Description
This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue
Keith G. Brown J enny Cave
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Keith G. Brown J enny Cave, (2010),"Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue", International
J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 2 pp. 87 - 95
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Guest editorial
Island tourism: marketing culture and
heritage – editorial introduction to the
special issue
Keith G. Brown and Jenny Cave
Abstract
Purpose – This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge.
Design/methodology/approach – The editorial ?rst discusses tourism research literature pertinent to
the marketing of cultural and heritage tourismproducts at island destinations around the globe. Second,
the contributions made to this ?eld by the authors in this volume and their implications for theory, industry
dynamics and tourism product as well as to island communities are identi?ed.
Findings – Each paper contributes to the ?eld, either by explorations of theory, shifts in paradigm or by
revealing new knowledge.
Originality/value – Collectively this collection of papers offers new perspectives on the special
characteristics of island tourism, community dynamics, the role of marketing and the development of
sustainable cultural and heritage tourism products in island contexts.
Keywords Marketing, Culture, Heritage, Tourism
Paper type General review
Introduction
Woodside et al. (2007) note that the primary objective of the International Journal of Culture,
TourismandHospitality Researchis to serveas a multidisciplinary platformfor newtheory and
research with which to explicate the factors that in?uence tourism and hospitality, within and
between cultures. This special issue – Island Tourism: Marketing Culture and Heritage –
achieves that goal. Four themes underpin this special issue. First, that island tourism is a
distinct ?eldof study, de?nedbytheboundednatureof place, peopleandprocesses. Second,
that island culture and heritage tourism products integrate holistically with contemporary
lifestylesandnatural landscapes. Third, that marketingof cultureandheritageproductslinksto
sustainableidentity, economyanddestinationviability. Fourth, that planningandmanagement
dynamics that formal tourism industry development, informal community engagement, and
government enact are critical to the sustainability tourismon islands.
Island tourism
The insularity and marginality of geographically ?nite islands create a fundamental appeal
for tourism consumption. The gestalt of remoteness, difference, distance, distinct culture
and heritage, wilderness environment, and small size in economic and population can
DOI 10.1108/17506181011045163 VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010, pp. 87-95, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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PAGE 87
Keith G. Brown is based at
the Department of
Organizational
Management, Shannon
School of Business, Cape
Breton University, Sydney,
Canada. Jenny Cave is
based at the Department of
Tourism and Hospitality,
University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand.
Received April 2009
Revised January 2010
Accepted January 2010
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constitute an attraction. Yet, remote islands, whether tropical, subtropical or cold water also
suffer challenges to the sustainability of tourismthrough inaccessibility due to poor transport
(airline/boat) connectivity and capacity, plus inadequate infrastructure, often coupled with
lack of tourismmarketing, education and support. Limited local attractions and high levels of
out-migration (Connell, 2003) contribute to the dif?culties of sustaining a tourism industry.
Not all islands are remote from tourism generating regions, in fact, many island tourism
destinations are on the fringe of urban populations. Vancouver Island, Canada is one
example. Nonetheless, they encounter the same issues of sense of place and scale
commonly associated with smaller islands, together with perceived value as holiday
destinations. The proximity and nature of gateway centers are of particular importance.
The nature and pro?le of tourismat ‘‘cold water’’ islands differs somewhat from‘‘warmwater’’
locations. Low tourist numbers, matched with low tourism supply attributed to harsh, cool
climates and low populations characterize tourism in cold-water destinations – producing a
small scale, low-impact style of industry. Tourism product on cold-water islands tends to rely
on direct encounters with nature, history and local culture. These, together with relative
inaccessibility, limited civilian ‘‘buy in’’ or indeed resistance from speci?c local interests to
tourism, low population numbers and the absence of political pluralism produces conditions
that require careful strategic management (Baldacchino, 2006b). Especially since tourism is
often one of several contributors to the economies of cold-water locales, subject to
signi?cant variations in seasonality. These factors create consequent issues for the
sustainability of the industry, the island’s population, society and culture (Baum and Hagen,
1999).
In contrast, in warm water, tropical islands the tourism industry often dominates the local
society and economy. In many cases, physical space is at a premium and infrastructure and
human resource planning has been minimal or non-existent because of rapid and
uncontrolled expansion of tourism. This has frequently occurred because of the perceived
bene?ts of local employment and the income potentials of tourism, but has lead to situations
of non-sustainability, environmental degradation and social inequity. In many cases, tourism
product in warm water destinations relies on staged cultural authenticity, resort enclave
hedonism (Baldacchino, 2006b) and utopic visions of paradise (Connell, 2003; Schellhorn
and Perkins, 2004).
Across the board, warm water small-island economies have a narrow resource base and
limited economic development. Typically they place an overwhelming reliance on tourism
and the consistent in?ow of foreign direct investment to achieve economic growth (Hampton
and Christensen, 2007; Shareef and Hoti, 2005). Often depending heavily on international
development assistance in the form of aid from former colonists for infrastructure
development (Shareef and Hoti, 2005). Further, such islands are subject to internal factors
such as ethnic diversity, fractured political systems, economic and environmental
vulnerability, ecological fragility and investment risk (Shareef and McAleer, 2005). These
factors produce conditions of volatility in tourism arrivals with consequent vulnerability to
global exogenous shocks (Hoti et al., 2007).
The proportionately high reliance on tourismof these economies means that other sectors do
not offset downturns in tourism when they occur. Thus, small island economies may need
strong governmental support for the preparedness for change and sustainability of the
industry. Tourist ?ow and industry supply perhaps better serve islands that are part of the
global transportation systemand primary tourismroutes (such as Hawaii, Fiji and Tahiti in the
South Paci?c) than those more marginally located. Decisions made offshore, route changes
made by major airlines, for example, affect both. Thus, the marketing strategies, destination
development policies and sustainable societal, economic and environmental planning
processes for tourism on islands should anticipate and plan to mitigate such effects,
especially with a view to maintaining the cultural and natural heritage resources of the
islands.
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Island cultural heritage product
The current patterns of out-migration from islands and trends towards their re-settlement by
returning expatriates creates global responses (Baldacchino, 2006a) and extend social
worlds. While these new dynamics enrich island conceptions of identity, culture and
heritage, issues of cultural and heritage authenticity in product and experience results
(Brown, 2009). In terms of the island cultural contexts, Brown (2009) asks, to what extent
island cultural continuity, evolved over generations to contemporary forms is in fact authentic
cultural expression.
A view of pre-modern as equivalent to authentic and modern as inauthentic is unrealistic
(Olsen, 2002; Ryan, 2002) and na? ¨ve, and bears no relation to the reality of contemporary
cultural expression where authorization by elders constitutes authentication (Ryan, 2002).
Thus, cultures continue to evolve, and island environments, despite the cultural
conservatism born of isolation, are perhaps vulnerable to change during tourism
encounters. Interactions within the encounter depend upon shared values, positive or
negative attitudes toward each other and prior experience of each other’s culture. Thus,
encounters with culture and heritage in tourism settings are encounters with difference and
heterotopic in nature (Foucault and Miskowiec, 1986). Encounters along this continuum are
mediated at the level of the individual (sociality) and by one’s own identity (Ahmed, 2002).
But when the customs, rituals and arts are performed or produced for tourism consumption,
as noted by Picard (1996) in the context of Bali, the meaning of cultural products changes.
But so too do the human relations between the producer and the purchaser, the history of
these relations, and their ethnic identities, observed in the island of Hokkaido (Hiwasaki,
2000). A kind of reconstructed identity can emerge in response (MacCannell, 1984) which
bears some resemblance to its original but may be equally valid.
Regrettably, in island contexts, access to the bene?ts of commerce such as the tourism
industry or to grants of aid can engender differences within communities in terms of income,
control of property, socialization and the distribution of bene?ts that may result
(Helu-Thaman, 2002). Further, not all community members participate equally. Some may
participate directly, interacting with tourists on a regular basis as guides, performers and
artisans whereas others may work behind the scenes serving as support staff or as
wholesalers of food and supplies. Local hosts will also differ in terms of how much time and
energy they invest in tourism: some will work as fulltime wage laborers, whereas others will
contract their labor occasionally or earn cash only through the sale of goods (Stronza, 2001).
This brief review of local community responses and visitor consumption of cultural tourism
suggests that the goals (and effects) for cultural tourism, and thus enterprise to deliver island
tourism product in the industry are diverse and somewhat oppositional. Some of the effects
of tourism enterprise in the cultural sphere are to preserve culture and traditions. Others
contribute to economic development and social equity with or without governmental
assistance, yet are to be fully commercial – managed by either community members or
external intermediaries.
Marketing culture and heritage product
In terms of marketing, northern tourism, generating regions often misrepresent the
warm-water islands of the tropics in advertising and promotional materials as mythical
paradisal Utopia. However, the day-to-day realities of interactions between tourists and
locals contrast markedly with this alluring image (Schellhorn and Perkins, 2004).
Knowledge of visitation pro?les is critical to the successful delivery of cultural heritage
product. This was highlighted by a study of Malaysian small island tourism where long-stay
tourists were foreigners, yet the majority of short-stay visitors were domestic visitors (Zaharul
et al., 2007).
Chen (2006) suggests that island accessibility and seasonality are issues that drive strategic
planning for marketing and market segments, service engagement, and community
involvement. Market segmentation is a common approach to the identi?cation of niche
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products for tourism. In islands however, where industry skills and tourism carrying capacity
is limited, this work is often focused on identifying niche markets, as well as the niche
products from which the highest tourism product yield can be extracted (Alvarez-Gonzalez
et al., 2005). Ryan (1995) suggests that islands destinations may lack the resources to
undertake ongoing and sophisticated reviews of markets pro?le and demand, so, life-stage
market segmentation can be a cost-effective means of overcoming these obstacles and
obtaining data upon which to base tourism promotion, planning and development, at least
for western markets. The world wide web is also recommended as a mechanism with good
potential for small and remote island tourism destinations to increase their appeal and
noticeability in the global marketplace (Holcomb and Attard, 2001).
The competitiveness of islands as tourism destinations can be enhanced by the
image-enhancing power of events marketing, if surrounded with a program of
community-based and high-pro?le hallmark events (Getz, 1995). However, for mature
island destinations the picture is different. According to Helber (1995) aggressive marketing
to retain competitiveness are not suf?cient for mature contexts. In preference, expansion,
rebuilding or repositioning the product occur, as well as beauti?cation campaigns and
infrastructure improvements. However, these can be destructive of the tourism resource,
particularly where the attraction stems from natural or cultural assets (Carter, 2004), hence
sustainability and ongoing enhancement of products and services are important areas for
mature destinations to address (Helber, 1995).
Dynamics of planning and management
Tourism growth on islands is frequently sporadic and so tourism planning and management
needs to become process-oriented through mutual adjustment between stakeholders rather
than outcome-oriented. Such a shift however requires greater consideration of the
relationship between product, the market and the asset, as well as cognizant of host
community dynamics (Carter, 2004).
Small tourism economies rely on tourism as a source of foreign investment to facilitate
economic growth, smooth out consumption over time and to absorb domestic production
shocks. However, such linkages mean that island economies are subject to knock-on effects
of downturns that occur in external economies (Hoti et al., 2007). These exogenous shocks
however can be offset by the creation of marketing collaborations between island
destinations and by looking at island tourism development in the overall picture of supply
and demand on islands and broader regional context (Pearce, 2001). Cole (2007) notes that
because of foreign investment, island tourism-based economies of the Caribbean
experience discontinuous investment, delayed marketing and construction, as well as
distributed expenditures between the local and overseas investors. Kim (2002) notes the
importance of public-private partnerships to the realization of strategic marketing and
framework and individual investment strategies for developing island tourism.
The role of government in the development of island tourism can encompass: tourism
legislation, policy implementation structures, ?nancial and tax incentives from governments
and the bene?ts received by governments from such schemes, marketing, joint ventures
and public/private partnerships and the involvement of local communities (MacNulty, 2002).
Where a strong governmental structure is in place, as in the Danish Island of Bornholm
however, tourism’s environmental effects can be minimal (Ioannides and Petersen, 2001).
Further, Brown (2009) reports that sustained and repeated federal governmental
investments in tourism outcomes has resulted in successful development, of in Cape
Breton’s Celtic musical heritage. This has lead to focused marketing of the destination,
based upon a distinctive range of cultural tourism products.
Contributions to theory and practice
The contributions made to the ?eld of island tourism by the authors in this volume sit within a
framework of shifting paradigms for the sustainable development and consumption of
cultural product in terms of contemporary expression, (re)creation of heritage traditions and
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its presentation through marketing, as well as in the respective roles played in them.
Collectively, the articles provide a spectrum of tensions and dilemmas of preservation and
use of ?nite cultural and natural heritage resources. The next section brie?y reviews to
indicate its speci?c contribution to the theory and practice of island tourism.
Tourism interaction on islands: the community and visitor social exchange
Moyle, Croy, and Weiler’s work looks at the challenges of successful management of
interactions between community members and visitors. This occurs within the geographic
con?nes of two small Australian islands, one tropical and the other temperate. Using social
exchange theory, it conducts a micro-level analysis of the dynamics of social interaction at a
community level. The researchers look at the consequences of interactions at the initiation,
formation, evaluation and post-establishment phases of tourism development through a
stakeholder lens.
Their work is signi?cant in illustrating a range of motivations to engage in tourism (or not) at
the community level. The research shifts our view of who are the hosts, demonstrating the
complexities of tourism social exchange – with residents who live adjacent to protected
natural areas of high scenic value visited by tourists – as well as business owners, local
government staff and elected of?cials, community groups, as well as parks and wildlife
agencies and accommodation suppliers. Island lifestyle is an attractor for visitors who want
to engage with host communities to enrich their experience on the island, yet locals see
tourists as intrusive upon lifestyle and are often unwilling to interact with them. Further, the
motivations for engagement vary by developmental stage. For instance, while economic
need and potential revenue are positive motivations for residents and stakeholders at the
initiation stage of tourism development, once operational, the ‘‘welcome’’ for tourists can
dissipate because of issues surrounding preservation of lifestyle, the level of tourism
development and infrastructure capacity.
This work has implications for tourism suppliers, destination managers and planners and for
community empowerment and makes suggestions about how to optimize the visitor
experience by empowering locals to inform visitors about appropriate behavior.
Integrating management and marketing strategies at heritage sites
Fullerton, McGettigan, and Stephens’s article contributes a deeper understanding of the
issue of preservation of heritage versus usage, in the context of the large northern
hemisphere island of Ireland. The authors situate their work in the paradigm shift that has
occurred in consumer theory over the last 20 years – from notions of limitless consumption
and supply of product, towards an awareness of scarce resources and thus limited supply.
They highlight the need for holistic thinking about the dynamics of marketing and the
preservation of cultural heritage. Speci?cally, to use demarketing interventions to in?uence
tourist behaviors, manage arrival times and distribute tourists across under-utilized heritage
sites as well as to encourage conservation behaviors onsite.
However, their research with managers of cultural and natural heritage attractions and
promotional organizations in Ireland signi?cantly notes that despite conceptual shifts in
theory, that this new thinking has yet not translated into site management practices.
Marketing initiatives and visitor behavior management remain locally applied at the
individual site level. They suggest that managers look across the continuum of consumer
decision points for critical intervention opportunities, especially prior to travel departure and
before visitors’ arrival onsite. These measures would reduce onsite management costs,
spread utilization of heritage resources more widely, reducing pressure on iconic locations
and encourage visitation to less well-know location, thus sustaining the ?nite resource of
Ireland’s cultural and natural heritage for the future.
The role of heritage tourism on the Shetland Islands
Leask and Rihova contribute a paper that draws a link between marketing, cultural heritage
preservation, public policy and sustainable development. They offer a best-practice
case-study analysis of stakeholder collaboration and heritage development in the context of
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the northern hemisphere Shetland Islands, cold water islands at the north of Scotland,
culturally enriched by successive waves of Pictish, Neolithic and Viking settlers. Here, the
pace of tourism development matches marketing strategies aimed at developing long-stay,
repeat visitation and experiences of nature and cultural heritage. Tourismdevelopment in the
Shetland Islands occurs as inclusive partnerships undertaken between local communities,
private enterprise and government, in part because Shetland Islanders welcome tourism as
an alternative to traditional industries. However, the key ingredient is a coherent, proactive,
well-resourced and speci?c action plan to develop heritage sites and products,
underpinned by a policy of ‘‘wise growth’’. The pace of growth is low-scale and carefully
paced, balancing private enterprise, governmental programs and community stakeholder
inputs to preserve cultural and natural authenticity of tourismexperience and to provide both
social and economic bene?ts for the islands. However, community integration remains a
challenge because of the remoteness of some settlements.
Marketing cultural and heritage tourism: the Marshall Islands
Collison and Spears examine in their article the cultural heritage resources of a little known
coral atoll archipelago of remote Paci?c Islands in terms of their marketing and niche tourism
potential. The Marshall Group is differentiated from other Oceanic islands because it is the
locus of generations of well-preserved knowledge of wave pattern non-instrument navigation
and outrigger canoe construction and sailing though speci?c to their cloud-covered climate
have helped rejuvenate ancient way?nding techniques in other parts of Oceania. This
research explores the current environment and the rich cultural heritage of the largely
undeveloped area, much of which dependant on subsistence economy and traditional
lifestyles, except for two urbanized islands which take part in modern economies.
The authors evaluate the culture, heritage and historical resources, infrastructure capacity
for and desirability of embracing tourism. Thus, it too balances marketing goals of tourism
with the preservation goals of communities, within the framework of government policy but
for an archipelago for which tourism is currently a low-level activity.
The research synthesizes several studies conducted in 2002 and 2003 and market share
analysis of visitor arrivals over 20 years. It recommends careful development of marketing
programs based on cultural heritage of the islands and community-driven development of
tourism and export products such as handicrafts and distinctive way?nding stick charts, the
sailing of and construction of outrigger canoe. Tourism to Second World War artifacts and
historical site are also potential products. Referrals by business and VFR markets preserve
low levels of targeted and sensitized visitors. Its unique contribution to literature is its
demonstration of low-key consideration of issues and marketing techniques that aim to
preserve low levels of tourism appropriate to subsistence and isolated economies.
Developing sustainable tourism: Jamaican managers’ assessment of the island’s ten-year
master plan
Kennett-Hensel, Sneath, and Hensel’s paper contributes a management perspective on the
achievements of Jamaica’s government policy-driven Ten-Year Master Plan for sustainable
tourism development, as it nears completion and the market position of the Caribbean
island. They evaluate the effectiveness of the plan in terms of its goals for inclusive,
community-based development, growth based on a market position of sustainable heritage,
enhanced infrastructure and preservation of the island’s natural beauty.
An online survey of managers discovers that heritage and environmental preservation,
infrastructure improvement and accessibility initiatives are successful, reinforced by positive
brand associations with unique cultural and ecological heritage that differentiates Jamaica
amongst other Caribbean island nations and should continue into the future. However, they
?nd that the tourism and hospitality sector is more favorably disposed towards positive
assessments of success of the Plan than other sectors of the economy. However, the
implementation of inclusive, community-based approaches and public-private partnerships
that are fundamental to sustainable development of tourism resources is weak. Thus, the
study calls into question the long-term success of the plan.
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Repositioning Malta as a heritage destination
Foxell and de Trafford examine early development of tourism policy in Malta noting the
similarity of focus on coastal, beach-based resorts with Malta’s Mediterranean neighbors.
The paper explores Malta’s issues with seasonality, language tourism and reliance upon the
United Kingdom market, within the context of a repositioning of the country within a new
sphere of cultural heritage destinations.
Foxell and de Trafford explore the dichotomy that exists within a country that has several
world recognized heritage sites but only a nascent cultural product. Malta’s recent
accession to the EU has seen bene?ts from structural funding which has focused in part on
cultural preservation. Foxell and de Trafford note movement toward linking Malta with her
immediate neighbors to provide a regional cultural experience.
A sense of crisis is evident for policy makers in the country as they focus on environmental
issues, overcrowding in peak periods and inadequate range of facilities.
The contributions of this special issue
The collection of papers in this Special Issue offers new perspectives on the particular
characteristics of island tourism and the challenges inherent in marketing these tourism
products. It challenges preconceptions about the role of marketing and demarketing,
positioning and repositioning, as tools for the preservation of ?nite resources. In so doing,
the Island Tourism: Marketing Culture and Heritage collection provides a cogent glimpse into
two paradigm shifts that affect the disciplines of marketing and tourism, now and into the
future. Namely, that the supply of human, cultural and natural resources are not limitless, nor
is there unlimited demand for tourism product and so careful management of both supply
and demand is required. Further, the notion of ‘‘stakeholder’’ should be expanded beyond
the formal tourism industry into consideration of:
B interactions between the resource, tourism product, community group, resident and
visitor;
B interventions prior to visit and onsite; and
B the respective roles of tourism industry operators, managers, local and state
governments, and offshore investors.
The special issue on Island Tourism: Marketing Culture and Heritage draws together
perspectives from several disciplines, such as cultural studies, sociology, geography,
tourism studies and marketing. These collectively provide a set of perspectives, each of
which, in its own way, highlights challenges and solutions to sustaining the culture and
heritage of islands, through the tools available to us in marketing and tourism.
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Malaysia’’, Science International, Vol. 2007 No. 19, p. 2.
Corresponding author
Keith G. Brown can be contacted at: [email protected]
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This article has been cited by:
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fluctuations. Exploration into motivational factors for holidaying in Cyprus. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 30,
700-714. [CrossRef]
3. Jenny Cave, Keith G. Brown. 2012. Island tourism: destinations: an editorial introduction to the special issue. International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research 6:2, 95-113. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
4. Iolanda BarbeitosReferences 347-399. [Citation] [Enhanced Abstract] [PDF] [PDF]
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doc_501222606.pdf
This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue
Keith G. Brown J enny Cave
Article information:
To cite this document:
Keith G. Brown J enny Cave, (2010),"Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue", International
J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 2 pp. 87 - 95
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Guest editorial
Island tourism: marketing culture and
heritage – editorial introduction to the
special issue
Keith G. Brown and Jenny Cave
Abstract
Purpose – This editorial aims to situate the papers chosen for this special issue within academic
literature and identify their contributions to new knowledge.
Design/methodology/approach – The editorial ?rst discusses tourism research literature pertinent to
the marketing of cultural and heritage tourismproducts at island destinations around the globe. Second,
the contributions made to this ?eld by the authors in this volume and their implications for theory, industry
dynamics and tourism product as well as to island communities are identi?ed.
Findings – Each paper contributes to the ?eld, either by explorations of theory, shifts in paradigm or by
revealing new knowledge.
Originality/value – Collectively this collection of papers offers new perspectives on the special
characteristics of island tourism, community dynamics, the role of marketing and the development of
sustainable cultural and heritage tourism products in island contexts.
Keywords Marketing, Culture, Heritage, Tourism
Paper type General review
Introduction
Woodside et al. (2007) note that the primary objective of the International Journal of Culture,
TourismandHospitality Researchis to serveas a multidisciplinary platformfor newtheory and
research with which to explicate the factors that in?uence tourism and hospitality, within and
between cultures. This special issue – Island Tourism: Marketing Culture and Heritage –
achieves that goal. Four themes underpin this special issue. First, that island tourism is a
distinct ?eldof study, de?nedbytheboundednatureof place, peopleandprocesses. Second,
that island culture and heritage tourism products integrate holistically with contemporary
lifestylesandnatural landscapes. Third, that marketingof cultureandheritageproductslinksto
sustainableidentity, economyanddestinationviability. Fourth, that planningandmanagement
dynamics that formal tourism industry development, informal community engagement, and
government enact are critical to the sustainability tourismon islands.
Island tourism
The insularity and marginality of geographically ?nite islands create a fundamental appeal
for tourism consumption. The gestalt of remoteness, difference, distance, distinct culture
and heritage, wilderness environment, and small size in economic and population can
DOI 10.1108/17506181011045163 VOL. 4 NO. 2 2010, pp. 87-95, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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PAGE 87
Keith G. Brown is based at
the Department of
Organizational
Management, Shannon
School of Business, Cape
Breton University, Sydney,
Canada. Jenny Cave is
based at the Department of
Tourism and Hospitality,
University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand.
Received April 2009
Revised January 2010
Accepted January 2010
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constitute an attraction. Yet, remote islands, whether tropical, subtropical or cold water also
suffer challenges to the sustainability of tourismthrough inaccessibility due to poor transport
(airline/boat) connectivity and capacity, plus inadequate infrastructure, often coupled with
lack of tourismmarketing, education and support. Limited local attractions and high levels of
out-migration (Connell, 2003) contribute to the dif?culties of sustaining a tourism industry.
Not all islands are remote from tourism generating regions, in fact, many island tourism
destinations are on the fringe of urban populations. Vancouver Island, Canada is one
example. Nonetheless, they encounter the same issues of sense of place and scale
commonly associated with smaller islands, together with perceived value as holiday
destinations. The proximity and nature of gateway centers are of particular importance.
The nature and pro?le of tourismat ‘‘cold water’’ islands differs somewhat from‘‘warmwater’’
locations. Low tourist numbers, matched with low tourism supply attributed to harsh, cool
climates and low populations characterize tourism in cold-water destinations – producing a
small scale, low-impact style of industry. Tourism product on cold-water islands tends to rely
on direct encounters with nature, history and local culture. These, together with relative
inaccessibility, limited civilian ‘‘buy in’’ or indeed resistance from speci?c local interests to
tourism, low population numbers and the absence of political pluralism produces conditions
that require careful strategic management (Baldacchino, 2006b). Especially since tourism is
often one of several contributors to the economies of cold-water locales, subject to
signi?cant variations in seasonality. These factors create consequent issues for the
sustainability of the industry, the island’s population, society and culture (Baum and Hagen,
1999).
In contrast, in warm water, tropical islands the tourism industry often dominates the local
society and economy. In many cases, physical space is at a premium and infrastructure and
human resource planning has been minimal or non-existent because of rapid and
uncontrolled expansion of tourism. This has frequently occurred because of the perceived
bene?ts of local employment and the income potentials of tourism, but has lead to situations
of non-sustainability, environmental degradation and social inequity. In many cases, tourism
product in warm water destinations relies on staged cultural authenticity, resort enclave
hedonism (Baldacchino, 2006b) and utopic visions of paradise (Connell, 2003; Schellhorn
and Perkins, 2004).
Across the board, warm water small-island economies have a narrow resource base and
limited economic development. Typically they place an overwhelming reliance on tourism
and the consistent in?ow of foreign direct investment to achieve economic growth (Hampton
and Christensen, 2007; Shareef and Hoti, 2005). Often depending heavily on international
development assistance in the form of aid from former colonists for infrastructure
development (Shareef and Hoti, 2005). Further, such islands are subject to internal factors
such as ethnic diversity, fractured political systems, economic and environmental
vulnerability, ecological fragility and investment risk (Shareef and McAleer, 2005). These
factors produce conditions of volatility in tourism arrivals with consequent vulnerability to
global exogenous shocks (Hoti et al., 2007).
The proportionately high reliance on tourismof these economies means that other sectors do
not offset downturns in tourism when they occur. Thus, small island economies may need
strong governmental support for the preparedness for change and sustainability of the
industry. Tourist ?ow and industry supply perhaps better serve islands that are part of the
global transportation systemand primary tourismroutes (such as Hawaii, Fiji and Tahiti in the
South Paci?c) than those more marginally located. Decisions made offshore, route changes
made by major airlines, for example, affect both. Thus, the marketing strategies, destination
development policies and sustainable societal, economic and environmental planning
processes for tourism on islands should anticipate and plan to mitigate such effects,
especially with a view to maintaining the cultural and natural heritage resources of the
islands.
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Island cultural heritage product
The current patterns of out-migration from islands and trends towards their re-settlement by
returning expatriates creates global responses (Baldacchino, 2006a) and extend social
worlds. While these new dynamics enrich island conceptions of identity, culture and
heritage, issues of cultural and heritage authenticity in product and experience results
(Brown, 2009). In terms of the island cultural contexts, Brown (2009) asks, to what extent
island cultural continuity, evolved over generations to contemporary forms is in fact authentic
cultural expression.
A view of pre-modern as equivalent to authentic and modern as inauthentic is unrealistic
(Olsen, 2002; Ryan, 2002) and na? ¨ve, and bears no relation to the reality of contemporary
cultural expression where authorization by elders constitutes authentication (Ryan, 2002).
Thus, cultures continue to evolve, and island environments, despite the cultural
conservatism born of isolation, are perhaps vulnerable to change during tourism
encounters. Interactions within the encounter depend upon shared values, positive or
negative attitudes toward each other and prior experience of each other’s culture. Thus,
encounters with culture and heritage in tourism settings are encounters with difference and
heterotopic in nature (Foucault and Miskowiec, 1986). Encounters along this continuum are
mediated at the level of the individual (sociality) and by one’s own identity (Ahmed, 2002).
But when the customs, rituals and arts are performed or produced for tourism consumption,
as noted by Picard (1996) in the context of Bali, the meaning of cultural products changes.
But so too do the human relations between the producer and the purchaser, the history of
these relations, and their ethnic identities, observed in the island of Hokkaido (Hiwasaki,
2000). A kind of reconstructed identity can emerge in response (MacCannell, 1984) which
bears some resemblance to its original but may be equally valid.
Regrettably, in island contexts, access to the bene?ts of commerce such as the tourism
industry or to grants of aid can engender differences within communities in terms of income,
control of property, socialization and the distribution of bene?ts that may result
(Helu-Thaman, 2002). Further, not all community members participate equally. Some may
participate directly, interacting with tourists on a regular basis as guides, performers and
artisans whereas others may work behind the scenes serving as support staff or as
wholesalers of food and supplies. Local hosts will also differ in terms of how much time and
energy they invest in tourism: some will work as fulltime wage laborers, whereas others will
contract their labor occasionally or earn cash only through the sale of goods (Stronza, 2001).
This brief review of local community responses and visitor consumption of cultural tourism
suggests that the goals (and effects) for cultural tourism, and thus enterprise to deliver island
tourism product in the industry are diverse and somewhat oppositional. Some of the effects
of tourism enterprise in the cultural sphere are to preserve culture and traditions. Others
contribute to economic development and social equity with or without governmental
assistance, yet are to be fully commercial – managed by either community members or
external intermediaries.
Marketing culture and heritage product
In terms of marketing, northern tourism, generating regions often misrepresent the
warm-water islands of the tropics in advertising and promotional materials as mythical
paradisal Utopia. However, the day-to-day realities of interactions between tourists and
locals contrast markedly with this alluring image (Schellhorn and Perkins, 2004).
Knowledge of visitation pro?les is critical to the successful delivery of cultural heritage
product. This was highlighted by a study of Malaysian small island tourism where long-stay
tourists were foreigners, yet the majority of short-stay visitors were domestic visitors (Zaharul
et al., 2007).
Chen (2006) suggests that island accessibility and seasonality are issues that drive strategic
planning for marketing and market segments, service engagement, and community
involvement. Market segmentation is a common approach to the identi?cation of niche
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products for tourism. In islands however, where industry skills and tourism carrying capacity
is limited, this work is often focused on identifying niche markets, as well as the niche
products from which the highest tourism product yield can be extracted (Alvarez-Gonzalez
et al., 2005). Ryan (1995) suggests that islands destinations may lack the resources to
undertake ongoing and sophisticated reviews of markets pro?le and demand, so, life-stage
market segmentation can be a cost-effective means of overcoming these obstacles and
obtaining data upon which to base tourism promotion, planning and development, at least
for western markets. The world wide web is also recommended as a mechanism with good
potential for small and remote island tourism destinations to increase their appeal and
noticeability in the global marketplace (Holcomb and Attard, 2001).
The competitiveness of islands as tourism destinations can be enhanced by the
image-enhancing power of events marketing, if surrounded with a program of
community-based and high-pro?le hallmark events (Getz, 1995). However, for mature
island destinations the picture is different. According to Helber (1995) aggressive marketing
to retain competitiveness are not suf?cient for mature contexts. In preference, expansion,
rebuilding or repositioning the product occur, as well as beauti?cation campaigns and
infrastructure improvements. However, these can be destructive of the tourism resource,
particularly where the attraction stems from natural or cultural assets (Carter, 2004), hence
sustainability and ongoing enhancement of products and services are important areas for
mature destinations to address (Helber, 1995).
Dynamics of planning and management
Tourism growth on islands is frequently sporadic and so tourism planning and management
needs to become process-oriented through mutual adjustment between stakeholders rather
than outcome-oriented. Such a shift however requires greater consideration of the
relationship between product, the market and the asset, as well as cognizant of host
community dynamics (Carter, 2004).
Small tourism economies rely on tourism as a source of foreign investment to facilitate
economic growth, smooth out consumption over time and to absorb domestic production
shocks. However, such linkages mean that island economies are subject to knock-on effects
of downturns that occur in external economies (Hoti et al., 2007). These exogenous shocks
however can be offset by the creation of marketing collaborations between island
destinations and by looking at island tourism development in the overall picture of supply
and demand on islands and broader regional context (Pearce, 2001). Cole (2007) notes that
because of foreign investment, island tourism-based economies of the Caribbean
experience discontinuous investment, delayed marketing and construction, as well as
distributed expenditures between the local and overseas investors. Kim (2002) notes the
importance of public-private partnerships to the realization of strategic marketing and
framework and individual investment strategies for developing island tourism.
The role of government in the development of island tourism can encompass: tourism
legislation, policy implementation structures, ?nancial and tax incentives from governments
and the bene?ts received by governments from such schemes, marketing, joint ventures
and public/private partnerships and the involvement of local communities (MacNulty, 2002).
Where a strong governmental structure is in place, as in the Danish Island of Bornholm
however, tourism’s environmental effects can be minimal (Ioannides and Petersen, 2001).
Further, Brown (2009) reports that sustained and repeated federal governmental
investments in tourism outcomes has resulted in successful development, of in Cape
Breton’s Celtic musical heritage. This has lead to focused marketing of the destination,
based upon a distinctive range of cultural tourism products.
Contributions to theory and practice
The contributions made to the ?eld of island tourism by the authors in this volume sit within a
framework of shifting paradigms for the sustainable development and consumption of
cultural product in terms of contemporary expression, (re)creation of heritage traditions and
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its presentation through marketing, as well as in the respective roles played in them.
Collectively, the articles provide a spectrum of tensions and dilemmas of preservation and
use of ?nite cultural and natural heritage resources. The next section brie?y reviews to
indicate its speci?c contribution to the theory and practice of island tourism.
Tourism interaction on islands: the community and visitor social exchange
Moyle, Croy, and Weiler’s work looks at the challenges of successful management of
interactions between community members and visitors. This occurs within the geographic
con?nes of two small Australian islands, one tropical and the other temperate. Using social
exchange theory, it conducts a micro-level analysis of the dynamics of social interaction at a
community level. The researchers look at the consequences of interactions at the initiation,
formation, evaluation and post-establishment phases of tourism development through a
stakeholder lens.
Their work is signi?cant in illustrating a range of motivations to engage in tourism (or not) at
the community level. The research shifts our view of who are the hosts, demonstrating the
complexities of tourism social exchange – with residents who live adjacent to protected
natural areas of high scenic value visited by tourists – as well as business owners, local
government staff and elected of?cials, community groups, as well as parks and wildlife
agencies and accommodation suppliers. Island lifestyle is an attractor for visitors who want
to engage with host communities to enrich their experience on the island, yet locals see
tourists as intrusive upon lifestyle and are often unwilling to interact with them. Further, the
motivations for engagement vary by developmental stage. For instance, while economic
need and potential revenue are positive motivations for residents and stakeholders at the
initiation stage of tourism development, once operational, the ‘‘welcome’’ for tourists can
dissipate because of issues surrounding preservation of lifestyle, the level of tourism
development and infrastructure capacity.
This work has implications for tourism suppliers, destination managers and planners and for
community empowerment and makes suggestions about how to optimize the visitor
experience by empowering locals to inform visitors about appropriate behavior.
Integrating management and marketing strategies at heritage sites
Fullerton, McGettigan, and Stephens’s article contributes a deeper understanding of the
issue of preservation of heritage versus usage, in the context of the large northern
hemisphere island of Ireland. The authors situate their work in the paradigm shift that has
occurred in consumer theory over the last 20 years – from notions of limitless consumption
and supply of product, towards an awareness of scarce resources and thus limited supply.
They highlight the need for holistic thinking about the dynamics of marketing and the
preservation of cultural heritage. Speci?cally, to use demarketing interventions to in?uence
tourist behaviors, manage arrival times and distribute tourists across under-utilized heritage
sites as well as to encourage conservation behaviors onsite.
However, their research with managers of cultural and natural heritage attractions and
promotional organizations in Ireland signi?cantly notes that despite conceptual shifts in
theory, that this new thinking has yet not translated into site management practices.
Marketing initiatives and visitor behavior management remain locally applied at the
individual site level. They suggest that managers look across the continuum of consumer
decision points for critical intervention opportunities, especially prior to travel departure and
before visitors’ arrival onsite. These measures would reduce onsite management costs,
spread utilization of heritage resources more widely, reducing pressure on iconic locations
and encourage visitation to less well-know location, thus sustaining the ?nite resource of
Ireland’s cultural and natural heritage for the future.
The role of heritage tourism on the Shetland Islands
Leask and Rihova contribute a paper that draws a link between marketing, cultural heritage
preservation, public policy and sustainable development. They offer a best-practice
case-study analysis of stakeholder collaboration and heritage development in the context of
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the northern hemisphere Shetland Islands, cold water islands at the north of Scotland,
culturally enriched by successive waves of Pictish, Neolithic and Viking settlers. Here, the
pace of tourism development matches marketing strategies aimed at developing long-stay,
repeat visitation and experiences of nature and cultural heritage. Tourismdevelopment in the
Shetland Islands occurs as inclusive partnerships undertaken between local communities,
private enterprise and government, in part because Shetland Islanders welcome tourism as
an alternative to traditional industries. However, the key ingredient is a coherent, proactive,
well-resourced and speci?c action plan to develop heritage sites and products,
underpinned by a policy of ‘‘wise growth’’. The pace of growth is low-scale and carefully
paced, balancing private enterprise, governmental programs and community stakeholder
inputs to preserve cultural and natural authenticity of tourismexperience and to provide both
social and economic bene?ts for the islands. However, community integration remains a
challenge because of the remoteness of some settlements.
Marketing cultural and heritage tourism: the Marshall Islands
Collison and Spears examine in their article the cultural heritage resources of a little known
coral atoll archipelago of remote Paci?c Islands in terms of their marketing and niche tourism
potential. The Marshall Group is differentiated from other Oceanic islands because it is the
locus of generations of well-preserved knowledge of wave pattern non-instrument navigation
and outrigger canoe construction and sailing though speci?c to their cloud-covered climate
have helped rejuvenate ancient way?nding techniques in other parts of Oceania. This
research explores the current environment and the rich cultural heritage of the largely
undeveloped area, much of which dependant on subsistence economy and traditional
lifestyles, except for two urbanized islands which take part in modern economies.
The authors evaluate the culture, heritage and historical resources, infrastructure capacity
for and desirability of embracing tourism. Thus, it too balances marketing goals of tourism
with the preservation goals of communities, within the framework of government policy but
for an archipelago for which tourism is currently a low-level activity.
The research synthesizes several studies conducted in 2002 and 2003 and market share
analysis of visitor arrivals over 20 years. It recommends careful development of marketing
programs based on cultural heritage of the islands and community-driven development of
tourism and export products such as handicrafts and distinctive way?nding stick charts, the
sailing of and construction of outrigger canoe. Tourism to Second World War artifacts and
historical site are also potential products. Referrals by business and VFR markets preserve
low levels of targeted and sensitized visitors. Its unique contribution to literature is its
demonstration of low-key consideration of issues and marketing techniques that aim to
preserve low levels of tourism appropriate to subsistence and isolated economies.
Developing sustainable tourism: Jamaican managers’ assessment of the island’s ten-year
master plan
Kennett-Hensel, Sneath, and Hensel’s paper contributes a management perspective on the
achievements of Jamaica’s government policy-driven Ten-Year Master Plan for sustainable
tourism development, as it nears completion and the market position of the Caribbean
island. They evaluate the effectiveness of the plan in terms of its goals for inclusive,
community-based development, growth based on a market position of sustainable heritage,
enhanced infrastructure and preservation of the island’s natural beauty.
An online survey of managers discovers that heritage and environmental preservation,
infrastructure improvement and accessibility initiatives are successful, reinforced by positive
brand associations with unique cultural and ecological heritage that differentiates Jamaica
amongst other Caribbean island nations and should continue into the future. However, they
?nd that the tourism and hospitality sector is more favorably disposed towards positive
assessments of success of the Plan than other sectors of the economy. However, the
implementation of inclusive, community-based approaches and public-private partnerships
that are fundamental to sustainable development of tourism resources is weak. Thus, the
study calls into question the long-term success of the plan.
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Repositioning Malta as a heritage destination
Foxell and de Trafford examine early development of tourism policy in Malta noting the
similarity of focus on coastal, beach-based resorts with Malta’s Mediterranean neighbors.
The paper explores Malta’s issues with seasonality, language tourism and reliance upon the
United Kingdom market, within the context of a repositioning of the country within a new
sphere of cultural heritage destinations.
Foxell and de Trafford explore the dichotomy that exists within a country that has several
world recognized heritage sites but only a nascent cultural product. Malta’s recent
accession to the EU has seen bene?ts from structural funding which has focused in part on
cultural preservation. Foxell and de Trafford note movement toward linking Malta with her
immediate neighbors to provide a regional cultural experience.
A sense of crisis is evident for policy makers in the country as they focus on environmental
issues, overcrowding in peak periods and inadequate range of facilities.
The contributions of this special issue
The collection of papers in this Special Issue offers new perspectives on the particular
characteristics of island tourism and the challenges inherent in marketing these tourism
products. It challenges preconceptions about the role of marketing and demarketing,
positioning and repositioning, as tools for the preservation of ?nite resources. In so doing,
the Island Tourism: Marketing Culture and Heritage collection provides a cogent glimpse into
two paradigm shifts that affect the disciplines of marketing and tourism, now and into the
future. Namely, that the supply of human, cultural and natural resources are not limitless, nor
is there unlimited demand for tourism product and so careful management of both supply
and demand is required. Further, the notion of ‘‘stakeholder’’ should be expanded beyond
the formal tourism industry into consideration of:
B interactions between the resource, tourism product, community group, resident and
visitor;
B interventions prior to visit and onsite; and
B the respective roles of tourism industry operators, managers, local and state
governments, and offshore investors.
The special issue on Island Tourism: Marketing Culture and Heritage draws together
perspectives from several disciplines, such as cultural studies, sociology, geography,
tourism studies and marketing. These collectively provide a set of perspectives, each of
which, in its own way, highlights challenges and solutions to sustaining the culture and
heritage of islands, through the tools available to us in marketing and tourism.
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Corresponding author
Keith G. Brown can be contacted at: [email protected]
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doc_501222606.pdf