Description
A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance. Decision support systems can be either fully computerized, human or a combination of both.
Marketing Study on Golden Triangle for New Era
2 CB E through CCB and OCB
ABSTRACT
This research attempts to propose a concept in Marketing New Era to present an approach (Golden Triangle) for achieving customer based brand equity (CBBE) through customer citizenship behavior (CCB) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) with human resource empowerment (HRE) in Age of Participation (AOP). The 11 stage Procedure for building this conceptual model is considered as: 1) preparation of individuals and management; 2) requirements for empowerment process and utilization of three international aspect of empowerment : National, Culture, Values; 3) three dimensions of HRE process and their symbolic aspects;4)HRE emergence; 5) OCB dimensions in their innate forms and their enforcement during these procedures; 6) instrumental factors in creating OCB and outcome of HRE in one procedure; 7) OCB symbolism and reach employee empowerment; 8) consequences of OCB and use them for reach to creating factors of CCB; 9) Creating factors of CCB and overlapping with consequences of OCB;10)CCB emergence and contextual factors of CCB and finally 11)reach to CBBE. The results of this study showed that eight factors out of eleven (73 percents of factors) that make up OCB and consequences of HRE and also fifteen factors out of eighteen (83 percent of factors) that make up CCB and consequences of OCB are analogous indicating the fundamental relationship of HRE with OCB and OCB with CCB and CCB with CBBE.
Field of Research: Marketing Key words
Organization Citizenship2 Behavior (OCB), Customer Citizenship Behavior (CCB), Customer Based Brand Equity (CB E), Age of Participation (AOP), Marketing Golden Triangles (MGT), Total Participation Management (TPM), Human Resource Empowerment (HRE)
1. INTRODUCTION
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As the world changed over the past decades because of the technology evolution, so did marketing. Long ago during the industrial age ,where the core technology was industrial machinery, marketing was about selling products to a target market without considering the needs and wants. This was Marketing 1.0 or the product-centric era. The famous saying of Henry Ford marked this era: "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black." In Marketing 1.0, there were many misconceptions of marketing. Marketing was considered as mere selling, an art of persuasion, and even cheating. When it comes to today's information age - where the core is information technology- the job of marketing is no longer that simple. Consumers are well informed and can compare several values offerings of similar products. The product value is defined by the consumer. It is a must for marketers to identify unfulfilled needs and wants and convert them into profitable opportunities. This is Marketing 2.0 or the customer-centric era. Marketing continues to have a bad name in many circles because many marketers are simply after profit and carry on tricks in pricing, bait many circles because many marketers are simply after profit and carry on tricks in pricing, and switching, packaging, and false claims without really putting an effort to focus on the customers. We will soon witness the rise of Marketing 3.0 or the human-centric era where consumers will be treated as human beings who are active, anxious, and creative. They will request more participation in value creation. They will demand their deepest anxieties and desires—not traditional needs and wants—identified and fulfilled. They will ask for their creativity to be appreciated. It is no wonder that CEO, Scott McNealy of Sun Microsystems once argued "We have moved beyond the information age to the age of participation. The heavy growth towards technology that enables participation justifies this statement. In the age of participation, people create news, ideas, and entertainment as well as consuming them"(Kartajaya and Kotler 2007).(Figures 1-2)
Figure 1: Management Golden Triangle 1 (Ages in Management) Figure 2: Management Golden Triangle 2 (Marketing Eras)
2. LITRETURE REVIEW
2.1 Organizational Citizenship Behavior Concepts Individual behavior in the workplace has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers over the past decade. Different types of behavior have been explored when analyzing this concept. These behaviors include "pro-social behavior", "extra-role behavior", and "organizational citizenship behavior". A common objective of these studies has been to define a type of individual behavior which is believed to contribute to the long-term success of the service company, and which had previously been neglected when assessing employee performance (Dyne et al., 1994). (Figure 3)
Figure 3: Management Golden Triangle 3 (Individual behavior in the workplace)
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Organizational citizenship behavior is a personal and volunteer behavior that is not mentioned directly in official rewards system of an organization. However, it contributes to effectiveness and efficiency in an organization. A collection of volunteer and non-obligatory behavior that is not defined in the official employee job descriptions but contribute to effective improvement of duties and roles in an organization. This definition emphasize on three main characteristics of citizenship behavior. The behavior should: 1) be voluntary (they are not pre-defined obligations and are not included in official job descriptions), 2) be beneficial to organization and 3) be multidimensional. (Figure 4)
Figure 4: Management Golden Triangle 4 (Characteristics of OCB)
2.1.1 Dimensions of Citizenship Behavior The number of studies exploring this topic has significantly increased. However, there is still a lack of consensus regarding the dimensionality of the OCB construct (LePine et al., 2002). Podsakoff et al. (2000) compiled a detailed classification of such behaviors, which were grouped into seven categories: (Figure 5)
Figure 5: Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
2.1.2 Types of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational obedience; Organizational loyalty; Organizational participation (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).(Figure 6)
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Figure 6: Management Golden Triangle 5 (Types of OCB)
2.1.3 Creating Factors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Factors mentioned to be instrumental in establishing organizational citizenship behavior are: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational identity, organizational fairness, trust, leadership types, leader-follower relationship, organizational performance, organizational effectiveness, organizational success, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, social capital, etc (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). (Figure 7)
Figure 7: Creating Factors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
2.1.4 Actualization Benefits of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Resulting benefits from organizational citizenship behavior that can be instrumental in organizational success are as follows: Increased efficiency of management and employees; Releasing organizational resources that can be used for more productive purposes; Reduced needs to allocate scarce resources for functions that only maintain the status quo; Helping coordinating activities within and outside work groups; Increased organizational ability to attract and keep efficient employees; Increased stability of organizational performance; Improved effectiveness and efficiency of organizational performance; Help to organizational adaptation to environmental changes; Increased customer loyalty; Increased job satisfaction; Increased service quality; Increased customer satisfaction; Reduce employee defection rates; Decreased Organizational dysfunctional behavior; Enables employee-management communications; Increased customer commitment;
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• Increased organizational commitment; • Increased employee satisfaction, employee motivation; • Increased organizational ability to attract and keep efficient employees (Nezakati and
Asgari, 2009). 2.2 Human Resource Empowerment Concepts The first time empowerment was used in history was back in 1788 when empowerment was defined as the authorization vested in an individual or included in his role in an organization. Empowerment to denote individual's willingness to accept responsibility was a term officially used for the first time to represent accountability. Prior t o its adaptation as a management term, the word empowerment was most often used in fields such as politics, social work, feminist theory, and Third World aid Writers in these fields have taken it to mean providing(usually disadvantaged)individuals with the tools and resources to further their own interests, as they see them. Within the field of management, empowerment is commonly used with different meaning: providing employees with tools, resources, and discretion to further the interests of the organization (as seen by senior management) (Conger and Kanugo, 1988). 2.2.1 Employee Empowerment The verb "Empower" means to enable, to allow, or to permit .Building upon this simple definition, employee empowerment is synonymous with delegation, or sharing of power with subordinates (Conger, 1989). For example, one specific definition of employee empowerment is to view it as a process whereby an individual's belief in his or her self-efficacy is enhanced. More specifically, (Conger and Kanungo, 1988:479) state that empowerment "is a process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information."Several empowerment perspectives have been posited that vary in terms of the degree of employee self-influence (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). (Figure 8)
Figure 8: Management Golden Triangle 6 (Employee Empowerment)
2.2.2 Techniques and Tools to Establish Empowerment in Organizations • Implementing suggestion system in organization; • Establishing quality centers; • Creating work groups; • Creation and utilization of appropriate performance evaluation system and selection of top employees for a designated period; • Creation of a motivating environment; • Job enrichment (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). 2.2.3 Individual Background for Empowerment Process
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Skills, competence and capability; Skills for special process; Improvement of discretionary behaviors; Communication (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
2.2.4 Fundamental Principals of Empowerment Mental capacity; Authorization; Creating motivation for leadership; Creative and innovative environment; Profession and professional empowerment; Resource procurement ; Persuasion and encouragement; Building trust; Bidirectional communication (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). 2.2.5 Requirements for Employee Empowerment Process Clarity of objectives, responsibilities and authorities in an organization; Employee job enrichment and advancement; Organizational mentality and membership; Trust, association and honesty; Recognition, appreciation, persuasion and encouragement; Participation and group activity; Communication; Work environment; Process planning, management and improvement; Job information, knowledge and skill (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
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2.2.6 Empowerment Process Empowerment is not an obligation and it is not the end of an activity. It is a becoming process and it should be considered as part of organizational culture. Empowerment process can be best described in three procedures: Sharing information; Work independence or self-determination; Replacing traditional hierarchical structure with work groups (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
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2.2.7 Advantages of Empowerment Higher employee, customer, client satisfaction; Positive feelings among employees about themselves and their jobs; Utilizing employee capabilities and competence to increase their performance; Increased feelings of commitment and attachment among employees; Achieving organizational objectives with ease; Increased feelings of job ownership among employees;
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Reduced wastage and costs; Lowered direct supervision on employee performance; Lowered job tension, accidents, and incidents; Change of attitude among employees from having to wanting; Better communication between management and employees (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
2.2.8 International perspective of OCB and HRE: Culture, National, Values A core concept in much of the current work on international aspects of organizational behavior is that of culture. (Erez and Earley, 1993) There are a number of ways that researchers have defined culture. A widely accepted definition was proposed by Clyde Kluckhohn, who summarized the anthropologist's definition of culture as "Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values." There are many other commonly applied definitions of culture as well, including (Herskovits, 1955:305) who defined culture as the human made part of the environment, whereas (Triandis ,1994) and (Osgood ,1974) define it as a perception of the human-made part of the environment. Definitions vary from a very limited and focused view that culture is a set of shared meaning systems, to a broad and encompassing view that it consists of the untested assumptions of how and why to behave. (Hofstede, 1991) defines culture as a set of mental programs that control an individual's responses in a given context. The most general view of culture is that is some shared set of characteristics in common to a particular group of people. We can view culture as a function of interrelated systems (Erez and Earley, 1993) including the ecology, subsistence, socio cultural, individual, and inter-individual systems. The ecological system refers to the physical environment, resources, and geography of people.(Triandis, 1994). (Figure 9)
Figure 9: Management Golden Triangle 7 (International perspective of OCB and HRE)
2.3 Customer Citizenship Behavior Concepts A series of studies recognize the role of positive customer functions and proposes concepts such as customer citizenship behavior and voluntary performance. Bettencourt (1997, p. 384) defines customer voluntary performance as "helpful, discretionary behaviors of customers that support the ability of the firm to deliver service quality." Groth (2005) defines customer citizenship behavior as voluntary and discretionary behavior by individual customers that is not directly or explicitly expected or rewarded, but that aggregates into higher service quality and promotes the effective functioning of service organizations (e.g., helping another customer or providing suggestions to the service organization).Service companies now increasingly involve their customers in the production and delivery of services. Consequently, they have come to view
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customers as human resources of their companies (Bowen and Schneider 1985; Zeithaml, Bitner, and Gremler 2005). Furthermore, the simultaneity of production and consumption of services requires customer participation in the delivery of the service, and customers are becoming close cooperators in the service encounter, contributing both suggestions and feedback so as to improve service delivery (Keh and Teo 2001). Moreover, service customers can also directly influence the company's production process and outcome. If customers are motivated and able to use various self-service elements, the service company may be able to invest fewer inputs and still enhance productivity (Ojasalos 2003). Chervonnaya (2003) emphasizes the "chameleon" nature of service customers and notes that customers can recommend a service to others, participate in evaluating service quality during service delivery, and serve as resources by contributing information to decision making by service employees. Bitner et al. (1997) describe the various roles of customers as productive resources, as contributors to quality, satisfaction and value, and as competitors to the service organization. Hsieh, Yen, and Chin (2004) argue that service customers can raise organizational productivity and improve company performance, customer satisfaction, repurchase, and referral. According to Lengnick-Hall (1996), competitiveness can be improved by customers who encourage high-quality performance through stimulating the firm into creating high-quality processes. A customer is thus a coproducer of services, and marketing can be seen as a process of doing things interactively with the customer (Vargo and Lusch 2004). In this manner, customers are often active participants in relational exchange and coproduction. Customers can make suggestions for service improvement, cooperate during the service encounter, engage in positive word of- mouth, buy additional services, make recommendations to others, and increase price tolerance (Bettencourt 1997; Anderson, Fornell, and Mazvancheryl 2004). Lengnick-Hall, Claycomb, and Inks (2000) discuss organizational citizenship behavior by customers. They argue that the benefits of organizational citizenship behavior are considerable and include acts of cooperation, helpfulness, and kindliness. If all customers use equipment properly and promote a positive social environment, they will enjoy and benefit from the service experience. Conceptual differences are evident between customer citizenship behavior and customer participation behavior. Customer participation behavior (CPB) refers to the actions of and resources supplied by customers for service production and delivery (Rodie and Kleine 2000). Similarly, Keh and Teo (2001) describe CPB as behavior that customers are literally required to perform during their service encounter. Kelley, Donnelly, and Skinner (1990) use customers of financial institutions who provide detailed records of their credit history as well as clients of accounting firms which also provide information, as examples of customer participation behavior. If customers do not fulfill the required action properly, the delivery of service will not succeed. It is thus concluded that in certain service contexts, customer participation behavior is the required action for service delivery. However, customers may choose to cooperate with service providers, make suggestions to the service organization, and help other customers beyond mere passive behavior in the context of service provision (Bettencourt 1997; Groth 2005; Keh and Teo 2001). However, even if customers do not perform such extra role behaviors voluntarily, service failure would not necessarily occur. 2.3.1 Types of Customer Citizenship Behavior Bettencourt (1997) conceptualized three generic types of customer voluntary behaviors, the customer as (1) promoter of the firm, i.e., loyalty, (2) human resource, i.e., cooperation, (3) organizational consultant, i.e., participation. Groth (2003a) identified three dimensions of CCB i.e., recommendations to friends and family, providing feedback to the organization, and helping other customers. Robertson et al. (2003) reviewed the CCB literature and reported inconsistencies
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in identifying the different forms of CCB. They reorganized and refined them into eight major categories. (Figures 10-11)
Figure 10: Management Golden Triangle 8 (Types of Customer Voluntary Behavior) Figure 11: Management Golden Triangle 9 (Dimensions of CCB)
Eight main types of customer citizenship behaviors were isolated from the literature. These included: positive word of mouth behavior (Gremler and Gwinner 2000; Harrison-Walker 2001); relationship affiliation (Gruen, 1995); suggestions for service improvements (Bettencourt 1997); policing of other customers (Podsakoff et al. 1990); customer voice behavior (Singh 1988; Spake et al. 2003); customer flexibility (Gruen,1995); customer participation (Podsakoff et al. 1990; Gruen,1995) and benevolent acts of service facilitation (Bettencourt, 1997). (Figures 12)
Figure 12: Types of Customer Citizenship Behavior
3. Customer Based Brand Equity Concepts Two questions often arise regarding brands: 'What makes a brand strong?' and 'How do you build a strong brand?' To answer these questions, this study introduces the customer-based brand equity (CBBE) model. This model incorporates theoretical advances and managerial practices in understanding and influencing consumer behavior. Although useful perspectives concerning brand equity have been put forth, the CBBE model provides a unique point of view as to what brand equity is and how it should be built, measured and managed. The CBBE model approaches brand equity from the perspective of the consumer - whether this be an individual or an organization. Understanding the needs and wants of consumers and organizations and devising products and campaigns to satisfy them are at the heart of successful marketing. In particular, two fundamental questions faced by marketers are: 'What do different brands mean to consumers?' and 'How does the brand knowledge of consumers affect their response to marketing activity?' Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect that brand knowledge has on consumer response to the marketing of that brand. A brand is said to have positive customer9
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based brand equity when consumers react more favorably to a product and the way it is marketed when the brand is identified than when it is not (eg, when the product is attributed to a fictitious name or is unnamed). Thus, a brand with positive customer-based brand equity might result in consumers being more accepting of a brand extension, less sensitive to price increases and withdrawal of advertising support or more willing to seek the brand in a new distribution channel. On the other hand, a brand is said to have negative customer-based brand equity if consumers react less favorably to marketing activity for the brand compared with an unnamed or fictitiously named version of the product. There are three ingredients to this definition: • differential effect; • brand knowledge; • Consumer response to marketing. First, brand equity arises from differences in consumer response. If no differences occur, then the brand name product is essentially a commodity. Competition, most likely, would then be based on price. Second, these differences in response are a result of consumers' knowledge and experience of the brand. Thus, although strongly influenced by the marketing activity of the firm, brand equity ultimately depends on what resides in the minds of consumers. Third, the differential response by consumers that makes up the brand equity is reflected in perceptions, preferences and behavior related to all aspects of the marketing (eg, choice of a brand, recall of copy points from an ad, actions in response to a sales promotion or evaluations of a proposed brand extension). The simplest way to illustrate what is meant by customer-based brand equity is to consider some typical results of product sampling or comparison tests. For example, with blind taste tests, one group of consumers samples a product without knowing which brand it is, whereas another group samples the product knowing which brand it is. Invariably, differences arise in the opinions of the two groups even though they are consuming the same product. 3.1 Brand equity as a bridge So, according to the customer-based brand equity model, the power of a brand lies in the minds of consumers or customers and what they have experienced and learned about the brand over time. Consumer knowledge drives the differences that manifest themselves in terms of brand equity. This realization has important managerial implications. In an abstract sense, according to this view, brand equity provides marketers with a strategic bridge from their past to their future. 3.1.1 Brands as a reflection of the past Money spent each year on manufacturing and marketing products should not be considered as 'expenses' but as 'investments' - investments in what consumers learned, felt, experienced and so forth about the brand. If not properly designed and implemented, these expenditures may not be good investments, in that the right knowledge structures may not have been created in consumers' minds, but they should be considered investments nonetheless. Thus, the quality of the investment is the most critical factor, not necessarily the quantity, beyond some minimal threshold. In that sense, it is actually possible to 'overspend' on brand building if money is not being spent wisely. Conversely, as will be evident in this book, some brands that are being considerably outspent by rivals can amass brand equity by judicious spending on marketing activities that create valuable, enduring memories in the minds of consumers. 3.1.2 Brands as a direction for the future At the same time, the brand knowledge created by these marketing investments dictates appropriate and inappropriate directions for the brand. Consumers will decide, based on their
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brand beliefs, attitudes and so on, where they think the brand should go and grant permission (or not) to any marketing action or programme. So, at the end of the day, the true value and future prospects of a brand rest with consumers and their knowledge about the brand. In short, regardless of the definition adopted, the value to marketers of brand equity as a concept depends on how they use it. Brand equity can offer focus and guidance, providing marketers with a means to interpret their marketing performance and help design marketing campaigns. Everything the firm does can enhance or detract from brand equity. Those marketers who build strong brands have embraced the concept and use it to its fullest as a means of clarifying, communicating and implementing their marketing actions.
4. DATA AND METHODOLODY This research attempts to propose a concept in Marketing New Era to present an approach (Golden Triangle) for achieving customer based brand equity (CBBE) through customer citizenship behavior (CCB) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) with human resource empowerment (HRE) in Age of Participation. This study firstly tries to draw a summary from the volume of researches in the field of Human Resources Management (HRM) and show the fundamental role of (HRE) in (OCB) as a preferred representative of social behaviors and then reach to (CCB) and (CBBE) that is really important at this new era, using simplification and a modeling approach that includes relationships and overlapping the factors and elements to introduce them as a tool for organizations to pass through the new age of participation (HumanCentric Era). Secondly, Propose the idea of Marketing Golden Triangles (Management Golden triangle as a whole concept) to simplify and showing this concept as the easier method to recognize and implementing of theoretical, Subjective or objective factors, elements or subjects. Achieving scientific objectives or understanding and analyzing scientific subjects are only possible if it is done in an organizational setting using appropriate methodology. Research methods, as a guide, are divided based on objectives, methodology and data collection approaches that are used to achieve research objectives. Applied research (also called practical or management research) is research that engenders data, insights, methods, concepts and views often derived from the knowledge gathered during the course of fundamental research - which is applicable for a specific organizational or managerial problem. Applied research strives (a) to obtain knowledge about a particular issue, etc. in the organization and (b) to contribute to the improvement of that issue, etc. leading to problem solving. In general a conceptual model is nothing more than an abstraction way to perceive a specific part, function, property or aspect of reality (Jonker & Pennink, 2010) (Holtom & Fisher, 1999). Due to mentioned theoretical background, research design of this study is based on applied research because of its objectives, using of principals and techniques formulated for basic research to solve operational and real issues in an organization. This research also is descriptive for the method it uses - it describes and interprets whatever that exists. It takes into account the existing conditions and relationships, prevalent thoughts, current processes, observable effects or progressive trends. Its outmost focus is on present, although it often reviews past events and effects related to the existing conditions. On the base of studies (Sekaran, 2003), secondary data (library research) was the base of data collection for this study and used NVivo X8 software for gathering data and analyze them. Therefore, by the essence of this research any hypothesis is not launched and consequently for research setting; designing questionnaire, population and sampling, validity and reliability tests and statistical analysis are not to be needed. (Figure 14)
Figure 14: Management Golden Triangle 11 (Methodology of studies)
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4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Procedures for Building the Model (CCB through HRE and OCB): Stages 1-11 Stage 1: Managerial Techniques and Tools to Establish HRE and Individual Background for HRE Process
Figure 15: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 1)
Human resources empowerment start with individual (four characteristics: skill, competence, special process skills, discretionary behavior improvement and communication skills) and management preparation (six characteristics: implementing suggestion system, establishing quality centers, creating work groups, utilization of evaluation system, creating motivating possibilities, Job enrichment). (Figure 15)
Stage 2: Requirements for employee empowerment process and three International aspects of HRE
Figure 16: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 2)
Empowerment process requirements (ten characteristics: clarity of objectives, responsibilities and authorities; employee job enrichment and advancement; organizational mentality and membership; trust, association and honesty; recognition, appreciation, persuasion and encouragement; participation and group activity; communication; work environment; process planning, management and improvement; job information, knowledge and skill) and utilizing utilization of three international aspect of empowerment : National, Culture, Values. (Figure 16)
Stage 3: Empowerment Process
Figure 17: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 3)
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Empowerment process can be implemented by three procedures: sharing information; employee independence or self-determination; replacing traditional hierarchical structure with flat structure. (Figure 17)
Stage 4: Emergence HRE
Figure 18: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 4)
Benefits drawn from three procedures of empowerment process manifest themselves in completely distinct ways (sharing information leads to increased knowledge; self-determination leads to higher skill levels, and flat structure leads to increased motivation among employees) (Figure 18) Stage 5: Dimensions of OCB
Figure 19: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 5)
When employee empowerment becomes apparent, (employees become empowered) dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior (seven features: helping behavior, devotion, organizational loyalty, organizational obedience, individual initiative, civil virtue, and self development) that presumably and naturally exist in every person find opportunity to emerge and flourish. That is to say, all followed procedures manifest themselves as empowering features. (Figure 19) Stage 6: Creating Factors of OCB and Advantages of Empowerment A key point shapes at this point. Eight out of eleven factors (73 percent) that develop into organizational citizenship behavior and results of human resource empowerment are one by one analogous. Consequently, we can deduce that most of these factors overlap. (job satisfaction with increased employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction with increased customer good will, organizational commitment with increased feelings of commitment, leader-follower relationship with improved employeemanagement communication, organizational success with achieving organizational objectives, organizational performance with increased employee performance, organizational identity with increased feelings of ownership by employees, types of leadership with reduced direct supervision) (Figure 20)
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Figure 20: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 6)
Stage 7: OCB Emergence and Employee Empowerment In this step, employees show organizational citizenship behavior in form of obedience, loyalty and participation (separately or together). In other words, individual talent (OCB dimensions) actualizes given right environment and empowerment process that provides elements of OCB for reach to Organization Citizenship behavior with employee empower with three major dimensions: SelfManagement; Self-Regulation and Self-Leadership. (Figure 21)
Figure 21: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 7)
Stage 8: Advantages of OCB Benefits of organizational citizenship resulting from all changes that have taken place at different levels in an organization can be observed, measured and evaluated in eighteen dimensions: increased efficiency of management and organization, releasing
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organizational resources, reduced maintenance cost, helping coordinating activities, increased organizational ability to attract and keep efficient employees, increased stability of organizational performance, increased organizational commitment, help to organizational adaptation to environmental changes, Increased customer loyalty, increased service quality, Increased employee satisfaction, increased job satisfaction, increased employee motivation, enables employee-management communications, improve working environment, reduce employee defection rates, increased customer satisfaction, increased customer commitment, and decreased employee dysfunctional behavior, these factors affect directly on creating factors of CCB at next stage. fifteen out of eighteen factors (83 percent) that develop into customer citizenship behavior and results of citizenship behavior are one by one analogous. Consequently, we can deduce that most of these factors overlap. (Figure 22)
Figure 22: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 8)
Stage 9: Creating factors of CCB At this stage, these fifteen factors that create CCB at organizations. These factors affected directly and have overlap with OCB advantages factors at stage 8; creating factors of CCB include: Customer loyalty, Customer perceived service quality, Customer satisfaction, Customer commitment, Decreased customer dysfunctional behavior, Organizational Citizenship behavior, Service customer justice, Organizational performance, Organizational profitability, Employee-customer relationship, Decreased Organizational dysfunctional behavior, Employee perceptions and performance, Job Satisfaction, Organizational involvement, Perceived organizational justice, Customer personality (Five factor model).(Figure 23)
Figure 23: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 9)
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Stage 10: CCB emergence and Contextual factors of CCB In this step, customers show customer citizenship behavior in form of Relationship affiliation, Suggestions for service improvements, Benevolent acts of service facilitation, Positive word of mouth behavior, Policing of other customers, Customer flexibility, Customer voice behavior , Customer participation (separately or together). In other words, individual talent (OCB dimensions) actualizes given right environment and empowerment process that provides elements of OCB for reach to Organization Citizenship behavior with employee empower with three major dimensions: Self-Management; Self-Regulation and Self-Leadership and then overlapping creating factors of CCB and advantages OCB help us reach to CCB emergence and also contextual factors of CCB that affected on these factors. (Figure 24)
Figure 24: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 10)
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Stage 11: Increasing Brand Equity based on CBBE At this stage after going through the Human Resource Empowerment, Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Customer Citizenship Behavior as participation behaviors at Age of Participation we reach to higher brand equity based on CBBE (Figure 25)
Figure 25: Model of accessing Customer Based Brand Equity and Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Customer Citizenship behavior with Human Resource Empowerment at the age of participation (Stages 1-11)
5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1 Overlapping Advantages of HRE and OCB Creating Factors Human being as the main building block of organizations should be considered as an investment (and not expense). Higher human resources empowerment should lead organization closer to achieving its operational objectives. The results from HRE have key role in OCB factors. Overlapping of eight (73 percent) out of eleven factors and their one on one analogy are indicative of close relationship between two concepts. All building elements of HRE and its operational procedures prepare the groundwork and empower human actualization in an organization. OCB is the platform where these innate features manifest themselves. (Figure 26)
Figure 26: Fostering Organizational Citizenship Behavior through Human Resource Empowerment
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5.2 Overlapping Advantages of OCB and CCB Creating Factors The results from OCB have key role in CCB factors. Overlapping of fifteen (83 percent) out of eleven factors and their one on one analogy are indicative of close relationship between two concepts. All building elements of OCB and its operational procedures prepare the groundwork and empower customer actualization in competitive environment as the most importance resource for organizations at age of participation. (Figure 27-28)
Figure 27: Fostering Customer Citizenship Behavior through Organizational Citizenship Behavior
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Figure 28: Management Golden Triangle 11 (Marketing Golden Triangle for New Era CCB,OCB,CBBE)
This study had limited funds and time like other research activities. Due to extended studies in the subject of human resources empowerment, organizational citizenship behavior and customer citizenship behavior at international level, it was difficult to summarize different researchers points of view related to basic concepts and their applications. At this stage of research, the presented model was to be considered as a Conceptual Model only. Because field study was not conducted for this research, proposal for pilot study (experimental) was not proposed. First, Model of accessing CCB through HRE and OCB needed to be tested at the different companies throughout the world, regarding to environmental situations. Second, there is consensus about the antecedents of OCB and CCB across variant cultures. To investigate the underlying reasons causing this interesting phenomenon, it would be worthwhile to explore other possible antecedents e.g. Organizational Dysfunctional behavior, Customer Dysfunctional Behavior, Innovative Citizenship Behavior; especially the indirect relationship should be taken into account. Third, in the related research in this study, there need to expand studies at age of participation especially Total Participation Management (TPM) as a new core concept at this new era and use other tools in management e.g. Total Empowerment Management (TEM) for managing effectively. There are several areas for possible future research. First, replication is needed to determine how the findings reported here correspond to the results of studies conducted in other work environments to ensure proper generalization.
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Future researches also need to consider the moderating influences of person and situation-based factors on the relationship between HRE and OCB, OCB and CCB, CCB and HRE and other factors of TPM at this new era. Additionally, researcher may consider the respondents' position in future studies as findings may differ across jobs and contexts. Future studies need to examine the relationship between the five factor model and each of OCB and CCB dimensions, not the overall score of OCB in order to better understand the relationship between CCB and OCB and Customer Based Brand Equity(CBBE) at this new marketing era. Another area for possible research is the development of a global model applicable to different types of services, given that the relationship between the agents involved can differ depending on the nature of the service and there is the possible analysis and comparison of different companies with a view to an in-depth study of customer loyalty and its influence on profitability.
References
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Bitner, M.J. (1995), "Building service relationships: its all about promises", Journal of Academy of Marketing Science. Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 246-51. Bitner, M.J., Booms, B.H. and Mohr, L.A. (1994), "Critical service encounters: the employee's viewpoint", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, pp. 95-106. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Bowen, David E. and B. Schneider (1985), "Boundary Spanning Role Employees and the Service Encounter: Some Guidelines for Management and Research," in The Service Encounter, J. A. Czepiel, M. R. Solomon, and C. Suprenant eds. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 127-47. Chervonnaya, Oxana (2003), "Customer Role and Skill Trajectories in Service," International Journal of Service Industry Management, 14(3), 347-63. Dyne, L.V., Graham, J.W. and Dienesch, R.M. (1994), "Organizational citizenship behavior: construct redefinition, measurement and validation", Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 765802. Gremler, D. D. and K. P. Gwinner (2000), "Customer-Employee Rapport in Service Relationships," Journal of Service Research, 3 (1), 82-104. Groth, M. (2003a). Customers as good soldiers: Examining citizenship behaviors in internet service deliveries. Manuscript under review. Groth, Markus (2005), "Customers as Good Soldiers: Examining Citizenship Behaviors in Internet Service Deliveries," Journal of Management, in press. Groth, Markus, Daniel P. Mertens, and Ryan O. Murphy (2004), "Customers as Good Soldiers: Extending Organizational Citizenship Behavior Research to the Customer Domain," in Handbook of Organizational Citizenship Behavior, David L. Turnipseed ed. Nova Science Publishers, Inc, 411-30. Gruen, T. W., Summers, J. O., & Acito, F. (2000). Relationship marketing activities, commitment, and membership behaviors in professional associations. Journal of Marketing, 64, 34-49. Gruen, T. W. (1995)."The Outcome Set of Relationship Marketing in Consumer Markets." International Business Review 4 (4): 447-69. Gwinner, K.P., Gremler, D. and Bitner, M.J. (1998), "Relational benefits in services industries: the consumer's perspective", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 101-14. Harrison-Walker, L. J. (2001), "The Measurement of Word-of-Mouth Communication and an Investigation of Service Quality and Customer Commitment as Potential Antecedents," Journal of Service Research, 4 (1), 60-75. Holtom, D. & Fisher, E. (1999). Enjoy Writing Your Science Thesis or Dissertation! a step by step guide to planning and writing dissertations and theses for undergraduate and graduate science students, Imperial College Press, ISBN 1-86094-090-0. Hsieh, An-Tien, Chang-Hua Yen, and Ko-Chien Chin (2004), "Participative Customers as Partial Employees and Service Provider Workload," International Journal of Service Industry Management, 15(2), 187-99
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Jonker, J.,& Pennink, B.(2010). The Essence of Research Methodology: A Concise Guide for Master and PhD Students in Management Science, ISBN: 978-3-540-71658-7. Kartajaya Hermawan, Kotler Philip (2007): Marketing 3.0 - Values-Driven Marketing, ISBN: 9792231471. Keh, H. T. and C. W. Teo (2001), "Retail Customers as Partial Employees in Service Provision: A Conceptual Framework," International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management 29 (8), 370-78. Kelley, Scott W., James H. Donnelly, Jr., and Steven J. Skinner (1990), "Customer Participation in Service Production and Delivery," Journal of Retailing, 66(3), 315-35. Lengnick-Hall, Cynthia A. (1996), "Customer Contributions to Quality: a Differential View of the Customer-Oriented Firm," Academy of Management Review, 21(3), 791-824. Lengnick-Hall, Vincentia Claycomb, and Lawrence W. Inks (2000), "From Recipient to Contributor: Examining Customer Roles and Experienced Outcomes," European Journal of Marketing, 34(3/4), 359-83. LePine, J.A., Erez, A. and Johnson, D. (2002), "The nature and dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior: a critical review and meta-analysis", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87 No. 1, pp. 52-65. Nezakati,H.,Kohzadi,V. Karimi,F. and Asgari,O. (2009). Fostering Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Through Human Resources Empowerment (HRE). Proceedings of the Dubai Conference 2009, pp. 1-20. Nezakati,H. (2009). Marketing Golden Triangles in 3rd Millennium Version (I). Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Pervasive Computing and Management, Graduate School of Business, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia, pp. 1-22. Nezakati,H. and Asgari,O. (2009). Marketing Golden Triangles for New Era (OCB Through HRE in AOP). Proceedings of the Global Academy of Business & Economic Research, The Grand Season Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 1-26. Ojasalo, Katri (2003), "Customer Influence on Service Productivity," S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, 68(3), 14-9. Oliver, R. L. (1997). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. New York: McGraw Hill. Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Podsakoff, P.M. and Mackenzie, S.B. (1994), "Organizational citizenship behaviors and sales unit effectiveness", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 351-64. Podsakoff, Philip M. and Scott B. Mackenzie (1997), "The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Organizational Performance: Review and Suggestions for Future Research," Human Performance, 10, 133-51.
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Podsakoff, Philip M. Scott B. Mackenzie, Julie Beth Paine, and Daniel G. Bachrach (2000), "Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research," Journal of Management, 26(3), 513-563. Podsakoff, P. M., S. B. MacKenzie, R. H. Moorman, and R. Fetter (1990), "Transformational Leader Behaviors and their Effects on Followers' Trust in Leader, Satisfaction, and Organizational Citizenship Behaviours," Leadership Quarterly, 1 (2), 107-42. Sekaran, U.,(2003). Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach, 4th Edition, John Willey & Sons, Ltd. Singh, J. (1988), "Consumer Complaint Intentions and Behavior: Definitional and Taxonomical Issues," Journal of Marketing, 52 (January), 93-107. Vargo, Stephen L. and Robert F. Lusch (2004), "Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing," Journal of Marketing, 68(January), 1-17. Zeithaml, V. (2000), "Service quality, profitability and the economic worth of customers: what we know and what we need to learn", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 28 Winter, pp. 67-85. Zeithaml, V., Berry, L. and Parasuraman, A. (1996), "The behavioral consequences of service quality", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 60, pp. 31-46. Zeithaml, Valarie A., Mary Jo Bitner, and Dwayne D. Gremler (2005), Services Marketing: Integrating Customer Focus across the Firm, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, Boston, MA.
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doc_572063407.docx
A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance. Decision support systems can be either fully computerized, human or a combination of both.
Marketing Study on Golden Triangle for New Era
2 CB E through CCB and OCB
ABSTRACT
This research attempts to propose a concept in Marketing New Era to present an approach (Golden Triangle) for achieving customer based brand equity (CBBE) through customer citizenship behavior (CCB) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) with human resource empowerment (HRE) in Age of Participation (AOP). The 11 stage Procedure for building this conceptual model is considered as: 1) preparation of individuals and management; 2) requirements for empowerment process and utilization of three international aspect of empowerment : National, Culture, Values; 3) three dimensions of HRE process and their symbolic aspects;4)HRE emergence; 5) OCB dimensions in their innate forms and their enforcement during these procedures; 6) instrumental factors in creating OCB and outcome of HRE in one procedure; 7) OCB symbolism and reach employee empowerment; 8) consequences of OCB and use them for reach to creating factors of CCB; 9) Creating factors of CCB and overlapping with consequences of OCB;10)CCB emergence and contextual factors of CCB and finally 11)reach to CBBE. The results of this study showed that eight factors out of eleven (73 percents of factors) that make up OCB and consequences of HRE and also fifteen factors out of eighteen (83 percent of factors) that make up CCB and consequences of OCB are analogous indicating the fundamental relationship of HRE with OCB and OCB with CCB and CCB with CBBE.
Field of Research: Marketing Key words
Organization Citizenship2 Behavior (OCB), Customer Citizenship Behavior (CCB), Customer Based Brand Equity (CB E), Age of Participation (AOP), Marketing Golden Triangles (MGT), Total Participation Management (TPM), Human Resource Empowerment (HRE)
1. INTRODUCTION
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As the world changed over the past decades because of the technology evolution, so did marketing. Long ago during the industrial age ,where the core technology was industrial machinery, marketing was about selling products to a target market without considering the needs and wants. This was Marketing 1.0 or the product-centric era. The famous saying of Henry Ford marked this era: "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black." In Marketing 1.0, there were many misconceptions of marketing. Marketing was considered as mere selling, an art of persuasion, and even cheating. When it comes to today's information age - where the core is information technology- the job of marketing is no longer that simple. Consumers are well informed and can compare several values offerings of similar products. The product value is defined by the consumer. It is a must for marketers to identify unfulfilled needs and wants and convert them into profitable opportunities. This is Marketing 2.0 or the customer-centric era. Marketing continues to have a bad name in many circles because many marketers are simply after profit and carry on tricks in pricing, bait many circles because many marketers are simply after profit and carry on tricks in pricing, and switching, packaging, and false claims without really putting an effort to focus on the customers. We will soon witness the rise of Marketing 3.0 or the human-centric era where consumers will be treated as human beings who are active, anxious, and creative. They will request more participation in value creation. They will demand their deepest anxieties and desires—not traditional needs and wants—identified and fulfilled. They will ask for their creativity to be appreciated. It is no wonder that CEO, Scott McNealy of Sun Microsystems once argued "We have moved beyond the information age to the age of participation. The heavy growth towards technology that enables participation justifies this statement. In the age of participation, people create news, ideas, and entertainment as well as consuming them"(Kartajaya and Kotler 2007).(Figures 1-2)
Figure 1: Management Golden Triangle 1 (Ages in Management) Figure 2: Management Golden Triangle 2 (Marketing Eras)
2. LITRETURE REVIEW
2.1 Organizational Citizenship Behavior Concepts Individual behavior in the workplace has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers over the past decade. Different types of behavior have been explored when analyzing this concept. These behaviors include "pro-social behavior", "extra-role behavior", and "organizational citizenship behavior". A common objective of these studies has been to define a type of individual behavior which is believed to contribute to the long-term success of the service company, and which had previously been neglected when assessing employee performance (Dyne et al., 1994). (Figure 3)
Figure 3: Management Golden Triangle 3 (Individual behavior in the workplace)
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Organizational citizenship behavior is a personal and volunteer behavior that is not mentioned directly in official rewards system of an organization. However, it contributes to effectiveness and efficiency in an organization. A collection of volunteer and non-obligatory behavior that is not defined in the official employee job descriptions but contribute to effective improvement of duties and roles in an organization. This definition emphasize on three main characteristics of citizenship behavior. The behavior should: 1) be voluntary (they are not pre-defined obligations and are not included in official job descriptions), 2) be beneficial to organization and 3) be multidimensional. (Figure 4)
Figure 4: Management Golden Triangle 4 (Characteristics of OCB)
2.1.1 Dimensions of Citizenship Behavior The number of studies exploring this topic has significantly increased. However, there is still a lack of consensus regarding the dimensionality of the OCB construct (LePine et al., 2002). Podsakoff et al. (2000) compiled a detailed classification of such behaviors, which were grouped into seven categories: (Figure 5)
Figure 5: Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
2.1.2 Types of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational obedience; Organizational loyalty; Organizational participation (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).(Figure 6)
• • •
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Figure 6: Management Golden Triangle 5 (Types of OCB)
2.1.3 Creating Factors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Factors mentioned to be instrumental in establishing organizational citizenship behavior are: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational identity, organizational fairness, trust, leadership types, leader-follower relationship, organizational performance, organizational effectiveness, organizational success, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, social capital, etc (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). (Figure 7)
Figure 7: Creating Factors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
2.1.4 Actualization Benefits of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Resulting benefits from organizational citizenship behavior that can be instrumental in organizational success are as follows: Increased efficiency of management and employees; Releasing organizational resources that can be used for more productive purposes; Reduced needs to allocate scarce resources for functions that only maintain the status quo; Helping coordinating activities within and outside work groups; Increased organizational ability to attract and keep efficient employees; Increased stability of organizational performance; Improved effectiveness and efficiency of organizational performance; Help to organizational adaptation to environmental changes; Increased customer loyalty; Increased job satisfaction; Increased service quality; Increased customer satisfaction; Reduce employee defection rates; Decreased Organizational dysfunctional behavior; Enables employee-management communications; Increased customer commitment;
• • • • • • • • • • • •
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• Increased organizational commitment; • Increased employee satisfaction, employee motivation; • Increased organizational ability to attract and keep efficient employees (Nezakati and
Asgari, 2009). 2.2 Human Resource Empowerment Concepts The first time empowerment was used in history was back in 1788 when empowerment was defined as the authorization vested in an individual or included in his role in an organization. Empowerment to denote individual's willingness to accept responsibility was a term officially used for the first time to represent accountability. Prior t o its adaptation as a management term, the word empowerment was most often used in fields such as politics, social work, feminist theory, and Third World aid Writers in these fields have taken it to mean providing(usually disadvantaged)individuals with the tools and resources to further their own interests, as they see them. Within the field of management, empowerment is commonly used with different meaning: providing employees with tools, resources, and discretion to further the interests of the organization (as seen by senior management) (Conger and Kanugo, 1988). 2.2.1 Employee Empowerment The verb "Empower" means to enable, to allow, or to permit .Building upon this simple definition, employee empowerment is synonymous with delegation, or sharing of power with subordinates (Conger, 1989). For example, one specific definition of employee empowerment is to view it as a process whereby an individual's belief in his or her self-efficacy is enhanced. More specifically, (Conger and Kanungo, 1988:479) state that empowerment "is a process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information."Several empowerment perspectives have been posited that vary in terms of the degree of employee self-influence (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). (Figure 8)
Figure 8: Management Golden Triangle 6 (Employee Empowerment)
2.2.2 Techniques and Tools to Establish Empowerment in Organizations • Implementing suggestion system in organization; • Establishing quality centers; • Creating work groups; • Creation and utilization of appropriate performance evaluation system and selection of top employees for a designated period; • Creation of a motivating environment; • Job enrichment (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). 2.2.3 Individual Background for Empowerment Process
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• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Skills, competence and capability; Skills for special process; Improvement of discretionary behaviors; Communication (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
2.2.4 Fundamental Principals of Empowerment Mental capacity; Authorization; Creating motivation for leadership; Creative and innovative environment; Profession and professional empowerment; Resource procurement ; Persuasion and encouragement; Building trust; Bidirectional communication (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009). 2.2.5 Requirements for Employee Empowerment Process Clarity of objectives, responsibilities and authorities in an organization; Employee job enrichment and advancement; Organizational mentality and membership; Trust, association and honesty; Recognition, appreciation, persuasion and encouragement; Participation and group activity; Communication; Work environment; Process planning, management and improvement; Job information, knowledge and skill (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
• • • • • • • • • •
2.2.6 Empowerment Process Empowerment is not an obligation and it is not the end of an activity. It is a becoming process and it should be considered as part of organizational culture. Empowerment process can be best described in three procedures: Sharing information; Work independence or self-determination; Replacing traditional hierarchical structure with work groups (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
• • •
2.2.7 Advantages of Empowerment Higher employee, customer, client satisfaction; Positive feelings among employees about themselves and their jobs; Utilizing employee capabilities and competence to increase their performance; Increased feelings of commitment and attachment among employees; Achieving organizational objectives with ease; Increased feelings of job ownership among employees;
• • • • • •
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• • • • •
Reduced wastage and costs; Lowered direct supervision on employee performance; Lowered job tension, accidents, and incidents; Change of attitude among employees from having to wanting; Better communication between management and employees (Nezakati and Asgari, 2009).
2.2.8 International perspective of OCB and HRE: Culture, National, Values A core concept in much of the current work on international aspects of organizational behavior is that of culture. (Erez and Earley, 1993) There are a number of ways that researchers have defined culture. A widely accepted definition was proposed by Clyde Kluckhohn, who summarized the anthropologist's definition of culture as "Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values." There are many other commonly applied definitions of culture as well, including (Herskovits, 1955:305) who defined culture as the human made part of the environment, whereas (Triandis ,1994) and (Osgood ,1974) define it as a perception of the human-made part of the environment. Definitions vary from a very limited and focused view that culture is a set of shared meaning systems, to a broad and encompassing view that it consists of the untested assumptions of how and why to behave. (Hofstede, 1991) defines culture as a set of mental programs that control an individual's responses in a given context. The most general view of culture is that is some shared set of characteristics in common to a particular group of people. We can view culture as a function of interrelated systems (Erez and Earley, 1993) including the ecology, subsistence, socio cultural, individual, and inter-individual systems. The ecological system refers to the physical environment, resources, and geography of people.(Triandis, 1994). (Figure 9)
Figure 9: Management Golden Triangle 7 (International perspective of OCB and HRE)
2.3 Customer Citizenship Behavior Concepts A series of studies recognize the role of positive customer functions and proposes concepts such as customer citizenship behavior and voluntary performance. Bettencourt (1997, p. 384) defines customer voluntary performance as "helpful, discretionary behaviors of customers that support the ability of the firm to deliver service quality." Groth (2005) defines customer citizenship behavior as voluntary and discretionary behavior by individual customers that is not directly or explicitly expected or rewarded, but that aggregates into higher service quality and promotes the effective functioning of service organizations (e.g., helping another customer or providing suggestions to the service organization).Service companies now increasingly involve their customers in the production and delivery of services. Consequently, they have come to view
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customers as human resources of their companies (Bowen and Schneider 1985; Zeithaml, Bitner, and Gremler 2005). Furthermore, the simultaneity of production and consumption of services requires customer participation in the delivery of the service, and customers are becoming close cooperators in the service encounter, contributing both suggestions and feedback so as to improve service delivery (Keh and Teo 2001). Moreover, service customers can also directly influence the company's production process and outcome. If customers are motivated and able to use various self-service elements, the service company may be able to invest fewer inputs and still enhance productivity (Ojasalos 2003). Chervonnaya (2003) emphasizes the "chameleon" nature of service customers and notes that customers can recommend a service to others, participate in evaluating service quality during service delivery, and serve as resources by contributing information to decision making by service employees. Bitner et al. (1997) describe the various roles of customers as productive resources, as contributors to quality, satisfaction and value, and as competitors to the service organization. Hsieh, Yen, and Chin (2004) argue that service customers can raise organizational productivity and improve company performance, customer satisfaction, repurchase, and referral. According to Lengnick-Hall (1996), competitiveness can be improved by customers who encourage high-quality performance through stimulating the firm into creating high-quality processes. A customer is thus a coproducer of services, and marketing can be seen as a process of doing things interactively with the customer (Vargo and Lusch 2004). In this manner, customers are often active participants in relational exchange and coproduction. Customers can make suggestions for service improvement, cooperate during the service encounter, engage in positive word of- mouth, buy additional services, make recommendations to others, and increase price tolerance (Bettencourt 1997; Anderson, Fornell, and Mazvancheryl 2004). Lengnick-Hall, Claycomb, and Inks (2000) discuss organizational citizenship behavior by customers. They argue that the benefits of organizational citizenship behavior are considerable and include acts of cooperation, helpfulness, and kindliness. If all customers use equipment properly and promote a positive social environment, they will enjoy and benefit from the service experience. Conceptual differences are evident between customer citizenship behavior and customer participation behavior. Customer participation behavior (CPB) refers to the actions of and resources supplied by customers for service production and delivery (Rodie and Kleine 2000). Similarly, Keh and Teo (2001) describe CPB as behavior that customers are literally required to perform during their service encounter. Kelley, Donnelly, and Skinner (1990) use customers of financial institutions who provide detailed records of their credit history as well as clients of accounting firms which also provide information, as examples of customer participation behavior. If customers do not fulfill the required action properly, the delivery of service will not succeed. It is thus concluded that in certain service contexts, customer participation behavior is the required action for service delivery. However, customers may choose to cooperate with service providers, make suggestions to the service organization, and help other customers beyond mere passive behavior in the context of service provision (Bettencourt 1997; Groth 2005; Keh and Teo 2001). However, even if customers do not perform such extra role behaviors voluntarily, service failure would not necessarily occur. 2.3.1 Types of Customer Citizenship Behavior Bettencourt (1997) conceptualized three generic types of customer voluntary behaviors, the customer as (1) promoter of the firm, i.e., loyalty, (2) human resource, i.e., cooperation, (3) organizational consultant, i.e., participation. Groth (2003a) identified three dimensions of CCB i.e., recommendations to friends and family, providing feedback to the organization, and helping other customers. Robertson et al. (2003) reviewed the CCB literature and reported inconsistencies
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in identifying the different forms of CCB. They reorganized and refined them into eight major categories. (Figures 10-11)
Figure 10: Management Golden Triangle 8 (Types of Customer Voluntary Behavior) Figure 11: Management Golden Triangle 9 (Dimensions of CCB)
Eight main types of customer citizenship behaviors were isolated from the literature. These included: positive word of mouth behavior (Gremler and Gwinner 2000; Harrison-Walker 2001); relationship affiliation (Gruen, 1995); suggestions for service improvements (Bettencourt 1997); policing of other customers (Podsakoff et al. 1990); customer voice behavior (Singh 1988; Spake et al. 2003); customer flexibility (Gruen,1995); customer participation (Podsakoff et al. 1990; Gruen,1995) and benevolent acts of service facilitation (Bettencourt, 1997). (Figures 12)
Figure 12: Types of Customer Citizenship Behavior
3. Customer Based Brand Equity Concepts Two questions often arise regarding brands: 'What makes a brand strong?' and 'How do you build a strong brand?' To answer these questions, this study introduces the customer-based brand equity (CBBE) model. This model incorporates theoretical advances and managerial practices in understanding and influencing consumer behavior. Although useful perspectives concerning brand equity have been put forth, the CBBE model provides a unique point of view as to what brand equity is and how it should be built, measured and managed. The CBBE model approaches brand equity from the perspective of the consumer - whether this be an individual or an organization. Understanding the needs and wants of consumers and organizations and devising products and campaigns to satisfy them are at the heart of successful marketing. In particular, two fundamental questions faced by marketers are: 'What do different brands mean to consumers?' and 'How does the brand knowledge of consumers affect their response to marketing activity?' Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect that brand knowledge has on consumer response to the marketing of that brand. A brand is said to have positive customer9
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based brand equity when consumers react more favorably to a product and the way it is marketed when the brand is identified than when it is not (eg, when the product is attributed to a fictitious name or is unnamed). Thus, a brand with positive customer-based brand equity might result in consumers being more accepting of a brand extension, less sensitive to price increases and withdrawal of advertising support or more willing to seek the brand in a new distribution channel. On the other hand, a brand is said to have negative customer-based brand equity if consumers react less favorably to marketing activity for the brand compared with an unnamed or fictitiously named version of the product. There are three ingredients to this definition: • differential effect; • brand knowledge; • Consumer response to marketing. First, brand equity arises from differences in consumer response. If no differences occur, then the brand name product is essentially a commodity. Competition, most likely, would then be based on price. Second, these differences in response are a result of consumers' knowledge and experience of the brand. Thus, although strongly influenced by the marketing activity of the firm, brand equity ultimately depends on what resides in the minds of consumers. Third, the differential response by consumers that makes up the brand equity is reflected in perceptions, preferences and behavior related to all aspects of the marketing (eg, choice of a brand, recall of copy points from an ad, actions in response to a sales promotion or evaluations of a proposed brand extension). The simplest way to illustrate what is meant by customer-based brand equity is to consider some typical results of product sampling or comparison tests. For example, with blind taste tests, one group of consumers samples a product without knowing which brand it is, whereas another group samples the product knowing which brand it is. Invariably, differences arise in the opinions of the two groups even though they are consuming the same product. 3.1 Brand equity as a bridge So, according to the customer-based brand equity model, the power of a brand lies in the minds of consumers or customers and what they have experienced and learned about the brand over time. Consumer knowledge drives the differences that manifest themselves in terms of brand equity. This realization has important managerial implications. In an abstract sense, according to this view, brand equity provides marketers with a strategic bridge from their past to their future. 3.1.1 Brands as a reflection of the past Money spent each year on manufacturing and marketing products should not be considered as 'expenses' but as 'investments' - investments in what consumers learned, felt, experienced and so forth about the brand. If not properly designed and implemented, these expenditures may not be good investments, in that the right knowledge structures may not have been created in consumers' minds, but they should be considered investments nonetheless. Thus, the quality of the investment is the most critical factor, not necessarily the quantity, beyond some minimal threshold. In that sense, it is actually possible to 'overspend' on brand building if money is not being spent wisely. Conversely, as will be evident in this book, some brands that are being considerably outspent by rivals can amass brand equity by judicious spending on marketing activities that create valuable, enduring memories in the minds of consumers. 3.1.2 Brands as a direction for the future At the same time, the brand knowledge created by these marketing investments dictates appropriate and inappropriate directions for the brand. Consumers will decide, based on their
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brand beliefs, attitudes and so on, where they think the brand should go and grant permission (or not) to any marketing action or programme. So, at the end of the day, the true value and future prospects of a brand rest with consumers and their knowledge about the brand. In short, regardless of the definition adopted, the value to marketers of brand equity as a concept depends on how they use it. Brand equity can offer focus and guidance, providing marketers with a means to interpret their marketing performance and help design marketing campaigns. Everything the firm does can enhance or detract from brand equity. Those marketers who build strong brands have embraced the concept and use it to its fullest as a means of clarifying, communicating and implementing their marketing actions.
4. DATA AND METHODOLODY This research attempts to propose a concept in Marketing New Era to present an approach (Golden Triangle) for achieving customer based brand equity (CBBE) through customer citizenship behavior (CCB) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) with human resource empowerment (HRE) in Age of Participation. This study firstly tries to draw a summary from the volume of researches in the field of Human Resources Management (HRM) and show the fundamental role of (HRE) in (OCB) as a preferred representative of social behaviors and then reach to (CCB) and (CBBE) that is really important at this new era, using simplification and a modeling approach that includes relationships and overlapping the factors and elements to introduce them as a tool for organizations to pass through the new age of participation (HumanCentric Era). Secondly, Propose the idea of Marketing Golden Triangles (Management Golden triangle as a whole concept) to simplify and showing this concept as the easier method to recognize and implementing of theoretical, Subjective or objective factors, elements or subjects. Achieving scientific objectives or understanding and analyzing scientific subjects are only possible if it is done in an organizational setting using appropriate methodology. Research methods, as a guide, are divided based on objectives, methodology and data collection approaches that are used to achieve research objectives. Applied research (also called practical or management research) is research that engenders data, insights, methods, concepts and views often derived from the knowledge gathered during the course of fundamental research - which is applicable for a specific organizational or managerial problem. Applied research strives (a) to obtain knowledge about a particular issue, etc. in the organization and (b) to contribute to the improvement of that issue, etc. leading to problem solving. In general a conceptual model is nothing more than an abstraction way to perceive a specific part, function, property or aspect of reality (Jonker & Pennink, 2010) (Holtom & Fisher, 1999). Due to mentioned theoretical background, research design of this study is based on applied research because of its objectives, using of principals and techniques formulated for basic research to solve operational and real issues in an organization. This research also is descriptive for the method it uses - it describes and interprets whatever that exists. It takes into account the existing conditions and relationships, prevalent thoughts, current processes, observable effects or progressive trends. Its outmost focus is on present, although it often reviews past events and effects related to the existing conditions. On the base of studies (Sekaran, 2003), secondary data (library research) was the base of data collection for this study and used NVivo X8 software for gathering data and analyze them. Therefore, by the essence of this research any hypothesis is not launched and consequently for research setting; designing questionnaire, population and sampling, validity and reliability tests and statistical analysis are not to be needed. (Figure 14)
Figure 14: Management Golden Triangle 11 (Methodology of studies)
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4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Procedures for Building the Model (CCB through HRE and OCB): Stages 1-11 Stage 1: Managerial Techniques and Tools to Establish HRE and Individual Background for HRE Process
Figure 15: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 1)
Human resources empowerment start with individual (four characteristics: skill, competence, special process skills, discretionary behavior improvement and communication skills) and management preparation (six characteristics: implementing suggestion system, establishing quality centers, creating work groups, utilization of evaluation system, creating motivating possibilities, Job enrichment). (Figure 15)
Stage 2: Requirements for employee empowerment process and three International aspects of HRE
Figure 16: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 2)
Empowerment process requirements (ten characteristics: clarity of objectives, responsibilities and authorities; employee job enrichment and advancement; organizational mentality and membership; trust, association and honesty; recognition, appreciation, persuasion and encouragement; participation and group activity; communication; work environment; process planning, management and improvement; job information, knowledge and skill) and utilizing utilization of three international aspect of empowerment : National, Culture, Values. (Figure 16)
Stage 3: Empowerment Process
Figure 17: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 3)
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Empowerment process can be implemented by three procedures: sharing information; employee independence or self-determination; replacing traditional hierarchical structure with flat structure. (Figure 17)
Stage 4: Emergence HRE
Figure 18: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 4)
Benefits drawn from three procedures of empowerment process manifest themselves in completely distinct ways (sharing information leads to increased knowledge; self-determination leads to higher skill levels, and flat structure leads to increased motivation among employees) (Figure 18) Stage 5: Dimensions of OCB
Figure 19: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 5)
When employee empowerment becomes apparent, (employees become empowered) dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior (seven features: helping behavior, devotion, organizational loyalty, organizational obedience, individual initiative, civil virtue, and self development) that presumably and naturally exist in every person find opportunity to emerge and flourish. That is to say, all followed procedures manifest themselves as empowering features. (Figure 19) Stage 6: Creating Factors of OCB and Advantages of Empowerment A key point shapes at this point. Eight out of eleven factors (73 percent) that develop into organizational citizenship behavior and results of human resource empowerment are one by one analogous. Consequently, we can deduce that most of these factors overlap. (job satisfaction with increased employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction with increased customer good will, organizational commitment with increased feelings of commitment, leader-follower relationship with improved employeemanagement communication, organizational success with achieving organizational objectives, organizational performance with increased employee performance, organizational identity with increased feelings of ownership by employees, types of leadership with reduced direct supervision) (Figure 20)
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Figure 20: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 6)
Stage 7: OCB Emergence and Employee Empowerment In this step, employees show organizational citizenship behavior in form of obedience, loyalty and participation (separately or together). In other words, individual talent (OCB dimensions) actualizes given right environment and empowerment process that provides elements of OCB for reach to Organization Citizenship behavior with employee empower with three major dimensions: SelfManagement; Self-Regulation and Self-Leadership. (Figure 21)
Figure 21: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 7)
Stage 8: Advantages of OCB Benefits of organizational citizenship resulting from all changes that have taken place at different levels in an organization can be observed, measured and evaluated in eighteen dimensions: increased efficiency of management and organization, releasing
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organizational resources, reduced maintenance cost, helping coordinating activities, increased organizational ability to attract and keep efficient employees, increased stability of organizational performance, increased organizational commitment, help to organizational adaptation to environmental changes, Increased customer loyalty, increased service quality, Increased employee satisfaction, increased job satisfaction, increased employee motivation, enables employee-management communications, improve working environment, reduce employee defection rates, increased customer satisfaction, increased customer commitment, and decreased employee dysfunctional behavior, these factors affect directly on creating factors of CCB at next stage. fifteen out of eighteen factors (83 percent) that develop into customer citizenship behavior and results of citizenship behavior are one by one analogous. Consequently, we can deduce that most of these factors overlap. (Figure 22)
Figure 22: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 8)
Stage 9: Creating factors of CCB At this stage, these fifteen factors that create CCB at organizations. These factors affected directly and have overlap with OCB advantages factors at stage 8; creating factors of CCB include: Customer loyalty, Customer perceived service quality, Customer satisfaction, Customer commitment, Decreased customer dysfunctional behavior, Organizational Citizenship behavior, Service customer justice, Organizational performance, Organizational profitability, Employee-customer relationship, Decreased Organizational dysfunctional behavior, Employee perceptions and performance, Job Satisfaction, Organizational involvement, Perceived organizational justice, Customer personality (Five factor model).(Figure 23)
Figure 23: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 9)
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Stage 10: CCB emergence and Contextual factors of CCB In this step, customers show customer citizenship behavior in form of Relationship affiliation, Suggestions for service improvements, Benevolent acts of service facilitation, Positive word of mouth behavior, Policing of other customers, Customer flexibility, Customer voice behavior , Customer participation (separately or together). In other words, individual talent (OCB dimensions) actualizes given right environment and empowerment process that provides elements of OCB for reach to Organization Citizenship behavior with employee empower with three major dimensions: Self-Management; Self-Regulation and Self-Leadership and then overlapping creating factors of CCB and advantages OCB help us reach to CCB emergence and also contextual factors of CCB that affected on these factors. (Figure 24)
Figure 24: Procedures model of CBBE through CCB and OCB (Stage 10)
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Stage 11: Increasing Brand Equity based on CBBE At this stage after going through the Human Resource Empowerment, Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Customer Citizenship Behavior as participation behaviors at Age of Participation we reach to higher brand equity based on CBBE (Figure 25)
Figure 25: Model of accessing Customer Based Brand Equity and Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Customer Citizenship behavior with Human Resource Empowerment at the age of participation (Stages 1-11)
5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
5.1 Overlapping Advantages of HRE and OCB Creating Factors Human being as the main building block of organizations should be considered as an investment (and not expense). Higher human resources empowerment should lead organization closer to achieving its operational objectives. The results from HRE have key role in OCB factors. Overlapping of eight (73 percent) out of eleven factors and their one on one analogy are indicative of close relationship between two concepts. All building elements of HRE and its operational procedures prepare the groundwork and empower human actualization in an organization. OCB is the platform where these innate features manifest themselves. (Figure 26)
Figure 26: Fostering Organizational Citizenship Behavior through Human Resource Empowerment
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5.2 Overlapping Advantages of OCB and CCB Creating Factors The results from OCB have key role in CCB factors. Overlapping of fifteen (83 percent) out of eleven factors and their one on one analogy are indicative of close relationship between two concepts. All building elements of OCB and its operational procedures prepare the groundwork and empower customer actualization in competitive environment as the most importance resource for organizations at age of participation. (Figure 27-28)
Figure 27: Fostering Customer Citizenship Behavior through Organizational Citizenship Behavior
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Figure 28: Management Golden Triangle 11 (Marketing Golden Triangle for New Era CCB,OCB,CBBE)
This study had limited funds and time like other research activities. Due to extended studies in the subject of human resources empowerment, organizational citizenship behavior and customer citizenship behavior at international level, it was difficult to summarize different researchers points of view related to basic concepts and their applications. At this stage of research, the presented model was to be considered as a Conceptual Model only. Because field study was not conducted for this research, proposal for pilot study (experimental) was not proposed. First, Model of accessing CCB through HRE and OCB needed to be tested at the different companies throughout the world, regarding to environmental situations. Second, there is consensus about the antecedents of OCB and CCB across variant cultures. To investigate the underlying reasons causing this interesting phenomenon, it would be worthwhile to explore other possible antecedents e.g. Organizational Dysfunctional behavior, Customer Dysfunctional Behavior, Innovative Citizenship Behavior; especially the indirect relationship should be taken into account. Third, in the related research in this study, there need to expand studies at age of participation especially Total Participation Management (TPM) as a new core concept at this new era and use other tools in management e.g. Total Empowerment Management (TEM) for managing effectively. There are several areas for possible future research. First, replication is needed to determine how the findings reported here correspond to the results of studies conducted in other work environments to ensure proper generalization.
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Future researches also need to consider the moderating influences of person and situation-based factors on the relationship between HRE and OCB, OCB and CCB, CCB and HRE and other factors of TPM at this new era. Additionally, researcher may consider the respondents' position in future studies as findings may differ across jobs and contexts. Future studies need to examine the relationship between the five factor model and each of OCB and CCB dimensions, not the overall score of OCB in order to better understand the relationship between CCB and OCB and Customer Based Brand Equity(CBBE) at this new marketing era. Another area for possible research is the development of a global model applicable to different types of services, given that the relationship between the agents involved can differ depending on the nature of the service and there is the possible analysis and comparison of different companies with a view to an in-depth study of customer loyalty and its influence on profitability.
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