Description
Netra!!!!! hpe dis prjct help u out
International Business
Introduction & International Monetary System
Why is International Business Important?
3
Why is International Business Important?
In previous Business courses you have been taught about general Business concepts that apply to domestic or local settings, BUT we live in an international world. Companies (and individuals) can raise funds, invest money, buy inputs, produce goods and sell products and services overseas. With these increased opportunities comes additional risks. We need to know how to identify these risks and then how to control or remove them.
4
What is different?
5
Foreign Exchange Risk
6
Multinational Enterprises
A multinational enterprise (MNE) is defined as one that has operating subsidiaries, branches or affiliates located in foreign countries. While international Business focuses on MNEs, purely domestic firms can also face significant international exposures:
Import & export of products, components and services Licensing of foreign firms to conduct their foreign business Exposure to foreign competition in the domestic market Indirect exposure to international risks through relationships with customers and suppliers
7
Types of Multinational Enterprises
Raw Material Seekers
First type of MNEs Exploit raw materials found overseas Trading, mining and oil companies
Market Seekers
Post-WWII MNEs Expand production and sales into foreign markets Big name companies ± IBM, McDonalds etc.
Cost Minimisers
More recent MNEs Seek out lowest production cost countries Manufacturing and service companies
8
International Monetary System
The International Monetary System is a set of rules that governs international payments (exchange of money). Historical overview of exchange rate regimes: Classical Gold Standard: Pre - 1914 Bretton Woods System: 1944 - 1973 Floating Exchange Rates: 1973 European Monetary Union How is this relevant today? We know what does and doesn¶t work!
9
The Gold Standard (Pre - 1914)
Gold has been a medium of exchange since 3,000 BC. ³Rules of the game´ were simple, each country set the rate at which its currency unit could be converted to a weight of gold. Currency exchange rates were in effect ³fixed´. Expansionary monetary policy was limited to a government¶s supply of gold. Was in effect until the outbreak of WWI as the free movement of gold was interrupted.
10
The Gold Standard (Pre - 1914)
An example:
US dollar is pegged to gold at $20.67 per oz. British pound is pegged to gold at £4.2474 per oz. Therefore, the exchange rate is determined by the relative gold prices: $20.67 = £ 4.2474
Then £1 = $4.8665
Misalignment in exchange rates and imbalances of payment corrected by the price-specie flow mechanism. Suppose it is $4/£ instead «
11
Price-Specie Flow Mechanism
Keep difference and repeat until exchange rate is aligned.
Buy gold in England (cost = £4.2474 for 1 oz.)
Gold leaves England and enters U.S (English Central Bank sells gold in exchange for £.)
Send those £5.1675 back to England
Under gold standard, any misalignment in the exchange rate will automatically be corrected by crossborder flows of gold.
Convert at going exchange rate, get
Ship gold to U.S and Sell for $20.67
£5.1675
Gold is bought by the U.S. Central Bank and more $ are released. 12
InterInter-war years (1915(1915- 1944)
13
The Inter-War Years & WWII
During this period, currencies were allowed to fluctuate over a fairly wide range in terms of gold and each other. Increasing fluctuations in currency values became realized as speculators sold short weak currencies. The US adopted a modified gold standard in 1934. During WWII and its chaotic aftermath the US dollar was the only major trading currency that continued to be convertible.
14
Bretton Woods (1944)
As WWII drew to a close, the Allied Powers met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire to create a postwar international monetary system. The Bretton Woods Agreement established a US dollar based international monetary system and created two new institutions the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
15
Bretton Woods (1944 ± 1973)
United States:
USD was fixed in terms of gold (USD 35 per ounce).
Other countries fixed their currency relative to the USD.
Allowed to vary between s 1% of the ³par value´.
Pound
Par value
Yen
Par value
US dollar
Pegged at $35/oz
Gold
16
Bretton Woods (1944 ± 1973)
The currency arrangement negotiated at Bretton Woods and monitored by the IMF worked fairly well during the post-WWII era of reconstruction and growth in world trade. However, widely diverging monetary and fiscal policies, differential rates of inflation and various currency shocks resulted in the system¶s demise. The US dollar became the main reserve currency held by central banks, resulting in a consistent and growing balance of payments deficit which required a heavy capital outflow of dollars to Business these deficits and meet the growing demand for dollars from investors and businesses.
17
Bretton Woods (1944 ± 1973)
Eventually, the heavy overhang of dollars held by foreigners resulted in a lack of confidence in the ability of the US to met its commitment to convert dollars to gold. The lack of confidence forced President Richard Nixon to suspend official purchases or sales of gold by the US Treasury on August 15, 1971. This resulted in subsequent devaluations of the dollar. Most currencies were allowed to float to levels determined by market forces as of March, 1973.
18
Floating Exchange Rates (1973 ± )
Since March 1973, exchange rates have become much more volatile and less predictable than they were during the ³fixed´ period. There have been numerous, significant world currency events over the past 30 years.
19
Floating Exchange Rates (1973 ± )
20
European Monetary Union (EMU)
1979 ± 1998: European Monetary System Objectives:
To establish a ³zone of monetary stability´ in Europe. To coordinate exchange rate policies vis-à-vis non European currencies. To pave the way for the European Monetary Union.
EMU (1999-): A single currency for most of the European Union.
21
European Monetary Union (EMU)
27 members of the European Union are:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Currently, twelve members of the EU have their currencies pegged against the Euro (Maastricht Treaty) beginning 1/1/99:
Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain.
22
European Monetary Union (EMU)
Benefits for countries using the ¼ currency inside the Euro zone include:
Cheaper transaction costs. Currency risks and costs related to exchange rate uncertainty are reduced. All consumers and businesses, both inside and outside of the euro zone enjoy price transparency and increased pricebased competition.
i.e., exchange rate stability, financial integration.
23
European Monetary Union (EMU)
? Costs for countries using the ¼ currency include:
± Completely integrated and coordinated national monetary and fiscal policy rules:
? Nominal inflation should be no more than 1.5% above average for the three members of the EU with lowest inflation rates during previous year. ? Long-term interest rates should be no more than 2% above average for the three members of the EU with lowest interest rates. ? Fiscal deficit should be no more than 3% of GDP. ? Government debt should be no more than 60% of GDP. ? European Central Bank (ECB) was established to promote price stability within the EU.
i.e., no monetary independence!
24
Exchange Rate Regimes
The International Monetary Fund classifies all exchange rate regimes into eight specific categories:
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± Exchange arrangements with no separate legal tender Currency board arrangements Other conventional fixed peg arrangements Pegged exchange rates within horizontal bands Crawling pegs Exchange rates within crawling pegs Managed floating with no pre-announced path Independent floating
25
Fixed Rate Regime
£/A$
S
0.35
Fixed Exchange Rate
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
26
Fixed Rate Regime
An increase in demand for A$ causes a shortage of A$.
£/A$
S
0.35
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
27
Fixed Rate Regime
An increase in demand for A$ causes a shortage of A$.
£/A$
S
0.35
SHORTAGE
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
28
Fixed Rate Regime
RBA intervenes by supplying dollars (and buying £¶s).
£/A$
S
0.35
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
29
Managed Floating
£/A$
S
0.50 0.35 0.20
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
30
Managed Floating
Intervene £/A$
S
0.50 0.35 0.20
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
31
Managed Floating
Intervene £/A$
S
0.50 0.35 0.20
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
32
Attributes of the ³Ideal´ Regime
Possesses three attributes, often referred to as the Impossible Trinity:
± Exchange rate stability ± Full financial integration ± Monetary independence
The forces of economics do not allow the simultaneous achievement of all three.
33
³The Impossible Trinity´
34
Fixed versus Floating
A nation¶s choice as to which currency regime to follow reflects national priorities about all facets of the economy, including:
± ± ± ± ± inflation, unemployment, interest rate levels, trade balances, and economic growth.
The choice between fixed and flexible rates may change over time as priorities change.
35
Fixed versus Floating
Countries would prefer a fixed rate regime for the following reasons:
± stability in international prices. ± inherent anti-inflationary nature of fixed prices.
However, a fixed rate regime has the following problems:
± Need for central banks to maintain large quantities of hard currencies and gold to defend the fixed rate. ± Fixed rates can be maintained at rates that are inconsistent with economic fundamentals.
36
Thank You
37
doc_600515323.ppt
Netra!!!!! hpe dis prjct help u out
International Business
Introduction & International Monetary System
Why is International Business Important?
3
Why is International Business Important?
In previous Business courses you have been taught about general Business concepts that apply to domestic or local settings, BUT we live in an international world. Companies (and individuals) can raise funds, invest money, buy inputs, produce goods and sell products and services overseas. With these increased opportunities comes additional risks. We need to know how to identify these risks and then how to control or remove them.
4
What is different?
5
Foreign Exchange Risk
6
Multinational Enterprises
A multinational enterprise (MNE) is defined as one that has operating subsidiaries, branches or affiliates located in foreign countries. While international Business focuses on MNEs, purely domestic firms can also face significant international exposures:
Import & export of products, components and services Licensing of foreign firms to conduct their foreign business Exposure to foreign competition in the domestic market Indirect exposure to international risks through relationships with customers and suppliers
7
Types of Multinational Enterprises
Raw Material Seekers
First type of MNEs Exploit raw materials found overseas Trading, mining and oil companies
Market Seekers
Post-WWII MNEs Expand production and sales into foreign markets Big name companies ± IBM, McDonalds etc.
Cost Minimisers
More recent MNEs Seek out lowest production cost countries Manufacturing and service companies
8
International Monetary System
The International Monetary System is a set of rules that governs international payments (exchange of money). Historical overview of exchange rate regimes: Classical Gold Standard: Pre - 1914 Bretton Woods System: 1944 - 1973 Floating Exchange Rates: 1973 European Monetary Union How is this relevant today? We know what does and doesn¶t work!
9
The Gold Standard (Pre - 1914)
Gold has been a medium of exchange since 3,000 BC. ³Rules of the game´ were simple, each country set the rate at which its currency unit could be converted to a weight of gold. Currency exchange rates were in effect ³fixed´. Expansionary monetary policy was limited to a government¶s supply of gold. Was in effect until the outbreak of WWI as the free movement of gold was interrupted.
10
The Gold Standard (Pre - 1914)
An example:
US dollar is pegged to gold at $20.67 per oz. British pound is pegged to gold at £4.2474 per oz. Therefore, the exchange rate is determined by the relative gold prices: $20.67 = £ 4.2474
Then £1 = $4.8665
Misalignment in exchange rates and imbalances of payment corrected by the price-specie flow mechanism. Suppose it is $4/£ instead «
11
Price-Specie Flow Mechanism
Keep difference and repeat until exchange rate is aligned.
Buy gold in England (cost = £4.2474 for 1 oz.)
Gold leaves England and enters U.S (English Central Bank sells gold in exchange for £.)
Send those £5.1675 back to England
Under gold standard, any misalignment in the exchange rate will automatically be corrected by crossborder flows of gold.
Convert at going exchange rate, get
Ship gold to U.S and Sell for $20.67
£5.1675
Gold is bought by the U.S. Central Bank and more $ are released. 12
InterInter-war years (1915(1915- 1944)
13
The Inter-War Years & WWII
During this period, currencies were allowed to fluctuate over a fairly wide range in terms of gold and each other. Increasing fluctuations in currency values became realized as speculators sold short weak currencies. The US adopted a modified gold standard in 1934. During WWII and its chaotic aftermath the US dollar was the only major trading currency that continued to be convertible.
14
Bretton Woods (1944)
As WWII drew to a close, the Allied Powers met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire to create a postwar international monetary system. The Bretton Woods Agreement established a US dollar based international monetary system and created two new institutions the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
15
Bretton Woods (1944 ± 1973)
United States:
USD was fixed in terms of gold (USD 35 per ounce).
Other countries fixed their currency relative to the USD.
Allowed to vary between s 1% of the ³par value´.
Pound
Par value
Yen
Par value
US dollar
Pegged at $35/oz
Gold
16
Bretton Woods (1944 ± 1973)
The currency arrangement negotiated at Bretton Woods and monitored by the IMF worked fairly well during the post-WWII era of reconstruction and growth in world trade. However, widely diverging monetary and fiscal policies, differential rates of inflation and various currency shocks resulted in the system¶s demise. The US dollar became the main reserve currency held by central banks, resulting in a consistent and growing balance of payments deficit which required a heavy capital outflow of dollars to Business these deficits and meet the growing demand for dollars from investors and businesses.
17
Bretton Woods (1944 ± 1973)
Eventually, the heavy overhang of dollars held by foreigners resulted in a lack of confidence in the ability of the US to met its commitment to convert dollars to gold. The lack of confidence forced President Richard Nixon to suspend official purchases or sales of gold by the US Treasury on August 15, 1971. This resulted in subsequent devaluations of the dollar. Most currencies were allowed to float to levels determined by market forces as of March, 1973.
18
Floating Exchange Rates (1973 ± )
Since March 1973, exchange rates have become much more volatile and less predictable than they were during the ³fixed´ period. There have been numerous, significant world currency events over the past 30 years.
19
Floating Exchange Rates (1973 ± )
20
European Monetary Union (EMU)
1979 ± 1998: European Monetary System Objectives:
To establish a ³zone of monetary stability´ in Europe. To coordinate exchange rate policies vis-à-vis non European currencies. To pave the way for the European Monetary Union.
EMU (1999-): A single currency for most of the European Union.
21
European Monetary Union (EMU)
27 members of the European Union are:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Currently, twelve members of the EU have their currencies pegged against the Euro (Maastricht Treaty) beginning 1/1/99:
Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain.
22
European Monetary Union (EMU)
Benefits for countries using the ¼ currency inside the Euro zone include:
Cheaper transaction costs. Currency risks and costs related to exchange rate uncertainty are reduced. All consumers and businesses, both inside and outside of the euro zone enjoy price transparency and increased pricebased competition.
i.e., exchange rate stability, financial integration.
23
European Monetary Union (EMU)
? Costs for countries using the ¼ currency include:
± Completely integrated and coordinated national monetary and fiscal policy rules:
? Nominal inflation should be no more than 1.5% above average for the three members of the EU with lowest inflation rates during previous year. ? Long-term interest rates should be no more than 2% above average for the three members of the EU with lowest interest rates. ? Fiscal deficit should be no more than 3% of GDP. ? Government debt should be no more than 60% of GDP. ? European Central Bank (ECB) was established to promote price stability within the EU.
i.e., no monetary independence!
24
Exchange Rate Regimes
The International Monetary Fund classifies all exchange rate regimes into eight specific categories:
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± Exchange arrangements with no separate legal tender Currency board arrangements Other conventional fixed peg arrangements Pegged exchange rates within horizontal bands Crawling pegs Exchange rates within crawling pegs Managed floating with no pre-announced path Independent floating
25
Fixed Rate Regime
£/A$
S
0.35
Fixed Exchange Rate
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
26
Fixed Rate Regime
An increase in demand for A$ causes a shortage of A$.
£/A$
S
0.35
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
27
Fixed Rate Regime
An increase in demand for A$ causes a shortage of A$.
£/A$
S
0.35
SHORTAGE
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
28
Fixed Rate Regime
RBA intervenes by supplying dollars (and buying £¶s).
£/A$
S
0.35
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
29
Managed Floating
£/A$
S
0.50 0.35 0.20
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
30
Managed Floating
Intervene £/A$
S
0.50 0.35 0.20
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
31
Managed Floating
Intervene £/A$
S
0.50 0.35 0.20
D
Market for Australian dollars Quantity of A$
32
Attributes of the ³Ideal´ Regime
Possesses three attributes, often referred to as the Impossible Trinity:
± Exchange rate stability ± Full financial integration ± Monetary independence
The forces of economics do not allow the simultaneous achievement of all three.
33
³The Impossible Trinity´
34
Fixed versus Floating
A nation¶s choice as to which currency regime to follow reflects national priorities about all facets of the economy, including:
± ± ± ± ± inflation, unemployment, interest rate levels, trade balances, and economic growth.
The choice between fixed and flexible rates may change over time as priorities change.
35
Fixed versus Floating
Countries would prefer a fixed rate regime for the following reasons:
± stability in international prices. ± inherent anti-inflationary nature of fixed prices.
However, a fixed rate regime has the following problems:
± Need for central banks to maintain large quantities of hard currencies and gold to defend the fixed rate. ± Fixed rates can be maintained at rates that are inconsistent with economic fundamentals.
36
Thank You
37
doc_600515323.ppt