Description
This paper aims to focus on evaluating what cultural, heritage, and historical resources exist
in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and how these resources can advance tourism
development and marketing.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Marketing cultural and heritage tourism: the Marshall Islands
Fredrick M. Collison Daniel L. Spears
Article information:
To cite this document:
Fredrick M. Collison Daniel L. Spears, (2010),"Marketing cultural and heritage tourism: the Marshall Islands", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 2 pp. 130 - 142
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Marketing cultural and heritage tourism:
the Marshall Islands
Fredrick M. Collison and Daniel L. Spears
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to focus on evaluating what cultural, heritage, and historical resources exist
in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and how these resources can advance tourism
development and marketing.
Design/methodology/approach – This study bases its approach on tourism development ?eld
research conducted in the RMI, ?rst in 1989-1990 for the entire nation and in 2002 for Bikini and
Rongelap Atolls. Current literature sources provide an expansion of the previous studies.
Findings – Tourism in the RMI sees only a few thousand visitors annually, with many participating in
diving and sport-?shing. Signi?cant potential exists to attract cultural heritage visitors, but to date few
such efforts exist. Construction and sailing of traditional outrigger canoes and rediscovery of ancient
Micronesian way-?nding techniques represent two important culture resources for potential tourism
marketing.
Research limitations/implications – Field research includes only the atolls of Majuro (the national
capital), Bikini, and Rongelap, with updates from published studies and information on the internet. The
RMI has many cultural heritage resources, but more effective marketing programs are necessary,
including integrated marketing among the numerous atolls, Marshall Islands Visitor Authority, and the
RMI central government.
Practical implications – Tourismdevelopment for the RMI will consist of niche markets. Beyond current
diving and sport-?shing, various artifacts of previous eras in the RMI and the Marshallese culture may
provide additional opportunities to increase the level of tourism.
Originality/value – This study of cultural heritage tourism development in the RMI provides information
about which little is written. This study offers a framework for use in other island destinations in the Paci?c
and elsewhere.
Keywords Culture, Heritage, Marketing, Islands, Paci?c region, Tourism development
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
The evaluation of cultural, heritage, and historical resources in the Republic of the Marshall
Islands (RMI) and how these resources can advance tourism development is the primary
purpose of this study. These resources help differentiate the nation from other Oceania
destinations, including those in other parts of Micronesia such as the Federated States of
Micronesia (FSM), Palau, and the Republic of Kiribati.
The evaluation of the past and present state of tourism in the RMI (a secondary purpose)
aids in the understanding of the environment for marketing cultural and heritage tourism.
Tourism statistics in less-developed economies like the RMI are not always as consistent or
as complete as data from more developed nations, making such analysis dif?cult, however.
The RMI, a self-governing democracy in free association with the US, lies in the North Paci?c
Ocean tropical zone between 48 and 198 north latitude and 1608 and 1758 east longitude.
With a total land area of only about 195 square kilometers (75 square miles), the RMI lies
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Fredrick M. Collison is
based at the School of
Travel Industry
Management, University of
Hawaii at Ma¯ noa, Hawaii,
USA. Daniel L. Spears is
based at the School of
Merchandising and
Hospitality Management,
University of North Texas,
Denton, Texas, USA.
Received January 2009
Revised March 2009
Accepted January 2010
The authors acknowledge the
funding provided by the Paci?c
Islands Development Program,
East-West Center, Honolulu,
and the Bikini Atoll and
Rongelap Atoll Local
Governments of the Republic of
the Marshall Islands for the ?eld
studies upon which this study is
based and also the co-authors
of those ?eld studies
(especially George Ikeda and
Michelle Clark), along with the
School of Travel Industry
Management and the Paci?c
Business Center Program,
College of Business
Administration, both of the
University of Hawaii at Ma¯ noa,
the suggestions of anonymous
referees, and Jeanne Collison
for editorial assistance.
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scattered over 1.94 million square kilometers (750,000 square miles) of the central Paci?c.
The nation lies east of the FSM, southwest of Hawai‘i, and north of Kiribati (Figure 1). A total of
29 atolls and ?ve major islands form two parallel archipelagic chains; the eastern one is the
Ratak (Sunrise) Chain and the western one is the Ralik (Sunset) Chain
(www.rmiembassyus.org/Geography.htm).
Navigators from the south and southwest of the present day nation settle the Marshall
Islands somewhere between 2000 and 500 BC. Spain becomes the owner of the islands by
treaty in 1494. Settlement by Europeans begins in the late 1880s after Germany purchases
ownership of the Marshall Islands from Spain in 1885. Japan establishes a protectorate over
the islands after the ?rst world war, which stays in force until the US captures the island chain
from Japan during the second world war. The US operates a nuclear testing program in the
Figure 1 Map of the Marshall Islands
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Marshalls from 1946 until 1958 (www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm). In 1947
the RMI becomes one component of the Trust Territory of the Paci?c, which the US
administers under a mandate from the United Nations that results in sovereignty in 1986,
albeit with continuing economic support from the US (www.rmiembassyus.org/History.htm).
Design/methodology/approach
Tourism development ?eld research in the RMI, ?rst in 1988-1989 for the entire nation
(Collison et al., 1989) and more recently in 2002 speci?cally for Bikini Atoll (Spears et al.,
2003) and Rongelap Atoll (Collison et al., 2003; Collison and Spears, 2003) forms a basis for
this study. These earlier ?eld studies provide tourism development plans for the RMI as of
1989 and for Bikini and Rongelap Atolls as of 2003. The current study relies on more general
research dealing with cultural and heritage tourism, tourismin island states and in the Paci?c
islands generally, the research ?eld studies, and updates to Marshall Islands tourism
available from multiple sources.
General research articles, reports, and other sources
Garrod and Fyall (2000) examine the relationship between heritage tourism and sustainable
tourism and consider heritage tourism to focus on elements of the built environment (e.g.
historic buildings, art work, etc.) and even scenery. Hampton (2005) evaluates the
development surrounding a major heritage attraction and ?nds that as tourism develops at
the site the local community feels economically and psychologically distant from the
attraction. Hampton proposes an alternative scenario that involves the local community in
the planning and development process, retaining greater bene?ts within the host
community.
Echtner and Prasad (2003) examine the marketing images of third-world tourism (creations
of ?rst-world practitioners) and propose three typologies: the ‘‘myth of the unchanged’’
(destinations that exist in past time and space), the ‘‘myth of the unrestrained’’ (destinations
providing hedonistic experiences), and the ‘‘myth of the uncivilized’’ (destinations on the
‘‘frontier’’). The authors state that these ‘‘un-myths’’ are relics of colonial administrations of
developed nations and that third-world nations should resist these characterizations. Nash
(2004) provides a critique that ?rst-world marketers are not actively promulgating these
myths, but Echtner and Prasad (2004) provide a rebuttal that these myths continue to
endure.
Cave et al. (2007) ?nd that European-descended residents of New Zealand are much less
likely to support a potential Paci?c island cultural center in comparison to Oceania/Paci?c
island-descended residents, which calls into question the viability of such a center. McIntosh
(2004) examines tourists’ perceptions and expectations of Maori culture, both pre- and
post-visit. Her main ?ndings indicate that less formal interactions between visitors and hosts
may be bene?cial to visitors and hosts alike and are more preferable to highly-staged
cultural performances that do not allow such interactions.
Cultural and heritage authenticity refers to something real, original, pristine or veritable.
Grayson and Martinec (2004) argue that authenticity represents a central interest of modern
Western culture. Kolar and Z
?
abkar (2007) suggest that tourism authenticity is especially
important for historical, artistic, and cultural offerings since originality and uniqueness are
the key qualities that attract tourists. Their study ?nds that foreign visitors perceive authentic
cultural heritage experiences as more intensive than domestic visitors. Authentic cultural
heritage experiences are a positive factor in visitor satisfaction and loyalty. As a result,
authenticity is valued and is something that motivates tourists to travel to distant places and
times (MacCannell, 1973; Cohen, 1988; Naoi, 2003).
Bardolet and Sheldon (2008) examine archipelagic tourism sustainability for the Balearic
Islands and Hawai‘i and suggest ?ve primary tourism sustainability issues to consider:
1. Plan tourism development for the archipelago rather than island by island.
2. Engage in land use planning early.
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3. Include complexities of inter-island transportation in tourism development planning.
4. Insure that stakeholders on each island have input to the archipelago’s tourism.
5. Standardize statistical and economic data collection among the component islands
(p. 919).
Although this study is for mass tourism destinations, less visited archipelagos including
those consisting of coral atolls can apply these suggestions.
Marshall Islands tourism and development research articles, reports, and other sources
During the previous decades RMI tourism is small in comparison with many destinations
throughout the Paci?c, with under 4,000 annual visitors until the last few years. Air
transportation plays an important role due to the distance of the nation from
tourism-generating markets. Within the RMI, aircraft are also the primary mode of tourism
transportation due to inter-atoll distances and the infrequent arrivals of ?eld-trip ships at the
outer atolls.
Collison et al. (1989) provide a framework for government tourism policy and planning and
present recommendations for improvements in areas such as transportation access,
facilities, infrastructure, appropriateness of scale, controlling environmental impacts, and
tourism marketing. The study highlights the importance of safeguarding indigenous culture
and maximizing bene?ts to the resident population.
A 2002 study, which focuses on developing a comprehensive economic strategy for
Rongelap Atoll, examines tourism as one of the component sectors (Paci?c Business Center
Program, 2002). The study identi?es principal impediments to economic development
(especially tourism) as a lack of access to distant markets and infrastructure, an insuf?ciently
educated workforce, the lingering nuclear legacy, and a lack of market awareness. Study
recommendations include implementation of a home-stay program, and more intensive
tourism development at some future point in time.
Spears et al. (2003) identify and discuss tourism development issues for Bikini Atoll,
including social impacts, traditional customs and culture, and human resource issues. A
tourism action plan provides analysis in areas such as marketing and sociocultural impacts,
with attention to the principal market segments of diving and sport ?shing. The study
recommends that potential expansion beyond the current small-scale level of tourism occur
in ?nite increments in order to minimize undesirable impacts.
Collison et al. (2003) develop a similar analysis for Rongelap Atoll, which expands beyond
just the diving and sport ?shing markets. A principal objective of the report is to maintain the
traditional environment of an outer atoll in the RMI by restricting tourism to small scale,
sustainable efforts. The development plan recommends preserving traditional customs,
cultures (including handicrafts, dance, food, language, and sailing canoes), and the
environment, and both educating and engaging visitors to participate in the preservation
process.
Collison and Spears (2003) suggest a short-term marketing plan for Rongelap and
Ailinginae Atolls, beginning with a potential mission statement (p. 1):
To provide a satisfying tourism experience to a limited (initially) number of visitors and residents
based on the characteristics of the physical environment of Rongelap and Ailinginae Atolls and
the social and cultural attributes of the Rongalapese people, and to do so in a sustainable way.
The plan includes speci?c actions for a range of marketing elements ranging from setting
goals and objectives through marketing control, including time frames for implementation.
The primary target markets are visitors seeking action or isolation. Marketing to other
segments such as those seeking cultural and/or historical experiences also applies for the
two atolls.
In a study for the US Department of the Interior, Matsunaga (2004) evaluates business
opportunities in the RMI and ?nds a stable political environment, a natural environment with
pristine beaches and rich ocean resources, and support for sustainable development.
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Although acknowledging that RMI’s economic development has more potential, Matsunaga
?nds opportunities in niche tourism and the export of traditional handicrafts (beyond the
market of current visitors to the RMI).
Research ?ndings
The ?eld studies (see above), published research studies, and internet-based sources
inform the analysis. The analysis includes visitor arrival statistics from 1989 through 2007.
Economic development
The RMI is one of only ?ve coral atoll nations in the world with the others being Kiribati, the
Maldives, Tokelau (dependency of New Zealand), and Tuvalu (Barnett and Adger, 2001,
p. 1). Of these, only the Maldives has more than a few thousand annual visitors. As with most
Paci?c island nations, the RMI has few economic development opportunities (Harrison,
2004, pp. 4-6). The lack of large-scale agriculture and geographic isolation limit the ability of
the RMI to develop a sustainable economy without the infusion of funds from the US
government through the Compact of Free Association. Despite the isolation, tourism offers
one of the few opportunities to develop a sustainable economy.
The top development priorities of the RMI government itself are marine resources, tourism,
and agriculture (Asian Development Bank, 2001; Matsunaga, 2004). With some of the
world’s richest ?shing grounds surrounding the Marshall Islands, the RMI government sells
?shing rights to other nations as a source of income. The RMI also has an international ship
registry which brings in modest income on an annual basis.
Recognizing tourism’s potential, the RMI government establishes the Marshall Islands
Visitors Authority (MIVA) in 1997, which is responsible for tourism development, marketing,
and promotion. MIVA conducts market surveys to identify potential markets for the RMI,
initiates contacts with tour operators in major generating markets, and identi?es marketing
themes and guidelines for production of promotional materials.
Tourism overview
Tourismarrivals to the RMI, after a period of stagnation, show a recent pattern of growth from
1989 through 2007, albeit with some variability (Figure 2). After deducting transit and
stopover passengers, the true total annual visitors are about 2,000 in 1989, 4,700 in 2000,
7,600 in 2005 (when a conference of Paci?c island educators brought in over 1,000 visitors
(Johnson, 2005)), and 5,550 in 2007. The main visitor segments are ‘‘business’’,
‘‘holiday/vacation’’, and ‘‘visiting friends and relatives’’ (‘‘VFR’’). ‘‘Business’’ visitors are
the largest segment for all years 1989-2007, although their market share decreases from 60
percent in 1989 to 40 percent in 2007. At the same time, the market share of
‘‘holiday/vacation’’ visitors rises from 18 percent in 1989 to 37 percent in 2007. The ‘‘VFR’’
share generally ?uctuates between 10 and 15 percent throughout most of the years.
The principal visitor origin market is ‘‘the Americas’’ (led by the US and Canada), which has a
declining market share from 39 percent of visitors in 1999 to 24 percent in 2007 (see
Figure 3). The next market shares in size are generally ‘‘other Paci?c Islands’’ and ‘‘Asia
except Japan’’ (both with nearly identical market shares), declining from 26 percent of
visitors in 1998 to 15 percent in 2007. The largest growing market is ‘‘Japan’’ with 2.1 percent
of the market in 1998 and 23 percent in 2007 due to an interest in diving by some Japanese
and the resultant provision of some charter air service to serve this market.
Within the RMI, Majuro and Ebeye (Kwajalein Atoll) have dense populations with an urban
environment. Majuro is the national government capital and houses most private-sector
employers. Kwajalein Atoll hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll/Ronald Reagan Ballistic
Missile Defense Test Site, which employs some Marshallese citizens (who live on Ebeye, a
short ferry ride from the above facilities). Some private-sector businesses along with
government of?ces also provide employment on Ebeye.
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Unlike these two atolls, most outer atolls remain subsistence-type economies, with much
smaller populations. Traditional lifestyles generally dominate the outer atolls with principal
activities of ?shing, subsistence agriculture, and the production of copra. Some outer atolls
have aquaculture activities for clams and black pearls. Traditional cultural practices often
Figure 2 Visitors to Majuro by purpose of visit
Figure 3 Visitors to Majuro by year and country of usual residence
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continue on these atolls which are relatively free from the modern economies of Majuro and
Ebeye. A few of these outer atolls (e.g. Arno, Bikini, Jaluit, Likiep, Mili, and Rongelap) have
small-scale visitor markets. On other outer atolls, more basic accommodations with few
amenities, such as of the self-catering type, are available.
Cultural and heritage resources
The diving and sport ?shing markets are responsible for much of the holiday/vacation
tourismthe RMI relies upon, with Majuro, Bikini, and Rongelap Atolls having some success in
developing these markets, but their small market size presents challenges for future growth
of tourism and its sustainability. The RMI’s unique culture, marine resources, history, arts and
handicrafts, navigation techniques, outrigger sailing canoes, ‘‘maanpa’’ (traditional
Marshallese art of self defense), and WWII/nuclear testing/colonial artifacts
(www.visitmarshallislands.com/culture.htm; www.rmiembassyus.org/Visiting%20RMI/
GUIDEBOOK.pdf) represent opportunities to develop cultural heritage tourism and to do
so in a sustainable manner.
The Alele Museum on Majuro, handicrafts available throughout the RMI, and a few tours of
the outer atolls represent the only real development of cultural heritage sites, sights,
museums, and cultural experiences in the RMI. The current view of tropical island tourism as
the 4S’s of sun, sea, sand, and sex (the ‘‘myth of the unrestrained’’ discussed by Echtner and
Prasad, 2003), represents an outdated paradigm. According to Middleton and Clark (2001),
more travelers want cultural tourism, representing an alternative to mass 4S tourism and is
driven by the 4I motives of intellectual curiosity, inspiration, investigation, and involvement.
The tourism industry in the RMI thus needs further development of authentic tourism
experiences in order to realize these opportunities.
Two detailed examples follow for elements of the cultural heritage of the Marshallese that the
visitor industry can make (further) available to visitors to the RMI. Women within cooperatives
make traditional woven crafts, such as mats, baskets, wall hangings, purses, coasters, fans,
and ornaments (Mulford, 2006). Men make distinctive way?nding stick charts and model
canoes, and all crafts made from natural materials found on various atolls. These
handicrafts, well known for their quality and beauty, sell within the RMI to visitors and in some
export markets such as the US (www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm, pp. 2-3).
Prior to Western contact, canoe navigators learn from stick charts, at least the basic one
known in Marshallese as ‘‘Mattang’’ (see Figure 4), which teaches how to recognize wave
patterns around islands (Lewis, 1972, pp. 200-202). Other stick charts exist, but are
probably not free of western concepts of maps and charts. Current Marshallese sailors and
navigators in training have only recently been shown the knowledge that the stick charts
contain, along with other traditional way?nding techniques (Genz and Finney, 2006).
Motor-powered boats in the 1950s take the place of the distinctive and speedy Marshallese
canoes, and construction of the latter disappears. A few experienced canoe builders from
Enewetak Atoll, with the assistance of the Alele museum on Majuro, help with the initial
construction of a traditional Marshallese outrigger canoe in the 1990s (Finney, 2003,
pp. 44-45). More recently, a project known as Waan Aelon in Majel (Canoes of the Marshall
Islands) initiates a training programto construct and maintain traditional Marshallese canoes
(www.wamprogram.org/history.html; www.wamprogram.org/canoebuilding.html). This
project can provide a valuable resource for cultural heritage tourism if visitors learn about
and observe the production of stick charts and canoes (both model and full-size).
The redevelopment of traditional navigation techniques and outrigger sailing canoes is of
cultural and historical value to the Marshallese people (Finney, 2003; Genz and Finney, 2006)
and may be valuable for visitors as well. Rides on traditional outrigger canoes and
presentations for visitors in some of the traditional canoe building, sailing, and way-?nding
techniques is a potential cultural resource for the visitor industry. To date, the visitor industry
is not apparently using this cultural heritage resource but efforts can be made in this area. As
an example, a company in Hawai‘i, that provides opportunities for visitors to sail on a
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traditional double-hulled canoe, receives the ‘‘2009 Ecotour Operator of the Year’’ award
from the Hawaii Ecotourism Association (Hawaii Ecotourism Association, 2009).
Likewise, visitors can experience aspects to traditional Marshallese culture through
demonstrations by knowledgeable Marshallese and actual participation in creating, for
example, some of the handicrafts of the Marshallese people. In this manner, visitors can
identify with and enjoy various aspects to the cultural heritage of the RMI. In all of these
endeavors, the Marshallese must determine what they are willing to share with visitors and
what elements of their cultural heritage they will not share with others. For example, some of
the detailed way?nding techniques are traditionally known only by a select few who become
canoe navigators.
Other cultural heritage elements found on a number of outer atolls include second world war
artifacts, primarily those of Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili, and Wotje in the Ratak Chain. On Wotje
Atoll, second world war relics include forti?cations, gun emplacements, overgrown railway
tracks and airstrips, downed aircraft, and a sunken Japanese freighter (Spears et al., 2003,
p. 28). Maloelap and Mili Atolls also have numbers of second world war artifacts, and Jaluit
Atoll has numerous sunken aircraft and ships which are dive-able. On Jaluit Atoll (where the
Germans established their capital in the Marshall Islands) and heritage artifacts of the
German period appear at Likiep Atoll. Bikini Atoll has numerous artifacts of the post-second
world war nuclear testing program of the US, including a number of sunken vessels in its
lagoon such as a dive-able aircraft carrier.
In summary, the RMI possesses signi?cant cultural and heritage resources that can both
attract visitors as well as differentiate the RMI from other destinations in Micronesia and the
Paci?c islands. No one else in the Paci?c or the larger world use Marshallese canoes and
distinctive stick charts. Likewise, certain cultural heritage resources are unique to the RMI,
although some exist in different forms elsewhere in the Paci?c islands. Outrigger canoes
exist in other Paci?c islands, but the Marshallese design is unique to the RMI. Only the
Figure 4 Marshall Islands stick chart (‘‘mattang’’) showing wave patterns around an island
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Marshallese and other Carolineans use sailing outrigger canoes for long-distance voyaging.
Visitors can ?nd dive-able relics of post-second world war nuclear testing in Bikini Atoll’s
lagoon, which are not found elsewhere in the world.
Research limitations/implications
This research has some limitations to be kept in mind. The ?eld research studies include only
the atolls of Majuro (the national capital), Bikini, and Rongelap. Published studies, other
academic research, and material available via the internet, however, provide updates to the
?eld studies. Because Bikini and Rongelap are the only outer atolls where tourism ?eld
studies are undertaken, this may limit the applicability of the studies when considering other
outer atolls in the RMI. The updates permit extrapolation to and interpretation of the current
tourism situation in the RMI.
The low level of ‘‘holiday/vacation’’ visitation in the past will more than likely be true in the
future, although some growth is possible with additional marketing efforts and expansion of
target markets beyond the diving and sport ?shing visitor markets. Present (and substantive)
marketing constraints for the RMI include remoteness, limited air access, and cost of travel
(both monetary and time-related). The concepts of careful planning and implementation of
sustainable tourism concepts, especially in the area of cultural and heritage conservation,
may bene?t from the constraints, however.
Cultural and heritage resources are an important component in further tourism development
in the RMI. Conservation and/or redevelopment of these resources, ?rst and foremost,
provides a sense of place for the Marshallese themselves. As the canoe building and
way?nding projects show, this can be done in an authentic manner, or at least one that most
closely resembles the pre-modern cultural heritage. The Marshallese can recover vanishing
cultural heritage elements as is shown by the successful efforts of the Polynesian Voyaging
Society of Hawai‘i (Finney, 2003, pp. 6-14). Native Hawai‘ian navigator Nainoa Thompson
(whose trainers included Pius ‘‘Mau’’ Piailug of Satawal Atoll in the FSM) says of similar
efforts to re-establish Polynesian voyaging traditions (Finney, 2003, pp. 13-14):
Two hundred years ago, we lost basically all that we knew about our traditions and its going to be
through research and through projects like this that we can regain it. But we’re not just regaining
an artifact. We are regaining the pride in the culture of the people-a proud, courageous people.
The voyaging and way?nding of the Polynesians and Micronesians are arguably superior in
technology to that of the Europeans until the development of celestial navigation using
compasses, accurate chronometers, and instruments such as the sextant. Marshallese (and
other Paci?c islanders) can be justly proud of these voyaging and way?nding traditions. The
woven handicrafts of the RMI are among some of the ?nest in the Paci?c. These cultural
heritage elements can counter some of the ‘ ‘un-myths’ ’ regarding backward,
unsophisticated peoples of the third-world (Echtner and Prasad, 2003) that are found in
the marketing materials for such destinations.
In examining the ?ve sustainability issues of Bardolet and Sheldon (2008), results for the RMI
indicate dif?culties in all ?ve issues. Granted, some tourism planning is done at the atoll level
(e.g. Bikini and Rongelap); success, however, requires all of the atolls working together with
MIVA and the RMI central government to achieve sustainability. Inter-atoll transportation is
the sustainability issue with the most immediate impact for the RMI. The Airline of the
Marshall Islands (AMI) is not able to operate inter-atoll service for long periods of time during
2008 and 2009. It is nearly impossible to market cultural heritage tourism (or any kind of
tourism for that matter) for the outer atolls when there is no guarantee of reliable air service to
transport visitors within the RMI.
If the RMI and MIVA can develop marketing programs that capitalize on the distinctiveness
of the cultural heritage along with the natural resources of the nation, a competitive
advantage may be attainable. Any tourism marketing programs must be appropriate in
respecting the culture and heritage of the Marshallese people. Such programs must also be
attractive to target markets, including those visitors with an interest in the culture and
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heritage of the RMI, Micronesia, or the Paci?c islands. MIVA establishing an ef?cient referral
system for inquiries from travelers and joint promotion programs for the travel trade and
consumers would be a useful addition since outer atolls (especially) have only limited
resources for such activities.
Practical implications
RMI tourism development in the future needs to focus on niche tourism markets. This
marketing focus may include markets such as those with an interest in diving, snorkeling,
and sport ?shing (as currently done), as well as those with an interest in the second world
war, nuclear testing, colonial artifacts, and Micronesian/Paci?c island cultural heritage.
Some of these actual and potential target markets may have an interest in the unique culture
and heritage of the RMI. In fact, the RMI is not particularly well known as a potential tourist
destination except in the dive and sport ?shing markets.
MIVA and the local atoll governments must work together to develop and implement these
niche marketing programs to make them attractive to potential ‘‘holiday/leisure’’ visitors.
Marketing of the RMI to potential visitors requires greater efforts at joint marketing as
Bardolet and Sheldon (2008) suggest, although local atoll governments often do not
coordinate their tourism programs among themselves or with MIVA and/or the RMI
government. Joint marketing funds may not be available at present, however, particularly
due to the drops in value of the investments of trust funds that the RMI and some atolls such
as Bikini and Rongelap possess.
An effective tourism marketing mix can reach targeted visitor segments that have interest in
the RMI’s culture and heritage by differentiating the RMI from other competing destinations
such as Palau, the FSM, and the Republic of Kiribati. Although the constraints of space do
not allow a more complete consideration of some of the unique aspects of the Marshallese
cultural heritage, many exist and provide perceptible marketing mix differentiation.
The adequacy and reliability of inter-atoll air transportation is a major constraint that hinders
tourism development and/or growth on the outer atolls such as Bikini and Rongelap. In fact,
Bikini has to suspend their 2009 tourism program due to the service problems of AMI
(www.bikiniatoll.com). The actual operation of the RMI’s tourism infrastructure faces another
principal constraint: the cost of energy (e.g. air transport, accommodations, dining, local
transport). The recent volatility of energy prices makes it more dif?cult to keep travel costs
lower for potential visitors to the RMI. Unfortunately, there is no easy answer to this constraint
at present.
Originality/value
There has been little study or appreciation in the past of tourism in eastern Micronesia,
including the RMI and the Republic of Kiribati. More speci?cally, there has been little study of
the culture and heritage of this area as they may apply to efforts to improve the demand for,
and supply of, tourism offerings. This lack of study may, in part, result from the remoteness
and low levels of visitor arrivals to this area of the Paci?c islands. This study provides an
analysis of tourism development from a cultural and heritage standpoint for small island
destinations that are remote from origin markets. Although this study has a focus on the RMI
and an archipelago consisting of tropical atolls, this type of analysis can apply to other types
of island destinations.
Other types of island destinations
Other types of Paci?c island destinations may ?nd similar studies to be valuable in
examining their own visitor industries. For example, Palau and Chuuk and Yap in the FSMare
well known for their dive operations, but they possess unique cultural heritage elements as
well. Chuuk has a sunken ?eet of Japanese vessels in its lagoon, while Palau is one of the
best dive and snorkeling destinations in the world, with second world war relics and sunken
ships. Yap is especially known for traditional village architecture and ‘‘stone money’’. Visitors
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on all of these island destinations need to travel beyond urban areas to experience the
authentic cultural heritage of the indigenous people.
In Polynesia, Samoa is one of the less westernized destinations, where outside the capital of
Apia on Upolu and on Savai‘i, traditional society is quite typical in the villages and at
small-scale rural resorts. Samoa has spectacular scenery and activities that have a basis in
nature such as sur?ng, diving, and sport-?shing. What really differentiates Samoa fromother
destinations, however, is the cultural heritage and traditional way of life (fa‘a Samoa). Other
Paci?c island destinations also have cultural heritage attractions, especially on islands with
lower levels of economic development and smaller numbers of visitors.
Other types of destinations
Non-island destinations that may not be as remote geographically as the Marshall Islands
are to origin markets may also ?nd this type of study useful. Visitors may visualize
destinations as far away, such as Native American destinations (which have signi?cant
cultural and heritage components) in the southwestern US. Visitors, for example, that have
an interest in traveling to the Zuni pueblo in New Mexico may ?nd driving by automobile from
Los Angeles can consume just as much travel time as for someone from that same origin
market traveling to the RMI by air.
Conclusion
The RMI visitor industry does not yet encompass cultural and heritage tourism offerings to
any degree, yet there are substantial resources available within the nation. Efforts to
recognize this potential tourism resource and ?nd ways to develop it may aid the visitor
industry in increasing demand for travel to the RMI. Cultural and heritage tourism can
increase travel demand by focusing on additional market segments and by differentiating
the RMI from competing Micronesian and Paci?c island destinations. The marketing of this
tourism sector may aid in the retention of the traditional culture and heritage of the
Marshallese people, improve the sustainability of the RMI’s visitor industry, and aid in
development of a larger private sector in the RMI’s economy.
Many marketing constraints unique to the RMI exist such as remoteness, the reliability of air
service, MIVA’s current marketing practices, and energy and travel costs. Although there is
no easy answer to some of the constraints, this study identi?es a need for strategic
coordination between the RMI government, MIVA, AMI, and local atoll governments that
address the constraints of inter-atoll air service and destination marketing practices. The
marketing of the RMI’s visitor industry should bene?t by utilizing the unique cultural heritage
offerings that can be made accessible. Successful adaptation and utilization of those
cultural heritage offerings into a marketable and sustainable tourism sector will require
considerable effort to accomplish.
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Further reading
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culturalheritagetourism.org/index.html (accessed 28 January 2009).
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Corresponding author
Fredrick M. Collison can be contacted at: [email protected]
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doc_942172562.pdf
This paper aims to focus on evaluating what cultural, heritage, and historical resources exist
in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and how these resources can advance tourism
development and marketing.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Marketing cultural and heritage tourism: the Marshall Islands
Fredrick M. Collison Daniel L. Spears
Article information:
To cite this document:
Fredrick M. Collison Daniel L. Spears, (2010),"Marketing cultural and heritage tourism: the Marshall Islands", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 2 pp. 130 - 142
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Marketing cultural and heritage tourism:
the Marshall Islands
Fredrick M. Collison and Daniel L. Spears
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to focus on evaluating what cultural, heritage, and historical resources exist
in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and how these resources can advance tourism
development and marketing.
Design/methodology/approach – This study bases its approach on tourism development ?eld
research conducted in the RMI, ?rst in 1989-1990 for the entire nation and in 2002 for Bikini and
Rongelap Atolls. Current literature sources provide an expansion of the previous studies.
Findings – Tourism in the RMI sees only a few thousand visitors annually, with many participating in
diving and sport-?shing. Signi?cant potential exists to attract cultural heritage visitors, but to date few
such efforts exist. Construction and sailing of traditional outrigger canoes and rediscovery of ancient
Micronesian way-?nding techniques represent two important culture resources for potential tourism
marketing.
Research limitations/implications – Field research includes only the atolls of Majuro (the national
capital), Bikini, and Rongelap, with updates from published studies and information on the internet. The
RMI has many cultural heritage resources, but more effective marketing programs are necessary,
including integrated marketing among the numerous atolls, Marshall Islands Visitor Authority, and the
RMI central government.
Practical implications – Tourismdevelopment for the RMI will consist of niche markets. Beyond current
diving and sport-?shing, various artifacts of previous eras in the RMI and the Marshallese culture may
provide additional opportunities to increase the level of tourism.
Originality/value – This study of cultural heritage tourism development in the RMI provides information
about which little is written. This study offers a framework for use in other island destinations in the Paci?c
and elsewhere.
Keywords Culture, Heritage, Marketing, Islands, Paci?c region, Tourism development
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
The evaluation of cultural, heritage, and historical resources in the Republic of the Marshall
Islands (RMI) and how these resources can advance tourism development is the primary
purpose of this study. These resources help differentiate the nation from other Oceania
destinations, including those in other parts of Micronesia such as the Federated States of
Micronesia (FSM), Palau, and the Republic of Kiribati.
The evaluation of the past and present state of tourism in the RMI (a secondary purpose)
aids in the understanding of the environment for marketing cultural and heritage tourism.
Tourism statistics in less-developed economies like the RMI are not always as consistent or
as complete as data from more developed nations, making such analysis dif?cult, however.
The RMI, a self-governing democracy in free association with the US, lies in the North Paci?c
Ocean tropical zone between 48 and 198 north latitude and 1608 and 1758 east longitude.
With a total land area of only about 195 square kilometers (75 square miles), the RMI lies
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VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010, pp. 130-142, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011045208
Fredrick M. Collison is
based at the School of
Travel Industry
Management, University of
Hawaii at Ma¯ noa, Hawaii,
USA. Daniel L. Spears is
based at the School of
Merchandising and
Hospitality Management,
University of North Texas,
Denton, Texas, USA.
Received January 2009
Revised March 2009
Accepted January 2010
The authors acknowledge the
funding provided by the Paci?c
Islands Development Program,
East-West Center, Honolulu,
and the Bikini Atoll and
Rongelap Atoll Local
Governments of the Republic of
the Marshall Islands for the ?eld
studies upon which this study is
based and also the co-authors
of those ?eld studies
(especially George Ikeda and
Michelle Clark), along with the
School of Travel Industry
Management and the Paci?c
Business Center Program,
College of Business
Administration, both of the
University of Hawaii at Ma¯ noa,
the suggestions of anonymous
referees, and Jeanne Collison
for editorial assistance.
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scattered over 1.94 million square kilometers (750,000 square miles) of the central Paci?c.
The nation lies east of the FSM, southwest of Hawai‘i, and north of Kiribati (Figure 1). A total of
29 atolls and ?ve major islands form two parallel archipelagic chains; the eastern one is the
Ratak (Sunrise) Chain and the western one is the Ralik (Sunset) Chain
(www.rmiembassyus.org/Geography.htm).
Navigators from the south and southwest of the present day nation settle the Marshall
Islands somewhere between 2000 and 500 BC. Spain becomes the owner of the islands by
treaty in 1494. Settlement by Europeans begins in the late 1880s after Germany purchases
ownership of the Marshall Islands from Spain in 1885. Japan establishes a protectorate over
the islands after the ?rst world war, which stays in force until the US captures the island chain
from Japan during the second world war. The US operates a nuclear testing program in the
Figure 1 Map of the Marshall Islands
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Marshalls from 1946 until 1958 (www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm). In 1947
the RMI becomes one component of the Trust Territory of the Paci?c, which the US
administers under a mandate from the United Nations that results in sovereignty in 1986,
albeit with continuing economic support from the US (www.rmiembassyus.org/History.htm).
Design/methodology/approach
Tourism development ?eld research in the RMI, ?rst in 1988-1989 for the entire nation
(Collison et al., 1989) and more recently in 2002 speci?cally for Bikini Atoll (Spears et al.,
2003) and Rongelap Atoll (Collison et al., 2003; Collison and Spears, 2003) forms a basis for
this study. These earlier ?eld studies provide tourism development plans for the RMI as of
1989 and for Bikini and Rongelap Atolls as of 2003. The current study relies on more general
research dealing with cultural and heritage tourism, tourismin island states and in the Paci?c
islands generally, the research ?eld studies, and updates to Marshall Islands tourism
available from multiple sources.
General research articles, reports, and other sources
Garrod and Fyall (2000) examine the relationship between heritage tourism and sustainable
tourism and consider heritage tourism to focus on elements of the built environment (e.g.
historic buildings, art work, etc.) and even scenery. Hampton (2005) evaluates the
development surrounding a major heritage attraction and ?nds that as tourism develops at
the site the local community feels economically and psychologically distant from the
attraction. Hampton proposes an alternative scenario that involves the local community in
the planning and development process, retaining greater bene?ts within the host
community.
Echtner and Prasad (2003) examine the marketing images of third-world tourism (creations
of ?rst-world practitioners) and propose three typologies: the ‘‘myth of the unchanged’’
(destinations that exist in past time and space), the ‘‘myth of the unrestrained’’ (destinations
providing hedonistic experiences), and the ‘‘myth of the uncivilized’’ (destinations on the
‘‘frontier’’). The authors state that these ‘‘un-myths’’ are relics of colonial administrations of
developed nations and that third-world nations should resist these characterizations. Nash
(2004) provides a critique that ?rst-world marketers are not actively promulgating these
myths, but Echtner and Prasad (2004) provide a rebuttal that these myths continue to
endure.
Cave et al. (2007) ?nd that European-descended residents of New Zealand are much less
likely to support a potential Paci?c island cultural center in comparison to Oceania/Paci?c
island-descended residents, which calls into question the viability of such a center. McIntosh
(2004) examines tourists’ perceptions and expectations of Maori culture, both pre- and
post-visit. Her main ?ndings indicate that less formal interactions between visitors and hosts
may be bene?cial to visitors and hosts alike and are more preferable to highly-staged
cultural performances that do not allow such interactions.
Cultural and heritage authenticity refers to something real, original, pristine or veritable.
Grayson and Martinec (2004) argue that authenticity represents a central interest of modern
Western culture. Kolar and Z
?
abkar (2007) suggest that tourism authenticity is especially
important for historical, artistic, and cultural offerings since originality and uniqueness are
the key qualities that attract tourists. Their study ?nds that foreign visitors perceive authentic
cultural heritage experiences as more intensive than domestic visitors. Authentic cultural
heritage experiences are a positive factor in visitor satisfaction and loyalty. As a result,
authenticity is valued and is something that motivates tourists to travel to distant places and
times (MacCannell, 1973; Cohen, 1988; Naoi, 2003).
Bardolet and Sheldon (2008) examine archipelagic tourism sustainability for the Balearic
Islands and Hawai‘i and suggest ?ve primary tourism sustainability issues to consider:
1. Plan tourism development for the archipelago rather than island by island.
2. Engage in land use planning early.
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3. Include complexities of inter-island transportation in tourism development planning.
4. Insure that stakeholders on each island have input to the archipelago’s tourism.
5. Standardize statistical and economic data collection among the component islands
(p. 919).
Although this study is for mass tourism destinations, less visited archipelagos including
those consisting of coral atolls can apply these suggestions.
Marshall Islands tourism and development research articles, reports, and other sources
During the previous decades RMI tourism is small in comparison with many destinations
throughout the Paci?c, with under 4,000 annual visitors until the last few years. Air
transportation plays an important role due to the distance of the nation from
tourism-generating markets. Within the RMI, aircraft are also the primary mode of tourism
transportation due to inter-atoll distances and the infrequent arrivals of ?eld-trip ships at the
outer atolls.
Collison et al. (1989) provide a framework for government tourism policy and planning and
present recommendations for improvements in areas such as transportation access,
facilities, infrastructure, appropriateness of scale, controlling environmental impacts, and
tourism marketing. The study highlights the importance of safeguarding indigenous culture
and maximizing bene?ts to the resident population.
A 2002 study, which focuses on developing a comprehensive economic strategy for
Rongelap Atoll, examines tourism as one of the component sectors (Paci?c Business Center
Program, 2002). The study identi?es principal impediments to economic development
(especially tourism) as a lack of access to distant markets and infrastructure, an insuf?ciently
educated workforce, the lingering nuclear legacy, and a lack of market awareness. Study
recommendations include implementation of a home-stay program, and more intensive
tourism development at some future point in time.
Spears et al. (2003) identify and discuss tourism development issues for Bikini Atoll,
including social impacts, traditional customs and culture, and human resource issues. A
tourism action plan provides analysis in areas such as marketing and sociocultural impacts,
with attention to the principal market segments of diving and sport ?shing. The study
recommends that potential expansion beyond the current small-scale level of tourism occur
in ?nite increments in order to minimize undesirable impacts.
Collison et al. (2003) develop a similar analysis for Rongelap Atoll, which expands beyond
just the diving and sport ?shing markets. A principal objective of the report is to maintain the
traditional environment of an outer atoll in the RMI by restricting tourism to small scale,
sustainable efforts. The development plan recommends preserving traditional customs,
cultures (including handicrafts, dance, food, language, and sailing canoes), and the
environment, and both educating and engaging visitors to participate in the preservation
process.
Collison and Spears (2003) suggest a short-term marketing plan for Rongelap and
Ailinginae Atolls, beginning with a potential mission statement (p. 1):
To provide a satisfying tourism experience to a limited (initially) number of visitors and residents
based on the characteristics of the physical environment of Rongelap and Ailinginae Atolls and
the social and cultural attributes of the Rongalapese people, and to do so in a sustainable way.
The plan includes speci?c actions for a range of marketing elements ranging from setting
goals and objectives through marketing control, including time frames for implementation.
The primary target markets are visitors seeking action or isolation. Marketing to other
segments such as those seeking cultural and/or historical experiences also applies for the
two atolls.
In a study for the US Department of the Interior, Matsunaga (2004) evaluates business
opportunities in the RMI and ?nds a stable political environment, a natural environment with
pristine beaches and rich ocean resources, and support for sustainable development.
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Although acknowledging that RMI’s economic development has more potential, Matsunaga
?nds opportunities in niche tourism and the export of traditional handicrafts (beyond the
market of current visitors to the RMI).
Research ?ndings
The ?eld studies (see above), published research studies, and internet-based sources
inform the analysis. The analysis includes visitor arrival statistics from 1989 through 2007.
Economic development
The RMI is one of only ?ve coral atoll nations in the world with the others being Kiribati, the
Maldives, Tokelau (dependency of New Zealand), and Tuvalu (Barnett and Adger, 2001,
p. 1). Of these, only the Maldives has more than a few thousand annual visitors. As with most
Paci?c island nations, the RMI has few economic development opportunities (Harrison,
2004, pp. 4-6). The lack of large-scale agriculture and geographic isolation limit the ability of
the RMI to develop a sustainable economy without the infusion of funds from the US
government through the Compact of Free Association. Despite the isolation, tourism offers
one of the few opportunities to develop a sustainable economy.
The top development priorities of the RMI government itself are marine resources, tourism,
and agriculture (Asian Development Bank, 2001; Matsunaga, 2004). With some of the
world’s richest ?shing grounds surrounding the Marshall Islands, the RMI government sells
?shing rights to other nations as a source of income. The RMI also has an international ship
registry which brings in modest income on an annual basis.
Recognizing tourism’s potential, the RMI government establishes the Marshall Islands
Visitors Authority (MIVA) in 1997, which is responsible for tourism development, marketing,
and promotion. MIVA conducts market surveys to identify potential markets for the RMI,
initiates contacts with tour operators in major generating markets, and identi?es marketing
themes and guidelines for production of promotional materials.
Tourism overview
Tourismarrivals to the RMI, after a period of stagnation, show a recent pattern of growth from
1989 through 2007, albeit with some variability (Figure 2). After deducting transit and
stopover passengers, the true total annual visitors are about 2,000 in 1989, 4,700 in 2000,
7,600 in 2005 (when a conference of Paci?c island educators brought in over 1,000 visitors
(Johnson, 2005)), and 5,550 in 2007. The main visitor segments are ‘‘business’’,
‘‘holiday/vacation’’, and ‘‘visiting friends and relatives’’ (‘‘VFR’’). ‘‘Business’’ visitors are
the largest segment for all years 1989-2007, although their market share decreases from 60
percent in 1989 to 40 percent in 2007. At the same time, the market share of
‘‘holiday/vacation’’ visitors rises from 18 percent in 1989 to 37 percent in 2007. The ‘‘VFR’’
share generally ?uctuates between 10 and 15 percent throughout most of the years.
The principal visitor origin market is ‘‘the Americas’’ (led by the US and Canada), which has a
declining market share from 39 percent of visitors in 1999 to 24 percent in 2007 (see
Figure 3). The next market shares in size are generally ‘‘other Paci?c Islands’’ and ‘‘Asia
except Japan’’ (both with nearly identical market shares), declining from 26 percent of
visitors in 1998 to 15 percent in 2007. The largest growing market is ‘‘Japan’’ with 2.1 percent
of the market in 1998 and 23 percent in 2007 due to an interest in diving by some Japanese
and the resultant provision of some charter air service to serve this market.
Within the RMI, Majuro and Ebeye (Kwajalein Atoll) have dense populations with an urban
environment. Majuro is the national government capital and houses most private-sector
employers. Kwajalein Atoll hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll/Ronald Reagan Ballistic
Missile Defense Test Site, which employs some Marshallese citizens (who live on Ebeye, a
short ferry ride from the above facilities). Some private-sector businesses along with
government of?ces also provide employment on Ebeye.
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Unlike these two atolls, most outer atolls remain subsistence-type economies, with much
smaller populations. Traditional lifestyles generally dominate the outer atolls with principal
activities of ?shing, subsistence agriculture, and the production of copra. Some outer atolls
have aquaculture activities for clams and black pearls. Traditional cultural practices often
Figure 2 Visitors to Majuro by purpose of visit
Figure 3 Visitors to Majuro by year and country of usual residence
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continue on these atolls which are relatively free from the modern economies of Majuro and
Ebeye. A few of these outer atolls (e.g. Arno, Bikini, Jaluit, Likiep, Mili, and Rongelap) have
small-scale visitor markets. On other outer atolls, more basic accommodations with few
amenities, such as of the self-catering type, are available.
Cultural and heritage resources
The diving and sport ?shing markets are responsible for much of the holiday/vacation
tourismthe RMI relies upon, with Majuro, Bikini, and Rongelap Atolls having some success in
developing these markets, but their small market size presents challenges for future growth
of tourism and its sustainability. The RMI’s unique culture, marine resources, history, arts and
handicrafts, navigation techniques, outrigger sailing canoes, ‘‘maanpa’’ (traditional
Marshallese art of self defense), and WWII/nuclear testing/colonial artifacts
(www.visitmarshallislands.com/culture.htm; www.rmiembassyus.org/Visiting%20RMI/
GUIDEBOOK.pdf) represent opportunities to develop cultural heritage tourism and to do
so in a sustainable manner.
The Alele Museum on Majuro, handicrafts available throughout the RMI, and a few tours of
the outer atolls represent the only real development of cultural heritage sites, sights,
museums, and cultural experiences in the RMI. The current view of tropical island tourism as
the 4S’s of sun, sea, sand, and sex (the ‘‘myth of the unrestrained’’ discussed by Echtner and
Prasad, 2003), represents an outdated paradigm. According to Middleton and Clark (2001),
more travelers want cultural tourism, representing an alternative to mass 4S tourism and is
driven by the 4I motives of intellectual curiosity, inspiration, investigation, and involvement.
The tourism industry in the RMI thus needs further development of authentic tourism
experiences in order to realize these opportunities.
Two detailed examples follow for elements of the cultural heritage of the Marshallese that the
visitor industry can make (further) available to visitors to the RMI. Women within cooperatives
make traditional woven crafts, such as mats, baskets, wall hangings, purses, coasters, fans,
and ornaments (Mulford, 2006). Men make distinctive way?nding stick charts and model
canoes, and all crafts made from natural materials found on various atolls. These
handicrafts, well known for their quality and beauty, sell within the RMI to visitors and in some
export markets such as the US (www.rmiembassyus.org/Culture.htm, pp. 2-3).
Prior to Western contact, canoe navigators learn from stick charts, at least the basic one
known in Marshallese as ‘‘Mattang’’ (see Figure 4), which teaches how to recognize wave
patterns around islands (Lewis, 1972, pp. 200-202). Other stick charts exist, but are
probably not free of western concepts of maps and charts. Current Marshallese sailors and
navigators in training have only recently been shown the knowledge that the stick charts
contain, along with other traditional way?nding techniques (Genz and Finney, 2006).
Motor-powered boats in the 1950s take the place of the distinctive and speedy Marshallese
canoes, and construction of the latter disappears. A few experienced canoe builders from
Enewetak Atoll, with the assistance of the Alele museum on Majuro, help with the initial
construction of a traditional Marshallese outrigger canoe in the 1990s (Finney, 2003,
pp. 44-45). More recently, a project known as Waan Aelon in Majel (Canoes of the Marshall
Islands) initiates a training programto construct and maintain traditional Marshallese canoes
(www.wamprogram.org/history.html; www.wamprogram.org/canoebuilding.html). This
project can provide a valuable resource for cultural heritage tourism if visitors learn about
and observe the production of stick charts and canoes (both model and full-size).
The redevelopment of traditional navigation techniques and outrigger sailing canoes is of
cultural and historical value to the Marshallese people (Finney, 2003; Genz and Finney, 2006)
and may be valuable for visitors as well. Rides on traditional outrigger canoes and
presentations for visitors in some of the traditional canoe building, sailing, and way-?nding
techniques is a potential cultural resource for the visitor industry. To date, the visitor industry
is not apparently using this cultural heritage resource but efforts can be made in this area. As
an example, a company in Hawai‘i, that provides opportunities for visitors to sail on a
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traditional double-hulled canoe, receives the ‘‘2009 Ecotour Operator of the Year’’ award
from the Hawaii Ecotourism Association (Hawaii Ecotourism Association, 2009).
Likewise, visitors can experience aspects to traditional Marshallese culture through
demonstrations by knowledgeable Marshallese and actual participation in creating, for
example, some of the handicrafts of the Marshallese people. In this manner, visitors can
identify with and enjoy various aspects to the cultural heritage of the RMI. In all of these
endeavors, the Marshallese must determine what they are willing to share with visitors and
what elements of their cultural heritage they will not share with others. For example, some of
the detailed way?nding techniques are traditionally known only by a select few who become
canoe navigators.
Other cultural heritage elements found on a number of outer atolls include second world war
artifacts, primarily those of Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili, and Wotje in the Ratak Chain. On Wotje
Atoll, second world war relics include forti?cations, gun emplacements, overgrown railway
tracks and airstrips, downed aircraft, and a sunken Japanese freighter (Spears et al., 2003,
p. 28). Maloelap and Mili Atolls also have numbers of second world war artifacts, and Jaluit
Atoll has numerous sunken aircraft and ships which are dive-able. On Jaluit Atoll (where the
Germans established their capital in the Marshall Islands) and heritage artifacts of the
German period appear at Likiep Atoll. Bikini Atoll has numerous artifacts of the post-second
world war nuclear testing program of the US, including a number of sunken vessels in its
lagoon such as a dive-able aircraft carrier.
In summary, the RMI possesses signi?cant cultural and heritage resources that can both
attract visitors as well as differentiate the RMI from other destinations in Micronesia and the
Paci?c islands. No one else in the Paci?c or the larger world use Marshallese canoes and
distinctive stick charts. Likewise, certain cultural heritage resources are unique to the RMI,
although some exist in different forms elsewhere in the Paci?c islands. Outrigger canoes
exist in other Paci?c islands, but the Marshallese design is unique to the RMI. Only the
Figure 4 Marshall Islands stick chart (‘‘mattang’’) showing wave patterns around an island
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Marshallese and other Carolineans use sailing outrigger canoes for long-distance voyaging.
Visitors can ?nd dive-able relics of post-second world war nuclear testing in Bikini Atoll’s
lagoon, which are not found elsewhere in the world.
Research limitations/implications
This research has some limitations to be kept in mind. The ?eld research studies include only
the atolls of Majuro (the national capital), Bikini, and Rongelap. Published studies, other
academic research, and material available via the internet, however, provide updates to the
?eld studies. Because Bikini and Rongelap are the only outer atolls where tourism ?eld
studies are undertaken, this may limit the applicability of the studies when considering other
outer atolls in the RMI. The updates permit extrapolation to and interpretation of the current
tourism situation in the RMI.
The low level of ‘‘holiday/vacation’’ visitation in the past will more than likely be true in the
future, although some growth is possible with additional marketing efforts and expansion of
target markets beyond the diving and sport ?shing visitor markets. Present (and substantive)
marketing constraints for the RMI include remoteness, limited air access, and cost of travel
(both monetary and time-related). The concepts of careful planning and implementation of
sustainable tourism concepts, especially in the area of cultural and heritage conservation,
may bene?t from the constraints, however.
Cultural and heritage resources are an important component in further tourism development
in the RMI. Conservation and/or redevelopment of these resources, ?rst and foremost,
provides a sense of place for the Marshallese themselves. As the canoe building and
way?nding projects show, this can be done in an authentic manner, or at least one that most
closely resembles the pre-modern cultural heritage. The Marshallese can recover vanishing
cultural heritage elements as is shown by the successful efforts of the Polynesian Voyaging
Society of Hawai‘i (Finney, 2003, pp. 6-14). Native Hawai‘ian navigator Nainoa Thompson
(whose trainers included Pius ‘‘Mau’’ Piailug of Satawal Atoll in the FSM) says of similar
efforts to re-establish Polynesian voyaging traditions (Finney, 2003, pp. 13-14):
Two hundred years ago, we lost basically all that we knew about our traditions and its going to be
through research and through projects like this that we can regain it. But we’re not just regaining
an artifact. We are regaining the pride in the culture of the people-a proud, courageous people.
The voyaging and way?nding of the Polynesians and Micronesians are arguably superior in
technology to that of the Europeans until the development of celestial navigation using
compasses, accurate chronometers, and instruments such as the sextant. Marshallese (and
other Paci?c islanders) can be justly proud of these voyaging and way?nding traditions. The
woven handicrafts of the RMI are among some of the ?nest in the Paci?c. These cultural
heritage elements can counter some of the ‘ ‘un-myths’ ’ regarding backward,
unsophisticated peoples of the third-world (Echtner and Prasad, 2003) that are found in
the marketing materials for such destinations.
In examining the ?ve sustainability issues of Bardolet and Sheldon (2008), results for the RMI
indicate dif?culties in all ?ve issues. Granted, some tourism planning is done at the atoll level
(e.g. Bikini and Rongelap); success, however, requires all of the atolls working together with
MIVA and the RMI central government to achieve sustainability. Inter-atoll transportation is
the sustainability issue with the most immediate impact for the RMI. The Airline of the
Marshall Islands (AMI) is not able to operate inter-atoll service for long periods of time during
2008 and 2009. It is nearly impossible to market cultural heritage tourism (or any kind of
tourism for that matter) for the outer atolls when there is no guarantee of reliable air service to
transport visitors within the RMI.
If the RMI and MIVA can develop marketing programs that capitalize on the distinctiveness
of the cultural heritage along with the natural resources of the nation, a competitive
advantage may be attainable. Any tourism marketing programs must be appropriate in
respecting the culture and heritage of the Marshallese people. Such programs must also be
attractive to target markets, including those visitors with an interest in the culture and
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heritage of the RMI, Micronesia, or the Paci?c islands. MIVA establishing an ef?cient referral
system for inquiries from travelers and joint promotion programs for the travel trade and
consumers would be a useful addition since outer atolls (especially) have only limited
resources for such activities.
Practical implications
RMI tourism development in the future needs to focus on niche tourism markets. This
marketing focus may include markets such as those with an interest in diving, snorkeling,
and sport ?shing (as currently done), as well as those with an interest in the second world
war, nuclear testing, colonial artifacts, and Micronesian/Paci?c island cultural heritage.
Some of these actual and potential target markets may have an interest in the unique culture
and heritage of the RMI. In fact, the RMI is not particularly well known as a potential tourist
destination except in the dive and sport ?shing markets.
MIVA and the local atoll governments must work together to develop and implement these
niche marketing programs to make them attractive to potential ‘‘holiday/leisure’’ visitors.
Marketing of the RMI to potential visitors requires greater efforts at joint marketing as
Bardolet and Sheldon (2008) suggest, although local atoll governments often do not
coordinate their tourism programs among themselves or with MIVA and/or the RMI
government. Joint marketing funds may not be available at present, however, particularly
due to the drops in value of the investments of trust funds that the RMI and some atolls such
as Bikini and Rongelap possess.
An effective tourism marketing mix can reach targeted visitor segments that have interest in
the RMI’s culture and heritage by differentiating the RMI from other competing destinations
such as Palau, the FSM, and the Republic of Kiribati. Although the constraints of space do
not allow a more complete consideration of some of the unique aspects of the Marshallese
cultural heritage, many exist and provide perceptible marketing mix differentiation.
The adequacy and reliability of inter-atoll air transportation is a major constraint that hinders
tourism development and/or growth on the outer atolls such as Bikini and Rongelap. In fact,
Bikini has to suspend their 2009 tourism program due to the service problems of AMI
(www.bikiniatoll.com). The actual operation of the RMI’s tourism infrastructure faces another
principal constraint: the cost of energy (e.g. air transport, accommodations, dining, local
transport). The recent volatility of energy prices makes it more dif?cult to keep travel costs
lower for potential visitors to the RMI. Unfortunately, there is no easy answer to this constraint
at present.
Originality/value
There has been little study or appreciation in the past of tourism in eastern Micronesia,
including the RMI and the Republic of Kiribati. More speci?cally, there has been little study of
the culture and heritage of this area as they may apply to efforts to improve the demand for,
and supply of, tourism offerings. This lack of study may, in part, result from the remoteness
and low levels of visitor arrivals to this area of the Paci?c islands. This study provides an
analysis of tourism development from a cultural and heritage standpoint for small island
destinations that are remote from origin markets. Although this study has a focus on the RMI
and an archipelago consisting of tropical atolls, this type of analysis can apply to other types
of island destinations.
Other types of island destinations
Other types of Paci?c island destinations may ?nd similar studies to be valuable in
examining their own visitor industries. For example, Palau and Chuuk and Yap in the FSMare
well known for their dive operations, but they possess unique cultural heritage elements as
well. Chuuk has a sunken ?eet of Japanese vessels in its lagoon, while Palau is one of the
best dive and snorkeling destinations in the world, with second world war relics and sunken
ships. Yap is especially known for traditional village architecture and ‘‘stone money’’. Visitors
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on all of these island destinations need to travel beyond urban areas to experience the
authentic cultural heritage of the indigenous people.
In Polynesia, Samoa is one of the less westernized destinations, where outside the capital of
Apia on Upolu and on Savai‘i, traditional society is quite typical in the villages and at
small-scale rural resorts. Samoa has spectacular scenery and activities that have a basis in
nature such as sur?ng, diving, and sport-?shing. What really differentiates Samoa fromother
destinations, however, is the cultural heritage and traditional way of life (fa‘a Samoa). Other
Paci?c island destinations also have cultural heritage attractions, especially on islands with
lower levels of economic development and smaller numbers of visitors.
Other types of destinations
Non-island destinations that may not be as remote geographically as the Marshall Islands
are to origin markets may also ?nd this type of study useful. Visitors may visualize
destinations as far away, such as Native American destinations (which have signi?cant
cultural and heritage components) in the southwestern US. Visitors, for example, that have
an interest in traveling to the Zuni pueblo in New Mexico may ?nd driving by automobile from
Los Angeles can consume just as much travel time as for someone from that same origin
market traveling to the RMI by air.
Conclusion
The RMI visitor industry does not yet encompass cultural and heritage tourism offerings to
any degree, yet there are substantial resources available within the nation. Efforts to
recognize this potential tourism resource and ?nd ways to develop it may aid the visitor
industry in increasing demand for travel to the RMI. Cultural and heritage tourism can
increase travel demand by focusing on additional market segments and by differentiating
the RMI from competing Micronesian and Paci?c island destinations. The marketing of this
tourism sector may aid in the retention of the traditional culture and heritage of the
Marshallese people, improve the sustainability of the RMI’s visitor industry, and aid in
development of a larger private sector in the RMI’s economy.
Many marketing constraints unique to the RMI exist such as remoteness, the reliability of air
service, MIVA’s current marketing practices, and energy and travel costs. Although there is
no easy answer to some of the constraints, this study identi?es a need for strategic
coordination between the RMI government, MIVA, AMI, and local atoll governments that
address the constraints of inter-atoll air service and destination marketing practices. The
marketing of the RMI’s visitor industry should bene?t by utilizing the unique cultural heritage
offerings that can be made accessible. Successful adaptation and utilization of those
cultural heritage offerings into a marketable and sustainable tourism sector will require
considerable effort to accomplish.
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Corresponding author
Fredrick M. Collison can be contacted at: [email protected]
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