Description
Productivity in the construction industry is trailing other industries. Architects and engineers are slowly adapting to a more digital way of working. Contractors are, on the other hand, not following this development, although they can see the advantage in using digital information for take-off and tendering. Information on the construction site is mostly paper-based.
Author
Haraldur Arnorsson
Faculty of Engineering and Science
Aalborg University
2012
ii
©2012
Haraldur Arnorsson
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction iii
Aalborg University
Master’s Thesis from the faculty of Engineering and Science, Aalborg University
January 2012
Title:
Optimizing the Information Flow on the Construction Site
The thesis is prepared by:
Haraldur Arnorsson
Supervisor:
Kjeld Svidt Associate Professor
Main report pages: 101
Appendix pages: 13
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
iv Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction v
Abstract
Productivity in the construction industry is trailing other industries. Architects and
engineers are slowly adapting to a more digital way of working. Contractors are, on the
other hand, not following this development, although they can see the advantage in
using digital information for take-off and tendering. Information on the construction
site is mostly paper-based.
The slow implementation of innovative ICT plays a big part in the low productivity
faced by the construction industry. The construction industry is a conservative industry
and lacks transparency. Managers are reluctant to grant craftsmen access to ICT
systems on the construction site.
This thesis addresses these problems, through analysis of the craftsmen’s needs,
interviews with a project manager and reviews of a survey done for The Danish
Construction Association, 2010 (Dansk Byggeri, DB).
To try to solve this problem, the author designed a prototype of a system that can
benefit both managers and craftsmen. Three prototypes were made before the final
prototype. The thesis also includes a physical prototype of a box that protects the
hardware running the software prototype.
The usability tests were successful and showed that this kind of ICT system could
benefit both managers and craftsmen. The managers can reduce the time of organizing
information, and the craftsmen can be sure that they are executing the work in
accordance with the latest information.
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
vi Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction vii
Preface
This thesis is the result of a final project of the Cand.Scient.Techn study in Building
Informatics, Aalborg University, conducted during the period of September 1, 2011 to
January 13, 2012.
The project illustrates how ICT systems can benefit managers and craftsmen on the
construction site, and its potential to increase productivity in the Danish construction
industry.
The thesis addresses the problem of decreased productivity for the last four decades.
Data acquisition included interviewing a project manager on a large construction site
and conducting an internet survey aimed at the craftsmen of all trades. The gathered
data was then used for developing a software prototype, including a physical
infrastructure.
I want to thank my supervisor Kjeld Svidt, Associate Professor at Aalborg University, for
his invaluable support and Lasse Brauner Mikkelsen at the AAU workshop for his
contribution in making the physical prototype. I am also grateful for all the help
received from the people that tested the system and gave constructive feedback to the
project. I would also like to thank Lilja Run Bjarnadottir for her contribution proof-
reading this thesis. Finally, I want to thank my family for their support and
understanding, when working long hours, throughout the writing of this thesis.
_____________________________
Haraldur Arnorsson
Aalborg University
January 2012
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
viii Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
Thesis Structure
Chapter 1 introduces an overall view of this thesis, the problem, the purpose and
objectives of the work. Further, the main research questions are presented in this
chapter.
Chapter 2 describes what methodology will be used to write this thesis and finally, a
discussion of the chosen method.
Chapter 3 provides a theoretical view on the topics studied. It presents a literature
review of productivity in the construction industry, along with the new public client
demands. Finally, it describes what kind of ICT system is being used on the
construction site in Denmark present day.
Chapter 4 describes the field study interview and how the work models were
completed.
Chapter 5 this chapter describes the results from an internet survey targeting the
craftsmen. The chapter ends by giving an overview of the needs.
Chapter 6 summarizes the problem and the needs in a problem statement and finally,
a short description is given of what method is used to solve the problem statement.
Chapter 7 this chapter describes how the work models are redesigned with an ICT
system on the construction site.
Chapter 8 describes the ICT and physical prototype that were developed to help solve
the problem stated in chapter 6.
Chapter 9 is a short implementation proposal.
Chapter 10 is a discussion of motivation of implementing ICT systems on the
construction site and future research.
Chapter 11 describes a solution to the problem statement in chapter 6.
An illustration of the thesis structure can be seen on Figure 1.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction ix
Figure 1 Illustration of the thesis structure
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OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction xi
Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.2. THE NEED FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ....................................................... 2
1.3. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF MASTER THESIS .................................................................. 2
2 METHOD .................................................................................................................. 5
2.1. CONTEXTUAL DESIGN ................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1. CONTEXTUAL INQUIRY (CI) ............................................................................................ 6
2.1.2. WORK MODELS............................................................................................................ 7
2.1.3. CONSOLIDATION .......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.4. STORYBOARDING ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.5. USER ENVIRONMENT DESIGN ......................................................................................... 9
2.2. PROTOTYPE ........................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1. PROTOTYPE TESTING METHOD ...................................................................................... 10
2.3. UNIVERSAL DESIGN ................................................................................................. 10
2.4. METHOD CHOSEN ................................................................................................... 11
2.4.1. OPTIMIZATION .......................................................................................................... 11
3 PRODUCTIVITY ....................................................................................................... 13
3.1. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY......................................................................................... 13
3.2. PRODUCTIVITY ....................................................................................................... 14
3.3. DEFINITION OF FAILURE ............................................................................................ 15
3.4. ORIGIN OF MISTAKES ............................................................................................... 17
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xii Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
3.5. COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................... 18
3.6. DIGITAL CONSTRUCTION (DET DIGITALE BYGGERI) .......................................................... 19
3.7. ICT ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE ................................................................................. 22
3.7.1. MOBILE AND WEB SERVICES ......................................................................................... 22
3.7.2. PROJECT WEB SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 23
4 FIELD STUDY .......................................................................................................... 25
4.1. THE FIELD .............................................................................................................. 25
4.2. WORK MODELS ...................................................................................................... 26
4.2.1. FLOW MODEL ............................................................................................................ 26
4.2.2. SEQUENCE MODEL ...................................................................................................... 27
4.2.3. ARTIFACT MODEL ....................................................................................................... 29
4.2.4. PHYSICAL MODEL ....................................................................................................... 29
4.3. MODEL CONSOLIDATION .......................................................................................... 30
5 NEEDS .................................................................................................................... 33
5.1. QUANTITATIVE SURVEY ............................................................................................ 33
5.2. QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 35
5.3. SUMMARIZE NEEDS ................................................................................................. 45
6 PROBLEM STATEMENT .......................................................................................... 47
7 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ................................................................. 49
7.1. NEW PROCESS ........................................................................................................ 49
7.2. REDESIGNED WORK MODELS ...................................................................................... 50
7.2.1. REDESIGNED FLOW MODEL .......................................................................................... 50
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction xiii
7.2.2. REDESIGNED SEQUENCE MODEL .................................................................................... 52
7.2.3. REDESIGNED ARTIFACT MODEL ..................................................................................... 54
7.2.4. REDESIGNED PHYSICAL MODEL ..................................................................................... 55
7.2.5. STORYBOARD ............................................................................................................ 56
8 PROTOTYPES ......................................................................................................... 59
8.1. PAPER-BASED PROTOTYPE ......................................................................................... 59
8.1.1. USER ENVIRONMENT MODEL ....................................................................................... 59
8.2. SEMI-FUNCTIONAL PROTOTYPE ................................................................................... 60
8.2.1. USER ENVIRONMENT DESIGN ....................................................................................... 61
8.2.2. PROTOTYPE EVALUATION ............................................................................................. 68
8.3. FUNCTIONAL PROTOTYPES ......................................................................................... 70
8.4. PHYSICAL PROTOTYPE .............................................................................................. 72
8.5. WEB-BASED PROTOTYPE ........................................................................................... 72
8.5.1. JOOMLA ................................................................................................................ 72
8.5.2. LOGIN ...................................................................................................................... 73
8.5.3. PROTOTYPE EVALUATION ............................................................................................. 74
8.6. FUNCTIONAL PROTOTYPE .......................................................................................... 75
8.6.1. THE USER INTERFACE DESIGN ....................................................................................... 77
8.6.2. PROTOTYPE EVALUATION ............................................................................................. 80
9 IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................. 83
9.1. IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ICT SYSTEM IN A CONSTRUCTION COMPANY .................................. 83
10 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 91
11 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 95
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APPENDIXES ........................................................................................................... 105
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction 1
1 Introduction
This chapter starts with a short description of the problem that the construction site
faces today. Then a section describing the need for an information management
system follows. Finally, the purpose is described.
1.1. Problem description
Recent studies show that the Danish construction industry is slowly adapting to the
digital age, with architects and engineers meeting demands for new standards.
Contractors have realized the benefits of using digital information through-out the
whole design process, including take-off, tendering and planning (Byggeri &
Newinsight, 2011). Although the contractor receives the information in a digital
format, the construction site is where the use of digitalization declines dramatically
(ARUP, 2000), thus failing to recognize the potential of digital aids for improving
workflow efficiency. The construction site still receives information in a paper format.
Some contractors make the material accessible on-site in a digital format, but then the
workers have to have good IT skills to log onto a PC and to project web to access the
information needed (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010).
The construction industry is known to be an information-intense environment. During
the construction phase, a vast amount of revisions are made. It is the Project
manager’s job to organize the information that arrives on site. It can be difficult to
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
2 Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
keep track of this information. It often happens that workers are not notified or
accidentally use old drawings that lead to larger or smaller mistakes occur (Richter &
Koch, 2004).
1.2. The need for Information Management system
There is a need for improving the link between the construction site and designers,
and to improve communication between all actors on the construction site.
Information Management Systems (IMS) or Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is being
used on an administration level. A research done for The Danish Construction
Association (Dansk Byggeri (DB)), shows that 98% of contractors have some kind of
IMS, which is used daily. The research also shows that fewer than 5% of craftsmen
have access to IT on the building site (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010). These numbers indicate
that a there is missing link, in the digital information chain, from the contractor to the
craftsmen. An IMS, accessible to all actors on the building site could help with the
problem stated earlier. An information system would not only save money on printing
and organizing information, it would also reduce mistakes and the Request for
Information (RFI) during the construction phase. The managers on-site would spend
less time organizing information and change orders, and could instead concentrate on
administrating activities. The client would also benefit from increased productivity.
1.3. Purpose and objectives of master thesis
The aim of this thesis is to investigate if the use of an Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) system on the construction site would reduce errors in the
construction phase and increase productivity. Furthermore, to identify the main
benefits and barriers of implementing such an ICT system, to a market where the
range of users is from IT illiterate to super-users. As well, to explore how Danish
construction site managers handle information available on the construction site, and
what the procedure is when new information is delivered on-site. This thesis will also
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction 3
cover what kind of ICT is presently being used, what level of IT-competence on-site
workers possess and what the best practice to implement such a system is, in order to
increase productivity in the construction industry.
The main objectives are:
• Make consequential improvements on the construction site, in particular,
concerning quality, information exchange and document accessibility.
• Achieve maximum efficiency in inter-operability between designers and the
construction site.
To gather data the author will use theoretical documents, a field studies and the
authors own experience from many years of working on construction sites.
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
4 Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 5
2 Method
This chapter describes what kind of methods suite this master thesis. The methods are
then described and finally a short discussion of why the method was chosen.
When choosing a method the author is obligated to think of what is the overall
function of the system and who the users are. In this case, the users have very
different IT competences. There are a few methods that could be used for designing a
user friendly ICT system. Examples of these are Contextual Design developed by
Beyer and Holtzblatt (1998) and Universal Design (L. Mace, 1998), which will be
described in section 2.1 and 2.2.
2.1. Contextual Design
Contextual Design (CD) gives the software designer great tools to map the needs of the
future users, hence meeting their expectations and preventing resistance to
implementation of an ICT system in the organization.
Like most projects, lack of time is a big issue. Therefore it is important to analyze what
is needed to get the most out of CD, thus limiting work hours needed for designing the
system. The first phase of CD is Contextual Inquiry (CI). During this phase, as much
information related to the project is gathered as needed. Interviews and observations
are the best tools to do this. Qualitative interviews are a good tool for gathering data.
Observation is an important part in this step. During observation, unforeseen problems
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
6 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
could arise, which would not have been discovered with traditional interviews. A series
of work models are made from the gathered data. The models and the CI are then
used to do an affinity diagram. A storyboard sketch is made to visualize how the future
user would use the system. Finally, the structure of the system is developed and a
prototype is made and tested with users (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
2.1.1. Contextual Inquiry (CI)
Contextual inquiry is a method that aims to reveal how people actually perform their
activities. CI is performed by making interviews and observing people in their work
environment. It is important to get the users opinion and feedback on their work and
for the interviewer to get as much knowledge about the employees work processes as
possible (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
Interview and observation methods
The most common types of interviews are unstructured, semi-structured and
structured. For collecting data from workers on the construction site, a semi-
structured interview was chosen, to be able to get a free flow of data gathering. The
interviewee can express himself freely, but the interviewer has some guidelines and
has to be aware that the interviewee does not go off-course. The author made several
questions to help guide him during the interviews.
Quantitative survey
Although semi-structured interviews were chosen to gather data from the user, the
author was also interested in knowing what the general status in the construction
industry is, regarding the use of ICT and what the general IT competence on-site is. A
short internet survey was conducted in the later stage of the thesis writing. A link was
posted on BIMbyen.dk and sent to emails extracted from bygdenmark.dk. Together
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 7
with the field interviews, this data was analyzed to define the real needs for IT on the
construction site.
2.1.2. Work models
The gathered data is used to visualize how the user acts during a normal workday by
doing a series of models:
• Flow model showing communication and coordination between actors/roles.
• Physical model showing how the environment affects organizing activity.
• Sequence model that shows business and task processes.
• Artifact model showing things such as computers, time sheets or craftsmen
tools and how they are used.
Each work model represents a different aspect of the organization on the construction
site. A sketch of these models is used during the interviews to get input from the
interviewees to better the models. The models are later used to construct a single
coherent diagram called affinity diagram. By consolidating all gathered data, the risk of
designing from only one point of view, is prevented (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
Flow Model
The flow model illustrates what people have to do to get work done. The work is
divided between people to define their roles and to ensure that the whole work gets
done. Persons and groups are shown as bubbles with the role at the top. Underneath
the roles, their responsibilities are listed. The actual flow is noted with arrows (fig. 4).
The flow consists of a dialog or the passing of an artifact. Artifacts are shown as boxes
on arrows and the dialog is written directly on the arrow without a box surrounding it.
If there is a breakdown in the communication it is marked with a lightning bolt (Beyer
& Holtzblatt, 1998; K. Holtzblatt, Wendell, & Wood, 2005).
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
8 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
The flow that the author will concentrate on explains how a project manager hands
out tasks to craftsmen and what the procedure is, when a change is made to the
information that craftsmen use on-site.
Sequence model
A sequence model (fig. 5) is used to map in what order users perform their work tasks,
and show their strategies intentions. In order to improve people's routines, it is
important that ICT systems build on this knowledge. By understanding the intentions
of the user, it is possible to redesign, modify and remove unnecessary steps from the
workflow. It is important to understand all the intentions in a workflow, and which
intentions must be preserved when making changes to the workflow. To collect the
sequences it is necessary to observe people as they work. The hardest part of
observing sequences is to know what to pay attention to. That is why, during the
observation, the subject must be encouraged to think aloud if the sequence is to be
deepened (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
Artifact Model
People use, make and modify things during their work. Those things are called
artifacts. They tell their own story about the work performed. All artifacts have a
structure, and this structure shows how work is organized (K. Holtzblatt et al., 2005).
Artifacts are tangible things that people do or use to help them get the job done.
Artifacts on the construction site could, for example, be a hammer, a drawing or a time
sheet, etc. (fig. 6).
The Physical Model
The work is conducted in physical environments that either support and facilitate the
work, or hinder the work from being performed. People reorganize their surroundings
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 9
for the work they perform (fig. 7). The construction industry is quite often affected by
the changes of physical environment. Every job site has a different setup.
The physical environment is the world they live in: the rooms, cars, buildings,
etc. It's about how they move around and work in these environments. Their
movements indicate their preferences and social needs (Beyer & Holtzblatt,
1998).
The thing to note is what is important for the overall design. What works well in the
current surroundings, and what does not work as well, or even does not work at all?
Designing a system for on-site information management could therefore be a difficult
task.
2.1.3. Consolidation
The gathered data is consolidated from the models, and the data from the interviews
is collected in the affinity diagram.
2.1.4. Storyboarding
Storyboarding is a set of cartoon-like sketches, used to capture how target personas or
users currently perform their tasks and how they interact with the new system.
Storyboarding is a good way to get an illustrated overview of the consolidated data.
Storyboards embody the system requirements and future scenarios (Beyer &
Holtzblatt, 1998).
2.1.5. User Environment Design
From the storyboard, a work-oriented model is created, which summarizes the new
work process and changed responsibilities. User Environment Design (UED) captures
what kind of structure fits the user’s tasks best. Design of a user environment can also
be used as a checklist of the functions that the system must incorporate.
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
10 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
2.2. Prototype
Prototype can be a paper mock-up or a software with some of the primary functions
working (K. Holtzblatt et al., 2005).
The prototype for this thesis consisted of a physical- and an application-prototype. The
author chose to use the paper-based prototype to begin with, while switching to a
software-prototype at a later stage. The prototype tested also included a box with a
computer, touch screen and printer.
2.2.1. Prototype testing method
Early prototypes were tested analytically. Expert evaluators reviewed the design and
give feedback on the design.
The final prototype was evaluated with a usability test method. Users tested the
prototype in a controlled environment (laboratory test). The prototype usability was
tested by handing out two different tasks that the users tried to complete, while being
observed by the author. The test-users were encouraged to use the think-aloud
method.
2.3. Universal Design
Universal Design (UD) is often used when architects design public buildings. They call it
“access to everyone", no matter their disability. UD is also used to design products,
such as IT systems. A good example of an ICT system is an Automatic Teller Machine
(ATM), which everyone must have equal access to, no matter their disabilities. The
author chose to investigate this method further because of the large range of IT
competences on construction sites. This method focuses on the design of the user
interface, and access to the physical prototype, in order to make the IMS as easy to use
as possible.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 11
2.4. Method chosen
CD and UD are both user centered design methods, and fit well to reach out to users
with different IT skills. Due to lack of time and resources, the author decided to use a
combination of CD and UD. CD was used for gathering user data, making work models
and consolidating the data. Meanwhile, the prototype was made using the UD
approach, in order to fit the many different levels of IT-skills on the construction site.
2.4.1. Optimization
Performing a full CD is very time- and resource consuming. However, the contextual
design may be tailored to the needs and resources of each project. This is done by
Rapid Contextual Design (RCD), which is based on a smaller number of tasks. This style
of CD was considered the best fit, for the limited time-frame and resources of this
thesis.
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
12 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 13
3 Productivity
The aim of this chapter is to describe the challenges and opportunities that the
construction industry in Denmark is facing, obtained from a theoretical study.
3.1. Construction industry
The construction industry is an environment characterized by an overwhelming flow of
information, from design offices to construction sites. Because of the intensity and
variety of construction information, the efficiency of information management is
crucial to the construction industry and has been recognized as an important
competitive advantage by construction companies. Construction information
management has greatly benefited from the advances in Information, and
Communication Technology (ICT), and current ICT support has been extended to
construction site offices. However, construction projects typically take place on
construction sites, where employees encounter difficulties in gaining access to proper
computer systems. The arrival of Information Technology, such as mobile computing
and sensors, has great potential to enhance information management on construction
sites. Before implementating this new technology, it is necessary to investigate the
context in which construction personnel retrieve and transfer information on
construction sites (Chen, Kamara, Winterburn, & Mell, 2008). The construction sector
is known to be a one-of-a-kind production. Most projects have different partner
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
14 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
setups, which can lead to disputes and mistrust. Clients tend to go for the lowest prize,
instead of going for the most economical prize (Bejder & Olsen, 2007).
3.2. Productivity
Productivity in the construction industry has not followed the development of
productivity in other industries. A study done by Paul Teicholz from CIFE (Center for
Integrated Facility Engineering), shows that productivity has doubled in the production
industry during a period of 40 years (fig. 2). In contrast, productivity in the
construction industry is 10% less than it was in 1964, but the quality is significantly
rising. Products have become more complex, but are produced with less cost. During
this period, manual labor has been replaced with automated equipment, and therefore
the quality is better but costs less. One reason for this difference between the
production and the building industries is the lack of automation in the construction
industry. The construction industry is not as willing to implement new innovative
technology, and thus use of ICT has not had as big an impact on the construction
industry as expected. The paper-based way of working is still the preferred way of
communicating information to the construction site (ARUP, 2000). The large variation
in worker's IT-skills may explain the slow implementation of digital communication.
Another reason is the fact that the experience from earlier projects is not being
documented and passed on to the next project. Experience from earlier projects can
easily be relevant, despite the differences between building projects, as the building
process is more or less the same.
Yet another reason is building failure. In Denmark, the failure in buildings is a major
problem with large economic consequences and productivity reduction. The costs are
not just the amount required to repair failures of the finished building, but also all
costs associated with the failure. The cost to rectify the building failures is an average
of 12 billion Danish Kroner pr. year, representing approximately 10% of the production
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 15
value. This expense post is enormous, and although it will never be possible to
completely avoid mistakes, it may be viewed as an opportunity for optimization, in
order to achieve substantial social savings (Byggeri & Newinsight, 2011).
3.3. Definition of failure
Failure is defined in many ways. The author will use The Danish Enterprise and
Construction Authority (Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen (EBST)) definition of failure:
The failure means that the project material, building materials, constructions or
building components in housing, lacks properties to agreements or
qualifications by government regulations or good building practice. Failures
include all such conditions regardless of their cause and regardless of when they
are discovered (Byggestyrelsen, 2004).
This means that failure is associated with both construction and agreements.
• Mistakes are used when the decisions and actions that lead to failure, are
associated with the building as actors.
Figure 2 Labor productivity index for U.S. construction industry and all non-farm industries (Source: Paul Teicholz,
founding director of the Center for Integrated Facility Engineering at Stanford University)
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
16 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
• Deficiencies are failures for which there can be financial claims concerning the
deficiency.
• Damage is used for unacceptable consequences of failure. For example, a
collapse of a building because of under-dimensioned roof beams.
No project is flawless, it is therefore, important to understand what the failure is and
the possibility of it leading to project changes (Oracle & Paper, 2009).
Contract deficiency is any mistake or inaccuracy in the agreement documents that can
influence the construction of the work. Agreement errors can be small mistakes like
simple, numerical or grammatical, but can also include ambiguities and conflicts
among different agreement documents (Oracle & Paper, 2009). Some contractors look
at these kinds of ambiguities as a bonus. The author talked to one contractor who
wished to be anonymous. Here is a quote from him:
My bid was only 60% of the client’s total cost. Now the project is halfway, and I
have had so much extra work because of an error in the contract. I am up to
80% of the clients total construction cost. The extra cost will definitely reach
over 100% and this will delay the project (Anonymous contractor, 2011).
He said that this was a very common way of tendering for projects (fig. 3). If this is the
case, it is no wonder that it is hard to increase productivity in the construction
industry.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 17
3.4. Origin of mistakes
A common misperception is that the majority of building errors are caused by sloppy
craftsmanship. However, many of the errors made arise during the design phase,
either because of a lack of communication or erroneous information handed out to the
construction site. “Over the wall” syndrome is a well-known phenomenon, and
describes misinterpretation of information occurring as it is handed from one person
to the next, e.g. from an architect to an engineer. When there is little or no
communication between two actors, it is called throwing it over the wall. This is also
the case when the construction site receives information. Lack of communication
between the designers and the construction site is a good example of this
phenomenon. Table 1 is from a study by the Danish Construction Institution (Erhvervs-
og Byggestyrelsen). A study shows that 67% of mistakes are made on-site
(Byggestyrelsen, 2004). Some of those mistakes have their origin in the design, but are
not discovered until the construction has already been carried out on-site. However, it
Figure 3 Illustration of how the anonymous contractor turns his low bid into big
profit.
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18 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
is not well constrained how large a part of the mistakes is due to poor design or lacking
communication from designers to foremen, rather than sloppy craftsmen.
3.5. Communication
Communication is a very important part of the construction industry. The current way
of communicating leads to a lot of mistakes and frustration between parties. A study
by the NCC and DTU that was made in 2004 shows that 61% of errors made were due
to lack of communication and cooperation (Table 2).
The construction industry consists of many small groups that still largely depend on
old-fashioned, paper-based forms of communication. As mentioned in chapter 3.3,
errors and omissions in paper-documents often lead to unexpected costs, delays and
litigation between the parties in a project. Such problems cause friction, financial costs
and delays. It is both costly and time-consuming to generate important information
Table 1 Study by the Danish Construction Institution (Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen)
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 19
about a proposed design, including cost
estimates, energy analysis, and analysis of
structural details, etc., which are usually
performed later, when it may already be
too late to make important changes, or
they become very costly. The industry
needs to move the crucial changes, to an
earlier time in design phase (Richter &
Koch, 2004).
3.6. Digital Construction (Det Digitale Byggeri)
The Danish government set a series of demands for public clients that were put into
action on 1. January 2007. First, there were 10 demands, which public clients had to
fulfill depending on the size of the project. In 2010, those 10 demands were simplified
and reduced to five demands. This initiative was intended to improve knowledge-
sharing between the parties of the construction sector, from the idea phase, to
operation and maintenance.
It would be too much to describe all of those demands here. A summary of the core
demands related to the contractor is described in the following section. The text is
extracted and translated from The Ministry of Economics and Business Affairs.
Requirement No. 2 – Project web
The client must require that all relevant parties in a construction project have access to
and use of a project web, so that all relevant project information can be archived and
exchanged digitally.
Public clients must ensure:
Table 2 %-share of all tumbling stone in the case
study(Richter & Koch, 2004)
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20 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
1. To provide a safe and effective project web system available for all project
parties.
2. To lay down rules for the efficient use of a project web system. The framework
must be documented and communicated to all parties.
3. All digital project information, including text documents, drawings and digital
building models are archived for all project participants in a readable print-
friendly format. If there is no agreement of what kind of format, the documents
should be in ODF format, not editable documents to be archived in PDF format.
4. The drawing set is made, so it can be printed in A3 format and in scale, and
with scale shapes for visual indication of the scale.
5. Project web system is available on site, and documents and drawings can be
printed on the construction site printer equipment.
Requirement No. 3 - Digital building models
Demand for the use of digital building models in 3D.
The public client must require the use of digital building models in 3D, both of ideas
and contests, and during the construction phase.
The public client must use ideas and contests to ensure:
7. Both the combined model and discipline models are available for the
contractor in IFC format or other agreed format.
Requirement No. 5 - Digital delivery
Requirements for digital delivery of files, operation, maintenance and management
information
The public client must require delivery of applicable digital project information, as
assessed relevant to the documentation of the construction case, as built, the future
operation, maintenance and management.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 21
The public client shall, in consultation with the operation and maintenance, ensure:
6. To deliver the right basic information about the project to the design and to the
contractors.
Public clients must ensure delivery of the following digital project information:
7. Process documentation, documenting the proceedings and decisions.
8. Product documentation, documenting as built.
9. Operating and maintenance information for the finished construction.
10. Management Information, which consists of the administrative information
related to the finished construction. The client can be in a transitional phase
until 31 December 2013, and select one of three delivery methods of operating,
maintenance and management information. After the first January 2014,
method “I” should always be used:
I. The information is to be submitted in a digital building model structured in
the DBK standard, open standard (IFC), and based on the design phase,
combined building model, subject to claims No. 1 in the case of
construction projects that exceed the current thresholds in the EU
procurement rules.
II. Digital information associated to data objects for transferring to clients and
FM system.
III. Information delivered
This legislation should motivate all actors in the construction industry to implement
and use ICT, to be able to tender for public construction projects. It is a matter of
debate, how well public clients are ready to receive and use this information. Mette
Carstad, Senior Consultant for UBST said, in her presentation on Digital Days at UCN,
that the problem for them lay in the lack of technical knowledge that supported the
actual requirements and how they were exploited (Carstad, 2010).
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22 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
3.7. ICT on the construction site
The decreased productivity is being met by implementing innovative ICT on the
construction site, both mobile systems and web-based systems. An example of a
mobile ICT system is E-Tjek, a mobile quality assurance ICT system (Vogelius, 2005). In
appendix 4 is a list of mobile applications in use on Danish construction sites. Project
web systems are also starting to be more common on the construction site (Heldgaard,
2005). Byggweb is an example of a project web system that is popular in Denmark.
3.7.1. Mobile and web services
The mobile systems that are being implemented are used to increase quality and
enable the managers to get a better overview of ongoing projects. Many of those
mobile systems have a direct link to the company's ERP system.
The core functions for these mobile systems are:
• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Integration
• Quality assurance
• Timesheet
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Integration
There are over 300 hundred different ERP systems available to choose from (iWay,
2011). According to Gartner Research Group, the three ERP systems with the biggest
market share are SAP, Oracle and Sage. ERP systems are total management systems
for companies. Their main functions are:
• Financial management
• Customer Relationship Management
• Human resource management
• Manufacturing Resource planning
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 23
• Supply-chain management
Several mobile application and web services have been developed to integrate with
ERP systems. Many have the ability to send time sheets directly to the ERP system. The
administration or project managers can hand out a task to perform via the company's
ERP system to the individual craftsmen mobile device.
Quality assurance
Quality assurance is important for the industry and can have an effect on the overall
productivity. It is important to register and document all mistakes. With a mobile
device, it is easy to go around the construction site and register mistakes, take pictures
and mark where the mistakes are. This information is stored on the project web
system. The mobile system then automatically generates reports to send to the
involved actors.
Timesheet
Each employee can manage his (or her) time spent on their tasks. These time sheets
are then uploaded to the company ERP system. This saves a great deal of work for the
project manager and for the administration. This also decreases the time that elapses,
from task completion until a bill is sent to the client.
3.7.2. Project web systems
The objective of a project web system is to give the participants in a project, the
possibility to exchange information across different actors. A project web in the
building industry will normally contain drawings, job descriptions and other documents
regarding the building project. A project web system ensures that all participants in the
project have access to all relevant documents at any time. Many different project web
solutions are available, from quite simple solutions to highly complex solutions. It is
important to consider the size of the project in question, when choosing a project web
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24 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
system. Project web is included as a prime element in the future communication
strategy of many companies. Project web system is an important element, especially in
The Digital Building (DDB), and the state demands that all public building projects
should make use of project web from the beginning of 2007 (The Ministry of Economic
and Business Affairs, 2010).
Some bigger construction companies have their own project web system. Rambøll,
Niras and Grontmij from Carl Bro are some of those companies. Other project web
systems that are being used in the Danish construction industry are, ByggeWeb,
Project place and projektHOTEL. These systems have the same core functions, access
control and information storing. The developers compete in developing extra functions
like notifications system and feedback functions. Byggeweb is the only project web
provider who can manage authorized digital tenders.
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4 Field study
This chapter provides an overview of the current work process on a building site in
Aalborg. To help the author to get an overview of a typical work process and to
complete the work models, a project manager on a large construction project in
Aalborg was interviewed.
Semi-structured interviewing was chosen to get a free flow of information. The author
had questions written down to guide him through the interview. Work models were
used to get an overview of the current work process and adapted to the project
manager’s construction site.
4.1. The field
The company that the project manager worked for was a carpentry sub-contractor.
The company had 20 craftsmen, one foreman and a project manager on the
construction site. The 20 craftsmen were managed by the foreman, who in turn
answered to the project manager.
This was the first time they received digital information during a project. The project
manager received emails containing updated information about the project, e.g. if any
changes were. The project manager was responsible for printing out the new drawings
and replacing the old. The foreman then contacted the relevant craftsmen and notified
them of the changes.
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26 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
4.2. Work models
Work models are made in cooperation with the project manager. These models give a
viable overview of the current work processes. These work models are analyzed and
redesigned in chapter 7.
4.2.1. Flow model
The flow of tasks and information are summarized in Figure 4. The project manager
receives information to his email, and prints the information to review it before
handing over to the foreman who contacts the relevant craftsman (fig. 4). If changes
are made the project manager has to print and review changes before he hands them
on to the foreman. In the interview, the project manager said that he would not stop
the craftsmen, even if he knew that such changes meant the work needed to be
redone. The reason was that he had to think of the budget and be sure that the
changes could be charged to the relevant actor.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 27
Figure 4 shows the current flow of tasks and information. The bubble indicates persons and their responsibilities. The
boxes indicate the physical environment in which the employees retrieve information or perform their tasks. The
arrows show the communication, either as one-way or two-way communication. A text box on an arrow indicates that a
document is being communicated. Text beside an arrow, indicate communication.
4.2.2. Sequence model
Figure 5 shows the procedure during the trigger, i.e. when the project manager hands
out a task to the craftsman. The figure also shows a scenario of, when a drawing used
by a craftsman, to perform his task is revised.
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28 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 5 Sequence model showing how project manager hands out tasks and when changes are made. The
model is split up into two axes, persons and time. Each step is noted with a box with a description of the
activity.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 29
4.2.3. Artifact model
Figure 6 illustrates the artifacts that the sub-contractor uses to communicate
information. The artifacts are divided on two locations; project manager's on-site
office and the actual job site. Artifact is a thing or an object that the employee uses to
communicate and perform his task. It can be a computer, time sheet or even a
hammer.
4.2.4. Physical model
All communication with the designer is by phone and information exchange via email
(fig. 7). The project manager thought this was very time-consuming and hard to
organize information when information arrived on email. This is a quote from him.
It can be time-consuming and quite difficult to keep the overview of information
related to the project, and extremely hard to keep track of changes.
Figure 6 The on-site office (green polygon) is equipped with a computer with internet. The project manager
prints information on an A3 printer. He also uses his on-site office to manage resources. The job site (purple
polygon) is equipped with relevant craftsmen tools and all information are paper based.
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30 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
4.3. Model Consolidation
The interview and the models gave the author a clear view of what the current work
process is. Although this situation cannot be generalized it is a quite common way to
communicate today (Wikforss & Löfgren, 2007).
There is a definite possibility to reduce the manual organization of information. E-mail
communication does not offer the same ease of information exchange, as a project
web system. An ICT system located on the building site, would also allow craftsmen
immediate access to updated information.
Figure 7 Physical model showing the communication channels. To communicate with the designers the project
manager uses email. He has to print and review information he receives by email and archive them. The foreman
manages the craftsmen.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 31
The data gathered from this interview and completed work models were further
analyzed and redesigned. The Field Study and The Need analysis are then used to
optimize this work process and described in chapter 7.
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32 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 33
5 Needs
This chapter creates an overview of ICT needs for a typical construction site in
Denmark. The need analysis is carried out as a quantitative survey aimed to get a
response from craftsmen of all trades.
5.1. Quantitative survey
The survey was sent to trade unions that are known to service craftsmen. It was also
posted on the web site, bimbyen.dk and on several Facebook sites. The author tried to
reach out to as many craftsmen as possible and to all trades. The author expected
more responses from the craftsmen, and found it hard to get in contact with them. A
likely explanation is that they do not use computers during their normal workday, such
as e.g. architects and engineers.
Goal
The goal is to analyze if the craftsmen on-site are capable of fulfilling the demands of
the new legislation, implemented by the Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority
(Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen, EBST) in 2010; Digital Construction (Det Digitale Byggeri).
Digital Construction was described in section 3.4.1.
The author’s intention with the survey was to investigate the overall IT competence
and the use of IT on-site, whether on-site personnel have mobile phones, and if they
have used a mobile application in a work-related situation.
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34 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
The results of the survey were cross-checked with research made for Danish
Construction Association in November 2010 (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010), where the
objectives were to identify the contractor's vision on IT, what type of IT system they
are currently using and the main barriers of using more IT.
Target group
The target group for this analysis is craftsmen who work with typical building projects.
The reason for choosing the craftsmen is because that group has not benefited from
new technology, in the same way that other trades have.
Method
A test survey was sent to 25 participants working on a construction site. The survey
had the same focus as the final survey. Each question included a comment field, in
which the responder could write additional comments. This method proved to be very
effective to get good feedback to optimize the survey.
The final survey is a combination of closed and open-ended questionnaires (Dr.
Dawson, 2002). A field was included where the responder could write his email
address, so he could be asked in detail about his answer. This also allowed the author
to establish a connection to some of the responders. The survey consisted of ten
mandatory questions. Some of the questions had a comment field, where the
responder could freely express his thoughts.
An email was sent out to 700 email addresses extracted from bygdenmark.dk website.
More than a third of the emails (250), bounced back, because they were not in use
anymore. A link to the survey was also posted on bimbyen.dk and to several Facebook
sites belonging to trade unions servicing craftsmen. A total of 72 responses were
registered. The reason for this low response rate could be the short time it was valid,
and because craftsmen do not normally use computers during their workday.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 35
NOTE: This survey does not represent all the craftsmen in the construction industry. It
only represents the 72 who responded. However it provides a hypothetical view of the
craftsmen IT skill and IT usage.
5.2. Questions
To get as many responses as possible, only 10 questions were asked. The average time
it took the responder to answer was two and half minutes.
1) What is your age?
It is important to know the age range to be able to know if there is a connection with
IT usage and age.
Figure 8: Bar chart showing the age distribution of survey respondents
The age range from 26 to 55 had the most responses (fig. 8). It is interesting that the
age range 16 to 25 had only five responses. This could reflect that this age is less
motivated to have an opinion on the development of the building industry. There was
no response from the age 66 and over, which is not surprising. The construction
industry is a hard environment where craftsmen easily wear themselves out and thus
5
19
17
24
7
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66 og over
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36 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
quit at a younger age than in many other trades. Another reason is that many from
that age group, have not received basic IT-training during the course of their
education, and have not acquired such skills at a later stage.
2) What is your trade?
Some of the craftsmen are more IT-oriented than others. It is therefore, interesting to
explore whether IT usage can be linked with trade. Interviewees could choose from a
list of the main trades and finally, an “other” option in case something was not listed.
For the “other” option, 16 responses were registered, of which 7 of were managers
(fig. 9.). Three top trades were carpenters, plumbers and painters.
3) How would you describe your IT knowledge?
- My IT skills are... (...none...low...average...high...super user)
This is a key question in the survey. It is crucial for the author to know the level of IT
knowledge on-site. The IT knowledge is one of the first things the User Environment
Figure 9 Bar chart of how the responders are distributed by trade
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 37
Designer (UED) has to have in mind (Barry & Pitt, 2006). It is also important to know
when designing the physical environment (Betty Dion Enterprises, 2006).
Figure 10: Bar chart showing distribution of self-described IT skills
Figure 10 shows that almost 58% has an average IT knowledge and 26% has high IT
knowledge. It is interesting to see that none of the responders have “none” IT
knowledge. At first, the author found it strange that many of the responders chose
medium or high IT knowledge, but when comparing this survey to a survey made by
the THE DANISH CONSTRUCTION ASSOCIATION, it became apparent that, that survey
had also got very few responders describing their IT knowledge as low. This could
reflect that craftsmen, who do not use computers in their normal workday, may not
have the necessary IT knowledge to access an internet survey.
a. Cross check Age vs. IT skills
Before making this survey, one of the things the author expected to find (based on
personal experience), was a connection between age and IT skills was expected. If
Figure 10 is analyzed, we can see that the author is not entirely wrong.
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
50,0%
60,0%
70,0%
...none ...low ...average ...high ...super user
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38 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 11: Age groups plotted against the level of IT skills.
The age group from 16 to 45 had average or high IT skills and 4 of the responders even
had super user IT skills (fig. 10). The age group from 46 to 65 had an average of 26%
low IT skills. There were no responses from the age group 66 and more, and also, no
one (at any age) responded that they had no IT skills. This could possibly be a link
between higher age (66 and over) and lacking IT skills. Although these findings cannot
be generalized other studies have shown the same results (Sørensen, Svidt, &
Christiansson, 2007).
4) Do you have access to digital project material on the construction site?
-drawings, job descriptions, etc.
The author was interested in knowing if the access to digital material was a common
thing on-site. Although roughly one third answered that they have access to digital
material (fig. 12), it can be assumed that even if digital information is available on-site,
craftsmen do not have easy access to that information. It may be stored on the project
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66 and over
Age
group
How would you describe your IT skills?
Cross checked with age groups.
...none ...low ...average ...high ...super user
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 39
manager’s computer, prohibiting access, as was the case with the interviewed project
manager.
Figure 12: Pie chart describing whether digital information is available on construction sites.
5) What kind of mobile phone do you have?
The aim of asking this question is twofold. Firstly, to explore whether the author's
idea of a SMS (Short Message Service) messages when changes are made, could be
a possibility. Secondly, to investigate to what degree wide-spread use of smart
phones on-site was possible (i.e. how many craftsmen already own smart phones).
36%
64%
Yes No
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40 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
The result shows that all the respondents have a mobile phone of some sort (fig. 13).
Statistics from DST also show that in 2006, 94% of the population has a mobile phone.
As seen on Figure 14, the ownership of mobile phones has increased drastically from
1994 to 2006.
Figure 14 Percentages of the population owning a mobile phone [modified from www.dst.dk]
It is safe to assume that mobile communication is a common thing today and can be
implemented in new ICT systems on-site.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Ordinary Android smartphone iPhone Don't have a phone
Figure 13 Bar chart showing what type of mobile phone craftsmen own
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 41
Have you used mobile applications on the construction site?
- Mobile applications on your portable phone, for example, to do a quality check and
time sheets.
As stated above smart phones are beginning to be a common thing with mobile phone
owners. The amount of mobile applications (apps) available for all smart phone brands
was 120.000 in Q4 2009. The app market has escalated since then. In Q4 2011, the
apps available for all smart phone brands was approximately 1.000.000 (MaximumPC,
2009). The author researched what kind of mobile applications are on the market for
the construction industry today, and they are described in appendix 4. Despite this,
craftsmen do not appear to be making the most of this technology with only 11% of
respondents having used apps as a tool for on-site work (fig. 15).
Figure 15: Pie chart showing how many craftsmen have used mobile applications on the construction-site.
6) Have you used a project web on the construction site?
The author’s intention with this question is to find out how craftsmen are able to fulfill
the public client demand of being able to access a project web system on-site (The
Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs, 2010). If compared with the survey made
11%
89%
Yes No
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42 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
for DB where the managers were asked how important they thought it was to have
access to a project web system. Only 9% answered it was very important. Thus, it is not
surprising that only 15% of the respondents of this survey have used an on-site project
web (fig. 16).
Figure 16: Pie chart showing how many percent of survey respondents have used an on-site project web system.
These findings show that the companies have not yet seen the advantages of having
access to a project web system. Around 90% of the companies could find it hard to
fulfill the demand §2.5, described in section 2.4.1 of having access to a project web
system and be able to print information in A3 (The Ministry of Economic and Business
Affairs, 2010).
7) How do you know, that you have the newest information, when you are
performing your task?
This question was asked to get an overview of methods used to communicate when
changes are made to the information. Furthermore, to see, what the ambition is to
know that the craftsmen are actually using the newest information. Five options were
given, four options that the author thoughts were relevant and one option that gave
15%
85%
Yes No
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 43
the responders freedom to give their own explanation. This option turned out to be a
valuable resource for further analyzes on how the craftsmen communicate
information.
Figure 17: Bar chart showing the most common ways that craftsmen check that they have updated information.
Here are few of the responses that were given to the “other” response option:
“Check out the drawing list from the last project meeting”
“Get manually delivered the newest information.”
“The client consultant is responsible for always having the newest updated
information on-site.”
It can be concluded that there are many ways that craftsmen check that they have the
newest information. It appears that some even don’t care what information they are
working with, but the majority double-checks with the project manager or checks the
dates on the information (fig. 17).
There is a need for one standard way for the craftsmen to check if they have the
newest information and a system that notifies them if changes are made.
7
16
12
22
14
0 5 10 15 20 25
I don't
Check the date and hope for the best
It is the Project Managers responsibility
Contact the Project Manager
Other
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44 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
8) If an IT-system would be accessible on the construction site, would you use it?
- A stationary IT-system with a touch screen and an A3 printer, that could
ensure you that you would always have the newest updated information.
This question is twofold. Firstly, to find out if the craftsmen were willing to use a
stationary ICT system, and secondly if they could benefit from the new legislation that
Digital Construction but in action 1. January 2007.
Figure 18: Pie chart showing whether respondents would be willing to use an on-site IT-system.
The author compared his survey with the DB survey where the managers were asked if
the craftsmen in their company had easy access to IT on-site (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010).
Of the 110 that answered only one manager said that his craftsmen had access to IT.
About half (49%) of the responders said the craftsmen have no access to IT, and they
should not have. Compared with the author’s survey, there is a very different opinion
about IT usage on-site. As seen in Figure 18, the majority of the responders said that
they would use an IT system on site if it was available.
9) Do you think that IT could be used to increase the productivity on the
construction site?
73%
15%
11%
Yes No Don't know
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 45
This question aimed at getting the craftsmen opinion of IT-usage, and whether they
thought, it could improve the productivity. The question included comment field,
where they could express freely why they thought it would improve the productivity.
Some of the feedback can be seen here below.
“It would be among other things to increase communication and make the day
more fluid.”
“Avoid a number of mistakes, faster corrections, and maximum information
after construction meetings, etc. Fantastic!”
“Avoid wasted time and errors because of not having updated drawings and
descriptions.”
“There is always access to the projects newest information. This applies,
however, primarily construction projects of a certain size.”
All responders that used the text field gave positive feedback and all agreed that ICT
would increase productivity.
5.3. Summarize needs
This survey clearly indicates that there is a need for IT on-site. When the author looks
at the survey from beginning to end, he is confident that not only is there need for
increased IT use on the construction site, there is also general positivity and
acceptance towards increased use of IT. This clearly contradicts the results of the
survey made for DB, where managers thought craftsmen should not have access to IT.
There is a need for a change in management style, in order to break down the barriers
between managers and craftsmen. The author will describe these needs and try to
come up with a possible solution in chapter 9: Implementation.
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6 Problem statement
Implementation of innovative ICT systems in the construction industry is trailing other
industries. Information that is used on the construction site is still mostly paper-based.
According to the need analyzes, craftsmen are willing to use an on-site ICT system that
could improve productivity in the construction industry. According to a study made for
DB, managers are reluctant to provide access to ICT systems, claiming that it is time
consuming. Currently, construction sites do not benefit from the implementation of
ICT in the design process, as it is in most cases not able to receive digital information.
However, there are indications that easy access to an on-site ICT system could work to
increase efficiency and lower costs, e.g. due to fewer construction failures.
This leads to the problem statement:
What is the best way to develop an ICT system that benefits both managers and
craftsmen needs, and increases productivity?
ICT system that is…
…User friendly…Robust…Efficient in Communication…Not time-consuming to use
To answer these questions, the work processes described in chapter 4 were
redesigned and a prototype of an ICT system made, that could benefit both managers
and craftsmen. An implementation method for such a system is also described.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Optimizing the Information flow 49
7 Optimizing the
Information flow
This chapter describes what methods could be used to optimize the information flow,
on the construction site to increase productivity. Work-models are redesigned to
optimize the information flow, and illustrated on a storyboard.
7.1. New process
According to the survey made for this thesis, the majority of the craftsmen are willing
and able to use ICT on the construction site. Although the survey was made online and
craftsmen with no and low IT skills might not have answered, that is also the case in
other industries. IT skills vary from person to person, but as long as they are motivated
to use IT, it is merely a matter of teaching and guiding them to learn and use it more
efficiently.
ICT is already available on construction sites, either as a handheld device or a
computer at the project manager’s on-site office. The problem is that it is not being
used by the craftsmen. Most of the devices and associated applications being used
currently are not very user-friendly and quite time-consuming to use.
A project manager uses a substantial amount of time to organize information when it
arrives at the construction site. Changes and revisions have to reach the right
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craftsmen as soon as possible, in order to prevent mistakes from being made. Survey
results, along with the authors´ own experience suggests mistakes are often made
because craftsmen are not aware that changes have been made.
Two questions in the survey were aimed at investigating what kind of mobile devices
craftsmen have, and whether they have used mobile applications on the construction
site. Only ~40% of responders have smart phones, of which only 11% have used mobile
applications on the construction site. Possible explanations for this could be the
variability of construction sites and rough weather conditions, which may hamper the
usage of mobile devices. Imagine a carpenter standing on scaffolding during winter
conditions, trying to operate a small mobile device with gloves on. The author has used
this scenario when talking to craftsmen. All of them agreed that this would not be
possible and a stationary system near the craftsmen resting area would be more
suitable.
Only 15% of the responders said that they have used a project web system, and found
it hard to access and difficult to use. While a project web system could be a solution to
improve the information flow on the construction site, it is useless if it is not being
used. On the other hand, 73% of the responders said they would use an ICT system
with a touch screen and printer, if stationed at the construction site. This motivated
the author to develop a user-friendly Information Management System (IMS), which
will be described further in chapter 8.
7.2. Redesigned work models
To describe the optimization of on-site information flow after implementing an ICT
system, the models made based on interview results, were redesigned to show the
optimized flow of information.
7.2.1. Redesigned Flow model
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Figure 19 Redesigned Flow model that illustrates how craftsmen receive information.
The flow model seen on Figure 19 illustrates how work is distributed between actors
on the building site. In this case, the illustrated workflow shows how craftsmen access
information to carry out their task on the building site, and what is the procedure if
there is a problem in the information that the craftsmen receive.
Implementation of an IMS would minimize the time passed, from when a change is
made, until the craftsmen receive a notification. Although it is the project manager's
job to approve changes, craftsmen would receive instant SMS notification when an
approved change has been made to the information they are using. An example of
such a notification could, for example, be: “Changes have been made to drawing
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number 205.23.32.1. Please contact PM before carrying on with your task.” One
possible scenario where such a system would be useful is if a PM is not present on-site,
at the time of receiving information about new changes and thus, unable to notify the
craftsmen. As a result, the craftsmen could risk working with outdated information for
a considerable amount of time, which could lead to costly errors.
With the use of an IMS, some of those communications could be avoided or made
easier. It is very time-consuming to communicate with other actors in the project,
especially if the job site is large, with hundreds of workers on-site at the same time. An
ICT system automatically notifying individual craftsmen or team leaders of any changes
made to the information would greatly aid the project manager and cut costs.
7.2.2. Redesigned Sequence model
After analyzing the options for redesigning the sequence model, the author saw an
opportunity for optimizing the communication channels to the craftsmen. The
redesigned model can be seen in Figure 20.
According to this model, the time passed from when changes are made until craftsmen
receive a notification is just a few seconds. Instead of letting the craftsmen carry on
their work, knowing they are working with outdated information. The project manager
can assign new tasks to them while information is being reviewed, and negotiations
take place. In this way, the productivity loss is minimized.
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Figure 20 Redesigned sequence model
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7.2.3. Redesigned Artifact model
An ICT system is not implemented to cut some of the artifacts away. Its primary
purpose is to organize and make it easier for the project manager to manage both
information and resources. Therefore, all artifacts from the original design are on the
model (fig. 21). However, an ICT system has been added for support that is accessible
in a special shed and containing all relevant information to the project.
Figure 21 Redesigned artifact model. The dotted lines show what has been added.
The on-site office has administrative access to the ICT system (dotted arrow), and is
able to hand out tasks to craftsmen.
The craftsmen are now able to get the latest information from the box, as well as
getting notified when changes are made.
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7.2.4. Redesigned Physical Model
Figure 22 Redesigned physical model
With the use of ICT system, a considerable efficiency can be achieved (fig. 22). The
project web server handles all organizing of information. The time that the project
manager spent on printing information and updating the drawing list is greatly
minimized. The craftsmen can retrieve the relevant information and receive
notification if his information is changed.
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7.2.5. Storyboard
To illustrate the new work process, a storyboard is made with a scenario were a
project manager assigns a task to a carpenter. He gets the relevant information that is
changed while performing the task.
1
Project manager goes over the time schedule
and hands out a task to a carpenter with
filling in a form on the ICT system manager
application. The manager application sends
the task to the onsite cimbox that sends out
an SMS notification to the carpenter.
2
The carpenter receives a text message to his
mobile phone, notifying him that he has a
new task to perform.
Text message: ”You have one new task
waiting. Please log onto Cimbox for further
information”
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3
The carpenter logs into ICT system with his ID
card. The system registers that this individual
carpenter prints this drawing. That way, the
system does only send to him and the project
manager if changes are made.
4
The carpenter then prints the information
needed to perform the handed out task. The
carpenter now has all the necessary
information to perform the task.
5
Shortly after he has started. He gets a text
message to his mobile phone.
“Changes have been made to the drawing
0789 that you printed, 21-11-11, 08.30.
Please logon to cimbox for more
instructions.”
The ICT system detected that there were
changes made to the drawing used by this
carpenter. Here is another option.
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6
The carpenter logs on to the ICT system.
There he finds the drawing that has been
changed. If the changes have to be evaluated
by the project manager, the carpenter will,
then be handed out a different task while the
changed drawings are being accepted. That
way, an optimal resource management can
be achieved.
7
He prints the new drawing.
8
The carpenter can now carry on with his
work with updated information, with no or
minimum errors.
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8 Prototypes
From the original idea of an ICT system for the construction site, many further have
been made to the system proposals. This section describes the prototype process,
starting on a paper-based prototype, then a semi-functional prototype made in
PowerPoint and finally, a functional prototype developed in the programming
language C#.
8.1. Paper-based prototype
As soon as the author came up with the idea of an ICT system for the construction site,
he started sketching the system. The main focus was to design a system that could be
connected to a project web system and that had a user-friendly interface.
8.1.1. User Environment Model
The primitive user environment was sketched on paper and the overall system design
was mocked up. This turned out to be an excellent method, especially in the later
stages of the prototype design. The design of all functions were based on the authors
own experience and then reviewed by experts. The primitive paper mock-ups were
used for analytical testing.
To be able to test this idea on potential users, the author decided to do a digital
representation of the system. This will be described in the next section (8.2).
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• Simple login
• Punch in/out
Administration gets
better information when
managing resources.
• Drawings and
descriptions should
be easy to access
with few clicks.
• Perhaps an option of
some kind of
notification system
when changes are
made to drawings.
Table 3Early paper mockup of an ICT system for the construction industry
8.2. Semi-functional prototype
The paper-based sketches were used to make a power point layout for presenting to a
user test group. The advantage of designing a digital representation of the system is
that the users can get a better overview and impression of the system, which makes it
easier to give feedback on the design and functions (e.g. colors, icons and overall user
experience).
The primary goal was to design a stationary ICT system in a physical box. Although a
mobile app was one of the feedbacks from the experts, the author’s intentions with
the system were primarily to design a system fit for all workers on a construction site,
no matter level of IT skills. The ICT system proposed has a slot for an ID card, an A3
printer and a small roll printer used for punching in and out, for printing out drawings
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and for printing quantities (that the craftsmen
could use as a grocery list at the storage area and
pick up what was relevant to their task),
respectively.
8.2.1. User Environment Design
Although the author has ten-year experience from
the construction site, he could not design the
system entirely from his point of view. He decided
to use his network of craftsmen to make the user
environment model. He gathered three
professional acquaintances. A small workshop was
set up to discuss the author’s idea.
The User environment model (fig. 25) was drawn to give an overview of the functions
and afterwards a description of each function (Table 4).
An explanation for the model is given in Figure 24. Each box indicates a focus area,
page or a window. The purpose is described shortly. Functions are listed up, both the
ones triggered by the user and by the system. If another focus area is connected, the
name of it is listed up under links. Objects that the user is presented by are next listed
up. Finally, risks and constraints are given.
Figure 23 first sketch of the box and
accessories.
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Figure 24 Explanation how the user environment model is built up.
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Figure 25 User Environment Model (UED) of the semi functional prototype
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Table 4 Description prototype of functions
1
This is what the menu looks like when the
user logs on with his ID card. A short
password of 4 letters could be an option
here. Or if the worker forgets his ID card a
function to punch in his personal ID number
and then a 4 letter password
2
Punch in and out
This function is to give the administration
and the on-site manager the opportunity to
make resource-planning more accurate.
These two functions could give long queues
to punch in and out. Therefore the author
will not make these functions a priority.
Message – Description in row 18.
The system keeps track of who prints what
drawings and notifies the user if some of the
information has changed after his last
printout.
Activities – Description in row 18.
Activities linked to the individual user.
Activities can be handed out by the on-site
manager and the administration.
Drawings – Description in row 18.
Here the user can access all drawings that
are linked to the project.
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Lager – Description in row 18.
Function that keeps track of all materials
used on the site and what craftsmen tools
are being used by whom.
Info – Description in row 18.
General information such as job descriptions
and contact list.
3
This menu is where users would have access
to all drawing material.
4
The search engine is designed so the user
doesn‘t have to know exactly what he is
looking for. A search like “3. floor” would
give the user all drawings linked to the 3rd
floor.
5
This menu gives the user access to all
drawing material linked to the individual
project. Here the user can use two functions:
View or Add to my drawings. The system
does not register the drawing to the user if
he only views it. But if he uses Add to my
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drawings then the system will register it and
is therefore able to send the user a message
if there are changes made, in the form of a
message next time he logs on or as an SMS.
6
When the user is in view mode he is able to
zoom in and out. The circles on the drawings
indicate that there is a drawing linked to the
one being viewed.
7
The drawing material should include a 3D
model of the construction where the user
can zoom in and out, pan and do a walk-
through to get a better picture of what his
task is.
8
The usual details can be printed in A3
format. This should include detailed
information, such as what material to use
and a job description.
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9
Information sub-menu
10
The contact search engine is designed so the
user doesn‘t have to know exactly what he is
looking for, similar to the information search
engine.
11
If the user has to contact someone or a firm
then he can get an overview of the people
on-site by browsing the organization chart.
12
Here on-site personnel should be able to
access:
Over all construction time plan.
Three week plan
One week plan
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13
My info, is were the user can add
information about himself. See what group
he should be working with and add his
mobile telephone number in order to get
notifications by SMS.
14
The user should be able to access all
applicable health and safety documents
(H&S).
15
Activities
Each user has his own calendar where he can
see what is on the agenda for the coming
days, weeks or months. The idea is to make a
task list for each day where tasks are linked
to the necessary drawings.
16
Under activities are linked to the individual
user e.g. if the user has a meeting or other
agendas. Here the worker could also see
when he will get paid, as well as receive
messages from the administration. All tasks
that the project manager wants the worker
to perform are also listed under activities.
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17
The system registers which individuals are
affected by changes made and sends them
an SMS to notify them of these.
18
This screen lists an overview over available
materials and tools and who is using what
tools.
8.2.2. Prototype evaluation
To evaluate the prototype a number of experts (professors, students and three
craftsmen), were introduced to the system, given an introduction of how the system
would work and what problems it would solve. This turned out to be really useful and a
aided greatly in the design of the system. The first version that was tested was far too
complicated. The reason for this was that the author has an IT education and is
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comfortable to operate complex systems. His network, on the other hand, has
different IT skills.
Figure 26 shows an ideal construction site that has implemented the box. Building
design is connected to a project web server and the project server is connected to the
box. The administration server is also connected to the project server, so they can do
resource planning and manage budgets. Material inventory is also accessible through
the box. Craftsmen have access to relevant project information via the box. Project
managers use personal digital assistant (PDA) for quality assurance.
Figure 26 Rich picture of the construction site with the system implemented
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8.3. Functional prototypes
The User Environment Design provides a structural thinking that responds to the
storyboards.
To develop the UED as seen on Figure 27, the redesigned work models, consolidation,
and storyboards were used to fulfill the user requirements.
It is important that the user environment is made as simple as possible. The login
window has a fairly simple login function. The user has the possibility to login manually
or by using radio-frequency identification (RFID) card. The login is linked to the “Main
window” which acts as a home screen for the user. The user can see all his tasks and
printed drawings. The main window links to all windows in the system. A message
object appears if the user has a new message. To give the user freedom to browse
through information, other than that assigned to him, links are created to “drawings”
and “Information." Both “Drawings” and “Information” has a viewer object to browse
through the information and print function.
The final step of the User Environment Design is the walkthrough. This step should not
be skipped (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998). It should been taken before User Interface
design starts.
The walkthrough for this UED was made with three craftsmen from two different
trades, one plumber and two carpenters. Their main job was to see if the design could
fulfill the requirements and if some focus areas could be merged or split up. The UED
model seen on Figure 27, fulfilled their expectation and was thus used for the next
step of User Interface design.
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Figure 27 User Environment Model of the final prototype
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8.4. Physical prototype
The box mentioned in 8.2 was designed further and a
prototype was constructed. The physical prototype
consists of a 22” touch monitor, RFID scanner, A3
printer and a laptop computer, running windows 7
Home with internet access as seen on (fig. 28).
8.5. Web-based prototype
The easiest way, for the author, to make a functional
prototype was to develop a website. An open-source
Content Management System (CMS) by the name
JOOMLA was used to design both the back-end and the
front-end.
8.5.1. JOOMLA
Joomla is a free and open source content management system (CMS) for publishing
content on the World Wide Web and intranets Web application framework. Joomla is
written in PHP and uses object-oriented programming (OOP) techniques. JOOMLA
stores data in a MySQL database (Burge, 2011).
JOOMLA 1.6 was installed on a web server,http://digitalbyggeri.dk/digibox and a
simple login window was designed as the start page. JOOMLA offers thousands of
extensions that can be installed. To manage information such as drawings and job
descriptions an extension called DocMAN was purchased and installed. DocMAN is a
very simple information management extension that can upload multiple files to the
database. The front-end of DocMAN can be seen on Figure 32. DocMAN is the
backbone of the system. It serves as a project web system for the prototype.
Figure 28 Physical prototype
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Figure 29 Touchatag RFID
scanner.
8.5.2. Login
As mentioned earlier the login has to be simple. There are
many reasons for that. To mention a few, different IT skills,
users could have some disabilities like poor eye-sight or the
time of year could also make a difference. In cold weather
craftsmen wear gloves and might want to keep them on
when operating the ICT system.
The idea of an ID card equipped with
a RFID chip was tested. RFID scanner
from Touchatag was chosen. The RFID
scanner can be seen on Figure 29. The
setup was quite complex. When the
ID card is swept through the scanner
it contacts the Touchatag server. That
means the ICT system has a demand
of a steady internet connection to the
Touchatag server.
Figure 30 shows how the login system is designed. When the user sweeps his ID card
through the scanner, the scanner sends the RFID hash number to the Touchatag
server. The server finds the application associated with the RFID tag and executes, as
seen on Figure 31. Reprogramming the scanner, to send the hash code directly to the
JOOMLA MySQL database, turned out to be a complicated task. A workaround was
made by executing a command file that included a path to a Hotkey file. A hotkey file
records screen actions which can then be executed by the RFID tag.
Figure 30 Touchatag configuration window
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Figure 31 Overview of the login system
The user interface was also made simple. The craftsmen need to have quick access to
relevant information and they have to be able to do so, with just a few clicks. The user
interface, as seen on Figure 32, has only four buttons, Login/logout, drawings, time
schedule and descriptions. This makes it easy to navigate and the buttons are always
visible so the user can easily jump between functions.
8.5.3. Prototype evaluation
Being a web-based prototype gave it flexible evaluation opportunity. An expert
evaluation method was used to evaluate the prototype. Five users were registered on
the system. These were expert users with good IT skills. Two had craftsman
background. Users gave good feedback for the usability and were overall positive
towards the design. One user tested the system on an iPad. That test was not on the
schedule but it gave the system a new dimension in usability.
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Figure 32 Screen shot of a web based prototype
8.6. Functional prototype
An Innovation network supported by Aalborg University, hosted a kick-start weekend
for students in week 44, with 70 participants pitching 28 innovative ideas. Out of
these, 10 were chosen by the participants to be developed further over the weekend.
The idea of an on-site digital information system caught the eyes of the participants
and it was one of the chosen ideas. The owners of the ideas then put together a team
that they wanted to help develop the idea. The author gathered three programmers,
one graphic designer, a global business engineer and a technical integrator (a diary
from the weekend is included in appendix 2).
The website prototype was used to introduce the idea to the team, along with the user
environment design (see fig. 27). The power Point prototype was also used to show
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what the idea first looked like and to demonstrate that the early prototypes were too
complex.
It was agreed to design the user interface in C SHARP (C#). C# is an Object Oriented
Programming language (OOP). For storing data a MySQL database server was
developed. The author sketched an E-R diagram to give the developers a rough idea of
what the structure of the database should look like. The final structure can be seen on
Figure 33.
Figure 33 Database diagram
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8.6.1. The User Interface design
The interface needed to be as user-friendly as possible, with simple layout, few
buttons and not too crowded with information. The main focus was on the first screen
after the user logs on to the system. The user should be able to see all his current tasks
and links to relevant information, without navigating to a different screen. However, in
the case of missing information he can browse through information with the buttons
on the right site of the screen. A logout button is placed on the four main windows to
make it easy for the user to logout. It is important for users to logout so the next user
doesn’t use prior users account. The system has to recognize the users to be able to
send out notification to the right users.
1.
The login is made easy with an RFID scanner. Each craftsman is equipped with an
ID card. So with one sweep he can access the system without striking any key.
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2.
In the case of a forgotten ID card, the craftsman has the opportunity to login
manually.
3.
With manual login this dialog pops up. The craftsman enters his user name and
password.
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4.
To make the interface simple and easy to navigate, all information relevant to the
user appears on the first screen after logging in i.e. tasks that the Project manager
assigns to him and links to relevant information such as drawings and descriptions.
With this function the user does not have to search for drawings self. If he needs
additional information he has the possibility to use the buttons on the right side of
the screen.
5.
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When the drawing button is used this window appears. Here the user can select a
drawing, which he can either view or print. He is also able to search for drawings
by name, number, description or date.
6.
The view dialog window. The user can move, scroll or zoom with two fingers.
8.6.2. Prototype evaluation
A usability test method was used for testing the prototype. The author invited four
craftsmen to test the system in a controlled environment. The test persons were first
introduced to the project. Then a short semi-structured pre-interview was conducted
(see appendix 3), to evaluate their level of IT skills and their first impression of the
system. To test the usability each user was given two tasks. The first task was to login
with the ID card and print a specific drawing and logout. The second task was to search
for a specific drawing and then print it and finally logout. The test persons had never
seen the box or tested the system before the actual test day. The author did not give
any introduction on how to operate the system. The idea was to check whether the
system was so user-friendly that users could intuitively use it without an introduction.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Prototypes 81
Table 5 Results from the usability test
Participant
Time to
complete
Task 1, in
seconds Completion
Time to
complete
Task2, in
seconds Completion
A 44 Successful 62 Successful
B 81 Successful 80 Successful
C 48 Successful 65 Successful
D 60 Successful 70 Successful
E 52 Successful 80 Successful
F 63 Successful 64 Successful
Average 58 Seconds 70 Seconds
The usability test was a great success. All testers finished both their tasks. The average
time to complete task 1 was 58 seconds and the average time for task 2 was 70
seconds.
As part of a survey made by Danish Construction Industry (Dansk Byggeri) a workshop
was held. Some of the participants believed ICT systems are time-consuming and hard
to operate (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010). The definition of time- consuming is, “using or
taking up a great deal of time." The authors opinion is that a system with the average
of 70 seconds to get the information needed could hardly be called time-consuming.
During this test the tester reported that the system was very easy to operate and gave
positive feedback for the simple user interface. Even if task 2 was more difficult, the
testers thought it was much easier, because performing task 1 was enough to get a
good overall knowledge of the system. The prototype testers had IT skills from low to
super users. With the IT skill range from low to super users the author is quite
convinced that this system could be used by craftsmen on the construction site. A
detailed report can be seen in appendix 3.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Implementation 83
9 Implementation
This chapter describes what organizational changes take place when implementing
new ICT systems and analyzes what implementation methods could be used to make
the transition as smooth as possible. Kotter’s 8-step change model is used to analyze
the changes that occur when implementing an ICT system.
9.1. Implementation of an ICT system in a construction company
It is a complex procedure to implement new ICT system in companies and many things
to keep in mind. The objective is to analyze the changes that arise, both internal and
external, when implementing an ICT system that all actors, no matter their trade, can
access to and retrieve information.
Figure 34 shows Kotter's 8-step model. The model describes the phases that the
implementation must include, to ensure minimal resistance towards the new system.
Kotter's model can be used for both small and large organizations. Kotter emphasizes
that each step has to be finished before moving on to the next step. Small wins are
crucial to keep the implementation team motivated. Kotter´s model has proven to be
effective and is being used for many implementation projects.
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84 Implementation | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 34 Kotter's 8-step change (Kotter, 1995).
When creating urgency it is important to look both internally
and externally. Both the Porters 5 forces and the Leavitt
model are good tools for creating an overview of internal and
external environment. The Leavitt model suits better for this project.
It is important that the whole company is aware of the changes and to have the
support from the managers. A big motivation for changes is the new legislation acts,
described in chapter 3. It is not all about showing bad numbers and productivity,
although it could be a motivation to show the profit of increased productivity. It could
also be a concurrence parameter to introduce the company as a fully digital company
all the way to the craftsmen. An open and honest discussion is important. A good tool
to get a free flow in discussion is to make a group, for example, on Facebook. That way
is it possible to reach to all parties involved in the project, both internal and external
users. People that do not feel comfortable by expressing themselves on big meetings
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Implementation 85
can write comments and questions in the safety of their home. Kotter states that it is
important to spend good time in establishing urgency before moving on to the next
step.
The Leavitt Diamond can give the senior managers an overview of what effect the
changes could have on the organization. The Leavitt Diamond is made of five elements
(Figure 35). The idea of the diamond is that, a change made to one element, affects
the whole organization. Like in this case, when applying a new technology, the other
three are affected. Employees need to learn how to use the system and in some cases
change their daily routines. The task element is affected in the way that the
organization can tender for different projects. The organization could be affected in
more drastic ways. People could be moved up or down the hierarchy depending on
what work processes are changed. This could potentially lead to resistance on the
manager’s side.
Figure 35 Leavitt’s diamond, used to analyze effect changes have on the
organization, authors view.
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86 Implementation | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 36 The change competence/commitment matrix, authors
view (Cadle & Yeates, 2004).
To start with, find few but motivated people to form
a change team. It is important to have a Senior
Manager on board. They form the core of the team.
A good idea is to get a representative from key customers and/or a member from the
local authorities to join the team. This could be fruitful in the case of implementing an
ICT system to fulfill the new public client legislation act.
The team should have a good mix of managers and members lower in the hierarchy.
The team should work together without thinking of hierarchy. This could be hard for
the managers but it is necessary to get the most out of the team. A good idea would be
to have a team building workshop outside the office.
It is important to choose members with care when forming a change team. Figure 36
shows four types of people. The company wants to choose the people with the highest
competences and commitment
(blue area). Those people can then
motivate and teach the people that
are less compatible and committed
(red area).
The survey made for this thesis
shows that there is a link between
age and IT skills. The older
craftsmen are not as keen to use new ICT systems as the younger generation
(Sørensen et al., 2007). It would be a good idea to have some of the younger
carpenters on the team and introduce them to system. They could teach and motivate
the craftsmen that are unable or unwilling to use the system.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Implementation 87
Make a vision statement that motivates the
employees to give the team the enthusiasm these
kinds of changes need, in order to be successful. It is
important to constantly promote the vision, in a way so no team member will forget
why the changes are being made.
An Example of a mission and vision statement:
• Mission
o To be the most productive construction company in the building
industry.
• Vision
o We make sure that our clients get the best quality construction and on
time.
Make sure that the values for the change are clear. That will motivate both senior
managers and other employees. Before the team can move on to the next step, this
rule of thumb is useful to think about.
“If you can’t communicate the vision to someone in five minutes or less and get
a reaction that signifies both understanding and interest, you are not yet done
with this phase of the transformation process (Kotter, 1995).”
Some short-term sacrifices are inevitable during the
transformation. Sacrifices that could be in the form
of moving employees up or down the hierarchy or
changes in the employee’s daily routine. It can be hard to communicate the vision if
the employees are afraid of losing their jobs. This could increase resistance to the
transformation. It is important for the executives to use all means of communication
channels to broadcast their vision and be ready to get negative and positive feedback.
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88 Implementation | Haraldur Arnorsson
The executive could use social media platforms or team building workshops to reach
out to the employees.
It can be hard to get rid of obstacles, especially if the
obstacles are people. It is crucial that people are treated in a
fair manner. It could be hard to get rid of all obstacles so it is
necessary to evaluate what are the big obstacles and get rid of them. Managers are
often an obstacle. They are afraid that changes do not produce the same profit and
could try to slow down the change or terminate it completely.
M. Lynne Markus writes about three theories of resistance:
• People Determined
• System-Determined
• Interaction Theory
People Determined is when people show resistance to technology
System Determined is when the new technology is not user-friendly which leads to
people showing resistance.
Interaction theory is when people show resistance to the new technology. Markus
emphasizes that it is not a combination of the two earlier mentioned, but rather when
resistance comes due to shifting of power within the company (Markus, 1983).
After interviewing a project manager from a medium sized contractor it was clear, that
he was an obstacle for implementing an ICT system that craftsmen could have access
to, and would improve productivity on the construction site. He considered it his job to
receive new information on email, print and file them. Possibly this resistance rose
from a fear of losing his importance and power.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Implementation 89
Short term wins are important to keep the momentum
in the team. Most people want recognition for their
work. There are no short-term wins then there is risk of
the team members joining the resistance.
In the case of implementation of an ICT system on the construction site, it could be
considered a short-term win, when all craftsmen have learned and started to use the
system.
It can be fatal to celebrate to soon. Changes take time and
it could take years for changes to sink in and become an
established part of the daily routine. It is often a
combination of change initiators and change resistors that create the premature
victory celebration (Kotter, 1995).
After implementation is it important not to dissolve the change team. Over time there
are always some new demands that arise and new changes to tackle.
The construction site is still a low tech environment. (Azimi, Lee, AbouRizk, & Alvanchi,
2011). Therefore, it is crucial to have a good service contract with the system
developers.
Successful transformation is when a
change becomes a norm. That is, it is
part of the job or just like turning on
the computer. But it is necessary to constantly show people how the new change has
improved the work process. When people are on their own they tend to use the
systems as they think is best, working around how the systems are intended to be
used. This behavior has to be confronted and a solution to the problem implemented.
Another risk is when the people that led the transformation quit and there is no one
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90 Implementation | Haraldur Arnorsson
left to talk in favor of the changes made. In some cases companies think that changes
cannot be undone. That is not the case. It takes just one skeptic manager to rewind the
company to the old ways of doing things.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Discussion 91
10 Discussion
This chapter sums up the main inspiration for completing this thesis, the results
obtained from the need's analysis, the problem statement and the proposed solution
in order to improve access to digital information for craftsmen on a construction site.
The motivation for making this project, is the authors own experience from
construction sites, combined with the fact that the ICT development in the
construction industry is trailing other industries (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010). To support
this, a survey and interview with experts in the building industry was conducted and
the results from the need analyses in chapter 5 show clearly that there is a need for
on-site ICT systems.
Analyzing the building industry as a whole, showed that the construction industry is
slowly adapting to the digital age (Byggeri & Newinsight, 2011). The majority of actors
in the industry are using one or more ICT tools to organize their activities (Jakobsen &
Øbro, 2010). The problem is that when contractors receive digital information they do
not pass them on to the construction site in digital format. Instead they print the
information which makes it difficult for the construction management to have a
complete overview of the newest information. Currently, the effort of implementing
ICT tools on-site, are mainly targeted the administration level, and not the craftsmen.
According to the results of the authors survey and a survey made for the Danish
Construction, Project managers and craftsmen’s did not agree on whether ICT should
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
92 Discussion | Haraldur Arnorsson
be accessible for the craftsmen on-site. The survey results presented in 5.2, show that
73% of the responders would be willing to use an ICT system if it was available but in
the other survey only 1 of 110 managers that answered, said that the craftsmen should
have access to ICT. This could be one of many reasons why the ICT development is
trailing other industries.
Architects and engineers are in most cases using CAD tools and project web systems to
organize their information. Clients and suppliers are slowly seeing the advantages of
ICT. The contractors are, on the one hand using ICT for take offs and tendering, but on
the other hand sending the received digital information to the building site. Instead
they in most cases print the information and send the paper-based information to the
construction site (Figure 37).
One very important function was left out due to lack of time. This function is the
feedback option, where craftsmen can write comments about how the work was
performed and if there were any complications. This function could give the client and
the operation and maintenance viable information about how the building was
constructed. Doing this from day one gives a much accurate “as build” model instead
of throwing some useless documents into a folder after the building has been handed
over to the client.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Discussion 93
Figure 37 the author’s opinion on the ICT development in the construction industry.
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94 Discussion | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Conclusion 95
11 Conclusion
Although new client demands put forth by The Ministry of Economic and Business
Affairs only apply to government-supported construction, it was concluded that
private clients are also starting to demand digital work. That should motivate actors in
the construction industry, to increase the use of innovative ICT systems on the
construction site.
The results of the needs analyses (chapter 5), reveal that craftsmen are willing to use
ICT systems on the construction site, and consider them an asset. When comparing
these results with a survey made for DB, it became apparent that craftsmen and
managers have opposing views when it comes to the matter of on-site access to digital
information. The majority of managers think ICT systems are too time-consuming and
do wish to incorporate their use more on-site for craftsmen.
These contradicting views were the main motivation for designing an ICT system that
could benefit both managers and craftsmen.
A stationary ICT system was chosen due to the difficulty for the craftsmen to operate
mobile devices in the harsh environment as a construction site can be. This also
provided the opportunity to develop a user-friendly ICT system that craftsmen and
managers, with different IT skills can use.
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96 Conclusion | Haraldur Arnorsson
It was recognized that doing a paper-based prototype was very helpful, due to the
short time it takes to sketch up a prototype in accordance to needs. It was concluded
that a paper-based prototype was not the easiest to test with users. Therefore a semi-
functional prototype was made with the application, Power Point, to be able to test
and get feedback for further development. The power point prototype was used to
introduce both the idea and the main functions.
Although the PowerPoint prototype turned out to be too complex, it gave valuable
input for further development.
Two functional prototypes were made, a web-based and a desktop application. It was
concluded that the web-based prototype was quite easy to make and rather easy to
add functions to. However, when it came to making more specialized functions (not
downloadable from the CMS website), it was harder and required writing complex
programming code, which was impossible to do in such a short time. The desktop
application was developed with the help of three IT students. This prototype was
tested, focusing on the user interface (how easy it was for the user to intuitively
navigate the system), and the test persons overall impression, regarding system use
and potential. Test persons gave valuable feed-back which was used to better the
system further.
As seen on the redesigned flow model in 7.2.1 the project manager does not longer
have to receive emails with information and print them for reviewing. As the system is
connected to a project web server, he can review them on the screen and when
approved they are automatically available on the ICT system to other actors in the
project. He can also assign tasks to craftsmen and supply a link to the relevant
information. The craftsmen then get a notification via SMS that there is a task waiting
for him on the ICT system or changes have been made to the information he is using.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Conclusion 97
The results from the usability test showed that it only took testers an average of 70
seconds to find and print a selected drawing without receiving introduction to the
system before performing the test. The reason for managers thinking that ICT systems
are time consuming is probably because of their lack of IT skills or bad experience
operating an ICT system on the construction site.
After redesigning the work process, some opportunities were recognized to increase
productivity. If both the manager and the craftsmen receive information about
changes as soon as they are made, the manager can assign new tasks to the craftsmen
while the updated information is being processed. That way, the manager can manage
his resources better and fewer mistakes are made.
This thesis concludes that the building industry can be a conservative environment, in
which it is hard to show the managers the true value of ICT on the construction site.
However, with a user-friendly ICT system and a good implementation strategy, the
barriers between the designers and the construction site are minimized and increased
productivity is achieved.
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
98 Conclusion | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Conclusion 99
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OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Conclusion 103
Table of figures
Figure 1 Illustration of the thesis structure ...................................................................... ix
Figure 2 Labor productivity index for U.S. ...................................................................... 15
Figure 3 Illustration of how contractor turns his low bid into big profit. ...................... 17
Figure 4 Flow model ....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 5 Sequence model ............................................................................................... 28
Figure 6 Artifact model ................................................................................................... 29
Figure 7 Physical model .................................................................................................. 30
Figure 8: Bar chart showing the age distribution of survey respondents ...................... 35
Figure 9 Bar chart of how the responders are distributed by trade .............................. 36
Figure 10: Bar chart showing distribution of self-described IT skills .............................. 37
Figure 11: Age groups plotted against the level of IT skills. ........................................... 38
Figure 12: Digital information available on construction sites. ..................................... 39
Figure 13 Bar chart showing what type of mobile phone craftsmen own ..................... 40
Figure 14 % of the population owning a mobile phone [modified from www.dst.dk] .. 40
Figure 15: How many craftsmen have used mobile applications on-site. ..................... 41
Figure 16: How many percent of survey respondents have used an project web . ....... 42
Figure 17: Ways that craftsmen check that they have updated information. ............... 43
Figure 18: Pie chart are craftsmen willing to use an on-site IT-system. ........................ 44
Figure 19 Redesigned Flow model . ................................................................................ 51
Figure 20 Redesigned sequence model .......................................................................... 53
Figure 21 Redesigned artifact model. The dotted lines show what has been added. ... 54
Figure 22 Redesigned physical model ............................................................................ 55
Figure 23 first sketch of the box and accessories. .......................................................... 61
Figure 24 Explanation how the user environment model is built up. ............................ 62
Figure 25 User Environment Model (UED) of the semi functional prototype ............... 61
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104 Conclusion | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 26 Rich picture of the construction site with the system implemented ............. 69
Figure 27 User Environment Model of the final prototype ............................................ 71
Figure 28 Physical prototype .......................................................................................... 72
Figure 29 Touchatag RFID scanner. ................................................................................ 73
Figure 30 Touchatag configuration window ................................................................... 73
Figure 31 Overview of the login system ......................................................................... 74
Figure 32 Screen shot of a web based prototype .......................................................... 75
Figure 33 Database diagram ........................................................................................... 76
Figure 34 Kotter's 8-step change (Kotter, 1995). ........................................................... 84
Figure 35 Leavitt’s diamond ........................................................................................... 85
Figure 36 The change competence/commitment matrix, authors view........................ 86
Figure 37 the author’s opinion on the ICT development in the construction industry. 93
Figure 38 Finished physical prototype ......................................................................... 111
Figure 39 the author introducing the overall functions of the system ........................ 112
Figure 40 Business Model Canvas for the CIMBOX ...................................................... 113
Figure 41 Author, Kenneth, Michael, Morten, Jakob and Natasha .............................. 114
Figure 42 Picture from our presentation. ..................................................................... 114
Table 1 Study by the Danish Construction Institution (Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen) ... 18
Table 2 %-share of all tumbling stone in the case study(Richter & Koch, 2004) ........... 19
Table 3 Early paper mockup of an ICT system for the construction industry ................ 60
Table 4 Description prototype of functions ................................................................... 63
Table 5 Results from the usability test ........................................................................... 81
Table 6 Overview of web and mobile applications in use on the construction site. ... 118
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 105
Appendixes
Appendix 1: Internet survey
Appendix 2: Diary from Kick-start weekend
Appendix 3: Usability testing
Appendix 4: Overview of web and mobile applications
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106 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Appendix 1
Quantitative survey
Din alder?
It is important to know the age range to be able to know if there is a connection with
IT usage and age.
Hvad er dit fagområde?
Some of the craftsmen tend to be more IT orienteered than others. It is there for
interesting to know if there IT usage can be linked with trade
Hvordan vil du beskrive dine IT komptencer? - Mine IT kompetenser
er...(...non,...low...average,...high,...super user)
This is a key question in the survey. It is crucial for the author to know, what is the IT
knowledge to be able to focus on the right places when designing the box.
Har du adgang til digitalt projektmateriale på byggepladsen? - Tegninger,
beskrivelser m.v.
The author was interested I knowing if the access to digital material was a common
thing on-site
Hvilken slags mobiltelefon har du?
This question is twofold one was to know if the authors idea of sms message when
changes are made. The other reason was to investigate how much craftsmen could be
ready to use smartphones.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 107
Har du anvendt mobilapplikationer på byggepladsen? - Med mobilapplikationer menes
programmer til mobiltelefonen, hvor du f.eks. kan lave kvalitetssikring eller udfylde
timesedler.
The author did some research of what kind of mobile applications are available today
therefor was he interested in knowing if craftsmen are using some of them.
Har du brugt projektweb på byggepladsen?
This is another key question. Mainly to investigate how many are using a project web
system. This was also to give the author little inspiration to try to improve the usage of
a project web systems.
Hvordan ved du, at du har de nyeste informationer i hånden, når du skal udføre en
opgave?
This question was asked to get overview of methods used to communicate if there are
changes made to the information. Also to see what is the ambition to know that the
craftsmen are actually using the newest information.
Hvis et IT-system var tilgængeligt på byggepladsen, ville du så bruge det? - Et
stationært IT-system med touch skærm og A3 printer, som kunne sikre, at du altid
har de nyeste opdaterede informationer i hånden.
This question is twofold. One thing was to find out if the construction site could fulfill
the new legislation. Second was to prove for the author that his idea for a information
management system could work and be used on the construction site.
Tror du, at IT kan være med til at øge produktiviteten på byggepladsen?
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
108 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
This question was to get the craftsmen opinion of the usage of IT and if they thought it
could improve the productivity. They had also a text filed were they could express
freely why they thought it would improve the productivity.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 109
Appendix 2
Diary from Kick-start weekend
AAU has a great network for entrepreneurs. One of them is Kickstart. Kickstart is for
students who have an idea but don't know how to go further with it. That is exactly the
authors ease. To optimize the information flow on the Building site the author came up
with the idea of a stationary box. This box includes a computer, a printer and a touch
screen. As mentioned the range of IT Knowledge is big. And conditions are also very
different between building projects. Just to name one reason why a stationary system
would work better on the building site. Imagine a carpenter standing on a scaffolding,
in high winter when it is snowing and ÷ degrees outside. Could he have an iPad
hanging in his belt or even could he operate a smartphone in these conditions? I think
the answer to this question is pretty clear.
The Kickstart weekend started 17.00 on a Friday with networking and then 19:00
people with pitched their ideas. One minute was given to each pitch. In all 28 ideas
were pitched. Afterwards the students attending this Kickstart weekend choose their
favorite. Top ten ideas were found and their leader tried to sell the ideas to the people
he needed to work on his idea. The author’s idea was one of those ten lucky ideas and
the author was able to gather a fantastic team. The team was build up with 3 software
developers, a graphic designer, a global business engineer and a technical Integrator.
The authors roll was then to lead this group. This scenario was exactly like it would be
out in the real world. The courses CSTBI have been taking had been a tremendous
help. Courses like "ICT knowledge", Contextual Design, strategy, project management,
and Implementing IT in organizations, just to mention a few. Of 70 participants the
only one with a construction background was the author himself. This made it even
more challenging. To gather data to see what functions should be included a
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
110 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Contextual Design methodology was used and Universal Design method to design the
interface. At first the author had the role of a craftsman because of his prior
experience from the construction site. The team had a session of open interview to the
author which became more of an discussion of the building industry in Denmark and
how an information management system could help the construction industry. The
rest of the team was quite
interested in hearing about
the construction industry.
They had never imagined
that it was in the position as
it is today. The team had
only this weekend to finish a
working prototype and to
present it for 5 minutes on Sunday night. Saturday morning brought the box with him
that had been mounted with a touchscreen. The author had also found a name for the
box. It got the name Cimbox, which stands for Construction Information Management
Box. A website was developed to introduce the cimbox to the world the link is
www.cimbox.com .
The 3 software
developers are
currently on their 3rd
semester in computer
science study. C# was
chosen as a platform
for the box. The reason
for choosing C# was
very simple. The software developers had the most experience in that programming
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 111
language. Some other platforms were discussed. Like Java and a web based system. SD
started by receiving a simple sketch of how the database should look like which can be
seen on figure x. It was obvious that they had done their homework. It took them
under an hour to make a database ready with some additional tables and connections.
The author could see that what he had been studying in the course “ICT and
Knowledge Representations” was of great help. Not only too understand what the
developers were doing but also to get a better overview of the software development
and to be able to manage the resources in the whole team.
The moment of truth was Sunday night. A 5 minute
presentation was prepared. I got help from one team
member to make a little play. He got the roll of a engineer
implementing the ICT system on my construction site. That
way we could introduce the system and have some humor
along the way. Needless to say we got a lot of laughter but
the crowd thought it did not lose the professionalism so the
presentation was a success although it did not get us the
first prize.
It was priceless for me to get a glimpse into to the business
side of making a system like this. A business model canvas was made that can be seen
on the next page.
Figure 38 Finished physical
prototype
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
112 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 39 the author introducing the overall functions of the system
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 113
Figure 40 Business Model Canvas for the CIMBOX
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
114 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 41 the team that I managed to gather. f.l. Me, Kenneth, Michael, Morten, Jakob and Natasha
Figure 42 Picture from our presentation.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 115
Appendix 3
Pre-interview for prototype testing
Tester: _____
Tester age
? 16-25
? 26-35
? 36-45
? 46-55
? 56-65
? over 66
The age range of the testers was
from 16-45.
How would you describe your IT knowledge?
? None
? Low
? Medium
? High
? Super user
The IT skills
1 Low
1 Medium
1 High
2 Super users
What is your trade?
Four of the testers had experience from the construction industry. The one that didn’t
is studying to become a teacher.
What is your first impression of the box?
After a short introduction the author asked what the first impression of the system
was. All the participants thought it was very professional. One tester asked where the
laminating machine was. That is a good idea to have such a machine bud it is not
relevant to the system itself.
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
116 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Task to perform
Task 1:
1. Login with the ID card
2. View drawing number 0003/Floor plan
3. print the drawing
4. Logout
Task 2:
1. Login with the ID card
2. Search for drawing that has the name "Floor and Ceiling plan"
3. View the drawing and then print it
4. Logout
Participant
Time to
complete
Task 1, in
seconds Completion
Time to
complete
Task2, in
seconds Completion
A 44 Successful 62 Successful
B 81 Successful 80 Successful
C 48 Successful 65 Successful
D 60 Successful 70 Successful
E 52 Successful 80 Successful
F 63 Successful 64 Successful
Average 58 Seconds 70 Seconds
There were no errors that were registered during the actual test. The only downside to
the test was the slow response from the Touchatag RFID server. This problem could be
solved with a RFID system that connects direct to the same database as the system is
running on, rather of having to connect to an internet server.
Did you find the ICT system easy to operate?
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 117
Wrap-up interview after prototype testing
Appendix 4
In Table 6 is a list over popular ERP integration applications that are being used in the
construction industry.
The general opinion was that the system is easy to operate. No tester had problems to
navigate to the right place. The buttons were easy to read. The only problem was with
the RFID login due to slow connection to the internet server that hosts the
usernames.
Is there something that you think is missing?
One participant mentioned that it could be good to have icons on the buttons. The
author agreed to that point. He had that also in mind when the interface was
designed. But time and resources did not make it possible to implement. But that will
be done in the final release.
If a system like this box was on the construction site, would you use it?
Participants could easily see this kind of system on the construction site. Participant C
is an electrician; he said it would be fantastic to have the newest information in one
system that would also notify of changes.
What actor in the building industry, do you think would benefit the most from such
a system?
All participants were unanimous that all actors in the construction industry could
benefit from such a system. One mentioned that maybe the client could gain the
most from it. Because of the it would minimize errors and therefor increase
productivity
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
118 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Table 6 Overview of web and mobile applications in use on the construction site (bips, 2011).
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The above table is taken from bips U102, Overview of mobile for contractors. The table
has been modified so it fits the purpose of this thesis. Only solutions that can integrate
with ERP system as shown.
doc_924053317.pdf
Productivity in the construction industry is trailing other industries. Architects and engineers are slowly adapting to a more digital way of working. Contractors are, on the other hand, not following this development, although they can see the advantage in using digital information for take-off and tendering. Information on the construction site is mostly paper-based.
Author
Haraldur Arnorsson
Faculty of Engineering and Science
Aalborg University
2012
ii
©2012
Haraldur Arnorsson
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction iii
Aalborg University
Master’s Thesis from the faculty of Engineering and Science, Aalborg University
January 2012
Title:
Optimizing the Information Flow on the Construction Site
The thesis is prepared by:
Haraldur Arnorsson
Supervisor:
Kjeld Svidt Associate Professor
Main report pages: 101
Appendix pages: 13
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
iv Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction v
Abstract
Productivity in the construction industry is trailing other industries. Architects and
engineers are slowly adapting to a more digital way of working. Contractors are, on the
other hand, not following this development, although they can see the advantage in
using digital information for take-off and tendering. Information on the construction
site is mostly paper-based.
The slow implementation of innovative ICT plays a big part in the low productivity
faced by the construction industry. The construction industry is a conservative industry
and lacks transparency. Managers are reluctant to grant craftsmen access to ICT
systems on the construction site.
This thesis addresses these problems, through analysis of the craftsmen’s needs,
interviews with a project manager and reviews of a survey done for The Danish
Construction Association, 2010 (Dansk Byggeri, DB).
To try to solve this problem, the author designed a prototype of a system that can
benefit both managers and craftsmen. Three prototypes were made before the final
prototype. The thesis also includes a physical prototype of a box that protects the
hardware running the software prototype.
The usability tests were successful and showed that this kind of ICT system could
benefit both managers and craftsmen. The managers can reduce the time of organizing
information, and the craftsmen can be sure that they are executing the work in
accordance with the latest information.
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
vi Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction vii
Preface
This thesis is the result of a final project of the Cand.Scient.Techn study in Building
Informatics, Aalborg University, conducted during the period of September 1, 2011 to
January 13, 2012.
The project illustrates how ICT systems can benefit managers and craftsmen on the
construction site, and its potential to increase productivity in the Danish construction
industry.
The thesis addresses the problem of decreased productivity for the last four decades.
Data acquisition included interviewing a project manager on a large construction site
and conducting an internet survey aimed at the craftsmen of all trades. The gathered
data was then used for developing a software prototype, including a physical
infrastructure.
I want to thank my supervisor Kjeld Svidt, Associate Professor at Aalborg University, for
his invaluable support and Lasse Brauner Mikkelsen at the AAU workshop for his
contribution in making the physical prototype. I am also grateful for all the help
received from the people that tested the system and gave constructive feedback to the
project. I would also like to thank Lilja Run Bjarnadottir for her contribution proof-
reading this thesis. Finally, I want to thank my family for their support and
understanding, when working long hours, throughout the writing of this thesis.
_____________________________
Haraldur Arnorsson
Aalborg University
January 2012
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
viii Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
Thesis Structure
Chapter 1 introduces an overall view of this thesis, the problem, the purpose and
objectives of the work. Further, the main research questions are presented in this
chapter.
Chapter 2 describes what methodology will be used to write this thesis and finally, a
discussion of the chosen method.
Chapter 3 provides a theoretical view on the topics studied. It presents a literature
review of productivity in the construction industry, along with the new public client
demands. Finally, it describes what kind of ICT system is being used on the
construction site in Denmark present day.
Chapter 4 describes the field study interview and how the work models were
completed.
Chapter 5 this chapter describes the results from an internet survey targeting the
craftsmen. The chapter ends by giving an overview of the needs.
Chapter 6 summarizes the problem and the needs in a problem statement and finally,
a short description is given of what method is used to solve the problem statement.
Chapter 7 this chapter describes how the work models are redesigned with an ICT
system on the construction site.
Chapter 8 describes the ICT and physical prototype that were developed to help solve
the problem stated in chapter 6.
Chapter 9 is a short implementation proposal.
Chapter 10 is a discussion of motivation of implementing ICT systems on the
construction site and future research.
Chapter 11 describes a solution to the problem statement in chapter 6.
An illustration of the thesis structure can be seen on Figure 1.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction ix
Figure 1 Illustration of the thesis structure
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
x Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction xi
Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.2. THE NEED FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ....................................................... 2
1.3. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF MASTER THESIS .................................................................. 2
2 METHOD .................................................................................................................. 5
2.1. CONTEXTUAL DESIGN ................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1. CONTEXTUAL INQUIRY (CI) ............................................................................................ 6
2.1.2. WORK MODELS............................................................................................................ 7
2.1.3. CONSOLIDATION .......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.4. STORYBOARDING ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.5. USER ENVIRONMENT DESIGN ......................................................................................... 9
2.2. PROTOTYPE ........................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1. PROTOTYPE TESTING METHOD ...................................................................................... 10
2.3. UNIVERSAL DESIGN ................................................................................................. 10
2.4. METHOD CHOSEN ................................................................................................... 11
2.4.1. OPTIMIZATION .......................................................................................................... 11
3 PRODUCTIVITY ....................................................................................................... 13
3.1. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY......................................................................................... 13
3.2. PRODUCTIVITY ....................................................................................................... 14
3.3. DEFINITION OF FAILURE ............................................................................................ 15
3.4. ORIGIN OF MISTAKES ............................................................................................... 17
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
xii Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
3.5. COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................... 18
3.6. DIGITAL CONSTRUCTION (DET DIGITALE BYGGERI) .......................................................... 19
3.7. ICT ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE ................................................................................. 22
3.7.1. MOBILE AND WEB SERVICES ......................................................................................... 22
3.7.2. PROJECT WEB SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 23
4 FIELD STUDY .......................................................................................................... 25
4.1. THE FIELD .............................................................................................................. 25
4.2. WORK MODELS ...................................................................................................... 26
4.2.1. FLOW MODEL ............................................................................................................ 26
4.2.2. SEQUENCE MODEL ...................................................................................................... 27
4.2.3. ARTIFACT MODEL ....................................................................................................... 29
4.2.4. PHYSICAL MODEL ....................................................................................................... 29
4.3. MODEL CONSOLIDATION .......................................................................................... 30
5 NEEDS .................................................................................................................... 33
5.1. QUANTITATIVE SURVEY ............................................................................................ 33
5.2. QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 35
5.3. SUMMARIZE NEEDS ................................................................................................. 45
6 PROBLEM STATEMENT .......................................................................................... 47
7 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ................................................................. 49
7.1. NEW PROCESS ........................................................................................................ 49
7.2. REDESIGNED WORK MODELS ...................................................................................... 50
7.2.1. REDESIGNED FLOW MODEL .......................................................................................... 50
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction xiii
7.2.2. REDESIGNED SEQUENCE MODEL .................................................................................... 52
7.2.3. REDESIGNED ARTIFACT MODEL ..................................................................................... 54
7.2.4. REDESIGNED PHYSICAL MODEL ..................................................................................... 55
7.2.5. STORYBOARD ............................................................................................................ 56
8 PROTOTYPES ......................................................................................................... 59
8.1. PAPER-BASED PROTOTYPE ......................................................................................... 59
8.1.1. USER ENVIRONMENT MODEL ....................................................................................... 59
8.2. SEMI-FUNCTIONAL PROTOTYPE ................................................................................... 60
8.2.1. USER ENVIRONMENT DESIGN ....................................................................................... 61
8.2.2. PROTOTYPE EVALUATION ............................................................................................. 68
8.3. FUNCTIONAL PROTOTYPES ......................................................................................... 70
8.4. PHYSICAL PROTOTYPE .............................................................................................. 72
8.5. WEB-BASED PROTOTYPE ........................................................................................... 72
8.5.1. JOOMLA ................................................................................................................ 72
8.5.2. LOGIN ...................................................................................................................... 73
8.5.3. PROTOTYPE EVALUATION ............................................................................................. 74
8.6. FUNCTIONAL PROTOTYPE .......................................................................................... 75
8.6.1. THE USER INTERFACE DESIGN ....................................................................................... 77
8.6.2. PROTOTYPE EVALUATION ............................................................................................. 80
9 IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................. 83
9.1. IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ICT SYSTEM IN A CONSTRUCTION COMPANY .................................. 83
10 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 91
11 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 95
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
xiv Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
APPENDIXES ........................................................................................................... 105
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction 1
1 Introduction
This chapter starts with a short description of the problem that the construction site
faces today. Then a section describing the need for an information management
system follows. Finally, the purpose is described.
1.1. Problem description
Recent studies show that the Danish construction industry is slowly adapting to the
digital age, with architects and engineers meeting demands for new standards.
Contractors have realized the benefits of using digital information through-out the
whole design process, including take-off, tendering and planning (Byggeri &
Newinsight, 2011). Although the contractor receives the information in a digital
format, the construction site is where the use of digitalization declines dramatically
(ARUP, 2000), thus failing to recognize the potential of digital aids for improving
workflow efficiency. The construction site still receives information in a paper format.
Some contractors make the material accessible on-site in a digital format, but then the
workers have to have good IT skills to log onto a PC and to project web to access the
information needed (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010).
The construction industry is known to be an information-intense environment. During
the construction phase, a vast amount of revisions are made. It is the Project
manager’s job to organize the information that arrives on site. It can be difficult to
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
2 Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
keep track of this information. It often happens that workers are not notified or
accidentally use old drawings that lead to larger or smaller mistakes occur (Richter &
Koch, 2004).
1.2. The need for Information Management system
There is a need for improving the link between the construction site and designers,
and to improve communication between all actors on the construction site.
Information Management Systems (IMS) or Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is being
used on an administration level. A research done for The Danish Construction
Association (Dansk Byggeri (DB)), shows that 98% of contractors have some kind of
IMS, which is used daily. The research also shows that fewer than 5% of craftsmen
have access to IT on the building site (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010). These numbers indicate
that a there is missing link, in the digital information chain, from the contractor to the
craftsmen. An IMS, accessible to all actors on the building site could help with the
problem stated earlier. An information system would not only save money on printing
and organizing information, it would also reduce mistakes and the Request for
Information (RFI) during the construction phase. The managers on-site would spend
less time organizing information and change orders, and could instead concentrate on
administrating activities. The client would also benefit from increased productivity.
1.3. Purpose and objectives of master thesis
The aim of this thesis is to investigate if the use of an Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) system on the construction site would reduce errors in the
construction phase and increase productivity. Furthermore, to identify the main
benefits and barriers of implementing such an ICT system, to a market where the
range of users is from IT illiterate to super-users. As well, to explore how Danish
construction site managers handle information available on the construction site, and
what the procedure is when new information is delivered on-site. This thesis will also
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Introduction 3
cover what kind of ICT is presently being used, what level of IT-competence on-site
workers possess and what the best practice to implement such a system is, in order to
increase productivity in the construction industry.
The main objectives are:
• Make consequential improvements on the construction site, in particular,
concerning quality, information exchange and document accessibility.
• Achieve maximum efficiency in inter-operability between designers and the
construction site.
To gather data the author will use theoretical documents, a field studies and the
authors own experience from many years of working on construction sites.
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
4 Introduction | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 5
2 Method
This chapter describes what kind of methods suite this master thesis. The methods are
then described and finally a short discussion of why the method was chosen.
When choosing a method the author is obligated to think of what is the overall
function of the system and who the users are. In this case, the users have very
different IT competences. There are a few methods that could be used for designing a
user friendly ICT system. Examples of these are Contextual Design developed by
Beyer and Holtzblatt (1998) and Universal Design (L. Mace, 1998), which will be
described in section 2.1 and 2.2.
2.1. Contextual Design
Contextual Design (CD) gives the software designer great tools to map the needs of the
future users, hence meeting their expectations and preventing resistance to
implementation of an ICT system in the organization.
Like most projects, lack of time is a big issue. Therefore it is important to analyze what
is needed to get the most out of CD, thus limiting work hours needed for designing the
system. The first phase of CD is Contextual Inquiry (CI). During this phase, as much
information related to the project is gathered as needed. Interviews and observations
are the best tools to do this. Qualitative interviews are a good tool for gathering data.
Observation is an important part in this step. During observation, unforeseen problems
January 13, 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
6 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
could arise, which would not have been discovered with traditional interviews. A series
of work models are made from the gathered data. The models and the CI are then
used to do an affinity diagram. A storyboard sketch is made to visualize how the future
user would use the system. Finally, the structure of the system is developed and a
prototype is made and tested with users (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
2.1.1. Contextual Inquiry (CI)
Contextual inquiry is a method that aims to reveal how people actually perform their
activities. CI is performed by making interviews and observing people in their work
environment. It is important to get the users opinion and feedback on their work and
for the interviewer to get as much knowledge about the employees work processes as
possible (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
Interview and observation methods
The most common types of interviews are unstructured, semi-structured and
structured. For collecting data from workers on the construction site, a semi-
structured interview was chosen, to be able to get a free flow of data gathering. The
interviewee can express himself freely, but the interviewer has some guidelines and
has to be aware that the interviewee does not go off-course. The author made several
questions to help guide him during the interviews.
Quantitative survey
Although semi-structured interviews were chosen to gather data from the user, the
author was also interested in knowing what the general status in the construction
industry is, regarding the use of ICT and what the general IT competence on-site is. A
short internet survey was conducted in the later stage of the thesis writing. A link was
posted on BIMbyen.dk and sent to emails extracted from bygdenmark.dk. Together
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 7
with the field interviews, this data was analyzed to define the real needs for IT on the
construction site.
2.1.2. Work models
The gathered data is used to visualize how the user acts during a normal workday by
doing a series of models:
• Flow model showing communication and coordination between actors/roles.
• Physical model showing how the environment affects organizing activity.
• Sequence model that shows business and task processes.
• Artifact model showing things such as computers, time sheets or craftsmen
tools and how they are used.
Each work model represents a different aspect of the organization on the construction
site. A sketch of these models is used during the interviews to get input from the
interviewees to better the models. The models are later used to construct a single
coherent diagram called affinity diagram. By consolidating all gathered data, the risk of
designing from only one point of view, is prevented (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
Flow Model
The flow model illustrates what people have to do to get work done. The work is
divided between people to define their roles and to ensure that the whole work gets
done. Persons and groups are shown as bubbles with the role at the top. Underneath
the roles, their responsibilities are listed. The actual flow is noted with arrows (fig. 4).
The flow consists of a dialog or the passing of an artifact. Artifacts are shown as boxes
on arrows and the dialog is written directly on the arrow without a box surrounding it.
If there is a breakdown in the communication it is marked with a lightning bolt (Beyer
& Holtzblatt, 1998; K. Holtzblatt, Wendell, & Wood, 2005).
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8 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
The flow that the author will concentrate on explains how a project manager hands
out tasks to craftsmen and what the procedure is, when a change is made to the
information that craftsmen use on-site.
Sequence model
A sequence model (fig. 5) is used to map in what order users perform their work tasks,
and show their strategies intentions. In order to improve people's routines, it is
important that ICT systems build on this knowledge. By understanding the intentions
of the user, it is possible to redesign, modify and remove unnecessary steps from the
workflow. It is important to understand all the intentions in a workflow, and which
intentions must be preserved when making changes to the workflow. To collect the
sequences it is necessary to observe people as they work. The hardest part of
observing sequences is to know what to pay attention to. That is why, during the
observation, the subject must be encouraged to think aloud if the sequence is to be
deepened (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
Artifact Model
People use, make and modify things during their work. Those things are called
artifacts. They tell their own story about the work performed. All artifacts have a
structure, and this structure shows how work is organized (K. Holtzblatt et al., 2005).
Artifacts are tangible things that people do or use to help them get the job done.
Artifacts on the construction site could, for example, be a hammer, a drawing or a time
sheet, etc. (fig. 6).
The Physical Model
The work is conducted in physical environments that either support and facilitate the
work, or hinder the work from being performed. People reorganize their surroundings
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 9
for the work they perform (fig. 7). The construction industry is quite often affected by
the changes of physical environment. Every job site has a different setup.
The physical environment is the world they live in: the rooms, cars, buildings,
etc. It's about how they move around and work in these environments. Their
movements indicate their preferences and social needs (Beyer & Holtzblatt,
1998).
The thing to note is what is important for the overall design. What works well in the
current surroundings, and what does not work as well, or even does not work at all?
Designing a system for on-site information management could therefore be a difficult
task.
2.1.3. Consolidation
The gathered data is consolidated from the models, and the data from the interviews
is collected in the affinity diagram.
2.1.4. Storyboarding
Storyboarding is a set of cartoon-like sketches, used to capture how target personas or
users currently perform their tasks and how they interact with the new system.
Storyboarding is a good way to get an illustrated overview of the consolidated data.
Storyboards embody the system requirements and future scenarios (Beyer &
Holtzblatt, 1998).
2.1.5. User Environment Design
From the storyboard, a work-oriented model is created, which summarizes the new
work process and changed responsibilities. User Environment Design (UED) captures
what kind of structure fits the user’s tasks best. Design of a user environment can also
be used as a checklist of the functions that the system must incorporate.
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10 Method | Haraldur Arnorsson
2.2. Prototype
Prototype can be a paper mock-up or a software with some of the primary functions
working (K. Holtzblatt et al., 2005).
The prototype for this thesis consisted of a physical- and an application-prototype. The
author chose to use the paper-based prototype to begin with, while switching to a
software-prototype at a later stage. The prototype tested also included a box with a
computer, touch screen and printer.
2.2.1. Prototype testing method
Early prototypes were tested analytically. Expert evaluators reviewed the design and
give feedback on the design.
The final prototype was evaluated with a usability test method. Users tested the
prototype in a controlled environment (laboratory test). The prototype usability was
tested by handing out two different tasks that the users tried to complete, while being
observed by the author. The test-users were encouraged to use the think-aloud
method.
2.3. Universal Design
Universal Design (UD) is often used when architects design public buildings. They call it
“access to everyone", no matter their disability. UD is also used to design products,
such as IT systems. A good example of an ICT system is an Automatic Teller Machine
(ATM), which everyone must have equal access to, no matter their disabilities. The
author chose to investigate this method further because of the large range of IT
competences on construction sites. This method focuses on the design of the user
interface, and access to the physical prototype, in order to make the IMS as easy to use
as possible.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Method 11
2.4. Method chosen
CD and UD are both user centered design methods, and fit well to reach out to users
with different IT skills. Due to lack of time and resources, the author decided to use a
combination of CD and UD. CD was used for gathering user data, making work models
and consolidating the data. Meanwhile, the prototype was made using the UD
approach, in order to fit the many different levels of IT-skills on the construction site.
2.4.1. Optimization
Performing a full CD is very time- and resource consuming. However, the contextual
design may be tailored to the needs and resources of each project. This is done by
Rapid Contextual Design (RCD), which is based on a smaller number of tasks. This style
of CD was considered the best fit, for the limited time-frame and resources of this
thesis.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 13
3 Productivity
The aim of this chapter is to describe the challenges and opportunities that the
construction industry in Denmark is facing, obtained from a theoretical study.
3.1. Construction industry
The construction industry is an environment characterized by an overwhelming flow of
information, from design offices to construction sites. Because of the intensity and
variety of construction information, the efficiency of information management is
crucial to the construction industry and has been recognized as an important
competitive advantage by construction companies. Construction information
management has greatly benefited from the advances in Information, and
Communication Technology (ICT), and current ICT support has been extended to
construction site offices. However, construction projects typically take place on
construction sites, where employees encounter difficulties in gaining access to proper
computer systems. The arrival of Information Technology, such as mobile computing
and sensors, has great potential to enhance information management on construction
sites. Before implementating this new technology, it is necessary to investigate the
context in which construction personnel retrieve and transfer information on
construction sites (Chen, Kamara, Winterburn, & Mell, 2008). The construction sector
is known to be a one-of-a-kind production. Most projects have different partner
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14 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
setups, which can lead to disputes and mistrust. Clients tend to go for the lowest prize,
instead of going for the most economical prize (Bejder & Olsen, 2007).
3.2. Productivity
Productivity in the construction industry has not followed the development of
productivity in other industries. A study done by Paul Teicholz from CIFE (Center for
Integrated Facility Engineering), shows that productivity has doubled in the production
industry during a period of 40 years (fig. 2). In contrast, productivity in the
construction industry is 10% less than it was in 1964, but the quality is significantly
rising. Products have become more complex, but are produced with less cost. During
this period, manual labor has been replaced with automated equipment, and therefore
the quality is better but costs less. One reason for this difference between the
production and the building industries is the lack of automation in the construction
industry. The construction industry is not as willing to implement new innovative
technology, and thus use of ICT has not had as big an impact on the construction
industry as expected. The paper-based way of working is still the preferred way of
communicating information to the construction site (ARUP, 2000). The large variation
in worker's IT-skills may explain the slow implementation of digital communication.
Another reason is the fact that the experience from earlier projects is not being
documented and passed on to the next project. Experience from earlier projects can
easily be relevant, despite the differences between building projects, as the building
process is more or less the same.
Yet another reason is building failure. In Denmark, the failure in buildings is a major
problem with large economic consequences and productivity reduction. The costs are
not just the amount required to repair failures of the finished building, but also all
costs associated with the failure. The cost to rectify the building failures is an average
of 12 billion Danish Kroner pr. year, representing approximately 10% of the production
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 15
value. This expense post is enormous, and although it will never be possible to
completely avoid mistakes, it may be viewed as an opportunity for optimization, in
order to achieve substantial social savings (Byggeri & Newinsight, 2011).
3.3. Definition of failure
Failure is defined in many ways. The author will use The Danish Enterprise and
Construction Authority (Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen (EBST)) definition of failure:
The failure means that the project material, building materials, constructions or
building components in housing, lacks properties to agreements or
qualifications by government regulations or good building practice. Failures
include all such conditions regardless of their cause and regardless of when they
are discovered (Byggestyrelsen, 2004).
This means that failure is associated with both construction and agreements.
• Mistakes are used when the decisions and actions that lead to failure, are
associated with the building as actors.
Figure 2 Labor productivity index for U.S. construction industry and all non-farm industries (Source: Paul Teicholz,
founding director of the Center for Integrated Facility Engineering at Stanford University)
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16 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
• Deficiencies are failures for which there can be financial claims concerning the
deficiency.
• Damage is used for unacceptable consequences of failure. For example, a
collapse of a building because of under-dimensioned roof beams.
No project is flawless, it is therefore, important to understand what the failure is and
the possibility of it leading to project changes (Oracle & Paper, 2009).
Contract deficiency is any mistake or inaccuracy in the agreement documents that can
influence the construction of the work. Agreement errors can be small mistakes like
simple, numerical or grammatical, but can also include ambiguities and conflicts
among different agreement documents (Oracle & Paper, 2009). Some contractors look
at these kinds of ambiguities as a bonus. The author talked to one contractor who
wished to be anonymous. Here is a quote from him:
My bid was only 60% of the client’s total cost. Now the project is halfway, and I
have had so much extra work because of an error in the contract. I am up to
80% of the clients total construction cost. The extra cost will definitely reach
over 100% and this will delay the project (Anonymous contractor, 2011).
He said that this was a very common way of tendering for projects (fig. 3). If this is the
case, it is no wonder that it is hard to increase productivity in the construction
industry.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 17
3.4. Origin of mistakes
A common misperception is that the majority of building errors are caused by sloppy
craftsmanship. However, many of the errors made arise during the design phase,
either because of a lack of communication or erroneous information handed out to the
construction site. “Over the wall” syndrome is a well-known phenomenon, and
describes misinterpretation of information occurring as it is handed from one person
to the next, e.g. from an architect to an engineer. When there is little or no
communication between two actors, it is called throwing it over the wall. This is also
the case when the construction site receives information. Lack of communication
between the designers and the construction site is a good example of this
phenomenon. Table 1 is from a study by the Danish Construction Institution (Erhvervs-
og Byggestyrelsen). A study shows that 67% of mistakes are made on-site
(Byggestyrelsen, 2004). Some of those mistakes have their origin in the design, but are
not discovered until the construction has already been carried out on-site. However, it
Figure 3 Illustration of how the anonymous contractor turns his low bid into big
profit.
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18 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
is not well constrained how large a part of the mistakes is due to poor design or lacking
communication from designers to foremen, rather than sloppy craftsmen.
3.5. Communication
Communication is a very important part of the construction industry. The current way
of communicating leads to a lot of mistakes and frustration between parties. A study
by the NCC and DTU that was made in 2004 shows that 61% of errors made were due
to lack of communication and cooperation (Table 2).
The construction industry consists of many small groups that still largely depend on
old-fashioned, paper-based forms of communication. As mentioned in chapter 3.3,
errors and omissions in paper-documents often lead to unexpected costs, delays and
litigation between the parties in a project. Such problems cause friction, financial costs
and delays. It is both costly and time-consuming to generate important information
Table 1 Study by the Danish Construction Institution (Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen)
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 19
about a proposed design, including cost
estimates, energy analysis, and analysis of
structural details, etc., which are usually
performed later, when it may already be
too late to make important changes, or
they become very costly. The industry
needs to move the crucial changes, to an
earlier time in design phase (Richter &
Koch, 2004).
3.6. Digital Construction (Det Digitale Byggeri)
The Danish government set a series of demands for public clients that were put into
action on 1. January 2007. First, there were 10 demands, which public clients had to
fulfill depending on the size of the project. In 2010, those 10 demands were simplified
and reduced to five demands. This initiative was intended to improve knowledge-
sharing between the parties of the construction sector, from the idea phase, to
operation and maintenance.
It would be too much to describe all of those demands here. A summary of the core
demands related to the contractor is described in the following section. The text is
extracted and translated from The Ministry of Economics and Business Affairs.
Requirement No. 2 – Project web
The client must require that all relevant parties in a construction project have access to
and use of a project web, so that all relevant project information can be archived and
exchanged digitally.
Public clients must ensure:
Table 2 %-share of all tumbling stone in the case
study(Richter & Koch, 2004)
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20 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
1. To provide a safe and effective project web system available for all project
parties.
2. To lay down rules for the efficient use of a project web system. The framework
must be documented and communicated to all parties.
3. All digital project information, including text documents, drawings and digital
building models are archived for all project participants in a readable print-
friendly format. If there is no agreement of what kind of format, the documents
should be in ODF format, not editable documents to be archived in PDF format.
4. The drawing set is made, so it can be printed in A3 format and in scale, and
with scale shapes for visual indication of the scale.
5. Project web system is available on site, and documents and drawings can be
printed on the construction site printer equipment.
Requirement No. 3 - Digital building models
Demand for the use of digital building models in 3D.
The public client must require the use of digital building models in 3D, both of ideas
and contests, and during the construction phase.
The public client must use ideas and contests to ensure:
7. Both the combined model and discipline models are available for the
contractor in IFC format or other agreed format.
Requirement No. 5 - Digital delivery
Requirements for digital delivery of files, operation, maintenance and management
information
The public client must require delivery of applicable digital project information, as
assessed relevant to the documentation of the construction case, as built, the future
operation, maintenance and management.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 21
The public client shall, in consultation with the operation and maintenance, ensure:
6. To deliver the right basic information about the project to the design and to the
contractors.
Public clients must ensure delivery of the following digital project information:
7. Process documentation, documenting the proceedings and decisions.
8. Product documentation, documenting as built.
9. Operating and maintenance information for the finished construction.
10. Management Information, which consists of the administrative information
related to the finished construction. The client can be in a transitional phase
until 31 December 2013, and select one of three delivery methods of operating,
maintenance and management information. After the first January 2014,
method “I” should always be used:
I. The information is to be submitted in a digital building model structured in
the DBK standard, open standard (IFC), and based on the design phase,
combined building model, subject to claims No. 1 in the case of
construction projects that exceed the current thresholds in the EU
procurement rules.
II. Digital information associated to data objects for transferring to clients and
FM system.
III. Information delivered
This legislation should motivate all actors in the construction industry to implement
and use ICT, to be able to tender for public construction projects. It is a matter of
debate, how well public clients are ready to receive and use this information. Mette
Carstad, Senior Consultant for UBST said, in her presentation on Digital Days at UCN,
that the problem for them lay in the lack of technical knowledge that supported the
actual requirements and how they were exploited (Carstad, 2010).
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22 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
3.7. ICT on the construction site
The decreased productivity is being met by implementing innovative ICT on the
construction site, both mobile systems and web-based systems. An example of a
mobile ICT system is E-Tjek, a mobile quality assurance ICT system (Vogelius, 2005). In
appendix 4 is a list of mobile applications in use on Danish construction sites. Project
web systems are also starting to be more common on the construction site (Heldgaard,
2005). Byggweb is an example of a project web system that is popular in Denmark.
3.7.1. Mobile and web services
The mobile systems that are being implemented are used to increase quality and
enable the managers to get a better overview of ongoing projects. Many of those
mobile systems have a direct link to the company's ERP system.
The core functions for these mobile systems are:
• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Integration
• Quality assurance
• Timesheet
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Integration
There are over 300 hundred different ERP systems available to choose from (iWay,
2011). According to Gartner Research Group, the three ERP systems with the biggest
market share are SAP, Oracle and Sage. ERP systems are total management systems
for companies. Their main functions are:
• Financial management
• Customer Relationship Management
• Human resource management
• Manufacturing Resource planning
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Productivity 23
• Supply-chain management
Several mobile application and web services have been developed to integrate with
ERP systems. Many have the ability to send time sheets directly to the ERP system. The
administration or project managers can hand out a task to perform via the company's
ERP system to the individual craftsmen mobile device.
Quality assurance
Quality assurance is important for the industry and can have an effect on the overall
productivity. It is important to register and document all mistakes. With a mobile
device, it is easy to go around the construction site and register mistakes, take pictures
and mark where the mistakes are. This information is stored on the project web
system. The mobile system then automatically generates reports to send to the
involved actors.
Timesheet
Each employee can manage his (or her) time spent on their tasks. These time sheets
are then uploaded to the company ERP system. This saves a great deal of work for the
project manager and for the administration. This also decreases the time that elapses,
from task completion until a bill is sent to the client.
3.7.2. Project web systems
The objective of a project web system is to give the participants in a project, the
possibility to exchange information across different actors. A project web in the
building industry will normally contain drawings, job descriptions and other documents
regarding the building project. A project web system ensures that all participants in the
project have access to all relevant documents at any time. Many different project web
solutions are available, from quite simple solutions to highly complex solutions. It is
important to consider the size of the project in question, when choosing a project web
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24 Productivity | Haraldur Arnorsson
system. Project web is included as a prime element in the future communication
strategy of many companies. Project web system is an important element, especially in
The Digital Building (DDB), and the state demands that all public building projects
should make use of project web from the beginning of 2007 (The Ministry of Economic
and Business Affairs, 2010).
Some bigger construction companies have their own project web system. Rambøll,
Niras and Grontmij from Carl Bro are some of those companies. Other project web
systems that are being used in the Danish construction industry are, ByggeWeb,
Project place and projektHOTEL. These systems have the same core functions, access
control and information storing. The developers compete in developing extra functions
like notifications system and feedback functions. Byggeweb is the only project web
provider who can manage authorized digital tenders.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 25
4 Field study
This chapter provides an overview of the current work process on a building site in
Aalborg. To help the author to get an overview of a typical work process and to
complete the work models, a project manager on a large construction project in
Aalborg was interviewed.
Semi-structured interviewing was chosen to get a free flow of information. The author
had questions written down to guide him through the interview. Work models were
used to get an overview of the current work process and adapted to the project
manager’s construction site.
4.1. The field
The company that the project manager worked for was a carpentry sub-contractor.
The company had 20 craftsmen, one foreman and a project manager on the
construction site. The 20 craftsmen were managed by the foreman, who in turn
answered to the project manager.
This was the first time they received digital information during a project. The project
manager received emails containing updated information about the project, e.g. if any
changes were. The project manager was responsible for printing out the new drawings
and replacing the old. The foreman then contacted the relevant craftsmen and notified
them of the changes.
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26 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
4.2. Work models
Work models are made in cooperation with the project manager. These models give a
viable overview of the current work processes. These work models are analyzed and
redesigned in chapter 7.
4.2.1. Flow model
The flow of tasks and information are summarized in Figure 4. The project manager
receives information to his email, and prints the information to review it before
handing over to the foreman who contacts the relevant craftsman (fig. 4). If changes
are made the project manager has to print and review changes before he hands them
on to the foreman. In the interview, the project manager said that he would not stop
the craftsmen, even if he knew that such changes meant the work needed to be
redone. The reason was that he had to think of the budget and be sure that the
changes could be charged to the relevant actor.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 27
Figure 4 shows the current flow of tasks and information. The bubble indicates persons and their responsibilities. The
boxes indicate the physical environment in which the employees retrieve information or perform their tasks. The
arrows show the communication, either as one-way or two-way communication. A text box on an arrow indicates that a
document is being communicated. Text beside an arrow, indicate communication.
4.2.2. Sequence model
Figure 5 shows the procedure during the trigger, i.e. when the project manager hands
out a task to the craftsman. The figure also shows a scenario of, when a drawing used
by a craftsman, to perform his task is revised.
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28 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 5 Sequence model showing how project manager hands out tasks and when changes are made. The
model is split up into two axes, persons and time. Each step is noted with a box with a description of the
activity.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 29
4.2.3. Artifact model
Figure 6 illustrates the artifacts that the sub-contractor uses to communicate
information. The artifacts are divided on two locations; project manager's on-site
office and the actual job site. Artifact is a thing or an object that the employee uses to
communicate and perform his task. It can be a computer, time sheet or even a
hammer.
4.2.4. Physical model
All communication with the designer is by phone and information exchange via email
(fig. 7). The project manager thought this was very time-consuming and hard to
organize information when information arrived on email. This is a quote from him.
It can be time-consuming and quite difficult to keep the overview of information
related to the project, and extremely hard to keep track of changes.
Figure 6 The on-site office (green polygon) is equipped with a computer with internet. The project manager
prints information on an A3 printer. He also uses his on-site office to manage resources. The job site (purple
polygon) is equipped with relevant craftsmen tools and all information are paper based.
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30 Field study | Haraldur Arnorsson
4.3. Model Consolidation
The interview and the models gave the author a clear view of what the current work
process is. Although this situation cannot be generalized it is a quite common way to
communicate today (Wikforss & Löfgren, 2007).
There is a definite possibility to reduce the manual organization of information. E-mail
communication does not offer the same ease of information exchange, as a project
web system. An ICT system located on the building site, would also allow craftsmen
immediate access to updated information.
Figure 7 Physical model showing the communication channels. To communicate with the designers the project
manager uses email. He has to print and review information he receives by email and archive them. The foreman
manages the craftsmen.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Field study 31
The data gathered from this interview and completed work models were further
analyzed and redesigned. The Field Study and The Need analysis are then used to
optimize this work process and described in chapter 7.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 33
5 Needs
This chapter creates an overview of ICT needs for a typical construction site in
Denmark. The need analysis is carried out as a quantitative survey aimed to get a
response from craftsmen of all trades.
5.1. Quantitative survey
The survey was sent to trade unions that are known to service craftsmen. It was also
posted on the web site, bimbyen.dk and on several Facebook sites. The author tried to
reach out to as many craftsmen as possible and to all trades. The author expected
more responses from the craftsmen, and found it hard to get in contact with them. A
likely explanation is that they do not use computers during their normal workday, such
as e.g. architects and engineers.
Goal
The goal is to analyze if the craftsmen on-site are capable of fulfilling the demands of
the new legislation, implemented by the Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority
(Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen, EBST) in 2010; Digital Construction (Det Digitale Byggeri).
Digital Construction was described in section 3.4.1.
The author’s intention with the survey was to investigate the overall IT competence
and the use of IT on-site, whether on-site personnel have mobile phones, and if they
have used a mobile application in a work-related situation.
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The results of the survey were cross-checked with research made for Danish
Construction Association in November 2010 (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010), where the
objectives were to identify the contractor's vision on IT, what type of IT system they
are currently using and the main barriers of using more IT.
Target group
The target group for this analysis is craftsmen who work with typical building projects.
The reason for choosing the craftsmen is because that group has not benefited from
new technology, in the same way that other trades have.
Method
A test survey was sent to 25 participants working on a construction site. The survey
had the same focus as the final survey. Each question included a comment field, in
which the responder could write additional comments. This method proved to be very
effective to get good feedback to optimize the survey.
The final survey is a combination of closed and open-ended questionnaires (Dr.
Dawson, 2002). A field was included where the responder could write his email
address, so he could be asked in detail about his answer. This also allowed the author
to establish a connection to some of the responders. The survey consisted of ten
mandatory questions. Some of the questions had a comment field, where the
responder could freely express his thoughts.
An email was sent out to 700 email addresses extracted from bygdenmark.dk website.
More than a third of the emails (250), bounced back, because they were not in use
anymore. A link to the survey was also posted on bimbyen.dk and to several Facebook
sites belonging to trade unions servicing craftsmen. A total of 72 responses were
registered. The reason for this low response rate could be the short time it was valid,
and because craftsmen do not normally use computers during their workday.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 35
NOTE: This survey does not represent all the craftsmen in the construction industry. It
only represents the 72 who responded. However it provides a hypothetical view of the
craftsmen IT skill and IT usage.
5.2. Questions
To get as many responses as possible, only 10 questions were asked. The average time
it took the responder to answer was two and half minutes.
1) What is your age?
It is important to know the age range to be able to know if there is a connection with
IT usage and age.
Figure 8: Bar chart showing the age distribution of survey respondents
The age range from 26 to 55 had the most responses (fig. 8). It is interesting that the
age range 16 to 25 had only five responses. This could reflect that this age is less
motivated to have an opinion on the development of the building industry. There was
no response from the age 66 and over, which is not surprising. The construction
industry is a hard environment where craftsmen easily wear themselves out and thus
5
19
17
24
7
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66 og over
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36 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
quit at a younger age than in many other trades. Another reason is that many from
that age group, have not received basic IT-training during the course of their
education, and have not acquired such skills at a later stage.
2) What is your trade?
Some of the craftsmen are more IT-oriented than others. It is therefore, interesting to
explore whether IT usage can be linked with trade. Interviewees could choose from a
list of the main trades and finally, an “other” option in case something was not listed.
For the “other” option, 16 responses were registered, of which 7 of were managers
(fig. 9.). Three top trades were carpenters, plumbers and painters.
3) How would you describe your IT knowledge?
- My IT skills are... (...none...low...average...high...super user)
This is a key question in the survey. It is crucial for the author to know the level of IT
knowledge on-site. The IT knowledge is one of the first things the User Environment
Figure 9 Bar chart of how the responders are distributed by trade
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 37
Designer (UED) has to have in mind (Barry & Pitt, 2006). It is also important to know
when designing the physical environment (Betty Dion Enterprises, 2006).
Figure 10: Bar chart showing distribution of self-described IT skills
Figure 10 shows that almost 58% has an average IT knowledge and 26% has high IT
knowledge. It is interesting to see that none of the responders have “none” IT
knowledge. At first, the author found it strange that many of the responders chose
medium or high IT knowledge, but when comparing this survey to a survey made by
the THE DANISH CONSTRUCTION ASSOCIATION, it became apparent that, that survey
had also got very few responders describing their IT knowledge as low. This could
reflect that craftsmen, who do not use computers in their normal workday, may not
have the necessary IT knowledge to access an internet survey.
a. Cross check Age vs. IT skills
Before making this survey, one of the things the author expected to find (based on
personal experience), was a connection between age and IT skills was expected. If
Figure 10 is analyzed, we can see that the author is not entirely wrong.
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
50,0%
60,0%
70,0%
...none ...low ...average ...high ...super user
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38 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 11: Age groups plotted against the level of IT skills.
The age group from 16 to 45 had average or high IT skills and 4 of the responders even
had super user IT skills (fig. 10). The age group from 46 to 65 had an average of 26%
low IT skills. There were no responses from the age group 66 and more, and also, no
one (at any age) responded that they had no IT skills. This could possibly be a link
between higher age (66 and over) and lacking IT skills. Although these findings cannot
be generalized other studies have shown the same results (Sørensen, Svidt, &
Christiansson, 2007).
4) Do you have access to digital project material on the construction site?
-drawings, job descriptions, etc.
The author was interested in knowing if the access to digital material was a common
thing on-site. Although roughly one third answered that they have access to digital
material (fig. 12), it can be assumed that even if digital information is available on-site,
craftsmen do not have easy access to that information. It may be stored on the project
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66 and over
Age
group
How would you describe your IT skills?
Cross checked with age groups.
...none ...low ...average ...high ...super user
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Needs 39
manager’s computer, prohibiting access, as was the case with the interviewed project
manager.
Figure 12: Pie chart describing whether digital information is available on construction sites.
5) What kind of mobile phone do you have?
The aim of asking this question is twofold. Firstly, to explore whether the author's
idea of a SMS (Short Message Service) messages when changes are made, could be
a possibility. Secondly, to investigate to what degree wide-spread use of smart
phones on-site was possible (i.e. how many craftsmen already own smart phones).
36%
64%
Yes No
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The result shows that all the respondents have a mobile phone of some sort (fig. 13).
Statistics from DST also show that in 2006, 94% of the population has a mobile phone.
As seen on Figure 14, the ownership of mobile phones has increased drastically from
1994 to 2006.
Figure 14 Percentages of the population owning a mobile phone [modified from www.dst.dk]
It is safe to assume that mobile communication is a common thing today and can be
implemented in new ICT systems on-site.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Ordinary Android smartphone iPhone Don't have a phone
Figure 13 Bar chart showing what type of mobile phone craftsmen own
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Have you used mobile applications on the construction site?
- Mobile applications on your portable phone, for example, to do a quality check and
time sheets.
As stated above smart phones are beginning to be a common thing with mobile phone
owners. The amount of mobile applications (apps) available for all smart phone brands
was 120.000 in Q4 2009. The app market has escalated since then. In Q4 2011, the
apps available for all smart phone brands was approximately 1.000.000 (MaximumPC,
2009). The author researched what kind of mobile applications are on the market for
the construction industry today, and they are described in appendix 4. Despite this,
craftsmen do not appear to be making the most of this technology with only 11% of
respondents having used apps as a tool for on-site work (fig. 15).
Figure 15: Pie chart showing how many craftsmen have used mobile applications on the construction-site.
6) Have you used a project web on the construction site?
The author’s intention with this question is to find out how craftsmen are able to fulfill
the public client demand of being able to access a project web system on-site (The
Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs, 2010). If compared with the survey made
11%
89%
Yes No
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42 Needs | Haraldur Arnorsson
for DB where the managers were asked how important they thought it was to have
access to a project web system. Only 9% answered it was very important. Thus, it is not
surprising that only 15% of the respondents of this survey have used an on-site project
web (fig. 16).
Figure 16: Pie chart showing how many percent of survey respondents have used an on-site project web system.
These findings show that the companies have not yet seen the advantages of having
access to a project web system. Around 90% of the companies could find it hard to
fulfill the demand §2.5, described in section 2.4.1 of having access to a project web
system and be able to print information in A3 (The Ministry of Economic and Business
Affairs, 2010).
7) How do you know, that you have the newest information, when you are
performing your task?
This question was asked to get an overview of methods used to communicate when
changes are made to the information. Furthermore, to see, what the ambition is to
know that the craftsmen are actually using the newest information. Five options were
given, four options that the author thoughts were relevant and one option that gave
15%
85%
Yes No
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the responders freedom to give their own explanation. This option turned out to be a
valuable resource for further analyzes on how the craftsmen communicate
information.
Figure 17: Bar chart showing the most common ways that craftsmen check that they have updated information.
Here are few of the responses that were given to the “other” response option:
“Check out the drawing list from the last project meeting”
“Get manually delivered the newest information.”
“The client consultant is responsible for always having the newest updated
information on-site.”
It can be concluded that there are many ways that craftsmen check that they have the
newest information. It appears that some even don’t care what information they are
working with, but the majority double-checks with the project manager or checks the
dates on the information (fig. 17).
There is a need for one standard way for the craftsmen to check if they have the
newest information and a system that notifies them if changes are made.
7
16
12
22
14
0 5 10 15 20 25
I don't
Check the date and hope for the best
It is the Project Managers responsibility
Contact the Project Manager
Other
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8) If an IT-system would be accessible on the construction site, would you use it?
- A stationary IT-system with a touch screen and an A3 printer, that could
ensure you that you would always have the newest updated information.
This question is twofold. Firstly, to find out if the craftsmen were willing to use a
stationary ICT system, and secondly if they could benefit from the new legislation that
Digital Construction but in action 1. January 2007.
Figure 18: Pie chart showing whether respondents would be willing to use an on-site IT-system.
The author compared his survey with the DB survey where the managers were asked if
the craftsmen in their company had easy access to IT on-site (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010).
Of the 110 that answered only one manager said that his craftsmen had access to IT.
About half (49%) of the responders said the craftsmen have no access to IT, and they
should not have. Compared with the author’s survey, there is a very different opinion
about IT usage on-site. As seen in Figure 18, the majority of the responders said that
they would use an IT system on site if it was available.
9) Do you think that IT could be used to increase the productivity on the
construction site?
73%
15%
11%
Yes No Don't know
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This question aimed at getting the craftsmen opinion of IT-usage, and whether they
thought, it could improve the productivity. The question included comment field,
where they could express freely why they thought it would improve the productivity.
Some of the feedback can be seen here below.
“It would be among other things to increase communication and make the day
more fluid.”
“Avoid a number of mistakes, faster corrections, and maximum information
after construction meetings, etc. Fantastic!”
“Avoid wasted time and errors because of not having updated drawings and
descriptions.”
“There is always access to the projects newest information. This applies,
however, primarily construction projects of a certain size.”
All responders that used the text field gave positive feedback and all agreed that ICT
would increase productivity.
5.3. Summarize needs
This survey clearly indicates that there is a need for IT on-site. When the author looks
at the survey from beginning to end, he is confident that not only is there need for
increased IT use on the construction site, there is also general positivity and
acceptance towards increased use of IT. This clearly contradicts the results of the
survey made for DB, where managers thought craftsmen should not have access to IT.
There is a need for a change in management style, in order to break down the barriers
between managers and craftsmen. The author will describe these needs and try to
come up with a possible solution in chapter 9: Implementation.
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OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Problem statement 47
6 Problem statement
Implementation of innovative ICT systems in the construction industry is trailing other
industries. Information that is used on the construction site is still mostly paper-based.
According to the need analyzes, craftsmen are willing to use an on-site ICT system that
could improve productivity in the construction industry. According to a study made for
DB, managers are reluctant to provide access to ICT systems, claiming that it is time
consuming. Currently, construction sites do not benefit from the implementation of
ICT in the design process, as it is in most cases not able to receive digital information.
However, there are indications that easy access to an on-site ICT system could work to
increase efficiency and lower costs, e.g. due to fewer construction failures.
This leads to the problem statement:
What is the best way to develop an ICT system that benefits both managers and
craftsmen needs, and increases productivity?
ICT system that is…
…User friendly…Robust…Efficient in Communication…Not time-consuming to use
To answer these questions, the work processes described in chapter 4 were
redesigned and a prototype of an ICT system made, that could benefit both managers
and craftsmen. An implementation method for such a system is also described.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Optimizing the Information flow 49
7 Optimizing the
Information flow
This chapter describes what methods could be used to optimize the information flow,
on the construction site to increase productivity. Work-models are redesigned to
optimize the information flow, and illustrated on a storyboard.
7.1. New process
According to the survey made for this thesis, the majority of the craftsmen are willing
and able to use ICT on the construction site. Although the survey was made online and
craftsmen with no and low IT skills might not have answered, that is also the case in
other industries. IT skills vary from person to person, but as long as they are motivated
to use IT, it is merely a matter of teaching and guiding them to learn and use it more
efficiently.
ICT is already available on construction sites, either as a handheld device or a
computer at the project manager’s on-site office. The problem is that it is not being
used by the craftsmen. Most of the devices and associated applications being used
currently are not very user-friendly and quite time-consuming to use.
A project manager uses a substantial amount of time to organize information when it
arrives at the construction site. Changes and revisions have to reach the right
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50 Optimizing the Information flow | Haraldur Arnorsson
craftsmen as soon as possible, in order to prevent mistakes from being made. Survey
results, along with the authors´ own experience suggests mistakes are often made
because craftsmen are not aware that changes have been made.
Two questions in the survey were aimed at investigating what kind of mobile devices
craftsmen have, and whether they have used mobile applications on the construction
site. Only ~40% of responders have smart phones, of which only 11% have used mobile
applications on the construction site. Possible explanations for this could be the
variability of construction sites and rough weather conditions, which may hamper the
usage of mobile devices. Imagine a carpenter standing on scaffolding during winter
conditions, trying to operate a small mobile device with gloves on. The author has used
this scenario when talking to craftsmen. All of them agreed that this would not be
possible and a stationary system near the craftsmen resting area would be more
suitable.
Only 15% of the responders said that they have used a project web system, and found
it hard to access and difficult to use. While a project web system could be a solution to
improve the information flow on the construction site, it is useless if it is not being
used. On the other hand, 73% of the responders said they would use an ICT system
with a touch screen and printer, if stationed at the construction site. This motivated
the author to develop a user-friendly Information Management System (IMS), which
will be described further in chapter 8.
7.2. Redesigned work models
To describe the optimization of on-site information flow after implementing an ICT
system, the models made based on interview results, were redesigned to show the
optimized flow of information.
7.2.1. Redesigned Flow model
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Figure 19 Redesigned Flow model that illustrates how craftsmen receive information.
The flow model seen on Figure 19 illustrates how work is distributed between actors
on the building site. In this case, the illustrated workflow shows how craftsmen access
information to carry out their task on the building site, and what is the procedure if
there is a problem in the information that the craftsmen receive.
Implementation of an IMS would minimize the time passed, from when a change is
made, until the craftsmen receive a notification. Although it is the project manager's
job to approve changes, craftsmen would receive instant SMS notification when an
approved change has been made to the information they are using. An example of
such a notification could, for example, be: “Changes have been made to drawing
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52 Optimizing the Information flow | Haraldur Arnorsson
number 205.23.32.1. Please contact PM before carrying on with your task.” One
possible scenario where such a system would be useful is if a PM is not present on-site,
at the time of receiving information about new changes and thus, unable to notify the
craftsmen. As a result, the craftsmen could risk working with outdated information for
a considerable amount of time, which could lead to costly errors.
With the use of an IMS, some of those communications could be avoided or made
easier. It is very time-consuming to communicate with other actors in the project,
especially if the job site is large, with hundreds of workers on-site at the same time. An
ICT system automatically notifying individual craftsmen or team leaders of any changes
made to the information would greatly aid the project manager and cut costs.
7.2.2. Redesigned Sequence model
After analyzing the options for redesigning the sequence model, the author saw an
opportunity for optimizing the communication channels to the craftsmen. The
redesigned model can be seen in Figure 20.
According to this model, the time passed from when changes are made until craftsmen
receive a notification is just a few seconds. Instead of letting the craftsmen carry on
their work, knowing they are working with outdated information. The project manager
can assign new tasks to them while information is being reviewed, and negotiations
take place. In this way, the productivity loss is minimized.
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Figure 20 Redesigned sequence model
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7.2.3. Redesigned Artifact model
An ICT system is not implemented to cut some of the artifacts away. Its primary
purpose is to organize and make it easier for the project manager to manage both
information and resources. Therefore, all artifacts from the original design are on the
model (fig. 21). However, an ICT system has been added for support that is accessible
in a special shed and containing all relevant information to the project.
Figure 21 Redesigned artifact model. The dotted lines show what has been added.
The on-site office has administrative access to the ICT system (dotted arrow), and is
able to hand out tasks to craftsmen.
The craftsmen are now able to get the latest information from the box, as well as
getting notified when changes are made.
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7.2.4. Redesigned Physical Model
Figure 22 Redesigned physical model
With the use of ICT system, a considerable efficiency can be achieved (fig. 22). The
project web server handles all organizing of information. The time that the project
manager spent on printing information and updating the drawing list is greatly
minimized. The craftsmen can retrieve the relevant information and receive
notification if his information is changed.
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7.2.5. Storyboard
To illustrate the new work process, a storyboard is made with a scenario were a
project manager assigns a task to a carpenter. He gets the relevant information that is
changed while performing the task.
1
Project manager goes over the time schedule
and hands out a task to a carpenter with
filling in a form on the ICT system manager
application. The manager application sends
the task to the onsite cimbox that sends out
an SMS notification to the carpenter.
2
The carpenter receives a text message to his
mobile phone, notifying him that he has a
new task to perform.
Text message: ”You have one new task
waiting. Please log onto Cimbox for further
information”
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3
The carpenter logs into ICT system with his ID
card. The system registers that this individual
carpenter prints this drawing. That way, the
system does only send to him and the project
manager if changes are made.
4
The carpenter then prints the information
needed to perform the handed out task. The
carpenter now has all the necessary
information to perform the task.
5
Shortly after he has started. He gets a text
message to his mobile phone.
“Changes have been made to the drawing
0789 that you printed, 21-11-11, 08.30.
Please logon to cimbox for more
instructions.”
The ICT system detected that there were
changes made to the drawing used by this
carpenter. Here is another option.
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6
The carpenter logs on to the ICT system.
There he finds the drawing that has been
changed. If the changes have to be evaluated
by the project manager, the carpenter will,
then be handed out a different task while the
changed drawings are being accepted. That
way, an optimal resource management can
be achieved.
7
He prints the new drawing.
8
The carpenter can now carry on with his
work with updated information, with no or
minimum errors.
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8 Prototypes
From the original idea of an ICT system for the construction site, many further have
been made to the system proposals. This section describes the prototype process,
starting on a paper-based prototype, then a semi-functional prototype made in
PowerPoint and finally, a functional prototype developed in the programming
language C#.
8.1. Paper-based prototype
As soon as the author came up with the idea of an ICT system for the construction site,
he started sketching the system. The main focus was to design a system that could be
connected to a project web system and that had a user-friendly interface.
8.1.1. User Environment Model
The primitive user environment was sketched on paper and the overall system design
was mocked up. This turned out to be an excellent method, especially in the later
stages of the prototype design. The design of all functions were based on the authors
own experience and then reviewed by experts. The primitive paper mock-ups were
used for analytical testing.
To be able to test this idea on potential users, the author decided to do a digital
representation of the system. This will be described in the next section (8.2).
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60 Prototypes | Haraldur Arnorsson
• Simple login
• Punch in/out
Administration gets
better information when
managing resources.
• Drawings and
descriptions should
be easy to access
with few clicks.
• Perhaps an option of
some kind of
notification system
when changes are
made to drawings.
Table 3Early paper mockup of an ICT system for the construction industry
8.2. Semi-functional prototype
The paper-based sketches were used to make a power point layout for presenting to a
user test group. The advantage of designing a digital representation of the system is
that the users can get a better overview and impression of the system, which makes it
easier to give feedback on the design and functions (e.g. colors, icons and overall user
experience).
The primary goal was to design a stationary ICT system in a physical box. Although a
mobile app was one of the feedbacks from the experts, the author’s intentions with
the system were primarily to design a system fit for all workers on a construction site,
no matter level of IT skills. The ICT system proposed has a slot for an ID card, an A3
printer and a small roll printer used for punching in and out, for printing out drawings
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Prototypes 61
and for printing quantities (that the craftsmen
could use as a grocery list at the storage area and
pick up what was relevant to their task),
respectively.
8.2.1. User Environment Design
Although the author has ten-year experience from
the construction site, he could not design the
system entirely from his point of view. He decided
to use his network of craftsmen to make the user
environment model. He gathered three
professional acquaintances. A small workshop was
set up to discuss the author’s idea.
The User environment model (fig. 25) was drawn to give an overview of the functions
and afterwards a description of each function (Table 4).
An explanation for the model is given in Figure 24. Each box indicates a focus area,
page or a window. The purpose is described shortly. Functions are listed up, both the
ones triggered by the user and by the system. If another focus area is connected, the
name of it is listed up under links. Objects that the user is presented by are next listed
up. Finally, risks and constraints are given.
Figure 23 first sketch of the box and
accessories.
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Figure 24 Explanation how the user environment model is built up.
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Figure 25 User Environment Model (UED) of the semi functional prototype
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Table 4 Description prototype of functions
1
This is what the menu looks like when the
user logs on with his ID card. A short
password of 4 letters could be an option
here. Or if the worker forgets his ID card a
function to punch in his personal ID number
and then a 4 letter password
2
Punch in and out
This function is to give the administration
and the on-site manager the opportunity to
make resource-planning more accurate.
These two functions could give long queues
to punch in and out. Therefore the author
will not make these functions a priority.
Message – Description in row 18.
The system keeps track of who prints what
drawings and notifies the user if some of the
information has changed after his last
printout.
Activities – Description in row 18.
Activities linked to the individual user.
Activities can be handed out by the on-site
manager and the administration.
Drawings – Description in row 18.
Here the user can access all drawings that
are linked to the project.
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Lager – Description in row 18.
Function that keeps track of all materials
used on the site and what craftsmen tools
are being used by whom.
Info – Description in row 18.
General information such as job descriptions
and contact list.
3
This menu is where users would have access
to all drawing material.
4
The search engine is designed so the user
doesn‘t have to know exactly what he is
looking for. A search like “3. floor” would
give the user all drawings linked to the 3rd
floor.
5
This menu gives the user access to all
drawing material linked to the individual
project. Here the user can use two functions:
View or Add to my drawings. The system
does not register the drawing to the user if
he only views it. But if he uses Add to my
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drawings then the system will register it and
is therefore able to send the user a message
if there are changes made, in the form of a
message next time he logs on or as an SMS.
6
When the user is in view mode he is able to
zoom in and out. The circles on the drawings
indicate that there is a drawing linked to the
one being viewed.
7
The drawing material should include a 3D
model of the construction where the user
can zoom in and out, pan and do a walk-
through to get a better picture of what his
task is.
8
The usual details can be printed in A3
format. This should include detailed
information, such as what material to use
and a job description.
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9
Information sub-menu
10
The contact search engine is designed so the
user doesn‘t have to know exactly what he is
looking for, similar to the information search
engine.
11
If the user has to contact someone or a firm
then he can get an overview of the people
on-site by browsing the organization chart.
12
Here on-site personnel should be able to
access:
Over all construction time plan.
Three week plan
One week plan
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13
My info, is were the user can add
information about himself. See what group
he should be working with and add his
mobile telephone number in order to get
notifications by SMS.
14
The user should be able to access all
applicable health and safety documents
(H&S).
15
Activities
Each user has his own calendar where he can
see what is on the agenda for the coming
days, weeks or months. The idea is to make a
task list for each day where tasks are linked
to the necessary drawings.
16
Under activities are linked to the individual
user e.g. if the user has a meeting or other
agendas. Here the worker could also see
when he will get paid, as well as receive
messages from the administration. All tasks
that the project manager wants the worker
to perform are also listed under activities.
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17
The system registers which individuals are
affected by changes made and sends them
an SMS to notify them of these.
18
This screen lists an overview over available
materials and tools and who is using what
tools.
8.2.2. Prototype evaluation
To evaluate the prototype a number of experts (professors, students and three
craftsmen), were introduced to the system, given an introduction of how the system
would work and what problems it would solve. This turned out to be really useful and a
aided greatly in the design of the system. The first version that was tested was far too
complicated. The reason for this was that the author has an IT education and is
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comfortable to operate complex systems. His network, on the other hand, has
different IT skills.
Figure 26 shows an ideal construction site that has implemented the box. Building
design is connected to a project web server and the project server is connected to the
box. The administration server is also connected to the project server, so they can do
resource planning and manage budgets. Material inventory is also accessible through
the box. Craftsmen have access to relevant project information via the box. Project
managers use personal digital assistant (PDA) for quality assurance.
Figure 26 Rich picture of the construction site with the system implemented
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8.3. Functional prototypes
The User Environment Design provides a structural thinking that responds to the
storyboards.
To develop the UED as seen on Figure 27, the redesigned work models, consolidation,
and storyboards were used to fulfill the user requirements.
It is important that the user environment is made as simple as possible. The login
window has a fairly simple login function. The user has the possibility to login manually
or by using radio-frequency identification (RFID) card. The login is linked to the “Main
window” which acts as a home screen for the user. The user can see all his tasks and
printed drawings. The main window links to all windows in the system. A message
object appears if the user has a new message. To give the user freedom to browse
through information, other than that assigned to him, links are created to “drawings”
and “Information." Both “Drawings” and “Information” has a viewer object to browse
through the information and print function.
The final step of the User Environment Design is the walkthrough. This step should not
be skipped (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998). It should been taken before User Interface
design starts.
The walkthrough for this UED was made with three craftsmen from two different
trades, one plumber and two carpenters. Their main job was to see if the design could
fulfill the requirements and if some focus areas could be merged or split up. The UED
model seen on Figure 27, fulfilled their expectation and was thus used for the next
step of User Interface design.
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Figure 27 User Environment Model of the final prototype
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8.4. Physical prototype
The box mentioned in 8.2 was designed further and a
prototype was constructed. The physical prototype
consists of a 22” touch monitor, RFID scanner, A3
printer and a laptop computer, running windows 7
Home with internet access as seen on (fig. 28).
8.5. Web-based prototype
The easiest way, for the author, to make a functional
prototype was to develop a website. An open-source
Content Management System (CMS) by the name
JOOMLA was used to design both the back-end and the
front-end.
8.5.1. JOOMLA
Joomla is a free and open source content management system (CMS) for publishing
content on the World Wide Web and intranets Web application framework. Joomla is
written in PHP and uses object-oriented programming (OOP) techniques. JOOMLA
stores data in a MySQL database (Burge, 2011).
JOOMLA 1.6 was installed on a web server,http://digitalbyggeri.dk/digibox and a
simple login window was designed as the start page. JOOMLA offers thousands of
extensions that can be installed. To manage information such as drawings and job
descriptions an extension called DocMAN was purchased and installed. DocMAN is a
very simple information management extension that can upload multiple files to the
database. The front-end of DocMAN can be seen on Figure 32. DocMAN is the
backbone of the system. It serves as a project web system for the prototype.
Figure 28 Physical prototype
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Figure 29 Touchatag RFID
scanner.
8.5.2. Login
As mentioned earlier the login has to be simple. There are
many reasons for that. To mention a few, different IT skills,
users could have some disabilities like poor eye-sight or the
time of year could also make a difference. In cold weather
craftsmen wear gloves and might want to keep them on
when operating the ICT system.
The idea of an ID card equipped with
a RFID chip was tested. RFID scanner
from Touchatag was chosen. The RFID
scanner can be seen on Figure 29. The
setup was quite complex. When the
ID card is swept through the scanner
it contacts the Touchatag server. That
means the ICT system has a demand
of a steady internet connection to the
Touchatag server.
Figure 30 shows how the login system is designed. When the user sweeps his ID card
through the scanner, the scanner sends the RFID hash number to the Touchatag
server. The server finds the application associated with the RFID tag and executes, as
seen on Figure 31. Reprogramming the scanner, to send the hash code directly to the
JOOMLA MySQL database, turned out to be a complicated task. A workaround was
made by executing a command file that included a path to a Hotkey file. A hotkey file
records screen actions which can then be executed by the RFID tag.
Figure 30 Touchatag configuration window
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Figure 31 Overview of the login system
The user interface was also made simple. The craftsmen need to have quick access to
relevant information and they have to be able to do so, with just a few clicks. The user
interface, as seen on Figure 32, has only four buttons, Login/logout, drawings, time
schedule and descriptions. This makes it easy to navigate and the buttons are always
visible so the user can easily jump between functions.
8.5.3. Prototype evaluation
Being a web-based prototype gave it flexible evaluation opportunity. An expert
evaluation method was used to evaluate the prototype. Five users were registered on
the system. These were expert users with good IT skills. Two had craftsman
background. Users gave good feedback for the usability and were overall positive
towards the design. One user tested the system on an iPad. That test was not on the
schedule but it gave the system a new dimension in usability.
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Figure 32 Screen shot of a web based prototype
8.6. Functional prototype
An Innovation network supported by Aalborg University, hosted a kick-start weekend
for students in week 44, with 70 participants pitching 28 innovative ideas. Out of
these, 10 were chosen by the participants to be developed further over the weekend.
The idea of an on-site digital information system caught the eyes of the participants
and it was one of the chosen ideas. The owners of the ideas then put together a team
that they wanted to help develop the idea. The author gathered three programmers,
one graphic designer, a global business engineer and a technical integrator (a diary
from the weekend is included in appendix 2).
The website prototype was used to introduce the idea to the team, along with the user
environment design (see fig. 27). The power Point prototype was also used to show
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what the idea first looked like and to demonstrate that the early prototypes were too
complex.
It was agreed to design the user interface in C SHARP (C#). C# is an Object Oriented
Programming language (OOP). For storing data a MySQL database server was
developed. The author sketched an E-R diagram to give the developers a rough idea of
what the structure of the database should look like. The final structure can be seen on
Figure 33.
Figure 33 Database diagram
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8.6.1. The User Interface design
The interface needed to be as user-friendly as possible, with simple layout, few
buttons and not too crowded with information. The main focus was on the first screen
after the user logs on to the system. The user should be able to see all his current tasks
and links to relevant information, without navigating to a different screen. However, in
the case of missing information he can browse through information with the buttons
on the right site of the screen. A logout button is placed on the four main windows to
make it easy for the user to logout. It is important for users to logout so the next user
doesn’t use prior users account. The system has to recognize the users to be able to
send out notification to the right users.
1.
The login is made easy with an RFID scanner. Each craftsman is equipped with an
ID card. So with one sweep he can access the system without striking any key.
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2.
In the case of a forgotten ID card, the craftsman has the opportunity to login
manually.
3.
With manual login this dialog pops up. The craftsman enters his user name and
password.
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4.
To make the interface simple and easy to navigate, all information relevant to the
user appears on the first screen after logging in i.e. tasks that the Project manager
assigns to him and links to relevant information such as drawings and descriptions.
With this function the user does not have to search for drawings self. If he needs
additional information he has the possibility to use the buttons on the right side of
the screen.
5.
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When the drawing button is used this window appears. Here the user can select a
drawing, which he can either view or print. He is also able to search for drawings
by name, number, description or date.
6.
The view dialog window. The user can move, scroll or zoom with two fingers.
8.6.2. Prototype evaluation
A usability test method was used for testing the prototype. The author invited four
craftsmen to test the system in a controlled environment. The test persons were first
introduced to the project. Then a short semi-structured pre-interview was conducted
(see appendix 3), to evaluate their level of IT skills and their first impression of the
system. To test the usability each user was given two tasks. The first task was to login
with the ID card and print a specific drawing and logout. The second task was to search
for a specific drawing and then print it and finally logout. The test persons had never
seen the box or tested the system before the actual test day. The author did not give
any introduction on how to operate the system. The idea was to check whether the
system was so user-friendly that users could intuitively use it without an introduction.
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Table 5 Results from the usability test
Participant
Time to
complete
Task 1, in
seconds Completion
Time to
complete
Task2, in
seconds Completion
A 44 Successful 62 Successful
B 81 Successful 80 Successful
C 48 Successful 65 Successful
D 60 Successful 70 Successful
E 52 Successful 80 Successful
F 63 Successful 64 Successful
Average 58 Seconds 70 Seconds
The usability test was a great success. All testers finished both their tasks. The average
time to complete task 1 was 58 seconds and the average time for task 2 was 70
seconds.
As part of a survey made by Danish Construction Industry (Dansk Byggeri) a workshop
was held. Some of the participants believed ICT systems are time-consuming and hard
to operate (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010). The definition of time- consuming is, “using or
taking up a great deal of time." The authors opinion is that a system with the average
of 70 seconds to get the information needed could hardly be called time-consuming.
During this test the tester reported that the system was very easy to operate and gave
positive feedback for the simple user interface. Even if task 2 was more difficult, the
testers thought it was much easier, because performing task 1 was enough to get a
good overall knowledge of the system. The prototype testers had IT skills from low to
super users. With the IT skill range from low to super users the author is quite
convinced that this system could be used by craftsmen on the construction site. A
detailed report can be seen in appendix 3.
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9 Implementation
This chapter describes what organizational changes take place when implementing
new ICT systems and analyzes what implementation methods could be used to make
the transition as smooth as possible. Kotter’s 8-step change model is used to analyze
the changes that occur when implementing an ICT system.
9.1. Implementation of an ICT system in a construction company
It is a complex procedure to implement new ICT system in companies and many things
to keep in mind. The objective is to analyze the changes that arise, both internal and
external, when implementing an ICT system that all actors, no matter their trade, can
access to and retrieve information.
Figure 34 shows Kotter's 8-step model. The model describes the phases that the
implementation must include, to ensure minimal resistance towards the new system.
Kotter's model can be used for both small and large organizations. Kotter emphasizes
that each step has to be finished before moving on to the next step. Small wins are
crucial to keep the implementation team motivated. Kotter´s model has proven to be
effective and is being used for many implementation projects.
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Figure 34 Kotter's 8-step change (Kotter, 1995).
When creating urgency it is important to look both internally
and externally. Both the Porters 5 forces and the Leavitt
model are good tools for creating an overview of internal and
external environment. The Leavitt model suits better for this project.
It is important that the whole company is aware of the changes and to have the
support from the managers. A big motivation for changes is the new legislation acts,
described in chapter 3. It is not all about showing bad numbers and productivity,
although it could be a motivation to show the profit of increased productivity. It could
also be a concurrence parameter to introduce the company as a fully digital company
all the way to the craftsmen. An open and honest discussion is important. A good tool
to get a free flow in discussion is to make a group, for example, on Facebook. That way
is it possible to reach to all parties involved in the project, both internal and external
users. People that do not feel comfortable by expressing themselves on big meetings
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can write comments and questions in the safety of their home. Kotter states that it is
important to spend good time in establishing urgency before moving on to the next
step.
The Leavitt Diamond can give the senior managers an overview of what effect the
changes could have on the organization. The Leavitt Diamond is made of five elements
(Figure 35). The idea of the diamond is that, a change made to one element, affects
the whole organization. Like in this case, when applying a new technology, the other
three are affected. Employees need to learn how to use the system and in some cases
change their daily routines. The task element is affected in the way that the
organization can tender for different projects. The organization could be affected in
more drastic ways. People could be moved up or down the hierarchy depending on
what work processes are changed. This could potentially lead to resistance on the
manager’s side.
Figure 35 Leavitt’s diamond, used to analyze effect changes have on the
organization, authors view.
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Figure 36 The change competence/commitment matrix, authors
view (Cadle & Yeates, 2004).
To start with, find few but motivated people to form
a change team. It is important to have a Senior
Manager on board. They form the core of the team.
A good idea is to get a representative from key customers and/or a member from the
local authorities to join the team. This could be fruitful in the case of implementing an
ICT system to fulfill the new public client legislation act.
The team should have a good mix of managers and members lower in the hierarchy.
The team should work together without thinking of hierarchy. This could be hard for
the managers but it is necessary to get the most out of the team. A good idea would be
to have a team building workshop outside the office.
It is important to choose members with care when forming a change team. Figure 36
shows four types of people. The company wants to choose the people with the highest
competences and commitment
(blue area). Those people can then
motivate and teach the people that
are less compatible and committed
(red area).
The survey made for this thesis
shows that there is a link between
age and IT skills. The older
craftsmen are not as keen to use new ICT systems as the younger generation
(Sørensen et al., 2007). It would be a good idea to have some of the younger
carpenters on the team and introduce them to system. They could teach and motivate
the craftsmen that are unable or unwilling to use the system.
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Make a vision statement that motivates the
employees to give the team the enthusiasm these
kinds of changes need, in order to be successful. It is
important to constantly promote the vision, in a way so no team member will forget
why the changes are being made.
An Example of a mission and vision statement:
• Mission
o To be the most productive construction company in the building
industry.
• Vision
o We make sure that our clients get the best quality construction and on
time.
Make sure that the values for the change are clear. That will motivate both senior
managers and other employees. Before the team can move on to the next step, this
rule of thumb is useful to think about.
“If you can’t communicate the vision to someone in five minutes or less and get
a reaction that signifies both understanding and interest, you are not yet done
with this phase of the transformation process (Kotter, 1995).”
Some short-term sacrifices are inevitable during the
transformation. Sacrifices that could be in the form
of moving employees up or down the hierarchy or
changes in the employee’s daily routine. It can be hard to communicate the vision if
the employees are afraid of losing their jobs. This could increase resistance to the
transformation. It is important for the executives to use all means of communication
channels to broadcast their vision and be ready to get negative and positive feedback.
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The executive could use social media platforms or team building workshops to reach
out to the employees.
It can be hard to get rid of obstacles, especially if the
obstacles are people. It is crucial that people are treated in a
fair manner. It could be hard to get rid of all obstacles so it is
necessary to evaluate what are the big obstacles and get rid of them. Managers are
often an obstacle. They are afraid that changes do not produce the same profit and
could try to slow down the change or terminate it completely.
M. Lynne Markus writes about three theories of resistance:
• People Determined
• System-Determined
• Interaction Theory
People Determined is when people show resistance to technology
System Determined is when the new technology is not user-friendly which leads to
people showing resistance.
Interaction theory is when people show resistance to the new technology. Markus
emphasizes that it is not a combination of the two earlier mentioned, but rather when
resistance comes due to shifting of power within the company (Markus, 1983).
After interviewing a project manager from a medium sized contractor it was clear, that
he was an obstacle for implementing an ICT system that craftsmen could have access
to, and would improve productivity on the construction site. He considered it his job to
receive new information on email, print and file them. Possibly this resistance rose
from a fear of losing his importance and power.
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Short term wins are important to keep the momentum
in the team. Most people want recognition for their
work. There are no short-term wins then there is risk of
the team members joining the resistance.
In the case of implementation of an ICT system on the construction site, it could be
considered a short-term win, when all craftsmen have learned and started to use the
system.
It can be fatal to celebrate to soon. Changes take time and
it could take years for changes to sink in and become an
established part of the daily routine. It is often a
combination of change initiators and change resistors that create the premature
victory celebration (Kotter, 1995).
After implementation is it important not to dissolve the change team. Over time there
are always some new demands that arise and new changes to tackle.
The construction site is still a low tech environment. (Azimi, Lee, AbouRizk, & Alvanchi,
2011). Therefore, it is crucial to have a good service contract with the system
developers.
Successful transformation is when a
change becomes a norm. That is, it is
part of the job or just like turning on
the computer. But it is necessary to constantly show people how the new change has
improved the work process. When people are on their own they tend to use the
systems as they think is best, working around how the systems are intended to be
used. This behavior has to be confronted and a solution to the problem implemented.
Another risk is when the people that led the transformation quit and there is no one
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left to talk in favor of the changes made. In some cases companies think that changes
cannot be undone. That is not the case. It takes just one skeptic manager to rewind the
company to the old ways of doing things.
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10 Discussion
This chapter sums up the main inspiration for completing this thesis, the results
obtained from the need's analysis, the problem statement and the proposed solution
in order to improve access to digital information for craftsmen on a construction site.
The motivation for making this project, is the authors own experience from
construction sites, combined with the fact that the ICT development in the
construction industry is trailing other industries (Jakobsen & Øbro, 2010). To support
this, a survey and interview with experts in the building industry was conducted and
the results from the need analyses in chapter 5 show clearly that there is a need for
on-site ICT systems.
Analyzing the building industry as a whole, showed that the construction industry is
slowly adapting to the digital age (Byggeri & Newinsight, 2011). The majority of actors
in the industry are using one or more ICT tools to organize their activities (Jakobsen &
Øbro, 2010). The problem is that when contractors receive digital information they do
not pass them on to the construction site in digital format. Instead they print the
information which makes it difficult for the construction management to have a
complete overview of the newest information. Currently, the effort of implementing
ICT tools on-site, are mainly targeted the administration level, and not the craftsmen.
According to the results of the authors survey and a survey made for the Danish
Construction, Project managers and craftsmen’s did not agree on whether ICT should
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be accessible for the craftsmen on-site. The survey results presented in 5.2, show that
73% of the responders would be willing to use an ICT system if it was available but in
the other survey only 1 of 110 managers that answered, said that the craftsmen should
have access to ICT. This could be one of many reasons why the ICT development is
trailing other industries.
Architects and engineers are in most cases using CAD tools and project web systems to
organize their information. Clients and suppliers are slowly seeing the advantages of
ICT. The contractors are, on the one hand using ICT for take offs and tendering, but on
the other hand sending the received digital information to the building site. Instead
they in most cases print the information and send the paper-based information to the
construction site (Figure 37).
One very important function was left out due to lack of time. This function is the
feedback option, where craftsmen can write comments about how the work was
performed and if there were any complications. This function could give the client and
the operation and maintenance viable information about how the building was
constructed. Doing this from day one gives a much accurate “as build” model instead
of throwing some useless documents into a folder after the building has been handed
over to the client.
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Figure 37 the author’s opinion on the ICT development in the construction industry.
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11 Conclusion
Although new client demands put forth by The Ministry of Economic and Business
Affairs only apply to government-supported construction, it was concluded that
private clients are also starting to demand digital work. That should motivate actors in
the construction industry, to increase the use of innovative ICT systems on the
construction site.
The results of the needs analyses (chapter 5), reveal that craftsmen are willing to use
ICT systems on the construction site, and consider them an asset. When comparing
these results with a survey made for DB, it became apparent that craftsmen and
managers have opposing views when it comes to the matter of on-site access to digital
information. The majority of managers think ICT systems are too time-consuming and
do wish to incorporate their use more on-site for craftsmen.
These contradicting views were the main motivation for designing an ICT system that
could benefit both managers and craftsmen.
A stationary ICT system was chosen due to the difficulty for the craftsmen to operate
mobile devices in the harsh environment as a construction site can be. This also
provided the opportunity to develop a user-friendly ICT system that craftsmen and
managers, with different IT skills can use.
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It was recognized that doing a paper-based prototype was very helpful, due to the
short time it takes to sketch up a prototype in accordance to needs. It was concluded
that a paper-based prototype was not the easiest to test with users. Therefore a semi-
functional prototype was made with the application, Power Point, to be able to test
and get feedback for further development. The power point prototype was used to
introduce both the idea and the main functions.
Although the PowerPoint prototype turned out to be too complex, it gave valuable
input for further development.
Two functional prototypes were made, a web-based and a desktop application. It was
concluded that the web-based prototype was quite easy to make and rather easy to
add functions to. However, when it came to making more specialized functions (not
downloadable from the CMS website), it was harder and required writing complex
programming code, which was impossible to do in such a short time. The desktop
application was developed with the help of three IT students. This prototype was
tested, focusing on the user interface (how easy it was for the user to intuitively
navigate the system), and the test persons overall impression, regarding system use
and potential. Test persons gave valuable feed-back which was used to better the
system further.
As seen on the redesigned flow model in 7.2.1 the project manager does not longer
have to receive emails with information and print them for reviewing. As the system is
connected to a project web server, he can review them on the screen and when
approved they are automatically available on the ICT system to other actors in the
project. He can also assign tasks to craftsmen and supply a link to the relevant
information. The craftsmen then get a notification via SMS that there is a task waiting
for him on the ICT system or changes have been made to the information he is using.
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The results from the usability test showed that it only took testers an average of 70
seconds to find and print a selected drawing without receiving introduction to the
system before performing the test. The reason for managers thinking that ICT systems
are time consuming is probably because of their lack of IT skills or bad experience
operating an ICT system on the construction site.
After redesigning the work process, some opportunities were recognized to increase
productivity. If both the manager and the craftsmen receive information about
changes as soon as they are made, the manager can assign new tasks to the craftsmen
while the updated information is being processed. That way, the manager can manage
his resources better and fewer mistakes are made.
This thesis concludes that the building industry can be a conservative environment, in
which it is hard to show the managers the true value of ICT on the construction site.
However, with a user-friendly ICT system and a good implementation strategy, the
barriers between the designers and the construction site are minimized and increased
productivity is achieved.
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Haraldur Arnorsson | Conclusion 99
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bips. (2011). Oversigt over mobilløsninger U102.
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102 Conclusion | Haraldur Arnorsson
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Conclusion 103
Table of figures
Figure 1 Illustration of the thesis structure ...................................................................... ix
Figure 2 Labor productivity index for U.S. ...................................................................... 15
Figure 3 Illustration of how contractor turns his low bid into big profit. ...................... 17
Figure 4 Flow model ....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 5 Sequence model ............................................................................................... 28
Figure 6 Artifact model ................................................................................................... 29
Figure 7 Physical model .................................................................................................. 30
Figure 8: Bar chart showing the age distribution of survey respondents ...................... 35
Figure 9 Bar chart of how the responders are distributed by trade .............................. 36
Figure 10: Bar chart showing distribution of self-described IT skills .............................. 37
Figure 11: Age groups plotted against the level of IT skills. ........................................... 38
Figure 12: Digital information available on construction sites. ..................................... 39
Figure 13 Bar chart showing what type of mobile phone craftsmen own ..................... 40
Figure 14 % of the population owning a mobile phone [modified from www.dst.dk] .. 40
Figure 15: How many craftsmen have used mobile applications on-site. ..................... 41
Figure 16: How many percent of survey respondents have used an project web . ....... 42
Figure 17: Ways that craftsmen check that they have updated information. ............... 43
Figure 18: Pie chart are craftsmen willing to use an on-site IT-system. ........................ 44
Figure 19 Redesigned Flow model . ................................................................................ 51
Figure 20 Redesigned sequence model .......................................................................... 53
Figure 21 Redesigned artifact model. The dotted lines show what has been added. ... 54
Figure 22 Redesigned physical model ............................................................................ 55
Figure 23 first sketch of the box and accessories. .......................................................... 61
Figure 24 Explanation how the user environment model is built up. ............................ 62
Figure 25 User Environment Model (UED) of the semi functional prototype ............... 61
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104 Conclusion | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 26 Rich picture of the construction site with the system implemented ............. 69
Figure 27 User Environment Model of the final prototype ............................................ 71
Figure 28 Physical prototype .......................................................................................... 72
Figure 29 Touchatag RFID scanner. ................................................................................ 73
Figure 30 Touchatag configuration window ................................................................... 73
Figure 31 Overview of the login system ......................................................................... 74
Figure 32 Screen shot of a web based prototype .......................................................... 75
Figure 33 Database diagram ........................................................................................... 76
Figure 34 Kotter's 8-step change (Kotter, 1995). ........................................................... 84
Figure 35 Leavitt’s diamond ........................................................................................... 85
Figure 36 The change competence/commitment matrix, authors view........................ 86
Figure 37 the author’s opinion on the ICT development in the construction industry. 93
Figure 38 Finished physical prototype ......................................................................... 111
Figure 39 the author introducing the overall functions of the system ........................ 112
Figure 40 Business Model Canvas for the CIMBOX ...................................................... 113
Figure 41 Author, Kenneth, Michael, Morten, Jakob and Natasha .............................. 114
Figure 42 Picture from our presentation. ..................................................................... 114
Table 1 Study by the Danish Construction Institution (Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen) ... 18
Table 2 %-share of all tumbling stone in the case study(Richter & Koch, 2004) ........... 19
Table 3 Early paper mockup of an ICT system for the construction industry ................ 60
Table 4 Description prototype of functions ................................................................... 63
Table 5 Results from the usability test ........................................................................... 81
Table 6 Overview of web and mobile applications in use on the construction site. ... 118
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 105
Appendixes
Appendix 1: Internet survey
Appendix 2: Diary from Kick-start weekend
Appendix 3: Usability testing
Appendix 4: Overview of web and mobile applications
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106 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Appendix 1
Quantitative survey
Din alder?
It is important to know the age range to be able to know if there is a connection with
IT usage and age.
Hvad er dit fagområde?
Some of the craftsmen tend to be more IT orienteered than others. It is there for
interesting to know if there IT usage can be linked with trade
Hvordan vil du beskrive dine IT komptencer? - Mine IT kompetenser
er...(...non,...low...average,...high,...super user)
This is a key question in the survey. It is crucial for the author to know, what is the IT
knowledge to be able to focus on the right places when designing the box.
Har du adgang til digitalt projektmateriale på byggepladsen? - Tegninger,
beskrivelser m.v.
The author was interested I knowing if the access to digital material was a common
thing on-site
Hvilken slags mobiltelefon har du?
This question is twofold one was to know if the authors idea of sms message when
changes are made. The other reason was to investigate how much craftsmen could be
ready to use smartphones.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 107
Har du anvendt mobilapplikationer på byggepladsen? - Med mobilapplikationer menes
programmer til mobiltelefonen, hvor du f.eks. kan lave kvalitetssikring eller udfylde
timesedler.
The author did some research of what kind of mobile applications are available today
therefor was he interested in knowing if craftsmen are using some of them.
Har du brugt projektweb på byggepladsen?
This is another key question. Mainly to investigate how many are using a project web
system. This was also to give the author little inspiration to try to improve the usage of
a project web systems.
Hvordan ved du, at du har de nyeste informationer i hånden, når du skal udføre en
opgave?
This question was asked to get overview of methods used to communicate if there are
changes made to the information. Also to see what is the ambition to know that the
craftsmen are actually using the newest information.
Hvis et IT-system var tilgængeligt på byggepladsen, ville du så bruge det? - Et
stationært IT-system med touch skærm og A3 printer, som kunne sikre, at du altid
har de nyeste opdaterede informationer i hånden.
This question is twofold. One thing was to find out if the construction site could fulfill
the new legislation. Second was to prove for the author that his idea for a information
management system could work and be used on the construction site.
Tror du, at IT kan være med til at øge produktiviteten på byggepladsen?
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108 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
This question was to get the craftsmen opinion of the usage of IT and if they thought it
could improve the productivity. They had also a text filed were they could express
freely why they thought it would improve the productivity.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 109
Appendix 2
Diary from Kick-start weekend
AAU has a great network for entrepreneurs. One of them is Kickstart. Kickstart is for
students who have an idea but don't know how to go further with it. That is exactly the
authors ease. To optimize the information flow on the Building site the author came up
with the idea of a stationary box. This box includes a computer, a printer and a touch
screen. As mentioned the range of IT Knowledge is big. And conditions are also very
different between building projects. Just to name one reason why a stationary system
would work better on the building site. Imagine a carpenter standing on a scaffolding,
in high winter when it is snowing and ÷ degrees outside. Could he have an iPad
hanging in his belt or even could he operate a smartphone in these conditions? I think
the answer to this question is pretty clear.
The Kickstart weekend started 17.00 on a Friday with networking and then 19:00
people with pitched their ideas. One minute was given to each pitch. In all 28 ideas
were pitched. Afterwards the students attending this Kickstart weekend choose their
favorite. Top ten ideas were found and their leader tried to sell the ideas to the people
he needed to work on his idea. The author’s idea was one of those ten lucky ideas and
the author was able to gather a fantastic team. The team was build up with 3 software
developers, a graphic designer, a global business engineer and a technical Integrator.
The authors roll was then to lead this group. This scenario was exactly like it would be
out in the real world. The courses CSTBI have been taking had been a tremendous
help. Courses like "ICT knowledge", Contextual Design, strategy, project management,
and Implementing IT in organizations, just to mention a few. Of 70 participants the
only one with a construction background was the author himself. This made it even
more challenging. To gather data to see what functions should be included a
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
110 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Contextual Design methodology was used and Universal Design method to design the
interface. At first the author had the role of a craftsman because of his prior
experience from the construction site. The team had a session of open interview to the
author which became more of an discussion of the building industry in Denmark and
how an information management system could help the construction industry. The
rest of the team was quite
interested in hearing about
the construction industry.
They had never imagined
that it was in the position as
it is today. The team had
only this weekend to finish a
working prototype and to
present it for 5 minutes on Sunday night. Saturday morning brought the box with him
that had been mounted with a touchscreen. The author had also found a name for the
box. It got the name Cimbox, which stands for Construction Information Management
Box. A website was developed to introduce the cimbox to the world the link is
www.cimbox.com .
The 3 software
developers are
currently on their 3rd
semester in computer
science study. C# was
chosen as a platform
for the box. The reason
for choosing C# was
very simple. The software developers had the most experience in that programming
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 111
language. Some other platforms were discussed. Like Java and a web based system. SD
started by receiving a simple sketch of how the database should look like which can be
seen on figure x. It was obvious that they had done their homework. It took them
under an hour to make a database ready with some additional tables and connections.
The author could see that what he had been studying in the course “ICT and
Knowledge Representations” was of great help. Not only too understand what the
developers were doing but also to get a better overview of the software development
and to be able to manage the resources in the whole team.
The moment of truth was Sunday night. A 5 minute
presentation was prepared. I got help from one team
member to make a little play. He got the roll of a engineer
implementing the ICT system on my construction site. That
way we could introduce the system and have some humor
along the way. Needless to say we got a lot of laughter but
the crowd thought it did not lose the professionalism so the
presentation was a success although it did not get us the
first prize.
It was priceless for me to get a glimpse into to the business
side of making a system like this. A business model canvas was made that can be seen
on the next page.
Figure 38 Finished physical
prototype
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112 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 39 the author introducing the overall functions of the system
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 113
Figure 40 Business Model Canvas for the CIMBOX
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
114 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Figure 41 the team that I managed to gather. f.l. Me, Kenneth, Michael, Morten, Jakob and Natasha
Figure 42 Picture from our presentation.
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 115
Appendix 3
Pre-interview for prototype testing
Tester: _____
Tester age
? 16-25
? 26-35
? 36-45
? 46-55
? 56-65
? over 66
The age range of the testers was
from 16-45.
How would you describe your IT knowledge?
? None
? Low
? Medium
? High
? Super user
The IT skills
1 Low
1 Medium
1 High
2 Super users
What is your trade?
Four of the testers had experience from the construction industry. The one that didn’t
is studying to become a teacher.
What is your first impression of the box?
After a short introduction the author asked what the first impression of the system
was. All the participants thought it was very professional. One tester asked where the
laminating machine was. That is a good idea to have such a machine bud it is not
relevant to the system itself.
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
116 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Task to perform
Task 1:
1. Login with the ID card
2. View drawing number 0003/Floor plan
3. print the drawing
4. Logout
Task 2:
1. Login with the ID card
2. Search for drawing that has the name "Floor and Ceiling plan"
3. View the drawing and then print it
4. Logout
Participant
Time to
complete
Task 1, in
seconds Completion
Time to
complete
Task2, in
seconds Completion
A 44 Successful 62 Successful
B 81 Successful 80 Successful
C 48 Successful 65 Successful
D 60 Successful 70 Successful
E 52 Successful 80 Successful
F 63 Successful 64 Successful
Average 58 Seconds 70 Seconds
There were no errors that were registered during the actual test. The only downside to
the test was the slow response from the Touchatag RFID server. This problem could be
solved with a RFID system that connects direct to the same database as the system is
running on, rather of having to connect to an internet server.
Did you find the ICT system easy to operate?
OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE January 13, 2012
Haraldur Arnorsson | Appendixes 117
Wrap-up interview after prototype testing
Appendix 4
In Table 6 is a list over popular ERP integration applications that are being used in the
construction industry.
The general opinion was that the system is easy to operate. No tester had problems to
navigate to the right place. The buttons were easy to read. The only problem was with
the RFID login due to slow connection to the internet server that hosts the
usernames.
Is there something that you think is missing?
One participant mentioned that it could be good to have icons on the buttons. The
author agreed to that point. He had that also in mind when the interface was
designed. But time and resources did not make it possible to implement. But that will
be done in the final release.
If a system like this box was on the construction site, would you use it?
Participants could easily see this kind of system on the construction site. Participant C
is an electrician; he said it would be fantastic to have the newest information in one
system that would also notify of changes.
What actor in the building industry, do you think would benefit the most from such
a system?
All participants were unanimous that all actors in the construction industry could
benefit from such a system. One mentioned that maybe the client could gain the
most from it. Because of the it would minimize errors and therefor increase
productivity
13. januar 2012 OPTIMIZING THE INFORMATION FLOW ON THE CONSTRUCTION SITE
118 Appendixes | Haraldur Arnorsson
Table 6 Overview of web and mobile applications in use on the construction site (bips, 2011).
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The above table is taken from bips U102, Overview of mobile for contractors. The table
has been modified so it fits the purpose of this thesis. Only solutions that can integrate
with ERP system as shown.
doc_924053317.pdf