Description
Sustainable tourism demands a positivistic and holistic look at the true costs and benefits of
the industry to host communities. To aid leaders in starting the process, the article proposes a tourism
options navigation model looking at varying number of visitors, their average daily spend and leakages,
on the socio-economic, cultural and environmental landscape of island communities. The article aims to
identify various tourism options, their expected effects and potential strategies to mitigating negative
outcomes and to later apply the model to the case of the rural parish of St Thomas, Jamaica
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Navigating through tourism options: an island perspective
Annmarie Nicely Radesh Palakurthi
Article information:
To cite this document:
Annmarie Nicely Radesh Palakurthi, (2012),"Navigating through tourism options: an island perspective", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 6 Iss 2 pp. 133 - 144
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Navigating through tourism options:
an island perspective
Annmarie Nicely and Radesh Palakurthi
Abstract
Purpose – Sustainable tourism demands a positivistic and holistic look at the true costs and bene?ts of
the industry to host communities. To aid leaders in starting the process, the article proposes a tourism
options navigation model looking at varying number of visitors, their average daily spend and leakages,
on the socio-economic, cultural and environmental landscape of island communities. The article aims to
identify various tourism options, their expected effects and potential strategies to mitigating negative
outcomes and to later apply the model to the case of the rural parish of St Thomas, Jamaica.
Design/methodology/approach – To achieve the objectives outlined a comprehensive review of
related literature was conducted. The researcher interviewed six of Jamaica’s national tourism leaders
and analyzed their responses.
Findings – It was posited that by employing strategies that impact the number of visitors to the area,
their average daily spend and industry-related economic import leakages, leaders can control the
economic, social, cultural and environmental effects of tourism on communities but the process must
begin with a clear articulation of the desired effects.
Research limitations/implications – The model could be a useful decision-making tool for leaders
considering tourism as a developmental option or in analyzing the current state of their communities’
tourismindustry. It could also formthe basis for a more objective look at tourismsuccess by researchers.
Originality/value – The model is unique as it provides a single comprehensive look at the causes and
effects of tourism and possible ways forward.
Keywords Leakages, Visitor spend, Capacity, Tourism success, Jamaica
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Not all that glitters is gold. Like most industries, costs are associated with production and
tourism is no different. Tourism however, presents a unique challenge as the full costs and
bene?ts associated with the product are dif?cult to identify and de?ne.
In Jamaica, the economic impact of tourism is signi?cant. In 2007 the industry accounted for
47 percent of their foreign exchange earnings, contributed 9-10 percent to their Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), employed nine percent of their workforce and generated US$2
billion in earnings (Jamaica Observer, 2008a; Brown, 2008; Edwards, 2008; Bartlett, 2008).
The true cost, no one knows. What is known are the social costs associating with the industry,
such as reduced local access to beaches, the formation of squatter communities and myriad
environmental problems (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002). To compound things further,
parishes home to some of the island’s leading tourismdestinations were identi?ed in 2008 as
being amongst the poorest (Manning, 2008).
Therefore, community leaders considering tourism as a development option must take a
positivistic and holistic look at the costs and bene?ts of the industry in order to create a truly
sustainable sector. To assist with this process, this paper proposes a tourism options
navigation model where users can conceptually manipulate the number of visitors to an area,
DOI 10.1108/17506181211233063 VOL. 6 NO. 2 2012, pp. 133-144, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
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PAGE 133
Annmarie Nicely is a
Post-doctoral Student and
Radesh Palakurthi is a
Professor, both in the
School of Hotel and
Restaurant Administration,
Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
Received: April 2009
Revised: March 2010
Accepted: July 2010
Special thanks are due to
Carolyn Hayle, Head of the
Institute for Hospitality and
Tourism in the School for
Graduate Studies and
Research, University of the
West Indies, Mona, Jamaica,
Gaunette Sinclair-Maragh,
Tourism Lecturer at the School
of Hospitality and Tourism,
University of Technology,
Jamaica, and Eritha Huntley,
Tourism Training Manager
(Kingston) of the Tourism
Product Development
Company, Jamaica, for their
feedback on the tourism
navigation model. Also special
thanks to Marjorie Gardner for
overall comments and
Oklahoma State University for
their overall moral support and
funding in making this study
possible.
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their average daily spend and industry-related economic import leakages and sees its likely
socio-economic, cultural and environmental effects on the host community.
The model could prove helpful in two ways. First, it could assist leaders in making the
product adjustments necessary to realize the desired outcomes from their community’s
tourism efforts. Second, it could also contribute to the area of tourism reporting, thus
impacting how tourism success is determined and communicated.
The article begins with a review of the impact of tourism on island economies, then the types
of tourism and their likely effects; the main factors that in?uences tourism success; the
elements of the tourism options navigation model and conclude with the application of the
model to the case of St Thomas, Jamaica and areas for further research. A careful review of
literature on rural and island tourism and testing in a rural community in Jamaica provided
the basis for the model; it is nonetheless useful to community leaders in other islands and
destination types.
Review of related literature
Impact of tourism on island economies
The literature is consistent on the positive and negative economic, social, cultural and
environmental effect of tourismon island economies. Some of the positive economic impacts
which communities and islands often desire include: greater opportunities for economic
diversi?cation, more tax revenues and foreign exchange earnings, increased contributions
to GDP and additional jobs for locals (Tourism Product Development Company, 2005;
Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, 2001; Simpson, 2008; PA Consulting Group,
2007; McDavid and Ramajeesingh, 2003; Jamaica Observer, 2008a, b). However, some
negative economic effects include a focus away from other signi?cant industries, greater
leakages through imports and the migration of locally generated funds to the home countries
of foreign investors. Some are also of the view that the tourism results in greater in?ationary
pressures. Development in the sector causes increases in the price of real estate and
consumer goods, often above the reach of locals (United Nations, 1996; PA Consulting
Group, 2007).
Tourism also contributes to improvements to the social infrastructure in some of these
islands. However, negative social consequences are also apparent. For some islands,
increased prices produce a decline in the standard of living for locals. Groups such as
?shermen, lose their livelihood. Some residents feel alienated because of their inability to
afford the services provided to visitors. Locals sometimes loose access to once public
areas, such as beaches. Capacity issues such as overcrowded beaches, traf?c congestion,
noise pollution, reverse acculturation and high crime rates also occur (United Nations, 1996;
PA Consulting Group, 2007). Jamaica is also experiencing signi?cant social fall-outs as a
result of their tourism. In Jamaica, the dominant, exclusionary nature of all-inclusive hotels
produces local resentment of the industry. Communities do not redirection of tax revenues. A
lack of consultation with the community on tourism development also occurs. Locals
sometimes feel as if forced to migrate to squatter communities (Commonwealth Secretariat,
2002).
However not all negative social effects, such as crime and re-acculturation, can be laid at the
feet of tourism. Surely, the media and foreign travel has a role to play in communities’ social
degradation. However, how can researchers separate the negative social contributions of
tourism versus other variables? Saveriades (2000) posits that in the case of eastern Cyprus,
tourism was the single most contributing factor to divorce and 70 percent of the sample of
indigenous persons attributed increases in drug use to tourism as well (Saveriades, 2000).
Tourism can have a positive impact on cultural development in these islands. Several
instances exist where tourism is the driving force behind the preservation and awareness of
local culture and traditions, such as the case with the prominence of Jamaica’s reggae
music worldwide (United Nations, 1996; Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, 2001;
Tourism Product Development Company, 2005; du Cros, 2001). Tourism even assists with
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the development of community projects such as Jamaica’s South Coast Craft and Shrimp
Festival (Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, 2001). However, some of the negative
cultural effects include an increased demand for contrived cultural products, the
undermining of social norms and the degradation of communities’ social structures and
individuality (United Nations, 1996, Simpson, 2008, McDavid and Ramajeesingh, 2003,
Akpabio et al., 2008).
The area of greatest concern with tourismdevelopment for islands is its negative impact on the
environment. Tourism development in island economies results in the building on already
limited agricultural land. It also results in deforestation and loss of biological diversity. A
consequence of tourism is the pollution of these islands’ limited freshwater supply because of
improper disposal of waste by tourism-related businesses. Beach and marine pollution by
cruise merchant ships, indiscriminate diving, ?shing and boating activities, and the
construction of hotels along coastlines are also causing beach destruction and coastal
degradation. Global warming is also having devastating effects on the industry, raising sea
levels and increasing the number of tropical storms pounding these states (United Nations,
1996; McDavid and Ramajeesingh, 2003; Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002; Williams, 2006).
To address some of the social issues, Akpabio et al. (2008) propose solutions such as
enlightenment campaigns for locals and the recruitment of sector workers locally. To mitigate
the negative impact of tourism on the environment, the authors suggest that communities
should ensure strict adherence to environmental quality standards. In addition, they should
conduct periodic environmental tests and surveys and establish departments of
environmental safety to enable rapid responses to environmental hazards. The
destruction of the socio-cultural and environmental bases of tourism sites for the almighty
dollar should also be avoided (Akpabio et al., 2008).
Proposition 1
Therefore, the following approaches to will likely improve the economic, social, cultural and
environmental impact of tourism:
B If tourism communities strengthen their input sectors by using more local products and
services, encourage more local investments and participation in joint ventures, stimulate
philanthropy amongst its stakeholders, revise its product and focused its marketing
strategy with a viewof improving visitor average daily spend, then the economic impact of
tourism to the community would improve.
B The absence of a negative socio-cultural or environmental effect of tourism on
communities may be next to impossible. However, if the socio-cultural and environmental
balance desired is agreed upon by community stakeholders, objectively de?ned and the
necessary policy, legislative, programs and infrastructural changes made to support the
standards established and maintained, then this would achieved desired levels of
negative socio-cultural and environmental effects of tourism.
Types of tourism and their impacts. Varying tourism types typically have different effects on
host communities, all things being equal (such as the level of leakages). For example, with
the rising cost of health care in the US, the prospects for high socio-economic gains from
medical tourism has lured countries like Malaysia to pursue this type of tourism (York, 2008).
Casino tourism also has the reputation of providing instant revenues to an area, however, not
without tremendous economic and social fall-outs. Casino tourism is one of the more
exclusionary types of tourism, as casino hotels seldomshare revenues with community-based
retail facilities but instead provides the visitor with most of the products and services they need
for their stay. Rich (2007) states that for every dollar in taxes generated from casino tourism,
three dollars must be spent in infrastructure upkeep and ?ghting crime.
Cultural tourism has prospects for signi?cant economic gain for island destinations with
limited negative social, cultural and environmental impact. Persons driven to visit an area for
its historic value and lifestyle tend to be female, baby-boomers with higher levels of
education (Silberberg, 1995) and have signi?cant disposable income. They are usually
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intrigued but also respectful of the host community’s culture and therefore could encourage
its further development. They value authenticity and human contact and tend to have a great
appreciation for items produced by local artisans. According to Walpole and Goodwin
(2000), ecotourism is a more sustainable approach to tourism, providing many bene?ts to
local communities.
In the case of rural tourism, the environment is a pivotal aspect of the product (Clarke et al.,
2001) and therefore likely to result in further preservation of the area’s culture, character,
habitats and landscapes (Lane, 2005). Rural tourists are usually aware of the impact of their
presence on local communities and therefore prefer products with high positive
socio-economic but low negative environmental and cultural impact on host communities.
Baby boomers often ?nd this type of product appealing. The economic prospects of this
group are tremendous as they often take vacations of a week or more in length (World Travel
Market and Euromonitor International, 2007).
Mass tourismis one of the less sustainable approaches to tourism. Although the possibility of
signi?cant income generation because of the share numbers it attracts to a destination, the
average per visitor spend tends to be low. Island states that target this group must be
prepared to address capacity issues such as reverse acculturation, especially in situations
when the number of visitors to the destination exceeds the number of residents, a problem
experienced in some Caribbean territories (United Nations, 1996). High human capacities in
these areas can also have devastating effects on the fragile eco-systems of these islands.
In the case of cruise tourism visitors, spending is often limited, as demand for overnight
accommodations at their various ports of call is rare. For example, in Jamaica in 2004, the
average daily spend per cruise passenger was US$82.74, yet for other visitors, US$951.38.
This trend was observable across the Caribbean for that same year: the Cayman Islands,
Barbados, Bermuda, Grenada, to name a few, with some destinations seeing cruise
passengers spending more than others (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2005).
Diasporan tourism applies to persons living abroad, returning to their homeland for vacation
and other purposes. Four segments apply to this type of tourism: heritage, residential,
festival and health. In the case of heritage tourism, reconnecting with their native culture and
heritage is pivotal to their vacation experience. For residential tourism, these persons would
build vacation homes in their homelands. Some would also visit their home country to attend
major festivals or events. They also visit their home countries to get cheaper and more
accessible health care. These visitors are usually older and in the middle to upper income
category (World Travel Market and Euromonitor International, 2007). Their average length of
stay at destinations tend to be longer but their average daily spend often lower than that of
other international visitors partly because of their tendency to stay with friends, families or in
their own homes. Therefore, their spending on public accommodations was often less than
traditional visitors, which typically represent a signi?cant portion of their average daily spend
(Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002; Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2005). Seaton and
Palmer (1997) also shared a similar view. According to the researchers, visiting friends and
families often spend less in overall terms than other types of tourists but they normally travel
during off-peak season and in the UK, they were often in the upper income occupational
groups.
However, doubts exist as to whether or not national tourismstatistics capture the full extent of
these tourists spending accurately and if so, the degree to which signi?cant thought is given
to crafting products that would have a strong appeal to this group. This group is frequently at
a crossroads as to whether they are visitors or locals. Perhaps they should have the same
level of discounts afforded to locals. This has been an area of contention that sometimes
leave diasporan tourists dissatis?ed and could impact their average spend. The general
view is that this group often produces moderate positive economic but low negative cultural
impact.
Domestic tourists also ?nd themselves in a similar quandary, and like diasporan tourists,
ignored as a serious market by which to realize signi?cant economic gains. Scheyvens
(2007) described domestic tourism as the poor cousins to the international tourism market.
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They typically have limited disposable income but tend to purchase locally produced
products and services (Scheyvens, 2007). Because they are already of the culture, they tend
to be sensitive and respectful of it.
Proposition 2
B With all other factors remaining the same, the researchers propose that different tourism
options will produce varying economic, social, cultural and environmental effects. The
model identi?es several options. The types of tourism, that typically have low number of
visitors but high average daily visitor spend, are nature, adventure, eco, cultural, heritage,
medical, health, community and small meetings tourism. Those with typically low visitor
numbers and low average daily visitor spend are domestic and diasporan tourism. Types
with high visitor numbers and high visitor average daily spend, are typically gaming and
convention tourism. Finally, those typical of high number of visitors but low average daily
spend are mass and cruise tourism.
B The researchers also propose that common demographic (e.g. disposable income, level
of education, age etc.) and philosophical characteristics of persons with similar interest in
particular tourism types, must be taken into consideration when marketing to the speci?c
types of tourism.
Cause of tourism impact: visitor capacity. The number of visitors, their average daily spends
and industry-related economic import leakages can have varying negative economic, social
and environmental effects on a host community. According to Lane (2005), a sustainable
tourism plan gives careful thought to visitor capacity.
However, the challenge for many destinations, which is crucial for tourism success, is to
come up with an objective and measurable evaluative criteria for capacity (Lindberg et al.,
1997, Saveriades, 2000) to which all relevant parties can agree. This is required if carrying
capacity is to be met. Many types of carrying capacities exist, such as economic,
socio-cultural, environmental, psychological and perceptual. Location, the type of tourist
activity anticipated for the area and the speed of tourism growth in?uences the carrying
capacity of a community (Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al., 2004, Saveriades, 2000). However, in the
context of the tourismnavigation model proposed in this paper, carrying capacity means the
economic, socio-cultural and environmental limit established for an area.
Researchers suggest a number of strategies to mitigate the negative impact of visitor
numbers on destinations. Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al. (2004) and Saveriades (2000) recommend
the education of locals and visitors on the destination could be one mitigating approach.
Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al. (2004) also suggests redirecting revenues generated from entry fees
into the protection of the resource as another way of mitigating the negative effects of over
capacity. Communities can also encourage the use of non-polluting forms of transport to
slow down the impact of capacity on an area (Saveriades, 2000). Control of visitors can take
many forms. First, by limiting visitor accessibility through the use of rationing approaches like
reservations, lotteries, queuing and merit or by channeling visitors along a certain route
(Saveriades, 2000). Secondly, de?ning zoning on ecological, temporal, political or social
bases. Thirdly, through de-marketing, targeting the more environmentally aware visitors to
the area (Saveriades, 2000). Fourthly, by restricting the numbers of certain tourism facilities.
Finally, through regeneration and research (Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al., 2004).
Proposition 3
B That as the number of visitors approaches the destination’s economic, socio-cultural and
environmental capacity levels, then the negative social, cultural and environmental
impact associated with the area’s tourism will increase and vice versa.
B With all other factors remaining the same (such as economic leakages), as the number of
visitors approaches capacity levels, then the economic impact of tourism activities on the
host community will increase in the short term, but decline in the long-term.
Cause of tourism impact: average daily visitor spend. One challenge some communities
face is not howto increase the number of visitors to their area, but rather howto improve their
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average daily spend, ultimately resulting in positive social and economic outcomes for the
area. For example, in the case of Komodo National Park in Indonesia, because visitors to the
area had package tours with outside operators, the positive socio-economic impact
associated with their presence in the community was limited (Walpole and Goodwin, 2000).
The question therefore becomes, how do communities boost average daily visitor spend?
Some researchers are of the view that average visitor spend can be improved by attempting
to increase the length and frequency of visitor stay (Wilson et al., 2001, Reichheld and
Sasser, 1990), achieved through improvements in opportunities for sightseeing, shopping,
dining and entertainment (Mok and Iverson, 2000). Petrick (2004), working in the cruise
industry, ?nds that customer loyalty can in?uence visitors’ likelihood to return.
Visitor average daily spend improves with product variety (Mok and Iverson, 2000; Wilson
et al., 2001; Heng and Low, 1990; Koth, 1999). Koth (1999), whose thesis focuses on rural
tourism in the US, recommends a mixture of historic and natural products. The researcher is
of the view that complex multi-tiered products appeals to a wider consumer base and leads
to a more stable position for communities in the marketplace. Wilson et al. (2001), whose
work is also in rural tourism, thought successful tourism requires the right mix of lodging,
restaurants, shops and groups of attractions.
Researchers also ?nd consistent characteristics among heavy spenders. According to Mok
and Iverson (2000), the heavy spenders in Guamare the younger Taiwanese honeymooners.
The researchers, in addition, discover that visitors who are part of a small party size or travel
individually, spends more than those in groups do. Surprisingly they also discover no
signi?cant relationship between the visitors’ income level and their level of spending. In the
case of Seychelles, persons from long haul countries in continents like Europe (Archer and
Fletcher, 1996) and ?rst timers (Petrick, 2004), are the big spenders. However, ?rst timers are
volatile performers, which makes long-term pro?ts from this group unsure (Petrick, 2004).
Proposition 4
Keeping the extent of economic leakages constant, the researchers propose that the higher
the level of visitor spend in the community the greater the socio-economic impact on that
area and vice versa. The literature highlights strategies to improving visitor spend.
Cause of tourism impact: leakages. The third factor that can in?uence the level of
socio-economic, and to some extent, cultural and environmental impact of tourism on host
communities is industry-related economic leakages. With the best efforts on the part of a
destination to increase visitor numbers and boost their average daily spend; leakages can
result in communities receiving limited bene?ts from their tourism exploits.
Factors that result in excessive leakages include too many foreign investors and workers,
weak inter-sector import linkages and excessive imports of industry-demanded goods and
services. Three strategies to reducing such leakages are education and training of locals in
the requisite skills; the strengthening of linkages between the industry and other sub-sectors
(Walpole and Goodwin, 2000; Heng and Low, 1990) and the inclusion of more local investors
into the sector (United Nations, 1996).
Proposition 5
That as industry-related economic leakages increase, the negative economic impact of
tourism on the host community will also increase. Again, the literature suggests strategies to
reducing leakages.
The model. The tourism option navigation model (Figure 1) is based on the premise that
varying economic, social, cultural and environmental effects of tourism on a host community
or destination is in?uenced by the number of visitors to the area, their average daily spend
and the level of industry-related economic import leakages. The model identi?es tourism
options that typically contribute to the causes and result in the effects identi?ed. The model
also suggests maintenance and mitigation strategies in situations of low and high negative
effects, respectively.
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The model has utility to both new and mature island tourism destinations. New island
destinations can use the model to identify where they would like to be, the tourism options
to consider and the areas of focus in order to realize their goals. More mature
destinations to identify the current state of tourism, a desired future state and consider
how to bridge any gap. The eight boxes in the model (Figure 1) describe a range of
different tourism environment scenarios and identify means by which to sustain or change
them.
Within the context of the model, a successful tourism sector for island communities and
destinations is one where the community or destination is experiencing, or would like to
experience, low negative economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts from their
tourism exploits. Sector LHL of the model re?ects this effect, meaning that such an outcome
would require low visitor numbers, high average visitor dollar spend and low levels of
industry-related economic import leakage. The tourism options of which the causes and
effects are typical for island states include nature, adventure, eco, cultural, heritage,
medical, health, community and small meetings tourism.
Tourism failure occurs when an island community or destination experiences high
negative economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts from its tourism exploits.
This is represented as HHH of the model, as this is often the end result of high number of
visitors to these island states (usually above established capacity levels), their low
average daily spend and high levels of industry-related economic import leakages. The
tourism options of which these causes and effects are typical are mass and cruise
tourism.
Figure 1 Tourism options navigation model for island communities
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Method
The objective of the data collection method was to use both primary and secondary sources
of data develop a tourism navigation model and apply it to the case of St Thomas, Jamaica.
Primary data collection consisted of purposive selection and interview of six national tourism
leaders. Content analysis of interview transcripts produced the model. Three tourism
academics reviewed drafts of the model.
A review of journal articles on rural and island tourism and other sources such as
government documents and local newspaper articles on Jamaica, its tourism industry and
the parish of St. Thomas, garnered secondary data to triangulate the interview ?ndings. The
parish of St. Thomas is in the embryonic stage of exploring the formalization of its own
tourism industry and so provides an excellent case to test the model.
Application of model – St Thomas, Jamaica
St Thomas is the second smallest of fourteen parishes, in both land space (286.8 square
miles or 742.8 square kilometers) and population size (93,243 persons) (St Thomas Parish
Library, 2008) on the tourism dependant Caribbean island of Jamaica. Although steeped in
history, with over 50 potential heritage sites (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002) and strong
African retentions, the parish has features of a struggling rural economy with its dilapidated
infrastructure and myriad social problems (Manning and McPherson, 2007; Jamaica
Gleaner, 2008; Go-Local Jamaica, 2008; Beckford, 2008; Williams, 2008).
According to the 2002 Survey of Living Conditions Parish Report, unemployment in the area
for the period 1998 to 2002 ranged between 19.5 to 22.3 percent, placing themevery year in
the top four parishes with the highest rates. In 2002, 28.7 percent of their population was
identi?ed as poor, when the national average was 19.7 percent (The Planning Institute of
Jamaica and The Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2005).
Equal to St Thomas’ socio-economic challenges are its environmental problems. Human
activities like the deforestation of the mangroves to burn coal for cooking and the building of
houses in riverbeds is compromising the parish’s environmental stability (St Thomas
Environmental Protection Association, 2008). Rising sea levels and the frequency of
hurricanes are also having devastating effects on the area. Most hurricanes that hit the island
in recent years struck St Thomas ?rst resulting in ?ooding, loss of livelihoods, homes and life.
The model and St Thomas
While the parish seeks answers to its pressing socio-economic challenges, one area of little
compromise is its environment. Therefore, if this small, predominantly mountainous area of
the island intends to pursue formal tourism, the goal must be for low negative
socio-economic, environmental and cultural impact, represented by sections LHL and
LHH of the model. Based on the model, the tourism options parish leaders could consider
are nature, adventure, cultural, heritage, medical, health, community and small meetings
tourism.
These tourism options produce high average daily visitor spend and low visitor capacity.
Because leakages can wipe out the economic gains of tourism, the parish should move
towards low leakage levels (LHL) through the sector’s use of local products (especially farm
produce) and services, locals investing in the industry or participating in joint ventures, and
by encouraging philanthropy amongst local tourism businesses.
However, the parish should anticipate high leakage levels during the embryonic stage of
tourism development. Currently, the community lacks some of the necessary inputs to
sustain a viable tourism industry, such as a trained workforce. Nevertheless, they should not
divert from the goal of low visitor numbers, high average daily visitor spend and low
leakages (LHL). Opportunities are apparent for moderate economic gains if the parish
include visitors known for their low average daily spend into their product mix, that is,
domestic, diasporan and edu-tourists (section LLL of the model). Bene?ts can accrue from
targeting these visitors as they often understand and respect the cultural practices that the
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people of St Thomas hold dear, for example Kumina (Figure 2), and would encourage rather
than sti?e the cultural form.
The possibility of targeting tourism options that yield very high economic returns should not
be ruled out, although likely to result in high negative social, cultural and environmental
consequences, as indicated in the high average daily visitor spend, high numbers of visitors
but low leakages section (HHL) of the model. However, such inclusions to the product mix
(such as gaming, all-inclusive and convention tourism) need caution to implement, on a
lesser scale and will require creativity in converting their negative impacts into opportunities.
This would widen the area’s customer base.
Therefore, using the model, St Thomas’ tourism industry primary area of focus should be
section LHL of the model, that is, low negative economic, social, cultural and environmental
impact from their tourism exploits and achieved by focusing on limited visitor numbers, high
average visitor spend and low industry-related economic leakages. St Thomas’ secondary
area of emphasis should be section LLL of the model, that is, moderate negative economic
effect but low negative social, cultural and environmental effects.
The average visitor numbers and average daily spend will be low but attempts should be
made to protect the sector’s revenues by minimizing leakages. The area of least, but some,
emphasis is section HHL of the model, that is, very low negative economic but high social,
cultural and environmental effect.
Therefore for tourism options in this section of the model, high visitor numbers and average
daily spend will be high but again attempts should be made to protect revenues by limiting
leakages. The key for local leaders is to de?ne, create and maintain a sustainable balance
incorporating the three sectors of the model discussed and this can be done through policy,
legislative, program and infrastructural changes and expanding their tourism support
services.
Figure 2 The Dalvey Kumina Group during St Thomas Emancipation and Cultural
Foundation’s 2008 Emancipation Day celebrations at the Ducken?eld Sugar
Estate, St Thomas, Jamaica
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Conclusion
The tourism options navigation model (Figure 1) is a tool community leaders can use under
conditions of local and national commitment to explore tourismas a development strategy. The
model identi?es the types of tourism options characteristic of low versus high average daily
visitor spend and lowversus high visitor numbers. It also looks at the level of economic, social,
cultural and environmental impact likely to occur under conditions of high versus low daily
average visitor spend, high versus lownumber of visitors to an area and high versus lowlevels
of leakages. In the case of high negative economic, social, cultural and environmental impact,
the model proposed strategies to mitigating such effects and possibly turning them into
opportunities. The model, like tourism, is not a cure-all, but a guide.
Communities should not try to ?t into any one box of the model but rather, as indicated in the
case of St. Thomas, that they diversify the tourism options offered, even developing
products that would ?t into multiple boxes. This would make their tourism industry more
resilient should one target market fail. Leaders should use the model to identify the primary
and secondary areas of tourism focus based on the needs and issues most important to the
community. As the literature indicated, failure for tourism to address community needs will
result in local resentment for the industry and compromise its citizens’ goodwill, a necessary
ingredient for successful tourism.
If successful and sustainable tourism is low negative economic, social, cultural and
environmental impact, then the practice of reporting such success in terms of number of
visitors, the size of room inventory and revenues would be inaccurate. Instead, it could be
misleading and result in further increase of those invisible costs such as social, cultural and
environmental. The authors suggest a more accurate reporting of tourismsuccess that takes
into consideration the full economic, social, cultural, environmental costs of tourism, in
addition to sector leakages. Therefore, possible areas for further research are ?rst, the
creation of a formula for the economic, social, cultural, environmental effects of tourism from
cause variables, number of visitors to the area, their average daily spend and leakage levels.
The second area of possible research is the creation of an income statement framework for
tourism that is more re?ective of the costs and bene?ts of tourism.
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About the authors
Annmarie Nicely, a Doctoral Student from Oklahoma State University, began her career
working in the hospitality industry. During her academic career she served on boards such
as the Faculty of Business and Management Board at the University of Technology (UTech),
Jamaica and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at OSU. She consults for hospitality
entities. Her research interest is in Caribbean hospitality business and rural tourism
development. She is a frequent contributor to the Jamaica Gleaner newspaper supplement
and Hospitality Jamaica, and has one journal publication and four in development.
Radesh Palakurthi is Professor and Graduate Program Coordinator at the School of Hotel
and Restaurant Administration at Oklahoma State University. His academic interests include
hospitality information systems, human resource management, customer development
strategies, hotel and restaurant planning and development. Radesh Palakurthi is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
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doc_529509273.pdf
Sustainable tourism demands a positivistic and holistic look at the true costs and benefits of
the industry to host communities. To aid leaders in starting the process, the article proposes a tourism
options navigation model looking at varying number of visitors, their average daily spend and leakages,
on the socio-economic, cultural and environmental landscape of island communities. The article aims to
identify various tourism options, their expected effects and potential strategies to mitigating negative
outcomes and to later apply the model to the case of the rural parish of St Thomas, Jamaica
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Navigating through tourism options: an island perspective
Annmarie Nicely Radesh Palakurthi
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Navigating through tourism options:
an island perspective
Annmarie Nicely and Radesh Palakurthi
Abstract
Purpose – Sustainable tourism demands a positivistic and holistic look at the true costs and bene?ts of
the industry to host communities. To aid leaders in starting the process, the article proposes a tourism
options navigation model looking at varying number of visitors, their average daily spend and leakages,
on the socio-economic, cultural and environmental landscape of island communities. The article aims to
identify various tourism options, their expected effects and potential strategies to mitigating negative
outcomes and to later apply the model to the case of the rural parish of St Thomas, Jamaica.
Design/methodology/approach – To achieve the objectives outlined a comprehensive review of
related literature was conducted. The researcher interviewed six of Jamaica’s national tourism leaders
and analyzed their responses.
Findings – It was posited that by employing strategies that impact the number of visitors to the area,
their average daily spend and industry-related economic import leakages, leaders can control the
economic, social, cultural and environmental effects of tourism on communities but the process must
begin with a clear articulation of the desired effects.
Research limitations/implications – The model could be a useful decision-making tool for leaders
considering tourism as a developmental option or in analyzing the current state of their communities’
tourismindustry. It could also formthe basis for a more objective look at tourismsuccess by researchers.
Originality/value – The model is unique as it provides a single comprehensive look at the causes and
effects of tourism and possible ways forward.
Keywords Leakages, Visitor spend, Capacity, Tourism success, Jamaica
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Not all that glitters is gold. Like most industries, costs are associated with production and
tourism is no different. Tourism however, presents a unique challenge as the full costs and
bene?ts associated with the product are dif?cult to identify and de?ne.
In Jamaica, the economic impact of tourism is signi?cant. In 2007 the industry accounted for
47 percent of their foreign exchange earnings, contributed 9-10 percent to their Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), employed nine percent of their workforce and generated US$2
billion in earnings (Jamaica Observer, 2008a; Brown, 2008; Edwards, 2008; Bartlett, 2008).
The true cost, no one knows. What is known are the social costs associating with the industry,
such as reduced local access to beaches, the formation of squatter communities and myriad
environmental problems (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002). To compound things further,
parishes home to some of the island’s leading tourismdestinations were identi?ed in 2008 as
being amongst the poorest (Manning, 2008).
Therefore, community leaders considering tourism as a development option must take a
positivistic and holistic look at the costs and bene?ts of the industry in order to create a truly
sustainable sector. To assist with this process, this paper proposes a tourism options
navigation model where users can conceptually manipulate the number of visitors to an area,
DOI 10.1108/17506181211233063 VOL. 6 NO. 2 2012, pp. 133-144, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 133
Annmarie Nicely is a
Post-doctoral Student and
Radesh Palakurthi is a
Professor, both in the
School of Hotel and
Restaurant Administration,
Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
Received: April 2009
Revised: March 2010
Accepted: July 2010
Special thanks are due to
Carolyn Hayle, Head of the
Institute for Hospitality and
Tourism in the School for
Graduate Studies and
Research, University of the
West Indies, Mona, Jamaica,
Gaunette Sinclair-Maragh,
Tourism Lecturer at the School
of Hospitality and Tourism,
University of Technology,
Jamaica, and Eritha Huntley,
Tourism Training Manager
(Kingston) of the Tourism
Product Development
Company, Jamaica, for their
feedback on the tourism
navigation model. Also special
thanks to Marjorie Gardner for
overall comments and
Oklahoma State University for
their overall moral support and
funding in making this study
possible.
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their average daily spend and industry-related economic import leakages and sees its likely
socio-economic, cultural and environmental effects on the host community.
The model could prove helpful in two ways. First, it could assist leaders in making the
product adjustments necessary to realize the desired outcomes from their community’s
tourism efforts. Second, it could also contribute to the area of tourism reporting, thus
impacting how tourism success is determined and communicated.
The article begins with a review of the impact of tourism on island economies, then the types
of tourism and their likely effects; the main factors that in?uences tourism success; the
elements of the tourism options navigation model and conclude with the application of the
model to the case of St Thomas, Jamaica and areas for further research. A careful review of
literature on rural and island tourism and testing in a rural community in Jamaica provided
the basis for the model; it is nonetheless useful to community leaders in other islands and
destination types.
Review of related literature
Impact of tourism on island economies
The literature is consistent on the positive and negative economic, social, cultural and
environmental effect of tourismon island economies. Some of the positive economic impacts
which communities and islands often desire include: greater opportunities for economic
diversi?cation, more tax revenues and foreign exchange earnings, increased contributions
to GDP and additional jobs for locals (Tourism Product Development Company, 2005;
Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, 2001; Simpson, 2008; PA Consulting Group,
2007; McDavid and Ramajeesingh, 2003; Jamaica Observer, 2008a, b). However, some
negative economic effects include a focus away from other signi?cant industries, greater
leakages through imports and the migration of locally generated funds to the home countries
of foreign investors. Some are also of the view that the tourism results in greater in?ationary
pressures. Development in the sector causes increases in the price of real estate and
consumer goods, often above the reach of locals (United Nations, 1996; PA Consulting
Group, 2007).
Tourism also contributes to improvements to the social infrastructure in some of these
islands. However, negative social consequences are also apparent. For some islands,
increased prices produce a decline in the standard of living for locals. Groups such as
?shermen, lose their livelihood. Some residents feel alienated because of their inability to
afford the services provided to visitors. Locals sometimes loose access to once public
areas, such as beaches. Capacity issues such as overcrowded beaches, traf?c congestion,
noise pollution, reverse acculturation and high crime rates also occur (United Nations, 1996;
PA Consulting Group, 2007). Jamaica is also experiencing signi?cant social fall-outs as a
result of their tourism. In Jamaica, the dominant, exclusionary nature of all-inclusive hotels
produces local resentment of the industry. Communities do not redirection of tax revenues. A
lack of consultation with the community on tourism development also occurs. Locals
sometimes feel as if forced to migrate to squatter communities (Commonwealth Secretariat,
2002).
However not all negative social effects, such as crime and re-acculturation, can be laid at the
feet of tourism. Surely, the media and foreign travel has a role to play in communities’ social
degradation. However, how can researchers separate the negative social contributions of
tourism versus other variables? Saveriades (2000) posits that in the case of eastern Cyprus,
tourism was the single most contributing factor to divorce and 70 percent of the sample of
indigenous persons attributed increases in drug use to tourism as well (Saveriades, 2000).
Tourism can have a positive impact on cultural development in these islands. Several
instances exist where tourism is the driving force behind the preservation and awareness of
local culture and traditions, such as the case with the prominence of Jamaica’s reggae
music worldwide (United Nations, 1996; Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, 2001;
Tourism Product Development Company, 2005; du Cros, 2001). Tourism even assists with
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the development of community projects such as Jamaica’s South Coast Craft and Shrimp
Festival (Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, 2001). However, some of the negative
cultural effects include an increased demand for contrived cultural products, the
undermining of social norms and the degradation of communities’ social structures and
individuality (United Nations, 1996, Simpson, 2008, McDavid and Ramajeesingh, 2003,
Akpabio et al., 2008).
The area of greatest concern with tourismdevelopment for islands is its negative impact on the
environment. Tourism development in island economies results in the building on already
limited agricultural land. It also results in deforestation and loss of biological diversity. A
consequence of tourism is the pollution of these islands’ limited freshwater supply because of
improper disposal of waste by tourism-related businesses. Beach and marine pollution by
cruise merchant ships, indiscriminate diving, ?shing and boating activities, and the
construction of hotels along coastlines are also causing beach destruction and coastal
degradation. Global warming is also having devastating effects on the industry, raising sea
levels and increasing the number of tropical storms pounding these states (United Nations,
1996; McDavid and Ramajeesingh, 2003; Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002; Williams, 2006).
To address some of the social issues, Akpabio et al. (2008) propose solutions such as
enlightenment campaigns for locals and the recruitment of sector workers locally. To mitigate
the negative impact of tourism on the environment, the authors suggest that communities
should ensure strict adherence to environmental quality standards. In addition, they should
conduct periodic environmental tests and surveys and establish departments of
environmental safety to enable rapid responses to environmental hazards. The
destruction of the socio-cultural and environmental bases of tourism sites for the almighty
dollar should also be avoided (Akpabio et al., 2008).
Proposition 1
Therefore, the following approaches to will likely improve the economic, social, cultural and
environmental impact of tourism:
B If tourism communities strengthen their input sectors by using more local products and
services, encourage more local investments and participation in joint ventures, stimulate
philanthropy amongst its stakeholders, revise its product and focused its marketing
strategy with a viewof improving visitor average daily spend, then the economic impact of
tourism to the community would improve.
B The absence of a negative socio-cultural or environmental effect of tourism on
communities may be next to impossible. However, if the socio-cultural and environmental
balance desired is agreed upon by community stakeholders, objectively de?ned and the
necessary policy, legislative, programs and infrastructural changes made to support the
standards established and maintained, then this would achieved desired levels of
negative socio-cultural and environmental effects of tourism.
Types of tourism and their impacts. Varying tourism types typically have different effects on
host communities, all things being equal (such as the level of leakages). For example, with
the rising cost of health care in the US, the prospects for high socio-economic gains from
medical tourism has lured countries like Malaysia to pursue this type of tourism (York, 2008).
Casino tourism also has the reputation of providing instant revenues to an area, however, not
without tremendous economic and social fall-outs. Casino tourism is one of the more
exclusionary types of tourism, as casino hotels seldomshare revenues with community-based
retail facilities but instead provides the visitor with most of the products and services they need
for their stay. Rich (2007) states that for every dollar in taxes generated from casino tourism,
three dollars must be spent in infrastructure upkeep and ?ghting crime.
Cultural tourism has prospects for signi?cant economic gain for island destinations with
limited negative social, cultural and environmental impact. Persons driven to visit an area for
its historic value and lifestyle tend to be female, baby-boomers with higher levels of
education (Silberberg, 1995) and have signi?cant disposable income. They are usually
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intrigued but also respectful of the host community’s culture and therefore could encourage
its further development. They value authenticity and human contact and tend to have a great
appreciation for items produced by local artisans. According to Walpole and Goodwin
(2000), ecotourism is a more sustainable approach to tourism, providing many bene?ts to
local communities.
In the case of rural tourism, the environment is a pivotal aspect of the product (Clarke et al.,
2001) and therefore likely to result in further preservation of the area’s culture, character,
habitats and landscapes (Lane, 2005). Rural tourists are usually aware of the impact of their
presence on local communities and therefore prefer products with high positive
socio-economic but low negative environmental and cultural impact on host communities.
Baby boomers often ?nd this type of product appealing. The economic prospects of this
group are tremendous as they often take vacations of a week or more in length (World Travel
Market and Euromonitor International, 2007).
Mass tourismis one of the less sustainable approaches to tourism. Although the possibility of
signi?cant income generation because of the share numbers it attracts to a destination, the
average per visitor spend tends to be low. Island states that target this group must be
prepared to address capacity issues such as reverse acculturation, especially in situations
when the number of visitors to the destination exceeds the number of residents, a problem
experienced in some Caribbean territories (United Nations, 1996). High human capacities in
these areas can also have devastating effects on the fragile eco-systems of these islands.
In the case of cruise tourism visitors, spending is often limited, as demand for overnight
accommodations at their various ports of call is rare. For example, in Jamaica in 2004, the
average daily spend per cruise passenger was US$82.74, yet for other visitors, US$951.38.
This trend was observable across the Caribbean for that same year: the Cayman Islands,
Barbados, Bermuda, Grenada, to name a few, with some destinations seeing cruise
passengers spending more than others (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2005).
Diasporan tourism applies to persons living abroad, returning to their homeland for vacation
and other purposes. Four segments apply to this type of tourism: heritage, residential,
festival and health. In the case of heritage tourism, reconnecting with their native culture and
heritage is pivotal to their vacation experience. For residential tourism, these persons would
build vacation homes in their homelands. Some would also visit their home country to attend
major festivals or events. They also visit their home countries to get cheaper and more
accessible health care. These visitors are usually older and in the middle to upper income
category (World Travel Market and Euromonitor International, 2007). Their average length of
stay at destinations tend to be longer but their average daily spend often lower than that of
other international visitors partly because of their tendency to stay with friends, families or in
their own homes. Therefore, their spending on public accommodations was often less than
traditional visitors, which typically represent a signi?cant portion of their average daily spend
(Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002; Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2005). Seaton and
Palmer (1997) also shared a similar view. According to the researchers, visiting friends and
families often spend less in overall terms than other types of tourists but they normally travel
during off-peak season and in the UK, they were often in the upper income occupational
groups.
However, doubts exist as to whether or not national tourismstatistics capture the full extent of
these tourists spending accurately and if so, the degree to which signi?cant thought is given
to crafting products that would have a strong appeal to this group. This group is frequently at
a crossroads as to whether they are visitors or locals. Perhaps they should have the same
level of discounts afforded to locals. This has been an area of contention that sometimes
leave diasporan tourists dissatis?ed and could impact their average spend. The general
view is that this group often produces moderate positive economic but low negative cultural
impact.
Domestic tourists also ?nd themselves in a similar quandary, and like diasporan tourists,
ignored as a serious market by which to realize signi?cant economic gains. Scheyvens
(2007) described domestic tourism as the poor cousins to the international tourism market.
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They typically have limited disposable income but tend to purchase locally produced
products and services (Scheyvens, 2007). Because they are already of the culture, they tend
to be sensitive and respectful of it.
Proposition 2
B With all other factors remaining the same, the researchers propose that different tourism
options will produce varying economic, social, cultural and environmental effects. The
model identi?es several options. The types of tourism, that typically have low number of
visitors but high average daily visitor spend, are nature, adventure, eco, cultural, heritage,
medical, health, community and small meetings tourism. Those with typically low visitor
numbers and low average daily visitor spend are domestic and diasporan tourism. Types
with high visitor numbers and high visitor average daily spend, are typically gaming and
convention tourism. Finally, those typical of high number of visitors but low average daily
spend are mass and cruise tourism.
B The researchers also propose that common demographic (e.g. disposable income, level
of education, age etc.) and philosophical characteristics of persons with similar interest in
particular tourism types, must be taken into consideration when marketing to the speci?c
types of tourism.
Cause of tourism impact: visitor capacity. The number of visitors, their average daily spends
and industry-related economic import leakages can have varying negative economic, social
and environmental effects on a host community. According to Lane (2005), a sustainable
tourism plan gives careful thought to visitor capacity.
However, the challenge for many destinations, which is crucial for tourism success, is to
come up with an objective and measurable evaluative criteria for capacity (Lindberg et al.,
1997, Saveriades, 2000) to which all relevant parties can agree. This is required if carrying
capacity is to be met. Many types of carrying capacities exist, such as economic,
socio-cultural, environmental, psychological and perceptual. Location, the type of tourist
activity anticipated for the area and the speed of tourism growth in?uences the carrying
capacity of a community (Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al., 2004, Saveriades, 2000). However, in the
context of the tourismnavigation model proposed in this paper, carrying capacity means the
economic, socio-cultural and environmental limit established for an area.
Researchers suggest a number of strategies to mitigate the negative impact of visitor
numbers on destinations. Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al. (2004) and Saveriades (2000) recommend
the education of locals and visitors on the destination could be one mitigating approach.
Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al. (2004) also suggests redirecting revenues generated from entry fees
into the protection of the resource as another way of mitigating the negative effects of over
capacity. Communities can also encourage the use of non-polluting forms of transport to
slow down the impact of capacity on an area (Saveriades, 2000). Control of visitors can take
many forms. First, by limiting visitor accessibility through the use of rationing approaches like
reservations, lotteries, queuing and merit or by channeling visitors along a certain route
(Saveriades, 2000). Secondly, de?ning zoning on ecological, temporal, political or social
bases. Thirdly, through de-marketing, targeting the more environmentally aware visitors to
the area (Saveriades, 2000). Fourthly, by restricting the numbers of certain tourism facilities.
Finally, through regeneration and research (Garrigo´ s Simo´ n et al., 2004).
Proposition 3
B That as the number of visitors approaches the destination’s economic, socio-cultural and
environmental capacity levels, then the negative social, cultural and environmental
impact associated with the area’s tourism will increase and vice versa.
B With all other factors remaining the same (such as economic leakages), as the number of
visitors approaches capacity levels, then the economic impact of tourism activities on the
host community will increase in the short term, but decline in the long-term.
Cause of tourism impact: average daily visitor spend. One challenge some communities
face is not howto increase the number of visitors to their area, but rather howto improve their
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average daily spend, ultimately resulting in positive social and economic outcomes for the
area. For example, in the case of Komodo National Park in Indonesia, because visitors to the
area had package tours with outside operators, the positive socio-economic impact
associated with their presence in the community was limited (Walpole and Goodwin, 2000).
The question therefore becomes, how do communities boost average daily visitor spend?
Some researchers are of the view that average visitor spend can be improved by attempting
to increase the length and frequency of visitor stay (Wilson et al., 2001, Reichheld and
Sasser, 1990), achieved through improvements in opportunities for sightseeing, shopping,
dining and entertainment (Mok and Iverson, 2000). Petrick (2004), working in the cruise
industry, ?nds that customer loyalty can in?uence visitors’ likelihood to return.
Visitor average daily spend improves with product variety (Mok and Iverson, 2000; Wilson
et al., 2001; Heng and Low, 1990; Koth, 1999). Koth (1999), whose thesis focuses on rural
tourism in the US, recommends a mixture of historic and natural products. The researcher is
of the view that complex multi-tiered products appeals to a wider consumer base and leads
to a more stable position for communities in the marketplace. Wilson et al. (2001), whose
work is also in rural tourism, thought successful tourism requires the right mix of lodging,
restaurants, shops and groups of attractions.
Researchers also ?nd consistent characteristics among heavy spenders. According to Mok
and Iverson (2000), the heavy spenders in Guamare the younger Taiwanese honeymooners.
The researchers, in addition, discover that visitors who are part of a small party size or travel
individually, spends more than those in groups do. Surprisingly they also discover no
signi?cant relationship between the visitors’ income level and their level of spending. In the
case of Seychelles, persons from long haul countries in continents like Europe (Archer and
Fletcher, 1996) and ?rst timers (Petrick, 2004), are the big spenders. However, ?rst timers are
volatile performers, which makes long-term pro?ts from this group unsure (Petrick, 2004).
Proposition 4
Keeping the extent of economic leakages constant, the researchers propose that the higher
the level of visitor spend in the community the greater the socio-economic impact on that
area and vice versa. The literature highlights strategies to improving visitor spend.
Cause of tourism impact: leakages. The third factor that can in?uence the level of
socio-economic, and to some extent, cultural and environmental impact of tourism on host
communities is industry-related economic leakages. With the best efforts on the part of a
destination to increase visitor numbers and boost their average daily spend; leakages can
result in communities receiving limited bene?ts from their tourism exploits.
Factors that result in excessive leakages include too many foreign investors and workers,
weak inter-sector import linkages and excessive imports of industry-demanded goods and
services. Three strategies to reducing such leakages are education and training of locals in
the requisite skills; the strengthening of linkages between the industry and other sub-sectors
(Walpole and Goodwin, 2000; Heng and Low, 1990) and the inclusion of more local investors
into the sector (United Nations, 1996).
Proposition 5
That as industry-related economic leakages increase, the negative economic impact of
tourism on the host community will also increase. Again, the literature suggests strategies to
reducing leakages.
The model. The tourism option navigation model (Figure 1) is based on the premise that
varying economic, social, cultural and environmental effects of tourism on a host community
or destination is in?uenced by the number of visitors to the area, their average daily spend
and the level of industry-related economic import leakages. The model identi?es tourism
options that typically contribute to the causes and result in the effects identi?ed. The model
also suggests maintenance and mitigation strategies in situations of low and high negative
effects, respectively.
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The model has utility to both new and mature island tourism destinations. New island
destinations can use the model to identify where they would like to be, the tourism options
to consider and the areas of focus in order to realize their goals. More mature
destinations to identify the current state of tourism, a desired future state and consider
how to bridge any gap. The eight boxes in the model (Figure 1) describe a range of
different tourism environment scenarios and identify means by which to sustain or change
them.
Within the context of the model, a successful tourism sector for island communities and
destinations is one where the community or destination is experiencing, or would like to
experience, low negative economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts from their
tourism exploits. Sector LHL of the model re?ects this effect, meaning that such an outcome
would require low visitor numbers, high average visitor dollar spend and low levels of
industry-related economic import leakage. The tourism options of which the causes and
effects are typical for island states include nature, adventure, eco, cultural, heritage,
medical, health, community and small meetings tourism.
Tourism failure occurs when an island community or destination experiences high
negative economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts from its tourism exploits.
This is represented as HHH of the model, as this is often the end result of high number of
visitors to these island states (usually above established capacity levels), their low
average daily spend and high levels of industry-related economic import leakages. The
tourism options of which these causes and effects are typical are mass and cruise
tourism.
Figure 1 Tourism options navigation model for island communities
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Method
The objective of the data collection method was to use both primary and secondary sources
of data develop a tourism navigation model and apply it to the case of St Thomas, Jamaica.
Primary data collection consisted of purposive selection and interview of six national tourism
leaders. Content analysis of interview transcripts produced the model. Three tourism
academics reviewed drafts of the model.
A review of journal articles on rural and island tourism and other sources such as
government documents and local newspaper articles on Jamaica, its tourism industry and
the parish of St. Thomas, garnered secondary data to triangulate the interview ?ndings. The
parish of St. Thomas is in the embryonic stage of exploring the formalization of its own
tourism industry and so provides an excellent case to test the model.
Application of model – St Thomas, Jamaica
St Thomas is the second smallest of fourteen parishes, in both land space (286.8 square
miles or 742.8 square kilometers) and population size (93,243 persons) (St Thomas Parish
Library, 2008) on the tourism dependant Caribbean island of Jamaica. Although steeped in
history, with over 50 potential heritage sites (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002) and strong
African retentions, the parish has features of a struggling rural economy with its dilapidated
infrastructure and myriad social problems (Manning and McPherson, 2007; Jamaica
Gleaner, 2008; Go-Local Jamaica, 2008; Beckford, 2008; Williams, 2008).
According to the 2002 Survey of Living Conditions Parish Report, unemployment in the area
for the period 1998 to 2002 ranged between 19.5 to 22.3 percent, placing themevery year in
the top four parishes with the highest rates. In 2002, 28.7 percent of their population was
identi?ed as poor, when the national average was 19.7 percent (The Planning Institute of
Jamaica and The Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2005).
Equal to St Thomas’ socio-economic challenges are its environmental problems. Human
activities like the deforestation of the mangroves to burn coal for cooking and the building of
houses in riverbeds is compromising the parish’s environmental stability (St Thomas
Environmental Protection Association, 2008). Rising sea levels and the frequency of
hurricanes are also having devastating effects on the area. Most hurricanes that hit the island
in recent years struck St Thomas ?rst resulting in ?ooding, loss of livelihoods, homes and life.
The model and St Thomas
While the parish seeks answers to its pressing socio-economic challenges, one area of little
compromise is its environment. Therefore, if this small, predominantly mountainous area of
the island intends to pursue formal tourism, the goal must be for low negative
socio-economic, environmental and cultural impact, represented by sections LHL and
LHH of the model. Based on the model, the tourism options parish leaders could consider
are nature, adventure, cultural, heritage, medical, health, community and small meetings
tourism.
These tourism options produce high average daily visitor spend and low visitor capacity.
Because leakages can wipe out the economic gains of tourism, the parish should move
towards low leakage levels (LHL) through the sector’s use of local products (especially farm
produce) and services, locals investing in the industry or participating in joint ventures, and
by encouraging philanthropy amongst local tourism businesses.
However, the parish should anticipate high leakage levels during the embryonic stage of
tourism development. Currently, the community lacks some of the necessary inputs to
sustain a viable tourism industry, such as a trained workforce. Nevertheless, they should not
divert from the goal of low visitor numbers, high average daily visitor spend and low
leakages (LHL). Opportunities are apparent for moderate economic gains if the parish
include visitors known for their low average daily spend into their product mix, that is,
domestic, diasporan and edu-tourists (section LLL of the model). Bene?ts can accrue from
targeting these visitors as they often understand and respect the cultural practices that the
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people of St Thomas hold dear, for example Kumina (Figure 2), and would encourage rather
than sti?e the cultural form.
The possibility of targeting tourism options that yield very high economic returns should not
be ruled out, although likely to result in high negative social, cultural and environmental
consequences, as indicated in the high average daily visitor spend, high numbers of visitors
but low leakages section (HHL) of the model. However, such inclusions to the product mix
(such as gaming, all-inclusive and convention tourism) need caution to implement, on a
lesser scale and will require creativity in converting their negative impacts into opportunities.
This would widen the area’s customer base.
Therefore, using the model, St Thomas’ tourism industry primary area of focus should be
section LHL of the model, that is, low negative economic, social, cultural and environmental
impact from their tourism exploits and achieved by focusing on limited visitor numbers, high
average visitor spend and low industry-related economic leakages. St Thomas’ secondary
area of emphasis should be section LLL of the model, that is, moderate negative economic
effect but low negative social, cultural and environmental effects.
The average visitor numbers and average daily spend will be low but attempts should be
made to protect the sector’s revenues by minimizing leakages. The area of least, but some,
emphasis is section HHL of the model, that is, very low negative economic but high social,
cultural and environmental effect.
Therefore for tourism options in this section of the model, high visitor numbers and average
daily spend will be high but again attempts should be made to protect revenues by limiting
leakages. The key for local leaders is to de?ne, create and maintain a sustainable balance
incorporating the three sectors of the model discussed and this can be done through policy,
legislative, program and infrastructural changes and expanding their tourism support
services.
Figure 2 The Dalvey Kumina Group during St Thomas Emancipation and Cultural
Foundation’s 2008 Emancipation Day celebrations at the Ducken?eld Sugar
Estate, St Thomas, Jamaica
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Conclusion
The tourism options navigation model (Figure 1) is a tool community leaders can use under
conditions of local and national commitment to explore tourismas a development strategy. The
model identi?es the types of tourism options characteristic of low versus high average daily
visitor spend and lowversus high visitor numbers. It also looks at the level of economic, social,
cultural and environmental impact likely to occur under conditions of high versus low daily
average visitor spend, high versus lownumber of visitors to an area and high versus lowlevels
of leakages. In the case of high negative economic, social, cultural and environmental impact,
the model proposed strategies to mitigating such effects and possibly turning them into
opportunities. The model, like tourism, is not a cure-all, but a guide.
Communities should not try to ?t into any one box of the model but rather, as indicated in the
case of St. Thomas, that they diversify the tourism options offered, even developing
products that would ?t into multiple boxes. This would make their tourism industry more
resilient should one target market fail. Leaders should use the model to identify the primary
and secondary areas of tourism focus based on the needs and issues most important to the
community. As the literature indicated, failure for tourism to address community needs will
result in local resentment for the industry and compromise its citizens’ goodwill, a necessary
ingredient for successful tourism.
If successful and sustainable tourism is low negative economic, social, cultural and
environmental impact, then the practice of reporting such success in terms of number of
visitors, the size of room inventory and revenues would be inaccurate. Instead, it could be
misleading and result in further increase of those invisible costs such as social, cultural and
environmental. The authors suggest a more accurate reporting of tourismsuccess that takes
into consideration the full economic, social, cultural, environmental costs of tourism, in
addition to sector leakages. Therefore, possible areas for further research are ?rst, the
creation of a formula for the economic, social, cultural, environmental effects of tourism from
cause variables, number of visitors to the area, their average daily spend and leakage levels.
The second area of possible research is the creation of an income statement framework for
tourism that is more re?ective of the costs and bene?ts of tourism.
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About the authors
Annmarie Nicely, a Doctoral Student from Oklahoma State University, began her career
working in the hospitality industry. During her academic career she served on boards such
as the Faculty of Business and Management Board at the University of Technology (UTech),
Jamaica and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at OSU. She consults for hospitality
entities. Her research interest is in Caribbean hospitality business and rural tourism
development. She is a frequent contributor to the Jamaica Gleaner newspaper supplement
and Hospitality Jamaica, and has one journal publication and four in development.
Radesh Palakurthi is Professor and Graduate Program Coordinator at the School of Hotel
and Restaurant Administration at Oklahoma State University. His academic interests include
hospitality information systems, human resource management, customer development
strategies, hotel and restaurant planning and development. Radesh Palakurthi is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
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