Jungian foundations for managing and performing secular pilgrimages

Description
This paper aims to enrich discussion on pilgrimage tourism by analyzing motivations for
visiting Sissinghurst, and of essential components of the pilgrimage experience.

International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Jungian foundations for managing and performing secular pilgrimages
Stephen Lloyd
Article information:
To cite this document:
Stephen Lloyd , (2013),"J ungian foundations for managing and performing secular pilgrimages", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism
and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 4 pp. 375 - 393
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Jungian foundations for managing and
performing secular pilgrimages
Stephen Lloyd
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to enrich discussion on pilgrimage tourism by analyzing motivations for
visiting Sissinghurst, and of essential components of the pilgrimage experience.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper utilizes data triangulation and the application of two
powerful Jungian archetypes to decode motivations to manage and to participate in a journey to an
iconic pilgrimage site (Sigginghurst Castle Garden, in Kent, England and administered by the National
Trust) using the analysis of interview-based, published, broadcast media and internet blog storytelling.
Findings – Pilgrimtourists seek and achieve individuation by being part of the essential experience of a
site; with its founders, its owners and management and with its continuing re-birth story.
Research limitations/implications – The paper illustrates the application of Jungian archetypes to
identify motivations to engage in a tourism experience and as a means for managers to identify a
destination’s essential characteristics.
Practical implications – This work provides a means for managers to identify a destination’s essential
characteristics.
Originality/value – The paper documents an original research approach to a previously
under-researched research topic.
Keywords Motivation, Archetype, Secular pilgrimage
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
This study explores the relationship between the Re-birth and the Journey archetypes and
the motivation to visit an iconic tourist site. Sissinghurst Castle Garden is a rural garden in the
ruin of an Elizabethan house, in the landscape of the Kentish Weald, in Southern England.
Stories and storytelling are important for tourists and for tourism research (Ferguson, 2011).
Sissinghurst has a story which, it is argued in this paper, represents an expression of the
Jungian archetype of Re-birth (Jung, 1969). Similarly, the meaning of a visit and involvement
with Sissinghurst is motivated by the powerful Jungian archetypal Journey and the discovery
of a context for individual meaning (individuation) in the Sissinghurst re-birth story.
Some forms of tourism may be considered as a form of pilgrimage tourism, religious
pilgrimage (Digance, 2003; Jackowski and Smith, 1992) or religious tourism (Swatos and
Tomasi, 2002). Attention has been paid to religious tourism for which the motivations come
from religious reasons (Rinschede, 1992). Research has explored spiritual awareness and
ful?lment as revealed experienced through participation in rural tourism (Sharpley and
Jepson, 2011). This paper explores a form of tourism that may have become the functional
and symbolic equivalent of more traditional religious practices; and the notion that there may
indeed be a sacred dimension to tourism (Sharpley and Sundaram, 2005). While pilgrimage
sites remain tourism attractions, research is required into the multiple sources of
meaningfulness in secular pilgrimages (Hyde and Harman, 2011).
DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-08-2012-0064 VOL. 7 NO. 4 2013, pp. 375-393, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
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PAGE 375
Stephen Lloyd is based in
the Business School, AUT
University, Auckland, New
Zealand.
Received 10 August 2012
Revised 14 November 2012
Accepted 13 February 2013
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This paper addresses the question of what are the rational or emotional forces that compel
people to want to participate in a form of secular pilgrimage. The paper addresses this
question and explores the contribution to tourism theory and practice of applying ?rst an
interpretative sociological approach to data analysis, and second the Jungian concept of
archetypes to an understanding of the motivations to participate in an experiential
pilgrimage site. Consideration of the experiential aspects of pilgrimage tourism, with speci?c
reference to Sissinghurst, has a contribution to make to an understanding of what makes
certain tourism experiences special and memorable (Tung and Ritchie, 2011). The
Sissinghurst story cannot be viewed as a sui generis. The story has had considerable
exposure in a range of media. This range of media comprises the data for this study. Data
triangulation is used to address the research questions.
Literature review
Pilgrimage
Pilgrimages are enactments of sacred journeys and are either religious and based on a
sense of obligation (Bridger et al., 1976; Houtsma et al., 1993; Yang, 1961) or devotion
(Turner, 1973; Turner and Turner, 1978). Some pilgrimages are secular journeys, a rite de
passage or pathway to identity, meaning or self-realization (Digance, 2006; Hyde and
Harman, 2011).
Turner (1973) sees pilgrimage centres as excentric to centres of population. Spirituality is
gained by pilgrims on their journeys to excentric spiritual centres. The view of pilgrimage
centres as concentric (rather than excentric) corresponds more closely with the concept of
‘‘centre of the world’’ or a zone of the sacred or absolute reality (Eliade, 1969, 1971) rather
than to Turner’s (1973) concept of the ‘‘centre out there’’ (i.e. the pilgrimage centres are
excentric to socio-political centres; spirituality is gained by pilgrims approaching the center)
(Cohen, 1992).
Research on the secular pilgrim suggests that the site has a socio-psychological
signi?cance as a medium through which speci?c needs can be satis?ed (Crompton, 1979).
This idea informs consideration of pilgrimage as travel to, and communion with, a site that
embodies and makes manifest the religious, cultural or personal values of the individual, the
deeply meaningful, or a source of core identity for the traveller (Digance, 2006; Hyde and
Harman, 2011).
In secular societies a journey starts in time and space for contemplation, creative thinking
and possibly to attain greater unity of thought and action (Vukonic, 1996). This paper
explores the journey not as a form of obligation but rather of personal volition, and of the
journey towards individuation, a personal process of gaining self-identity (namely, some
pilgrimages as a pathway to identity, meaning or self-realization (Digance, 2006; Hyde and
Harman, 2011)). A secular pilgrimage, from a functional and symbolic perspective, is
equivalent to other institutions that people engage into make their lives more special and
more meaningful (Graburn, 1989).
The value of Jungian archetypes to tourism research
The marketing psychology literature attests to the validity of a theoretical foundation for the
study of unconscious thinking and of its in?uence on behaviour (Woodside, 2008). Jung’s
work as an analytical physician at the Burgho¨ lzli Hospital specialized in dementia praecox or
schizophrenia (Bair, 2004). Jung developed a close professional relationship with Freud with
whom he became a leading proponent of the psychoanalytic approach to therapy.
Dream-elaboration is designated as secondary by Freud: they are phantasies or daydreams
the function of which is wish-ful?llment and signifying elements for the statement of
unconscious thoughts (Lacan, 1977). Dream work became central to Jung’s analytical
approach, especially in his work with Spielrein (Bair, 2004). The extension of Jung’s dream
work across cultures (for example in Africa, In the USA and in India) led him to a belief in the
existence of certain unconscious motifs and may in?uence our behavior today. This may
have led Jung away from a sex-based theory of pathology. This paper explores the
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proposition that transformations of personality, a subjective transformation, can play an
important role in a tourism experience. We will explore how tourist’s experiences are
associated with the Re-birth and the Journey archetypes (Jung, 1969). Jung’s theory of
archetypal activation and experience includes the concept of individuation. Such consumer
transformations include brief episodic to life-change experiences with primal forces
(archetypes, see Jung, 1966, 1968) and with tourism site experiences because of their
intrinsic essence (Lau, 2011). Such enjoyment can be enhanced considerably by tourists’
personal understandings and storytelling that are built on sensual, cognitive and affective
experiences (Pan and Ryan, 2009); these experiences contribute to the cognitive and
affective images that tourists build and which in?uence their overall perceptions of a
destination (Wang and Hsu, 2010).
Archetypal forms. In contrast to Freud, Jung (1968) identi?es a more historically sourced,
unconscious process whose content is of unknown origin and of mythological character and
constitutes a pattern peculiar to mankind in general: this Jung calls the collective
unconscious (Jung, 1968). What this suggests and what is relevant to tourism, is that we all
have deep, shared histories and need from time to time to engage with these personal or
cultural histories. The patterns of the collective unconscious Jung calls archetypes.
Archetypes are universal, primitive and elemental mental forms; they are symbolic
expressions of psychic dramas that become accessible to human consciousness by way of
projection; ‘‘their images are intended to attract, to convince, and overpower’’ (Jung, 1940,
p. 57). An archetype is a sign that may function as a symbol of transformation. Tourist sights
are seen as semiotic signs (Lau, 2011). For Jung, symbols act as transformers capable of
raising the unconscious material to the level of conscious awareness. Jung believes that
individual and social behavior and thought can be in?uenced, quite powerfully at times, by
archetypal patterns (Jung, 1973, 1976, 1991). Examples of archetypes include: the creator,
the redeemer, the earth mother, the siren, the joker, the rebel, the trickster, power and
dominance, re-birth, the journey. For Jung the archetype is akin to the pattern of behaviour in
biology (Jung, 1991, p. 100).
Jung’s work, his analytical approach and his use of archetypes, is criticized on several
grounds. A feminist critique suggests that while Jung considers a person fortunate if she can
be a devout follower of an inherited religion, many women feel estranged from traditional
religious institutions (Goldenberg, 1976). Some survey ?gures fail to support the hypothesis
that psychotherapy facilitates recovery from neurotic disorders compared with the best
available estimates of recovery without bene?t of such therapy (Eysenck, 1952). Such surveys
support the proposition that psychoanalysis is unscienti?c (Eysenck, 1953). The debate
continues (Grant and Harari, 2005; McLaren, 2006; Wallerstein, 1986; Wax, 1983). The
falsi?ability criticism may have been rendered plausible because of the normative judgments
which are latent in discussions of human development and human society (Wax, 1983). Such a
proposition requires a shift from the philosophy of science to the anthropology and sociology
of science (and of the professions) whereby the normative character of psychoanalytic
science imposes a disciplinary rigidity of the theoretical system (Wax, 1983). Cognitive
behaviour therapy provides a more recent alternative to psychotherapy (Wright, 2004).
The focus of this paper is on the application of archetypes to explore the thematic content of
consumer narratives, or stories (Doerfel, 1998). McClelland et al. (1989) observe further that
implicit motives generally sustain spontaneous behavioral trends over time because of the
pleasure derived from the activity itself, whereas the self-attributed motives predict
immediate responses to structured situations because of the social incentives present in
structuring the situation. Implicit motives ‘‘are based on innate types of affective arousal and
are more primitive than the elaborate system of explicit goals, desires, and commitments
that are characteristic of self-attributed’’ (McClelland et al., 1989, p. 700). Hence, the
relevance of Jungian archetypes as a means for the interpretation of implicit motives. The
paper explains two principal archetypal forms: Re-birth and the Journey.
The Re-birth archetype. Cases of re-birth, renaissance, are recorded in Western history.
After the fall of Rome the reign of Charlemagne (c. 742-814) is associated with a Carolingian
renaissance which saw advances in education, law, economics, culture and architecture
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(Barbero, 2004). Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries the Twelfth Century
Renaissance brought about changes that affected the lives of every stratum of society
(Brooke, 1969). The growth of the monastic orders, the development of monastic schools
and of centers of learning, resulted in a renaissance in theology, humanism, art and
architecture (Knowles, 1963). A further renaissance, centred initially on Florence in the
?fteenth century, produced a ?ourishing of art, architecture, knowledge and commerce
(Clark, 1969). Some millenialist movements anticipate a re-birth. Frykholm (2004) explores
the historical context of a recent re-birth movement based on the idea of rapture in American
Protestantism and its fundamentalist origins. Through rapture belief followers seek to
integrate the rapture into a broader religious context (Frykholm, 2004). The material of
Frykholm’s (2004) research is the ‘‘Left Behind’’ series of novels that chronicle the events that
take place in the ‘‘end-times’’ as described in an unorthodox version of the Bible.
This paper considers re-birth as a psychic transformation recognized as an individuation
process and attaining a higher level of awareness (Jung, 1970). The Re-birth archetype is
expressed through the myth of the Greek god Osiris: after his death he was resurrected in
the form of the fecundity of nature and of continuous re-creation (Jung, 1969).
Journey as archetype. According to Jung (1940, p. 61), ‘‘Men search for the effective
images, the modes of viewing things that satisfy the restlessness of heart and mind [. . .]’’ In
everyday decisions, the relationship of mythology and a folklore hero is valid because
people respond to certain recurring story patterns and character archetypes (Robbins,
2006). This paper, which takes as its subject the Sissinghurst story and tourists’ journeys to
the rural site, explores the Journey as a form of manifestly personal volition, and as a journey
towards individuation (Jung, 1940, 1968). The archetypal journey which is one of the two foci
of the paper is an experiential process comprising symbolic lessons during the process of
individuation of the self (Jung, 1969).
Method
Research philosophy
The social sciences have long been subject to a dichotomy that draws a distinction between
causal explanations and attempts to understand meaning, such as the verstehen doctrine
(Fay and Moon, 1994) which stresses the value of grasping the meanings expressed by
thought, language and action; of understanding the concepts and conventions that give
meaning to behavior. Dilthey sees verstehen as a necessary condition for understanding
and for interpretation (Martin, 2000). The orientation of the paper is towards verstehen as an
understanding of Sissinghurst by its stakeholders and pilgrims. A further theoretical
assumption made in this paper is that verstehen or understanding is an interpretative
process whereby meaning is formed on a rational as well as on an affective level. An
interpretive anthropology, inspired by interpretive sociology (Weber, 1978) incorporates
thick description (Geertz, 1973a) based on an interpretation of people’s own interpretations
or stories of events and based on the anthropologist’s empirical knowledge. The theory of
archetypes provides a theoretical framework, or template, with which to explain sources of
motivation among internal stakeholders and pilgrims.
Research strategy
This paper uses data triangulation as a research design whereby various, diverse data
sources are used to explore the same phenomenon. Triangulation is the use of a research
design that draws on a variety of methods to collect and to interpret data (Arksey and Knight,
1999). Denzin (1970) sees triangulation as a means for reducing bias and for improving
validity, a belief that is challenged (Fielding and Fielding, 1985). Triangulation is considered
inappropriate because it combines methods founded on different epistemological and
ontological assumptions (Blaikie, 1991). While it is agreed that because research makes
knowledge claims it is implicated in epistemological questions (Usher, 1996) the current
triangulated research approach employs methods founded on similar epistemological and
ontological assumptions: that is to say that an understanding, through the interpretation of
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various data sources, of the meaning that a secular pilgrim site (Sissinghurst) has for its
internal (site proprietors and management) and external (secular pilgrims) stakeholders.
Analytical tools
This study supplements an unstructured, one-on-one interview with the owner of
Sissinghurst (1968-2004) with diary accounts and historical and biographical sources
from between 1930 and 2008, including those of the present owner. Such sources record
introspection among Sissinghurst stakeholders; an expression that equates well with
consumption, creativity and aestheticisation in a form of tourism which equates closely to
arts marketing (Patterson, 2010). Given the importance of high-quality data sources in
historical research (Howell and Prevenier, 2001), sources of data include those that were
intentionally and unintentionally created, ‘‘report patterns of social action’’ (Howell and
Prevenier, 2001, p. 79); high-quality sources of data that converge on the focal arguments
(Bastos and Levy, 2012). These accounts are supplemented through internet-based and
broadcast TV ?lm clips and through the mining of blog postings of Sissinghurst pilgrims and
provide a rich resource consisting of storytelling, personal re?ection and opinions about the
meaning Sissinghurst has for pilgrims, in their lives. Tourist-created content is considered to
have relevance for destination branding (Munar, 2011).
The importance of storytelling. Many social scientists believe that narration is fundamental to
human behavior (Bruner, 1990; Coles, 1989; Polkinghorne, 1988). The concept of narrative
accounts now includes private and social explanations for an array of social actions and
interactive processes (Orbuch, 1997). Adaval and Wyer (1998) observe that much of the
social information people acquire is in the form of narrative: information in a thematically and
temporally related sequence. Narrative has an important role in judgment and decision
making (Adaval and Wyer, 1998; Shank and Abelson, 1995).
Stories provide a symbolic context in which a drama unfolds. Drama enactments enable
participants (storytellers) to interpret the meaning, variously during and after a visit, for
example to a very special secular pilgrimage site, in the manner of the powerful and unfolding
drama. Woodside(2009) placesconsiderablevalueonexaminingtourists’ implicit andexplicit
beliefs, attitudes, decision processes, and behaviour. This paper hopes, therefore, to lay a
possible foundation for understanding mental representations accessible through the
Sissinghurst Re-birth story and the secular pilgrim’s Journey. The paper employs narrative
analysisandvisual narrativeanalysisasitsprincipal researchtools. Narrativeanalyticsystems
are used in literary and philosophical analysis as well as in social science (Smith, 2000).
Steps in narrative research are similar to those in content-analytic work: a clear formulation of
objectives guides the selection of a system of analysis, the material to be analyzed and the
participants fromwhich the narratives originate (Smith, 2000). Narrative is an oral, written, or
?lmed account told to others or to oneself, and yields information that may not be available
by other methods (Polkinghorne, 1988). The paper adds internet blog narratives to these
information sources. Accounts are constructions that include description, interpretation,
emotions and expectations (Harvey, 1995). Narrative research in the paper takes a social
and cultural perspective: the interpretive approach to culture (Geertz, 1973b) and the social
construction of self and identity (Lieblich and Josselson, 1994).
Narrative analysis is utilized effectively in tourism research (Pan and Ryan, 2009).
Narrative analysis helps to build a knowledge base from which visual narrative art (VNA)
(Megehee and Woodside, 2010) of stories that participants tell about their experiences is
constructed. Constructing VNA achieves several objectives. VNA in the context of the
Sissinghurst Re-birth and Journey is the use of researcher-created visualizations of stories
relating to text and non-text materials in order to diagnose meanings of the pilgrimage
site and the pilgrimage journey. Whereas VNA can be used for the purpose of
self-re?ection by protagonists, in this paper VNA is used as a diagnostic tool by the
researcher.
Visual narrative art. VNA in the context of tourism research is the use of
researcher-created visualizations of stories in order to diagnose conscious and
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unconscious meanings. Megehee and Woodside (2010) suggest that VNA revises and
deepens understanding of the meaning of events in the story, and what the complete
story implies about the relationship between a participant and the activity. Secular
pilgrims’ own stories of their feelings and experiences surface unconscious thinking in
relation to the pilgrimage experience, and how this thinking may re?ect one or more
archetype ful?llments (Megehee and Woodside, 2010) by the storyteller. Narrative
accounts serve to inform etic interpretations of self-reports.
The VNA uses pattern recognition to identify common components of the pilgrimage and can
be useful in conjunction with phase dynamics theory (PDT) for analyzing pilgrims’
self-narratives (Woodside and Megehee, 2009). With respect to the Journey Archetype,
Woodside and Megehee (2009) indicate ?ve stages of PDT for epiphany travel, or phases in
the protagonist’s cognitive and emotional preparedness to more fully answer the question
‘‘Who am I?’’. Triggers, or motivating states and experiences, provide segues between
phases in preparing to start a story (prequel and awakening); in engaging in the story’s
action (journey and catharsis); and later in re-experiencing (post-journey storytelling and
[re]interpretations) a journey that leads to individualization or personal enlightenment.
‘‘Throughout the process and in the retelling of the experience, the protagonist ful?ls one or
more archetypes’’ (Woodside and Megehee, 2009).
Using VNA to describe linkages between unconscious and conscious thinking. Research on
VNA conjoins dual processing modes mental processing: Systems 1 and 2 processes.
System1 processes include unconscious thinking: holistic, evolutionary old, associative and
parallel which are independent of working memory (Evans, 2008). System 2 processes
include conscious thinking: analytic, evolutionary new, rule-based, uniquely human, domain
general, linked to general intelligence, and limited by working memory capacity (Evans,
2008). An orientation towards emic accounts and their etic interpretation serves to ensure
that data analysis takes full account of deeper processes (Jung, 1968) and thick description
(Geertz, 1973a).
How pilgrims are established as pilgrims
On the death of Vita Sackville-West, a founder with her husband Harold Nicolson, a large
part of the Sissinghurst estate was transferred to Britain’s National Trust (NT). The NT
established Sissinghurst Castle Garden as a tourism site in 1967 and annual visitation rose
from28,000 tourists to 67,000. Within a decade, a programto accommodate larger numbers
of tourists was initiated. By 1989 166,000 tourists arrived (Ben?eld, 2001). Many of these
tourists are not considered to be pilgrims. In order to identify pilgrim tourists the paper seeks
to identify those tourists who express an engagement with the site and does this through a
search of relevant blog postings, all of which focus on gardening and in which tourists tend
to identify themselves as pilgrims and differentiate themselves from other less well-informed
and less engaged tourists. The relationship between the owners – and their rights, for
example to live at Sissinghurst permanently as administrators – vis-a` -vis the NT – while
important, is not the focus of this paper.
Narratives and their sources
Narratives relating to the re-birth of Sissinghurst are found using a systematic search on
‘‘Sissinghurst’’, ‘‘Harold Nicolson’’ and ‘‘V. Sackville-West’’ conducted through the Google,
Google Scholar and ABI/INFORM databases. The search is supplemented by a search on
YouTube.com. The search yields the data sources shown in Table I. The research uses as
material data from diaries, interviews, autobiographies and biographies, and broadcasts
about Sissinghurst by family and friends. Narratives relating to journeys to Sissinghurst
are found using a systematic search of ‘‘Sissinghurst’’ through Google and YouTube.com.
The search yields the blog and video sources shown in Table II. Blog commentaries by
visitors to Sissinghurst are the principal material used for tourist pilgrim narratives.
Internet blogs are a form of public and selective information (Kluth, 2006). People share
stories (Megehee and Woodside, 2010) and experiences on the internet. In this study,
blogs are used as a source of data on visitor motivation to visit and to be involved with
Sissinghurst as a site and as a story. The study of a single case is seen to provide rich
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insights (Hede and Stokes, 2009). Such sources offer a rich source of material for
analysis and interpretation (Levy, 1981).
Employing the archetype template in narrative analysis
For family and friends involved in the re-birth of Sissinghurst, the system of analysis is
formulated by the structure of the Re-birth archetype narrative. For tourist pilgrims, the
system of analysis is formulated by the structure of the Journey archetype narrative as
directed by PDT.
Table I Media sources of data/stories
Types Qualities Sources
One-on-one interview Direct account with a member of the Nicolson family
and a creator of the Sissinghurst site experience
Interview of Nigel Nicolson by the researcher, 1981
Diaries Published diaries of family members and their friends Nicolson (1966, 1968, 2004), Bell (1980)
Letters Published letters of family members and their friends Bell (1980), Nicolson and Trautmann (1978)
Autobiography Published autobiography of family members and
their friends
Nicolson (1973, 1997, 2008)
Biography Published biography of family members Glendinning (1983), Lees-Milne (1980, 1981)
History Historical accounts of the making of Sissinghurst Brown (1985)
Web blog narratives Blogs of Sissinghurst pilgrims and their contributing
pilgrims
See Table II for details of blog sources
Radio Adam Nicholson’s book as the subject
Television Reality tv/documentary
Table II Blog sources
Blog Description
www.bestgardening.com/bgc/gardenopen/uksoutheast.htm Gardens, feature articles, design ideas, plant notebook, practical
gardening, garden events
www.delwynstokes.co.nz/ Garden paintings; gardens with strong design elements – vistas
and follies
www.suite101.com/search.cfm?q ¼ sissinghurst&Submit.x ¼ 0&
Submit.y ¼ 0
Articles about the garden and its history and storieshttp://jeansgarden.wordpress.com/2010/03/19/gardens-worth-
visiting-sissinghurst/
Gardens worth visiting: Sissinghursthttp://kilbournegrove.wordpress.com/ Green theatre; ?oral design
www.gardenvisit.com/garden/sissinghurst_garden The garden and landscape guidehttp://gouk.about.com/od/ukgardensandgardening/qt/
sissinghurst.htm
United Kingdom travel
www.squidoo.com/sissinghurst Travel planner: Sissinghurst Castle Garden – a great garden
www.invectis.co.uk/sissing/index.htm#books A description and brief history of Sissinghurst Castle Garden
www.mooseyscountrygarden.com/botanical-gardens/sissinghurst-
english-garden.html
Gardening forums
www.tripadvisor.in/Attraction_Review-g1593207-d215695-
Reviews-Sissinghurst_Castle_Garden-Sissinghurst_Kent_England.
html
World’s largest travel site: Sissinghurst Castle Gardenhttp://victoriasbackyard.blogspot.co.nz/2010/05/london-
sissinghurst-sisterhood.html
Gardening blog
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Analysis
Internal stakeholders: family and friends
The story of the ruined castle. The Sissinghurst Castle story began in the sixteenth century.
The remains of a Tudor and Elizabethan mansion included no occupiable rooms; the garden
was a rubbish dump. The castle had been deteriorating since the middle of the eighteenth
century, when it was used as a prison for French sailors captured during the Seven Years
War. A large part of the buildings was pulled down around 1800, and the remaining buildings
were used as a parish work-house and then as stables, outhouses and dwellings for
Farm-labourers (Nicolson, 1966).
Prequel to involvement with the archetype. Jung suggests that during traumatic times in their
lives people search for a construction of reality that satis?es the restlessness of their hearts
(Jung, 1940). Individual and social behavior and thought can be in?uenced by archetypal
patterns: recurring patterns that reside in the present in the collective unconscious (Jung,
1976). For Harold Nicolson (HN), diplomatist, writer, husband of V. Sackville-West (VSW) and
co-founder of Sissinghurst, the break with his settled and upwardly mobile profession of
diplomacy launched him on to a perilous period in his life (Lees-Milne, 1981). VSW was born
at Knole, one of the largest houses in England. VSW lived as a child at Knole as if it were her
own. A son would have inherited Knole; the ?rst great sorrow of her life was that Knole could
never be hers and would be inherited in 1928 by her cousin (Glendinning, 1983). These
uncertainties, threats and disappointments threw HN and VSW into a panic and they began
to search the Weald of Kent for another house (Nicolson, 1966).
The re-birth of the castle and gardens. The ?rst published mention of Sissinghurst by the
Nicolson family is in Harold Nicolson’s diary for April 4, 1930, ‘‘Vita phones to say she has
seen the ideal house – a place in Kent near Cranbrook, a sixteenth-century castle
[Sissinghurst]’’ (Nicolson, 2004). Then on April 5, 1930:
Go down to Staplehurst with Ben. We are met, after some delay, by Vita, Boski, Niggs, and all the
dogs. We then drive to Sissinghurst Castle. We get a view of the two towers as we approach. We
go round carefully in the mud. I am cold and calm but I like it (Nicolson, 1966).
The editor of Virginia Woolf’s diaries recounts how during 1930: ‘‘VW stayed the night of 23
May at Long Barn, after being taken by VSW to see her prospective home, the ruined
Sissinghurst Castle [. . .] ’’ (Bell, 1980). The decision to buy Sissinghurst was bold. There was
not a single room which could be lived in:
[. . .] the sturdiness of the original construction, and the faded beauty of the great brick tower
which rose from the centre of this battered compound, aroused all their adventurous feelings.
They would buy the place [. . .] and even if it took themyears, they would make a garden between
the isolated fragments of the house (Nicolson, 1966, p. 43).
Gardening: a new paradigm. In the eighteenth-century Sir John Vanbrugh and later
Capability Brown created a new paradigm in gardening design and created a popular
activity that spread across England (Bryson, 2010). This activity included the cataloguing of
plants and ‘‘permission to go outside and do something’’ (Bryson, 2010, p. 290). Vanbrugh
and Brown created what became known as the English garden (Clark, 1969). These were
landscape gardens. To many thousands of people Sissinghurst Castle is the best English
garden made in this century (Brown, 1985). Few gardens have acquired such a potent
mythology (Lord, 1995). This is the result, possibly, of HN’s skill at garden architecture and
VSW’s romantic planting: formality of design and informality in planting. Long axial walks and
intimate geometric gardens that are more like garden rooms that offer an intimate privacy to
the visitor (Lord, 1995). The garden at Sissinghurst after its re-birth and eventual ?owering is
described as Harold and Vita’s secret world (Brown, 1985).
Farm re-birth and the sacrality of nature. Schama (1995) considers nature and human
perception to be indivisible. The scenery of landscape is built up as much from the
structure of memory as from geological features (Schama, 1995). Eliade (1969) develops
the concept of the sacrality of nature whereby a sense of the sacred is revealed through
the structure of nature. VSW’s poetry, for instance The Land and Sissinghurst
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(Sackville-West, 1933) and a later long poem, The Garden (Sackville-West, 1946) is
expressive of such a sacredness.
Vita was mystical in her view of the world and was religious. She would be interested in the
fact that a ?ower is beautiful and that something must have made it so. There was certainly a
strong transcendental level in her poetry and her poem The Garden was a transcendental,
spiritual piece (Lloyd, 1981).
Re-establishing the essence of Sissinghurst. The writing of HN and VSW’s grandson
Adam Nicolson (Nicolson, 2008), married to Sarah Raven who is herself an accomplished
gardener and cook, has been extended into the TV and radio broadcast media. Nicolson
documents the need for further rebirth: in the wake of the success of Sissinghurst as a
visitor attraction (‘‘180,000 visitors a year and turning over £2 million’’ (Nicolson, 2008,
p. 29)) he observes a kind of sterility in which the absence of a working farm is felt deeply
by those living within the Sissinghurst community. An ef?ciency-driven tourism business
lacks a real, living contact with the working farm countryside that had been formerly a
vital force in Wealden life. Nicolson (2008), while his father is dying in 2004, feels the
depths of despair and a sense of phoniness about Sissinghurst that, he believes, had lost
touch with the countryside.
Nicolson (2008), in a moment of epiphany, decides to do something about it: to re-connect
Sissinghurst with the working landscape. The afternoon his father died in September 2004,
Nicolson (2008) goes up to a hill half a mile from the house. There, seeing only a man and his
dog, a lady on a grey horse and a couple of trekkers, he makes the decision to revive the
landscape with farming activity. This would require going back in time to re-connect with the
Sissinghurst story:
[. . .] to establish some of the foundations, to understand what the historical beginnings of
Sissinghurst had been, to discover its hidden meanings [. . .] the place I remembered, with all its
multifarious life, was the last of the real continuities that stretched back from here deep into the
past (Nicolson, 2008, p. 36).
Thus, begins a new journey for Nicolson (2008) and for Sissinghurst: to reclaimSissinghurst;
to restore its essence to the fullness of life.
Nicolson (2008) likens change management at Sissinghurst, vis-a` -vis the NT, visitors and
staff, to a re-branding exercise: not in the sense of branding as a goal, but rather branding as
a strategy for achieving a certain kind of value (Doyle, 2001). Branding and sustainability are
key components of destination image and identity congruence (Bowman, 2011; Scott et al.,
2011). In Nicolson’s (2008) case branding is a strategy whereby Sissinghurst can re-connect
with its roots and practice a sustainable provisional role through a farming programme that
would contribute to Sissinghurst’s business activities (Nicolson, 2008). While not stating so
explicitly, Nicolson (2008) expresses Sissinghurst’s essence in terms of a brand footprint of
‘‘target qualities’’ for the farm scheme: authenticity; richness; rootedness; connectedness;
vitality; delight (Nicolson, 2008, p. 108).
The application of VNA to the Sissinghurst story. Figure 1 shows the ?rst VNA depiction of a
primary archetypal experience of the Sissinghurst re-birth. The ?gure shows a sequential
polyscenic mode of visual narration (Megehee and Woodside, 2010) whereby the archetypal
formof Re-birth surfaces in the formof myths and stories of the ruined castle. The archetypal
story depicts the re-creation, in this case of Sissinghurst, in its several stages or
manifestations, indicated by each arrow:
B Stage one. In this phase, the prequel and awakening, the change agent may experience
a deep need to ?ll a space in life. The power of the archetype is felt, but not fully cognized.
B Stage two. In which the archetypal need surfaces in the form of a ruined castle. An event
or a change may have a signi?cant awakening effect, and become the catalyst for
change. The experience represents an engagement in a story based on the Re-birth
archetype of Osiris, god of re-birth. The re-birth of the site becomes the pathway to
identity, meaning or self-realization (Digance, 2006; Hyde and Harman, 2011).
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B Stage three. A cathartic involvement in the Re-birth process and experience; a deep
involvement in the:
[. . .] divine grace [. . .] resurrection in the green wheat, experiences in this way the permanence
and continuity of which outlasts all changes of form and phoenix-like, continually rises anew from
its own ashes (Jung, 1969, p. 51).
B Stage four. In which family participants’ and pilgrim tourists’ individuation is enabled
through the experience to engage in the archetypal Re-birth story: Sissinghurst’s ruin and
revival by HN and VSW, its ?ourishing under the management of the NT and its more
recent Re-birth as an organic, Castle Garden and farming community.
Among sub-processes (a)-(e), the most important stages are (a) in which visitor participation
in the re-birth story ful?ls the re-birth archetype in the continuing Sissinghurst legend; then
sub-process (e), which represents Sissinghurst’s implicit and explicit tourism strategy to link
the Sissinghurst brand to the archetypal Re-birth story to become the prototypical brand in
the tourist’s mind when the archetype becomes active (implicitly and/or implicitly) in her
mind. It is this tourism strategy that continues to sustain the essential Sissinghurst tourism
site (Lau, 2011) experience.
When his father dies AN seeks still the dependency of parental stability and comfort from
Sissinghurst. The son’s journey, which included the re-creation of Sissinghurst, takes him
from dependency to manhood: ‘‘My relationship to it has, in other words, at last grown up. I
see it now for what it is’’ (Nicolson, 2008, p. 318): a bundle of meaning, and a tremendous
source of optimism and hope. The Sissinghurst story is alive, and the past, present and
future are one.
The journey: visitors tell their stories
The motivation to engage. A pilgrimage may be taken for reasons that include
contemplation, creative thinking and possibly to attain greater unity of thought and action
(Vukonic, 1996). Crompton (1979) and Hyde and Harman (2011) note the
Figure 1 Storyboard of re-birth transforming into the Sissinghurst story and visitors into
participants
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socio-psychological need among secular pilgrims to reinforce their identities. Consideration
of the theory of individuation (Jung, 1940, 1968) provides insights into how people make
sense of archetypes and other aspects of the collective unconscious that may in?uence their
responses to cultural and marketing experiences.
A visit to Sissinghurst may be seen at its deepest level to provide access to unconscious
collective contents (Semetsky, 2006): mental representations accessible through the sacred
journey:
I don’t remember which of my friends advised me to visit Sissinghurst, but she must have really
impressed on me that it was a ‘‘must-see’’ garden because I went to quite a lot of trouble to get
there [. . .] I think what I most loved about my visit to Sissinghurst, though, was the discovery of
new plants or of new uses for familiar plants [. . .] the idea of rosemary hedges was mind-blowing.
And it was at Sissinghurst that I fell in love with astrantia, a plant that I had never seen or heard of
before, but which I made a point of ?nding and planting in my own garden (http://jeansgarden.
wordpress.com/2010/03/19/gardens-worth-visiting-sissinghurst/).
Pilgrims display a deep involvement with the Sissinghurst story:
[. . .] this is a garden I long to visit. I fell in love with Vita [VSW] many years ago [. . .] introduced
through Virginia W[oolf] [. . .] her gardens are so inspirational as is her story (http://?owerhillfarm.
blogspot.com/).
The pilgrimage. The journey to Sissinghurst requires preparation, the physical act of travel,
anticipation and inspiration:
[. . .] this was the garden that started it all for me. Unlike you I had read so much about it, read her
books, and visiting it became a MUST! My pilgrimage also was exhausting [. . .] there is no easy
way, but so, so worth it [. . .] I learned so much from Sissinghurst (http://kilbournegrove.
wordpress.com/).
Pilgrimage site. Following on the work of Digance (2006) and Hyde and Harman (2011) this
paper sees the secular pilgrimage as travel to, and deep involvement with, a speci?c,
physical and vital site that embodies and makes manifest the cultural or personal values of
the individual, the deeply meaningful, and is a source of individuation for the traveller:
Sissinghurst, the genius of the place [. . .] I have grown up with this garden. From the last years of
Lady Nicolson [VSW], during the excellent stewardship of the ‘‘Sissinghurst Girls’’ PS [Pamela
Schwerdt] and SK [Sibylle Kreutzberger] who I ampleased to have been able to call friends], and
the tenure of The National Trust. In every phase of the garden’s development, and of my own
gardening, Sissinghurst has always informed and provided both inspiration and great
plantsmanship [. . .] its artistry of planting, its timeless beauty, its resonance with the senses,
and its powerful atmospheric quality [. . .] I love it (http://edithhopegardenjournal.blogspot.com/).
Post-pilgrimage storytelling. Pan and Ryan (2009) allude to the organizing power of vision
that creates ‘‘personal understanding and the storytelling that results from travel’’ (Pan and
Ryan, 2009, p. 627). Frances Yates (1966) in her study of memory looks at how the art of
memory seeks to apply mnemotechnics based on architectural design (Yates, 1966).
Sissinghurst’s long axial walks and intimate geometric garden rooms with their intimate
privacy may provide a powerfully mnemonic and architectonic effect (Wo¨ lf?in and Hottinger,
1950). HN and VSW’s granddaughter Juliet Nicolson describes such a powerful effect:
This is the White Garden and [. . .] is de?nitely the most famous garden here at Sissinghurst [. . .]
People come into this garden and they propose; sometimes kiss each other; people ask to be
buried here. It evokes feelings of great emotion and romanticism (DW-TV, 2008).
I’m ?nding it so interesting to learn about others’ experiences of Sissinghurst, and yours seem
to be at opposite ends of a spectrum[. . .] I love your description of this as a religious pilgrimage; I
think that’s what it would have been for the friend who advised me to go. Perhaps, I was taking her
religious pilgrimage for her, which makes the trials of public transportation and uncertain lodging
somehow ?tting (Jean Potuchek, Sociologist and Gardener, Maine, 2010).
A visit to Sissinghurst may be seen at its deepest level to provide access to the essence of
tourists’ memorable experiences: affect, expectations, consequentiality and recollection
(Tung and Ritchie, 2011); a feeling of inspiration, for example, accessible through the
journey:
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Seeing this has made me want to do more research and learn more about this beautiful place [. . .]
thanks for the inspiration!! Also in reading kilbournegrove’s comment [. . .] I am thinking that I too
could learn a lot for what is offered at Sissinghurst!! (Stan Horst, Garden Furniture Maker, Virginia,
2010).
The application of VNA to the Sissinghurst pilgrimage. Figure 2 shows a graphic
representation of the Sissinghurst journey as process. Semetsky (2006) suggests that
certain experiences include both synchronic and diachronic dimensions. Archetypes, stories
in the diachronic depth of the collective unconscious, ‘‘are reproduced by means of each
synchronic reading, thus re-creating the memories of the past and simultaneously creating, as
if anew, the memories of the future’’ (Semetsky, 2006, p. 99). Woodside and Megehee (2009)
indicate ?ve stages of PDT for epiphany travel, or phases in the protagonist’s cognitive and
emotional preparedness to more fully answer the question, ‘‘Who am I?’’
Triggers, or motivating states and experiences, provide segues between phases in preparing to
start a story (prequel and awakening); in engaging in the story’s action (journey and catharsis);
and later in re-experiencing (post-journey storytelling and [re]interpretations) a journey that
leads to individualization or personal enlightenment. ‘‘Throughout the process and in the
retelling of the experience, the protagonist ful?ls one or more archetypes’’ (Woodside and
Megehee, 2009, p. 609). Building on blog postings, Figure 2 demonstrates howhuman memory
can be story-based (Shank, 1999). This paper incorporates PDT to analyse consumer
self-narratives and to interpret the journey in terms of the four stages of the tourist’s cognitive and
emotional preparedness to engage, and in terms of the sub-stages indicated by each arrow:
B Stage one. In this phase, the prequel and awakening, the pilgrimtourist may experience a
deep need to ?ll a space in life. The power of the archetype is felt, but not fully cognized.
B Stage two. In which the archetypal need surfaces in the form of a story: the story of a
pilgrim’s journey in search for ful?lment. An event or a change may have a signi?cant
awakening effect, and become the catalyst for change. The journey experience
represents an engagement in the story in search of insight and meaning. The journey
becomes the pathway to identity, meaning or self-realization (Digance, 2006; Hyde and
Harman, 2011).
Figure 2 Storyboard of journey transforming into the Sissinghurst pilgrimage and visitor
individuation
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B Stage three. A cathartic involvement in the pilgrimage process and experience; a deep
involvement in the sacred, spiritual and experiential dimensions of the journey activities
may challenge previous assumptions about the self in relation to the world.
B Stage four. In which pilgrim tourist individuation is enabled through the Journey
experience. Pilgrim tourists engage in post-journey storytelling and reinterpretation. The
pilgrim tourist makes sense (Weick, 1988) of the experience and through re-enactment
and story-telling accommodates a new self-concept within a new reality construction
(Berger and Luckmann, 1966).
Among sub-processes (a) represents ful?lment of the archetype; (b) the prequel to
involvement; (c) the awakening of the archetype through a cathartic tourism experience; (d)
the re-experiencing of the archetype through individuation; (e) communication of the
archetype as a result of the Sissinghurst experience. As with the Re-birth story engagement,
the most important stages are a. in which the tourist pilgrim participates through
individuation in (incorporation of the experience at Sissinghurst and incorporation of aspects
of the experience into the fabric of her life) the archetypal Journey story and thereby ful?lling
the archetype. Sub-process (e) represents Sissinghurst’s implicit strategy, through tourist
re-enactment and story-telling, to link Sissinghurst to the archetype in the minds of tourist
pilgrims.
Tourists’ engagement with the Sissinghurst story. Transference theory, archetypes, culture,
and early experiences serve to informthe etic interpretations of an informant’s self-report that
provides valuable data including storytelling insights by informants (Woodside, 2008):
Thank you, Ms Sackville-West, for accepting my request. I’ve long admired you; ?rst heard about
you from Virginia (‘‘Goat’’) [Woolf]. Your love of gardening, your books, your inspiration for, and
dedication from Virginia’s Orlando, and the damn stupid law [primogeniture] that you could not
receive the inheritance what was rightfully yours. Thank you, again (Mlle Kitty LaMieux, Writer,
2009).
[. . .] this is a garden I long to visit. I fell in love with Vita many years ago [. . .] introduced through
Virginia W[oolf] [. . .] her gardens are so inspirational as is her story (http://?owerhillfarm.blogspot.
com/).
Pilgrim tourists differentiate themselves from mass-tour visitors: the need for a deeper
meaning. The need to seek sustainability through containment of visitor numbers is made on
sensible and rational grounds: the need to conserve beauty and integrity. Further, more
affective elaboration may harbour the presence of feelings that some people, for instance
gardening specialists such as garden designers and garden architects, may be more
quali?ed to visit Sissinghurst than others (i.e. tourists):
In the interests of conservation, please do not visit Sissinghurst Castle Garden. Unless of course,
you are a garden designer, owner-designer or historian [. . .] Sissinghurst Garden should never
have been marketed as a destination for coach parties, not even for the good ladies of the
Gateshead Woman’s Rural Institute. I reached this elitist conclusion in the course of a visit to
Sissinghurst Garden on 10th July 2009 (http://?owerhillfarm.blogspot.com/).
My grandfather used to go there on quiet Sunday afternoons and was delighted to be able to
ask Vita and Harold about the names of the plants they grew. I guess this was in the 1950s. But it
now needs to be managed as a treat for those with discerning eyes, not as a commercial
honeypot. One simple measure would be to remove all parking for coaches. Then it could be put
in a special category so that you have to apply in advance for a ticket. There could also be a
special charge, even for National Trust members (Karen, Gardener, 2010).
Tourists’ involvement with the Sissinghurst story of a family and of Re-birth is an essential
dimension of the Sissinghurst experience, and of what makes the experience special and
memorable (Tung and Ritchie, 2011). In its most recent manifestation of re-birth Sissinghurst
has re-connected with its roots and its ‘‘reservoir of memories’’ (Nicolson, 2008, p. 71). There
is evidence in the data of tourist/pilgrims storytelling to support Tung and Ritchie’s (2011)
?nding that four dimensions represent aspects of experiences that make experiences
memorable: affect (positive emotions and feelings associated with the experience),
expectations (ful?lment of intentions; descriptions of surprises encountered),
consequentiality (personally perceived importance from the outcome of the trip:
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enhancing social relationships, intellectual development, self-discovery) and recollection
(efforts made and actions taken to remember the tourism experience) (Tung and Ritchie,
2011, pp. 1377-1380).
Examination of these personal accounts brings to light distinctions between tourists and
pilgrims. Tourists come in large numbers on organized tours. Pilgrims come because of their
personal volition and deep involvement in the Sissinghurst story and in gardening. The
storytelling of visitors to Sissinghurst suggests a form of experiential reciprocity (Russell and
Russell, 2010) that may underpin a form of connectedness among those fellow travellers
who have experienced the Sissinghurst archetypal Re-birth and the Journey.
Conclusions
This paper addresses the question of what are the rational or emotional forces that compel
people to want to be part of the management of a pilgrimage site and to participate in a
pilgrimage. The paper addresses this question and explores the contribution to tourism
theory and practice of applying ?rst an interpretative sociological approach to data analysis,
and second the Jungian concept of archetypes to an understanding of the motivations be
part of an experiential pilgrimage site.
To date, the theory of archetypes has not been applied to secular tourism research and
seldom features in the tourism literature. An argument could be levelled that the collective
unconscious and archetypes are speculation, a Jungian myth and an invitation to leave
evidence behind. Yet the concept of archetype can provide a valuable theoretical orientation
and an interpretative template. Issues of validity, reliability, and generalizability will arise. Yet
the interpretative method proposed can document a symbolic context in which a pilgrimage
drama unfolds.
The relevance of Jung to tourism
Jung’s work is relevant to the management and to the performance of secular pilgrimage. A
management implication of this paper is the value of seeking continual re-birth of a secular
pilgrimage site; to identify those essential target qualities that have relevance for a site’s
historical associations and that provide a footprint for a new phase of re-birth. In the case of
Sissinghurst those qualities are authenticity, richness, rootedness, connectedness, vitality
and delight (Nicolson, 2008). The Journey archetype provides insights into motivations to
visit an iconic tourismsite: the deep, personal need to embark on a journey and a search; the
value, through involvement and engagement of a cathartic experience of personal change;
and through the process of ideation, a feeling of personal renewal and of reintegration in an
enhanced way of living and dealing with the self and its social milieu.
Towards a new theory of tourism involvement
Researchers have explored spiritual awareness as revealed experienced through
participation in rural tourism (Sharpley and Jepson, 2011). Attention has been paid to
religious tourism for which the motivations comes from religious reasons (Rinschede, 1992).
This paper argues in favour of a form of tourism that may have become the functional and
symbolic equivalent of more traditional religious practices; that there may indeed be a
sacred dimension to tourism (Sharpley and Sundaram, 2005). This paper agrees with
tourism research that suggests that some pilgrimages are secular journeys, a rite de
passage or pathway to identity, meaning or self-realization (Digance, 2006; Hyde and
Harman, 2011). A special experience is gained by pilgrims to Sissinghurst on their journey to
a zone of the sacred or absolute reality (Eliade, 1969, 1971). The site has a
socio-psychological signi?cance as a medium through which speci?c needs can be
satis?ed (Crompton, 1979).
This study contributes to understanding the essence of tourists’ memorable experiences
(Tung and Ritchie, 2011). Involvement in Sissinghurst’s Re-birth story and in the Journey
towards individuation are major contributors. The visual (Pan and Ryan, 2009),
mnemotechnic (Yates, 1966) and architectonic (Wo¨ lf?in and Hottinger, 1950) effect of a
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tourist’s experience of Sissinghurst has been noted. Similarly, in the light of the literature on
possibilities for re-enchantment in secular societies (Partridge, 2006), there is a place for
further research into responses toward the sacred journey among tourism activities.
The relationship between the level of involvement among secular pilgrims, their information
search (Peterson and Merino, 2003; Talukdar et al., 1997) and the likelihood of elaboration
(Corneille, 1993; Coulter, 2005) during the pre- and post-visit stages deserves further
research attention. This focus is particularly important given that there is some suggestion
through these personal accounts of a difference in levels of engagement between tourists
and pilgrim tourists. Tourists come in large numbers on organized tours; pilgrim tourists
come because of their personal volition and deep involvement in a focal destination story, in
its core qualities, and in other life-core activities.
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About the author
Stephen Lloyd is a Senior Lecturer with the AUT University Business School and completed
his PhD with the University. Areas of research interest include secular pilgrimage, marketing
communications, brand strategy and brand symbolism. Stephen has helped some of the
world’s most famous brands build value properties across cultures and across a range of
highly competitive categories. Assignments in the UK, the USA, Japan and Southeast Asia
have included Nestle, Cathay Paci?c, Air New Zealand, Johnson & Johnson and L’Oreal.
Stephen Lloyd can be contacted at: [email protected]
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