style. Values and norms, media, and the state of the
material culture, in turn, influence these variables. Theorists, including Albers-Miller (1996),
Hofstede (1991), Pollay and Gallagher (1990), claim that culture affects the kind of roles and the
choice of themes depicted in advertising. These roles and themes are related to underlying
cultural values and norms; thus, every element of culture influences each facet of marketing
communication.
Third, marketing communication also influences culture, contributing to cultural borrowing
and change. According to Hooker (2008), “there is no better arena for observing a culture in
action than business. Cultures tend to reveal themselves in situations where much is as stake,
because it is here that their resources are most needed.” (p.1). As more markets become global
and the marketing mix standardized, the rate of cultural change will increase. Cultural changes in
contemporary China illustrate this point. For instance, it was widely believed that gender identity
might affect consumption behavior. However, a recent study of masculinity appeal by Emery and
Tian (2003) demonstrated that American respondents and Chinese respondents acted the same. A
possible explanation for this could be that the gender status in Chinese traditional culture has
changed. Marketing communications by Western firms could in part account, for such a cultural
change. Therefore, American marketers may succeed using the same masculine appeals to the
Chinese youth market that they do in the U.S.
Nonetheless, cultures tend to change slowly, and specific products may meet with protracted
resistance. Therefore, the primary task for firms is to locate similarities in various markets and
strategically make them available for entering into new cross-cultural markets. In cross-cultural
communication, marketers need continually to adjust their behaviors and marketing programs to
suit target markets. However, when entering foreign markets, firms frequently fall into the trap
of the “self-reference” criterion, which means their business representatives might be
unconsciously applying their own cultural experiences and values to marketing communication
in another culture. Even more dangerous than self-reference criterion is ethnocentrism, the belief
that one’s own culture is superior to any other, which will ruin efforts at marketing
communication.
116 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
Based on his wide experience, Gesteland (1996) identified four paired cultural models that
require special attention when doing business in diverse cultural settings, namely: 1) deal-
focused vs. relationship-focused cultures; 2) formal vs. informal business cultures; 3) rigid-time
vs. fluid-time cultures; 4) expressive vs. reserved cultures. In relationship-focused cultures, firms
do not do business with strangers. In such cultures, it is important to develop good contacts with
the right people. It takes time to develop personal relationships. This is important before entering
into business discussions. This feature of relationship is predominant in most of Asia, Africa, the
Middle East, and Latin America. In deal-focused cultures, the emphasis is on getting down to
business right away, even with strangers. Rapport between the parties develops during
discussions. In contrast to relationship-based cultures, such as Germany, Great Britain, Australia,
New Zealand, and North America, the written agreement is considered most important and
constitutes a bond.
Regarding formal versus informal business cultures, in formal cultures, mainly in Europe
and, most of Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America, societies are hierarchical, status-
conscious, and follow strict protocols. On the other hand, in informal cultures such as the USA,
Australia, and to some extent Canada, Denmark, Norway, and New Zealand, societies are
egalitarian and open, and value individual competence more than connections and status.
Gesteland (1996) also classified cultures according to their views of time. In a monochromic
culture, time is important. Discussions follow agreed-upon agendas and move rapidly in linear
fashion. Countries having this orientation to time are mainly in North America, Western Europe,
and North East Asia. In polychromic cultures, business discussions tend to follow their own logic
rather than a fixed outline. In these cultures, relationship is more valued than deadlines. For
business firms planning to negotiate in a polychromic culture, it is wise to build a substantial
margin of time into agendas. Polychromic cultures are mostly in Africa, Southeast Asia, the
Middle East and Latin America.
Although what Gesteland suggests is useful and practical, it is good to be aware of the danger
of stereotyping people from other cultures. Anthropological theory suggests that it is unwise and
short-sighted to project our own behavior onto substantially different cultures (Giovannini and
Rosansky, 1990; Hall, 1976; Hamilton, 1987). People in different cultures have different market
values and behaviors that defy typecasting by national origin alone. For example, through long
observation it has been found that consuming and buying patterns and other social/economic
behaviors of Chinese immigrants living in Canada are completely different from the patterns of
people living in China. Therefore, business firms need to have different market communication
strategies for each group (Tian, 1999). In some cases, the firms know that cultures are different,
but are unable to articulate how they differ. Research is the way to find out and to know what
levers to use in moving buyers/consumers. We assert that the anthropological approach is an
especially effective way to carry out cross-cultural marketing research (Tian, 2000a; Weise,
1999).
Anthropologist Hendrick Serrie has provided an excellent example of how an
anthropological understanding of local cultural patterns in southern Mexico prevented the costly
mistake of mass-producing a solar cooker developed for this area. Designed to reduce the use of
firewood for cooking by encouraging the use of solar energy, these solar stoves, with the
assistance of a four-foot parabolic reflector, produced levels of heat comparable to a wood fire.
Although initial demonstrations of the cooker caught the interest of the local people, a number of
cultural features militated against the widespread acceptance of this technological device. To
illustrate: 1) the major part of the cooking in this part of Mexico is done early in the morning and
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 117
in the early evening, times when solar radiation is at its lowest level; and 2) although the solar
stove was very effective for boiling beans and soup, it was inadequate for cooking tortillas, a
basic staple in the local diet. Thus, for these and other reasons, it was decided not to mass-
produce and market the solar cookers because, even though the cooker worked well technically,
it made little sense culturally (Serrie, 1986).
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Adler, Doktor, and Redding (1986) review the areas of comparative and cross-cultural
management and discuss the impact of cultural diversity on international organizational behavior.
Their findings suggest that with the growing shift of business from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Basin, East-West cultural differences are becoming increasingly significant for firms seeking to
be successful in conducting international business. According to them, research in developmental
psychology, sociology, and anthropology demonstrates that there are major differences that
affect the cognitive processes of people from different cultures. As such, in the era of the global
corporation, cultural diversity has to be recognized, understood, and appropriately used in
organizations. Along with their findings, we will argue that that cross-cultural management
would greatly benefit from anthropologically comparative studies that consider the impact of
cognitive aspects of culture on managerial practice.
In the 1950s, anthropologist Edward T. Hall was beginning a career that would be highly
influential in business in terms of cross-cultural communication. From 1950 to 1955, Hall served
as director of the U.S. State Department’s “Point Four” training program, a training program
designed to teach technicians who would be working outside North America. Hall clearly
understood the significance of cultural influence on communication effectiveness. Hall built a
career in the cross-cultural communication field and eventually wrote several seminal works in
business, anthropology, communication, and many other fields (Jordan, 2003).
Hall’s practice and influence in the fields of cross-cultural communication and intercultural
training have been monumental. He clearly understood that errors in cross-cultural
communication could destroy a business deal or a peace agreement. In his first book, The Silent
Language, he explained culture as communication, and communication as involving much more
than just language. Communication included nonverbal characteristics and had to be understood
in its cultural context (Hall, 1981). In later books, he explored the culturally different ways of
conceiving space and time, as well as the implications in business practice. Hall’s practice in and
theoretical contributions to marketing communication generated great impact and international
value in terms of cross-cultural factors. Many other anthropologists, such as Gay Ferraro (2006)
among others, have continued Hall’s work on communication in international settings.
Anthropologists’ interest in cultural studies grew out of academic purposes but has been
extended to business applications as well. The results of anthropological study on culture have
been widely applied in various fields of the business world. In the business world, a profound
understanding of cultural values in general and specific individual cultural characteristics in
particular can lead to greater success in the global market and economy. On the other hand,
cultural misunderstandings can be counterproductive for individual development, organizational
effectiveness, and profits, because cultural factors influence people’s motives, brand compre-
hension, attitude, and intention to purchase. Therefore, it is important that we clearly understand
the fact that in the global marketplace the effectiveness of communication depends on many
factors, however, the primary one among them is the capacity to understand our cultural
118 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
preferences and how they influence and are influenced by those from other parts of the world
(Emery and Tian, 2003; Lillis and Tian, 2009).
We argue that the anthropological approach is a very effective way to assess the impact of
culture on international marketing communications. We agree with Mariampolski (2006) that
culture is important as a heuristic principle for describing and classifying human behaviors, and
it is also an analytic concept to be used for explaining how individual choices result from the
interpersonal influences and the symbolic universe that delineates everyday life. According to
Mariampolski, culture operates on both the material and nonmaterial levels of human experience,
serving as the foundation for the behaviors, meanings, and tools of all human collectives. To
Mariampolski, cultural tools refer to all of the physical components of a group’s life experiences,
which include technology and materials, as well as the fundamental rules, codes, and techniques
for accomplishing daily affairs. Cultural meanings refer to the sense-making process how people
intellectually or emotionally understand the purposes, implications, and associations that
underline all of human behaviors and the tools individuals use in everyday life.
The most famous researcher of cross-cultural marketing communication, Geert Hofstede
(1991), has created a global model for helping business professionals to distinguish the culture
differences pertaining to individual countries. This often-cited model of cross-cultural
communication is commonly called the “four-dimension of culture model,” which addresses
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, and masculinity. Moreover,
some researchers, such as Redpath and Nielsen (1997), Rhodes, at al. (2004) among others, have
added one more dimension called “Confucian dynamism” into Hofstede’s model, with the
special intent of differentiating Chinese cultural values from Western cultural values.
In a previous study, Emery and Tian (2003) demonstrated that the significance of cross-
cultural differences in advertising, one of most important formats of marketing communication,
has become even clearer as we continue to move toward a globalized marketplace. It is important
that marketing personnel should not let old stereotypes drive advertising strategies; this is
particularly important in the Asian market, as China and Taiwan become formal members of the
WTO. The findings indicate that heuristics such as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are too broad
to capture the detailed differences required in launching an effective advertising campaign.
While Emery and Tian’s findings do not provide unequivocal recommendations for developing
advertising, they do provide some general information for marketing practitioners seeking to do
business in China. For example, one should consider the “seven appeals” (i.e., effectiveness,
safety, approachability, durability, naturalness, nurturance and assurance, in descending order of
importance). Conversely, the “ten appeals” (i.e., casualness, distinctiveness, community, status,
adventurousness, affection, family, danger, fantasy, and popularity, in descending order of least
importance) should be avoided. Thus, there is a strong need to consider market segmentation and
to consult with experts in Chinese consumer behavior before developing ads for the China
market.
Chaoyin, Jian and Ille (2011) state in a study on the telecommunications company “Qingqin
1+” advertising campaign that there is an emotional factor in advertising that can have a better
outcome than rational advertising in promoting the telecommunication service brand. This
confirms previous studies done on service advertising strategy. We argue that culture is deeply
rooted in the life of each organization and its members, and exerts tremendous influence on a
variety of day-to-day activities, such as how decisions are made, how resources are allocated, who
gets promoted, and what behaviors are considered appropriate. As such, culture can have a profound
impact on outcomes that are vitally important to an organization, including job satisfaction,
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 119
turnover, productivity and profitability. Clearly, if cultures are such powerful influencers of
behavior, managers must work hard to understand and manage them. From a practical standpoint,
building an awareness of both visible and invisible manifestations of culture is an important first
step in determining how to manage this key institutional resource (Lillis and Tian, 2010). According
to Perner (2011), culture is a problematic issue for many marketers since it is inherently nebulous
and often difficult to understand. Whenever one violates the cultural norms of another country, it
might become a deadlock for the continuation of business, because people from different cultures
may feel uncomfortable with this violation.
Business negotiation, another kind of important format for marketing communication, also
necessitates awareness of cultural difference. A recent study by Chang (2003) has concluded that
in Chinese society, people emphasize the “zero-sum game” in most of their business competition
activities. It is suggested that a successful negotiation should create a “win-win” situation. As
Thompson (2001) noted, a true win-win negotiation is one where any agreement reached by
negotiators covers most interests of both sides. However, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to
improve one party’s outcome, while simultaneously not hurting the other party’s result. As such,
honesty could be the first step toward a better agreement with the Chinese business community.
To be honest about one’s intentions, goals, and interests can help to build trust and create a
positive bargaining zone. Respecting culture difference and being patient in waiting for a
response will be the second step toward a successful negotiation. Lastly, but not finally, extra
services or practical favors cement friendship and sincerity in business transactions.
These two recent studies suggest that in the real business world, firms can profit by studying
the Hofstede culture model, which entails accepting cultural differences and practicing those
skills in marketing communication practices, enabling them to gain the expected or better
outcomes. There are innumerable factors that affect the international business environment but a
fundamental precondition of any successful international business enterprise is effective
communication, which more or less involves the businessperson’s awareness of other cultures.
As such, cross-cultural problems definitely provide greater challenges and opportunities for
business firms in the 21
st
century, even though these challenges might not be new to the
marketing communication field itself. The effectiveness of international marketing
communication can be strengthened when businesspeople become aware of cultural differences
and their impact on communications.
There are many unresolved problems or issues that need to be solved and discussed by
scholars and marketing professionals in theory as well as practice. In the theoretical area, the
following themes and issues need to be probed and discussed:
Cultural impact of markets: international versus domestic marketing communication;
Standardization versus adaptation in cross-cultural communication;
Cross-cultural dimensions of marketing communication research;
Cross-cultural aspects of marketing communication mix (advertising, promotion, sales,
public relations, trade shows, and commercials);
Cross-cultural aspects of marketing communication in the service sector;
Cross-cultural communication implications of the aftermarket;
Cross-cultural marketing communication education and professional training.
The seven topics or themes listed above can be viewed as guidelines for further theoretical
studies, although they will not be treated as exclusive for marketing scholars. More themes and
topics will be discovered as the theoretical discussions proceed. As marketing professionals, we
120 International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011
need to know clearly that although marketing principles will remain the same, there will
continuously be new challenges to marketing in the new century. The impact of cross-cultural
factors on marketing is one of such issues that demands serious study. In terms of marketing
practice, we suggest the following points as guidelines for marketers to minimize possible cross-
cultural marketing mistakes:
Be sensitive to do’s and don’ts, taboos, and regulations. Develop cultural empathy in
terms of marketing communication.
Recognize, understand, and respect another’s cultural difference.
Be culturally neutral and realize that different is not necessarily better or worse.
Never assume transferability of a concept from one culture to another. For instance, if
local businesspeople in developing countries indicate that they do not like Americans,
they may not mean that they do not want to buy American goods. It simply means they
are expected to say certain things in public, but that they may operate differently in
private.
Get cultural informants involved in decision-making. Cultural informants could be local
businesspeople or well trained anthropologists.
As indicated above, an anthropological approach is very effective in facilitating international
business. In fact, the implications of anthropological theories and methods in business practice
have become popular and increasingly accepted by the business world. Although the
anthropological approaches to cross-cultural communication are by no means entirely new to the
business world, they are becoming more familiar and are perceived as more reliable by business
leaders and marketers. How to apply anthropological approaches into cross-cultural marketing
communication practice is a topic that should be looked at not only by anthropology itself, but
also by the completely theoretical arena of marketing communication. The potential of
anthropological approaches applied to cross-cultural marketing communication is unlimited, but
yet still needs to be investigated by anthropologists and marketing communication professionals
conducting joint investigations (Jordan, 2003; Tian, Lillis, and van Marrewijk, 2010).
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS TO CHINA MARKETERS
The importance of the success of marketing communication is obvious in progressively more
competitive international markets. Marketing communication strategies and skills determine the
profitability of business organizations. Culture is one of the key factors that lies deeply rooted in
the life of each individual and exerts tremendous influence on a variety of human behaviors.
Cultural difference can have a profound impact on outcomes that are vitally important to the success
of a business deal. From a practical standpoint, building an awareness of both visible and invisible
manifestations of culture is a critically important first step in determining how to effectively conduct
marketing communications internationally and cross-culturally.
Cross-cultural communication is becoming even more important for the Chinese marketers in
this new century since China planned to more widely open its market to the world and export
more of its service and products to the world market. It is suggested that Chinese business
leaders are better prepared for cross-cultural communication and put it at their corporate strategic
level for marketing China and China marketing. It is true that in today’s business world, whoever
masters cross-cultural communication strategies and skills will win the competition.
While international business is often conducted through various means from culture to
culture, marketing communications can be enhanced when managers are cross-culturally trained
International Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1) 2011 121
to be aware of areas likely to create communication roadblocks and conflict. International
business in general is enhanced when people from different cultures find new approaches to
solve problems by creating solutions that combine cultural perspectives and examine the problem
at hand from each other’s differing perspectives.
Moreover, it is key for cross-cultural business leaders to understand one’s business partners
well enough to make cultural adjustments to solve the conflicts (Hooker, 2008). Anthropologists
are professionally trained to be highly sensitive to cultural differences; the result of
anthropological study on culture has been widely applied in various fields in the real business
world. It is suggested that anthropological approaches offer highly effective applications and
solutions toward the understanding of cross-cultural issues in international marketing
communication.
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