Description
motivation
Organizational Behavior Course Model
OB Outcomes: Attitudes and Behaviors
Effort Job Satisfaction Absenteeism Turnover Stress Workplace Violence Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Commitment Employee Theft Safety and Accidents Sexual Harassment Grievances
Influenced by Managers Using
Application of Individual Differences
• • • • • Perceptions Attributions Attitude change Values Personality
Group Dynamics Reward Systems Job Design Leadership
Why is Motivation Important?
• Under optimal conditions, effort can often be increased and sustained • Delegation without constant supervision is always necessary • Employees can become self-motivated • Motivated employees can provide competitive advantage by offering suggestions & working to satisfy customers
MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
I. Need Approaches:
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
- McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory II. Cognitive Approaches:
- Expectancy Theory
- Equity Theory/ Social Comparison - Goal Setting Theory
III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY OR OPERANT CONDITIONING : How Rewards & Reinforcements Sustain Motivation Over Time
(Behavior Modification)
Job performance = f (ability X motivation X organizational support)
SELF- ACTUALIZATION (using all of one’s abilities) ESTEEM (self and from others) SOCIAL/AFFILIATION
SAFETY/SECURITY
PHYSIOLOGICAL
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Need Progression
Growth Needs
Need Regression
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
Herzberg’s Theory Rests on Two Assumptions 1.) Job satisfaction is equivalent to being motivated (influence of Human Relations) and assumption that the happy worker is a productive worker 2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants
Herzberg’s 2-Factor Theory
Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene Factors: • Pay, fringe benefits • Working conditions • Quality of supervision • Interpersonal relations Job Environment Factors Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors: • Work itself, responsibility • Advancement • Recognition Job Content Factors
Assessment of Herzberg
Contributions • 1st to argue that job content/job design was important • Job enrichment as a motivational strategy • Model appealing, easy to understand Criticisms • Some individual differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator • Assumes satisfaction = motivation • May be “methodbound” by self-serving bias
WORK PREFERENCES OF PERSONS HIGH IN NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND POWER
INDIVIDUAL NEED High need for achievement WORK PREFERENCES - Individual responsibility JOB EXAMPLE Field sales person with challenging quota and opportunity to earn individual bonus Customer service representative; member of work unit subject to group wage bonus plan Formal position of supervisory responsibility; appointment as head of special task force or committee
- Challenging but achievable goals
- Feedback on performance - Interpersonal relationships
High need for affiliation
- Opportunities to communicate
High need for power
- Control over other persons
- Attention - Recognition
A Comparison of Internal Need Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs SelfActualization Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory Achievement Growth
Motivator
Esteem Relatedness Power
Belonging
Hygiene Security Existence
Affiliation
Physiological
THE GOALS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES ARE TO EXPLAIN THOUGHTS ABOUT EFFORT:
1.) the decision to expend effort 2.) the level of effort to exert 3.) how effort can be made to persist over time
Expectancy Theory
Involves 3 cognitions/perceptions:
1. Expectancy the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance. E link the perceived probability that performance will lead to rewards. I link
2. Instrumentality -
3. Valence -
the anticipated value of a particular outcome to an individual.
Effort
Performance
Rewards or Outcomes I link
E link
EXPECTANCY THEORY
E
P Expectancy
Instrumentality or P O Theory
Valence
What is the probability What is the probability What value do I place that I can perform at that my good performance on the potential the required level will lead to outcomes? outcomes? if I try?
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
EXPECTANCY THEORY
Motivation to Exert Effort
E Link
Level of Performance or Production
Money (+9) Promotion (+6) I Job Satisfaction (+1) Link Peer Disapproval (-8)
Partial Test of Expectancy Theory
Rewards or Outcomes -Earn high grades -Feeling of accomplishment -Learning something practical
E
Effort
Implications for Managers
• Need to offer employees valued rewards (high valences) • Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E link (Provide tools, info, support) • Need to make sure that you follow through with reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain the I link (Differential rewards for performance)
Equity Theory
Also involves 3 relevant perceptions: 1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task. (e.g., pay) 2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task. 3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a REFERENCE PERSON. If: Outcomes Self = Inputs Self Then equity exists. Inputs Reference Person Outcomes Reference Person
Equity Theory
Equitable Situation:
Outcomes Self Job Inputs Self
=
Outcomes Reference Person Job Inputs Reference Person
Inequitable Situations:
A. Under-reward (from Self’s point of view)
Outcomes/Inputs Self 4/5
<
Outcomes/Inputs Reference Person 5/5
B. Over-reward (from Self’s point of view)
Outcomes/Inputs Self 5/4
>
Outcomes/Inputs Reference Person 5/5
Examples
You
3 4 <
Ref. Person
4 4 Outcomes Inputs
Ways to Reduce Tension
a. increase outcomes like ask for a raise (? Your outcome 3 to a 4)
b. reduce job inputs like ? effort
(? Your input 4 to a 3) “Under-reward” (What YOU is, objectively)
4
>
3
Outcomes
a. increase job inputs like work
3
harder (? Your input 3 to a 4) b. reduce outcomes ? refuse pay raise ? decline promotion, unrealistic “Over-reward Condition” (What YOU is, objectively)
3
Inputs
Restoring Equity
Under-reward:
Increase outcomes Reduce inputs
Over-reward: Increase inputs Reduce Outcomes (?)
Other Options:
Leave situation Alter perceptions Change reference person
REASONING BEHIND GOAL SETTING
Direction
Effort
-
specific goals direct your focus to relevant activities
need to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficult goals - assumes people are goal driven specific, difficult goals encourage you to persist longer at a task than would be the case without such goals
Persistence -
Representative Goal Setting Study
Goal Concept & Sample Item Goal Challenge- 4 items (my full range of ability must be used to reach my goals) Goal Clarity- 5 items (The goals for my job are easy to understand) Goal Feedback- 6 items (The feedback I receive concerning my goal progress is helpful) Goal Participation- 4 items (My supervisor asks my opinion when goals are set) Effort Unexcused Absenteeism Quality Defects
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
not related
-
-
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
• Some view as an explanation of motivation; others limit it to how motivation is sustained over time. • Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or cognitions. Managers can design work environment to provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired behaviors & weaken undesired behaviors. “Motivation is a function of the environment. • Others allow for cognitions in that people can observe rewards and punishments applied to others. Called social learning or vicarious learning.
Motivation as a Form of Learning: The Law of Effect
• Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be repeated • Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or toward punishment tends to be avoided • The type of reinforcer & the timing (schedule) of reinforcement are key
Reinforcers Which Strength Behavior
a. Positive reinforcement --rewards contingent on exhibiting the correct behavior. b. Negative Reinforcement—controlling reinforcers such that the employee learns s/he can avoid an unpleasant outcome (e.g., an annoying alarm) by engaging in a desired behavior (not operating in reverse). Or, noticing how engaging in some behavior avoids an unpleasant outcome (e.g., avoiding eye contact with a professor to avoid being called upon). Similar to avoiding punishment by social or vicarious learning.
Reinforcers Which Weaken Behavior
a. Punishment--administering unpleasant consequences following an undesirable behavior.
b. Extinction--when there are no rewards for a behavior which was previously rewarded.
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
1. Based on passage of time Fixed Interval- Reinforcer given after set period of time. Weekly pay. Variable Interval- Reinforcer given randomly with passage of time. Surprise bonus based on time.
2. Based on behavior exhibited by the employee (team) Fixed Ratio- Reinforcers based on behaviors. Piece rate.
Variable Ratio- Reinforcers applied randomly after exhibition of behaviors. A company vacation to Hawaii for all employees after new contract landed.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Spacing or Timing of Reinforcer
Fixed Number of Behaviors (ratio) Fixed Ratio -piece rate Variable Variable Ratio -door to door sales
Basis for determining frequency of reinforcer
Passage of time (interval)
Fixed Interval -weekly paycheck
Variable Interval -Occasional praise by boss
Summary of Motivation Theories
A. View all these approaches as a “bag of tricks.” Alternatives to choose from, remembering that all are not compatible. B. Judge whether you believe each “works.” Rely on the scientific data presented, your experiences, and your common sense.
C. Evaluate your prospects for successfully implementing each one--we all vary in our interpersonal skills and ability to render social rewards sincerely.
D. The question is not whether each of these approaches to motivation works, but where and when they work best.
doc_225383671.ppt
motivation
Organizational Behavior Course Model
OB Outcomes: Attitudes and Behaviors
Effort Job Satisfaction Absenteeism Turnover Stress Workplace Violence Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Commitment Employee Theft Safety and Accidents Sexual Harassment Grievances
Influenced by Managers Using
Application of Individual Differences
• • • • • Perceptions Attributions Attitude change Values Personality
Group Dynamics Reward Systems Job Design Leadership
Why is Motivation Important?
• Under optimal conditions, effort can often be increased and sustained • Delegation without constant supervision is always necessary • Employees can become self-motivated • Motivated employees can provide competitive advantage by offering suggestions & working to satisfy customers
MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
I. Need Approaches:
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
- McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory II. Cognitive Approaches:
- Expectancy Theory
- Equity Theory/ Social Comparison - Goal Setting Theory
III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY OR OPERANT CONDITIONING : How Rewards & Reinforcements Sustain Motivation Over Time
(Behavior Modification)
Job performance = f (ability X motivation X organizational support)
SELF- ACTUALIZATION (using all of one’s abilities) ESTEEM (self and from others) SOCIAL/AFFILIATION
SAFETY/SECURITY
PHYSIOLOGICAL
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Need Progression
Growth Needs
Need Regression
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
Herzberg’s Theory Rests on Two Assumptions 1.) Job satisfaction is equivalent to being motivated (influence of Human Relations) and assumption that the happy worker is a productive worker 2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants
Herzberg’s 2-Factor Theory
Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene Factors: • Pay, fringe benefits • Working conditions • Quality of supervision • Interpersonal relations Job Environment Factors Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors: • Work itself, responsibility • Advancement • Recognition Job Content Factors
Assessment of Herzberg
Contributions • 1st to argue that job content/job design was important • Job enrichment as a motivational strategy • Model appealing, easy to understand Criticisms • Some individual differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator • Assumes satisfaction = motivation • May be “methodbound” by self-serving bias
WORK PREFERENCES OF PERSONS HIGH IN NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND POWER
INDIVIDUAL NEED High need for achievement WORK PREFERENCES - Individual responsibility JOB EXAMPLE Field sales person with challenging quota and opportunity to earn individual bonus Customer service representative; member of work unit subject to group wage bonus plan Formal position of supervisory responsibility; appointment as head of special task force or committee
- Challenging but achievable goals
- Feedback on performance - Interpersonal relationships
High need for affiliation
- Opportunities to communicate
High need for power
- Control over other persons
- Attention - Recognition
A Comparison of Internal Need Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs SelfActualization Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory Achievement Growth
Motivator
Esteem Relatedness Power
Belonging
Hygiene Security Existence
Affiliation
Physiological
THE GOALS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES ARE TO EXPLAIN THOUGHTS ABOUT EFFORT:
1.) the decision to expend effort 2.) the level of effort to exert 3.) how effort can be made to persist over time
Expectancy Theory
Involves 3 cognitions/perceptions:
1. Expectancy the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance. E link the perceived probability that performance will lead to rewards. I link
2. Instrumentality -
3. Valence -
the anticipated value of a particular outcome to an individual.
Effort
Performance
Rewards or Outcomes I link
E link
EXPECTANCY THEORY
E
P Expectancy
Instrumentality or P O Theory
Valence
What is the probability What is the probability What value do I place that I can perform at that my good performance on the potential the required level will lead to outcomes? outcomes? if I try?
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
EXPECTANCY THEORY
Motivation to Exert Effort
E Link
Level of Performance or Production
Money (+9) Promotion (+6) I Job Satisfaction (+1) Link Peer Disapproval (-8)
Partial Test of Expectancy Theory
Rewards or Outcomes -Earn high grades -Feeling of accomplishment -Learning something practical
E
Effort
Implications for Managers
• Need to offer employees valued rewards (high valences) • Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E link (Provide tools, info, support) • Need to make sure that you follow through with reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain the I link (Differential rewards for performance)
Equity Theory
Also involves 3 relevant perceptions: 1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task. (e.g., pay) 2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task. 3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a REFERENCE PERSON. If: Outcomes Self = Inputs Self Then equity exists. Inputs Reference Person Outcomes Reference Person
Equity Theory
Equitable Situation:
Outcomes Self Job Inputs Self
=
Outcomes Reference Person Job Inputs Reference Person
Inequitable Situations:
A. Under-reward (from Self’s point of view)
Outcomes/Inputs Self 4/5
<
Outcomes/Inputs Reference Person 5/5
B. Over-reward (from Self’s point of view)
Outcomes/Inputs Self 5/4
>
Outcomes/Inputs Reference Person 5/5
Examples
You
3 4 <
Ref. Person
4 4 Outcomes Inputs
Ways to Reduce Tension
a. increase outcomes like ask for a raise (? Your outcome 3 to a 4)
b. reduce job inputs like ? effort
(? Your input 4 to a 3) “Under-reward” (What YOU is, objectively)
4
>
3
Outcomes
a. increase job inputs like work
3
harder (? Your input 3 to a 4) b. reduce outcomes ? refuse pay raise ? decline promotion, unrealistic “Over-reward Condition” (What YOU is, objectively)
3
Inputs
Restoring Equity
Under-reward:
Increase outcomes Reduce inputs
Over-reward: Increase inputs Reduce Outcomes (?)
Other Options:
Leave situation Alter perceptions Change reference person
REASONING BEHIND GOAL SETTING
Direction
Effort
-
specific goals direct your focus to relevant activities
need to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficult goals - assumes people are goal driven specific, difficult goals encourage you to persist longer at a task than would be the case without such goals
Persistence -
Representative Goal Setting Study
Goal Concept & Sample Item Goal Challenge- 4 items (my full range of ability must be used to reach my goals) Goal Clarity- 5 items (The goals for my job are easy to understand) Goal Feedback- 6 items (The feedback I receive concerning my goal progress is helpful) Goal Participation- 4 items (My supervisor asks my opinion when goals are set) Effort Unexcused Absenteeism Quality Defects
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
not related
-
-
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
• Some view as an explanation of motivation; others limit it to how motivation is sustained over time. • Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or cognitions. Managers can design work environment to provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired behaviors & weaken undesired behaviors. “Motivation is a function of the environment. • Others allow for cognitions in that people can observe rewards and punishments applied to others. Called social learning or vicarious learning.
Motivation as a Form of Learning: The Law of Effect
• Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be repeated • Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or toward punishment tends to be avoided • The type of reinforcer & the timing (schedule) of reinforcement are key
Reinforcers Which Strength Behavior
a. Positive reinforcement --rewards contingent on exhibiting the correct behavior. b. Negative Reinforcement—controlling reinforcers such that the employee learns s/he can avoid an unpleasant outcome (e.g., an annoying alarm) by engaging in a desired behavior (not operating in reverse). Or, noticing how engaging in some behavior avoids an unpleasant outcome (e.g., avoiding eye contact with a professor to avoid being called upon). Similar to avoiding punishment by social or vicarious learning.
Reinforcers Which Weaken Behavior
a. Punishment--administering unpleasant consequences following an undesirable behavior.
b. Extinction--when there are no rewards for a behavior which was previously rewarded.
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
1. Based on passage of time Fixed Interval- Reinforcer given after set period of time. Weekly pay. Variable Interval- Reinforcer given randomly with passage of time. Surprise bonus based on time.
2. Based on behavior exhibited by the employee (team) Fixed Ratio- Reinforcers based on behaviors. Piece rate.
Variable Ratio- Reinforcers applied randomly after exhibition of behaviors. A company vacation to Hawaii for all employees after new contract landed.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Spacing or Timing of Reinforcer
Fixed Number of Behaviors (ratio) Fixed Ratio -piece rate Variable Variable Ratio -door to door sales
Basis for determining frequency of reinforcer
Passage of time (interval)
Fixed Interval -weekly paycheck
Variable Interval -Occasional praise by boss
Summary of Motivation Theories
A. View all these approaches as a “bag of tricks.” Alternatives to choose from, remembering that all are not compatible. B. Judge whether you believe each “works.” Rely on the scientific data presented, your experiences, and your common sense.
C. Evaluate your prospects for successfully implementing each one--we all vary in our interpersonal skills and ability to render social rewards sincerely.
D. The question is not whether each of these approaches to motivation works, but where and when they work best.
doc_225383671.ppt