EUROPEAN REPORT
ON THE QUALITY OF
SCHOOL EDUCATION
SIXTEEN QUALITY INDICATORS
Report based on the work
of the Working Committee on Quality Indicators
European Commission
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
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OFFICE FOR OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS
OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
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ISBN92-894-0536-8
9 789289 405362
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for
Education and Culture
EUROPEAN REPORT
ON THE QUALITY OF
SCHOOL EDUCATION
SIXTEEN QUALITY INDICATORS
Report based on the work of
the Working Committee
on Quality Indicators (
1
)
MAY 2000
(1) The working committee includes experts selected by the Ministers of Education of the
following countries: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Sweden, the United Kingdom,
Cyprus, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Bulgaria, the
Czech Republic, and Slovenia.
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.
It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001
ISBN 92-894-0536-8
© European Communities, 2001
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Italy
A. INTRODUCTION 5
B. FIVE CHALLENGES TO THE QUALITY OF
EDUCATION IN EUROPE 9
SIXTEEN INDICATORS
ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION 13
Indicators on attainment
1. Mathematics 14
2. Reading 17
3. Science 20
4. Information and communication 23
technologies (ICT)
5. Foreign languages 26
6. Learning to learn 29
7. Civics 31
Indicators on success and transition
8. Drop-out rates 33
9. Completion of upper secondary education 36
10. Participation in tertiary education 38
Indicators on monitoring of education
11. Evaluation and steering of school education 41
12. Parent participation 44
Indicators on resources and structures
13. Education and training of teachers 47
14. Participation in pre-primary education 50
15. Number of students per computer 52
16. Educational expenditure per student 55
Annexes:
1. EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES 61
2. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING 75
3. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE WORKING 79
COMMITTEE ON QUALITY INDICATORS
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 3
CONTENTS
The quality of education and training is considered in
all Member States to be a concern of the highest po-
litical priority. High levels of knowledge, competencies
and skills are considered to be the very basic condi-
tions for active citizenship, employment and social co-
hesion. Lifelong learning is an important means of
shaping one’s future on a professional and personal
level, and high-quality education is essential in the
light of labour market policies, and the free movement
of workers within the European Union.
It is stated in Article 149 of the EC Treaty that ‘the
Community shall contribute to the development of
quality education by encouraging cooperation be-
tween Member States and, if necessary, by supporting
and supplementing their actions while fully respecting
the responsibility of the Member States for the con-
tent of teaching and the organisation of educational
systems and their cultural and linguistic diversity’. The
Education Council has debated this subject on numer-
ous occasions. A number of conclusions and resolu-
tions have been adopted, inviting Member States and
the Commission to initiate cooperation in the field. In
the Council resolution of 26 November 1999, Ministers
of Education identified the quality of education as one
of the priority issues for consideration under the new
cooperation model of the ‘Rolling agenda’.
Under the Community action programme Socrates,
quality of education is the key objective of the pro-
gramme actions. Quality of education has thus been a
priority issue for analysis, and a number of studies and
research projects have been launched with a view to
strengthening cooperation at European level in the
field. These initiatives have paved the way for the pilot
project on quality evaluation in school education
which was implemented in 101 secondary schools
across Europe in 1997/98. Based on the results of the
pilot scheme, the Commission adopted in January
2000 a proposal for a recommendation of the Euro-
pean Parliament and the Council on ‘European cooper-
ation in quality evaluation in school education’, based
on Article 149 and 150 of the Treaty.
The need for cooperation in the field of quality evalu-
ation was equally underlined at the conference, held in
Prague in June 1998, of the Education Ministers of the
European Union and of the 11 acceding countries as
well the Education Ministers from the three non-asso-
ciated countries of central and eastern Europe partici-
pating as observers. The Education Ministers from the
26 participating countries invited the Commission to
establish a working committee of national experts des-
ignated by the Ministers with a view to agreeing a
‘limited number of indicators or benchmarks for school
standards to assist national evaluation of systems’. A
working group consisting of experts of 26 European
countries was subsequently set up in February 1999 (
2
).
Two progress reports were prepared by the Commission.
The first report, containing the basic criteria for the
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 5
A. INTRODUCTION
(
2
) The list is also available on the Internet
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/indic/membersen.html).
selection of indicators, was presented to the European
Ministers of Education, in Budapest, in June 1999. The
second report, setting out a preliminary outline of the
indicators to be considered, was submitted to the Edu-
cation Council at the meeting on 26 November 1999. (
3
)
This European report on the quality of school education is
based on the 16 indicators which were selected by the
working group in cooperation with the Commission. These
indicators cover four broad areas: attainment levels; edu-
cational success and transition; monitoring of school edu-
cation; and educational resources and structures.
The Commission envisages submitting this report to the
Education Council under Portuguese Presidency (8 June
2000) and to the Conference of European Education Min-
isters to be held in Bucharest (18 to 20 June 2000). The re-
port will constitute a key element of the ‘Rolling agenda’
of the Education Council in the field of quality of educa-
tion. The Commission’s intention is to update and to com-
plement the selected indicators on a regular basis.
The European report on the quality of school educa-
tion represents the Commission’s first response to the
conclusions of the special European Council meeting
in Lisbon on 23 and 24 March 2000. At this meeting
the Union set itself the strategic target of becoming
the most competitive economy in the world capable of
sustainable growth, with more, higher quality jobs and
greater social cohesion. Achieving this goal requires an
overall strategy aimed at preparing the development
of the knowledge-based economy and a strategy de-
signed to modernise the European social model by in-
vesting in people and by combating social exclusion.
At the core of this strategic reorientation of priorities,
the conclusions of the Lisbon European Summit (March
2000) recognised the essential role of education and
training in moving towards the goal of full employment
through the development of the knowledge economy.
The European Council clearly identified the need to set
quantifiable targets, indicators and benchmarks as a
means of comparing best practice and as instruments
for monitoring and reviewing the progress achieved.
The Commission is convinced that this first European re-
port on the quality of school education will contribute
a European dimension to the shared knowledge pool
available for educational policy-making. The Commis-
sion hopes that the report will foster cooperation across
Europe and stimulate a wide ranging debate among all
stakeholders on quality policies of education.
PRESENTATION OF THE 16 INDICATORS
The 16 indicators on quality of school education se-
lected by the working committee of national experts
provide a complementary set of information, which be-
gins to paint a picture of quality in European schools.
The 16 indicators are shown in the table below:
6 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
3
) The two progress reports can be found on the Internet
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/indic/backen.html).
AREA INDICATOR
Attainment
1. Mathematics
2. Reading
3. Science
4. Information and communication technologies
(ICT)
5. Foreign languages
6. Learning to learn
7. Civics
Success and transition
8. Drop out
9. Completion of upper secondary education
10. Participation in tertiary education
Monitoring of school education
11. Evaluation and steering of school education
12. Parental participation
Resources and Structures
13. Education and training of teachers
14. Participation in pre-primary education
15. Number of students per computer
16. Educational expenditure per student
The indicators fall into four areas:
1. Attainment.
In this area are seven indicators of attainment which
are seen as critical for all European countries in the
present and for the future. In some fields — ‘mathe-
matics’, ‘reading’, ‘science’ — data already exist. To
some degree this reflects the relative ease of measure-
ment in these curricular areas. At the other end of the
spectrum ‘learning to learn’ is an indicator covering a
much less easily measurable set of skills but nonethe-
less critical for an unpredictable social and economic
future where no comparable data is presently avail-
able. In between are subjects such as ‘civics’, for which
little data as yet exists, and ‘foreign languages’, which
has also still to be developed. ‘Information and com-
munication technology’ (ICT) is also included in this
attainment set because, although little good data cur-
rently exists, it will be a key indicator in years to come.
All of these areas of attainment remain important
goals for the future.
2. Success and transition.
Into this area fall three indicators of highly significant
policy relevance. They are closely inter-related —
‘drop-out rate from school’, ‘completion of upper
secondary education’ and ‘participation in tertiary
education’.
3. Monitoring of school education.
Two indicators currently fall into this area. These are
‘evaluation and steering of school education’ and
‘parental participation’. Both are concerned with stake-
holder participation where heads of schools, teachers,
students and parents are key stakeholders, consumers
of information and active players in school improve-
ment.
4. Resources and structures.
This category includes four indicators, each concerned
with key aspects of infrastructure which underpin
school performance and pupil success. These are ‘educa-
tional expenditure per student’, ‘education and training
of teachers’, ‘participation rates in pre-primary educa-
tion’ and ‘number of students per computer’.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 7
USING INDICATORS AND BENCHMARKS IN POLICY-
MAKING
It is through graphical portrayal of similarities and dif-
ferences between countries that indicators and bench-
marks truly come into their own. This allows countries
to learn from one another through comparison of both
common interests and shared differences. The aim of
benchmarks is not to set standards or targets, but
rather to provide policy-makers with reference points.
Benchmarks are used to identify issues which need to
be investigated further, and to suggest alternative
routes to policy goals.
As an example we might look at existing data on the
use of ICT in schools.
Why choose ‘ I CT attai nment’ as i ndi cator
for qual i ty of educati on?
This topic is selected because ICT is of the most criti-
cal policy relevance. It is already having far-reaching
effects on people’s lives and children’s learning, with,
for example, 40 % of all UK market shares in ICT.
Why choose data on ‘ the use of I CT i n
school s’ ?
The indicator selected is simply one of many. It com-
pares countries’ approaches to the use of ICT as a cur-
ricular subject and/or as a generic tool. While the
data are limited in how much they reveal, they pro-
vide an introduction to policy discussion by raising a
number of questions about the future place, purpose
and practice of ICT in European schools. For example:
• Which is better — to teach ICT as a subject in its
own right or to use it as a tool across all subjects?
• What does this mean for the education of teach-
ers — specialist skills or generic skills?
• What are the demands of the labour market —
for high level specialists (e.g., programmers) or young
people with broad computer literacy?
And looking to the immediate and longer-term
future:
• What are the cost benefits of alternative forms
of provision? How much of learning can be inde-
pendent, teacher-led, peer group-led, or home,
school, or community based?
All the indicators lead into a number of different pol-
icy areas and into the examination of promising prac-
tices that already exist within Europe. Within each of
the indicator areas in this document, examples of such
practices are illustrated. They suggest what can be
done with imagination and commitment. For instance,
within ICT, examples are given of interesting initiatives
in Estonia and Sweden. The Swedish example covers a
number of key areas, including teacher education and
student resourcing, but carries significant cost impli-
cations. The Estonian example, on the other hand, sug-
gests innovative ways of using hidden resources
(school students) to actually minimise costs and simul-
taneously raise achievement. So, indicators lead to
benchmarks, to issues and questions and thence to
examples of practice which provide a focus for policy
development in every European country.
FROM DATA TO POLICY AND PRACTICE
In this report, each of the 16 indicators is presented in
sequence, which does not represent an order of prior-
ity. In some cases data is long-standing and well-
researched. In some, data is new and less well tested.
In others there is no data available as yet but the indi-
cator is included as an area of important emerging
policy issues.
In all cases, however, comparability has to be ap-
proached with caution and an open mind. Even the
most robust of data conceal historical and cultural dif-
ferences and value systems. National goals and priori-
ties differ and will continue to differ but much may
still be learned from innovative practice and new and
different approaches to old problems.
So, promising or interesting examples of what is hap-
pening across Europe are presented to stimulate dis-
cussion further and to illustrate principles which may
be transferable across countries. Some examples of
practice go well beyond the parameters of the associ-
ated indicator but in so doing illustrate the potential
of the data to make a difference both at policy level
and in school or classroom practice.
8 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
The new millennium may be only a symbolic change of
date but it marks an important stage for policy-mak-
ers in European countries. It encourages us to look to
the future and turn our attention to the challenges
which that future presents. For policy-makers, the
challenge will be to stay in touch with, and ahead of,
national and transnational movements which will
change the face of Europe and impact on national sys-
tems of education. The 16 indicators presented in this
report lead us to identify five key challenges for the
future:
• the knowledge challenge
• the challenge of decentralisation
• the resource challenge
• the challenge of social inclusion
• the challenge of data and comparability.
The knowledge challenge
The challenge of the knowledge society brings us back
to the essential purposes of school education, in rela-
tion to the world of work, to social life and lifelong
learning. The information explosion demands funda-
mental rethinking of traditional conceptions of
knowledge, its ‘transmission’, ‘delivery’ by teachers
and ‘acquisition’ by students. It raises questions about
the assessment and testing of knowledge and the
more demanding resources of skills, attitudes and
motivation to learn. It questions curriculum content
and the prioritisation and compartmentalisation of
‘subjects’.
Reading, mathematics and science claim their place as
indicators because they provide essential knowledge
tools and provide the foundations for lifelong learning
skills. Less easily measurable competencies in civics,
foreign languages and ICT will be no less significant in
the future. Least developed of all in terms of the indi-
cator areas presented in this report are learning to
learn skills but, arguably, they may be the most critical
and enduring of competencies in the society of the
third millennium.
All of these areas of knowledge and skills present ma-
jor challenges for the teaching profession and to the
content of teaching in initial and in-service training.
Indicators in these areas do not provide the answer but
do raise critical questions about how and where teach-
ers should be trained in the future and how continu-
ing professional development can be ensured.
Change requires rethinking, reappraisal, re-evaluation
of accepted practices, challenging what has always
been done and accepted. Change often requires both
restructuring and re-culturing of organisations. It im-
poses new demands on hierarchies, status and rela-
tionships. It may unsettle teachers and puzzle parents
who have cast schools in the mould of what they
knew.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 9
B. FIVE CHALLENGES TO THE QUALITY
OF EDUCATION IN EUROPE
However, as the examples of promising practice show,
these challenges are being met. Initiatives are under-
way to up-skill teachers, to exploit new technologies,
to break new ground in learning to learn competen-
cies. Meeting the knowledge challenge means learning
from the good and implementing the best.
The challenge of decentralisation
During the last two decades, many European educa-
tional systems have devolved more autonomy and re-
sponsibility to schools, bringing increasing demands
for accountability at school and, in some cases, class-
room level. The scale and rate of decentralisation has
been very different within European countries. In some
(for example, the Netherlands and the United King-
dom), schools have acquired a large measure of auton-
omy, while in Belgium (Flanders), Denmark, Finland
and Sweden most decisions are now taken at school
level. In Italy, a reform, which involves a greaost gree
of school autonomy, has been mooted since 1997. In
Austria, reforms in 1993–94 enhanced the autonomy
of the schools.
The trend to devolve decision-making to school level is
a high stakes political strategy, the result in part of a
lack of trust in the State’s capacity to respond ade-
quately to each and every need of an increasingly de-
manding population. It has been argued thaosthose
most concerned with the outcome of a decision are in
the best position to take decisions which most directly
affecosthem. In a sense, decentralisation is a means of
taking the political debate on quality down to lower
levels of the education system.
In doing so it raises questions about comparability,
equity, quality assurance and inspecoion. Empowering
stakeholders at lower levels means making them re-
sponsible for defining whaosthey understand by quali-
ty in education and giving them ‘ownership’ of their
part in the education system.
The process of decentralisation is often seen as both
positive and inevitable, but with its own attendant
problems. Since it is the responsibility of the State to
provide quality education for all, there needs to be
some guarantee thaosthe system is, in fact, fulfilling
thaosobjecoive. Decentralisation by its very nature leads
to greaoer differences in standards among schools. The
policy challenge is to acknowledge thaosthese differ-
ences exist, and to ensure thaosdifferences are turned
to opportunities and thaosthey do not hinder pupils in
achieving their full potential.
It has been argued thaoscentralised systems, which pre-
scribe and control education inputs (curriculum, form
content, etc.) need less monitoring and control than
decentralised systems, which place less emphasis on
the control of input and require greaoer emphasis
on the control of output. A closer look at indicators on
the steering and evaluation of systems does not en-
tirely support such a contention but does reveal quite
divergent systems enveloping apparently similar
pracoices.
The resource challenge
For many people within the educational systems the
solution to the pressures of change is more resources.
Education is increasingly being viewed around the
world as investment. While opening up choice to con-
sumers in new educational markets, the economic im-
perative is for cost-effecoive aloernatives to expensive
institutional pracoices. Technology will become cheap-
er and widely accessible while professional manpower
will become scarcer and costlier, in both a social and
economic sense. The indicator on numbers of comput-
ers per pupil is already daoed as schools experience
rapid increases in provision. The real challenge lies in
the most intelligent and cost-effecoive use and de-
ployment of new technologies.
In most European countries there are twin trends
which increase resource demands at both ends of the
compulsory schooling. More and more people are using
the education system for a longer and longer period of
their lives, so increasing resource demands on educa-
oion. Enrolment in further and higher education is in-
creasing steadily. Aosthe other end of the education
system, pre-school education is becoming more and
more common and, alohough its nature and timing is a
debaoed issue, there is wide agreement thaosearly
childhood experiences have a deoermining influence
on intelligence, on personal development and on sub-
sequent social integration. However desirable, and
however much investment in early childhood repre-
sents long-oerm investment,sthese accelerating trends
also bring pressure on resource provision and require
creaoive policy thinking.
As provision becomes less institutionalised, individuals
will need to adapt by assembling their own qualifica-
tions, their own building blocks of knowledge, on the
10 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
job, in more informal ways or in new contexts still to
be identified. Learning throughout life is becoming the
key to controlling one’s future on both a professional
and a personal level, making it possible to participate
more actively in society.
Again policy-makers will benefit from data which
monitors important trends, but beyond the numbers
and graphics lie issues about the nature and effective-
ness of provision and the need for more and better
data, sensitive enough to inform decision-making in
these areas.
The challenge of social inclusion
All European education systems aim to be inclusive, to
offer children and young people the opportunity to
benefit from school education and to prepare them for
life after school.
No system is entirely successful in achieving these aims
and all countries recognise the increasing magnitude
of the task. It is becoming all the more challenging be-
cause school structures, curricula and the learning
environment are seen by many young people as un-
congenial or irrelevant to their lives. For many there is
no apparent incentive from home or community to go
to school and no benefit from attending on a regular
basis. All Member States are realising that the future
brings a monumental challenge to traditional struc-
tures of educational institutions. This means finding
ways of educating people beyond school and outside
the classroom, helping them acquire the skills and
competencies which will make them less vulnerable in
the global economy. The European pilot project ‘Sec-
ond chance schools’, which presently counts 13
schools in 11 Member States, addresses this problem by
showing that those young people who have left edu-
cation without the basic skills necessary to find jobs
and permit integration can be reintegrated through
individualised education and training schemes in close
cooperation with local employers.
The civics indicator provides one measure of social in-
clusion. It reminds us of how ‘foreigners’, however de-
fined, are perceived, and suggests that it is for social
agencies and schools in particular to address this issue.
Attitudes towards foreigners can be affected not sim-
ply through the context of the curriculum, but
through the very structures and culture of schools
themselves.
This indicator is a reminder that the relationship be-
tween school and society is a vital ingredient in poli-
cy-making. Policy-makers need to know the answers to
questions such as the following.
1. What implicit and explicit messages do schools
convey on social inclusion?
2. Where is the system losing young people — and
why?
3. Where are the problems most acute?
4. Where can we identify successes in engaging and
retaining young people?
5. What are the alternatives for the future?
The challenge of data and comparability
The 16 indicators presented in this report provide a
timely reminder that countries can no longer look in-
wards, but that they must look outwards to see how
they are performing in comparison to their neigh-
bours. A new term has entered the policy discourse —
benchmarking. Benchmarks bring a new way of think-
ing, about national performance, about local and re-
gional effectiveness, and performance at the level of
individual schools. Benchmarks can be used diagnosti-
cally and formatively to inform policy and practice but
are sometimes also viewed as a threat.
The challenge of comparability is to create an open
and positive climate for dialogue. Comparison which is
perceived as unfair becomes detrimental to the posi-
tive and constructive use of benchmark data. The ob-
vious place to start is with standards attained by chil-
dren at school — their outcomes on leaving school,
their acquisition of basic skills at key stages of devel-
opment.
Data on pupil attainment at given ages is, however, of
limited use to policy-making without knowledge of
the conditions in which attainment is raised and
of limited value without an understanding of factors
which contribute to good teaching and effective
learning.
This raises the question of the availability of compara-
tive data. Many indicators in this report clearly lack
sufficient data to support a policy discussion and to
enable the identification of good practices. Problems
related to data have been identified and are listed
below.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 11
ing the best use of the ‘European statistical system’
and the ‘Community statistical programme’ (
4
) would
allow us to derive greater benefit from the use of
comparative indicators and benchmarks in terms of
improving the quality of education.
Comparing systems
Europe is a rich mix of cultures and histories, brought
together in one union, facing common problems and
pursing common goals while preserving cultural and
linguistic diversity.
European countries share many common objectives.
They are all concerned to offer young people the
chance to achieve high levels of literacy and numera-
cy, to provide a stimulating school experience and to
instil a desire for learning which will serve young peo-
ple well for their lives beyond school. Such objectives
are not contested. Nor is there disagreement about key
subjects of the school curriculum. This background
provides a strong basis for sharing and learning from
one another.
However, subject areas are given different priorities in
different Member States. Varying emphases are placed
on the context of learning at different ages and
stages. Methodologies differ. Teaching and learning is
embedded in different structures. Countries diverge in
their linguistic and cultural histories. These cultural
patterns bring a depth and richness to the dialogue at
European level. They provide a strong basis for Mem-
ber States to learn from one another.
This is why, in selecting indicators and benchmarks, it
is important to choose those which are most genera-
tive in stimulating an open policy dialogue; one which
looks forward — to policy implications of the data and
lines for further inquiry in the future. Data for all
countries are embedded in a cultural and historical
context. All data are suggestive rather than definitive.
Indicators should be regarded as starting points, limit-
ed in their internal meaning but unlimited in their im-
plications for improving raising standards for all.
• The problem of obtaining data for all the coun-
tries involved. In only three cases have we been able to
show full coverage of all the 26 countries involved by
using Eurydice data. These are the indicators covering:
parents’ participation, ICT usage and evaluation and
monitoring systems. The extension of the Eurostat UOE
data collection and Labour Force Survey to all these
countries is ongoing (five statistical indicators).
• The problem of a lack of data in relation to specif-
ic indicators. The report is not currently supported by
data on attainment in foreign languages, learning to
learn, ICT or civics. The results from the PISA study
(OECD) and the IEA (International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement) survey on
civics, which will be published by 2001, will provide
answers to some of these problems, but for ‘foreign
languages’ there are no measures in place to address
the lack of available data. Furthermore, data on
parental participation, and more broadly ‘stakeholder
participation’, clearly needs to be further elaborated
than is presently the case, as does data on the evalua-
tion and monitoring of school education. In the latter
case, new comparative data should look in particular
at the links between external and internal evaluation.
• For some indicators, the age of the data used is
clearly a problem. This is particularly so in the field of
‘reading’, where the data used in this report are almost
10 years old. Publication of some new data is, howev-
er, planned within the coming months and years. This
is the situation for six of the seven attainment indica-
tors (mathematics, reading, science, learning to learn,
ICT, civics). The availability of regularly updated valid
data will continue to be of major concern.
• The problem of the usefulness of the data has
been discussed throughout the preparation of this re-
port. One could question whether the data which is
presently available, or planned, on attainment levels
provide sufficient insight into each country’s educa-
tional specificity. Establishing a strong awareness of
the particular nature of a country’s educational system
would better allow countries, which may so desire, to
take remedial action in specific areas. More refined
methodologies would allow a move away from
straightforward comparisons and allow the reader to
understand better not only the levels of skills in spe-
cific areas but also how these skills are attained in
diverse educational systems.
A common approach between European countries to
defining the indicator needs and methodologies mak-
12 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
4
) Council Decision No 1999/12/EC of 22 December 1998 on
the Community statistical programme 1998 to 2002 (OJ
L 42, 16.2.1999, p. 1).
Indicators on attainment
1. Mathematics
2. Reading
3. Science
4. Information and communication
technologies (ICT)
5. Foreign languages
6. Learning to learn
7. Civics
Indicators on success and transition
8. Drop-out rates
9. Completion of upper secondary education
10. Participation in tertiary education
Indicators on monitoring of education
11. Evaluation and steering of school education
12. Parent participation
Indicators on resources and structures
13. Education and training of teachers
14. Participation in pre-primary education
15. Number of students per computer
16. Educational expenditure per student
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 13
SIXTEEN INDICATORS ON THE QUALITY
OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
A solid grounding in mathematics belongs at the very core of the educational curricu-
lum. Analytical skills, logic skills and reasoning are all enhanced through the study of
mathematics. Compulsory training of children in mathematics is therefore an important
requirement for participation in society, ultimately making an indispensable contribution
to national competitiveness and the knowledge society. All countries seem to share this
view and place basic learning in mathematics at the heart of early learning. The year
2000 has been announced ‘Year of mathematics’ by the International Mathematical
Union and sponsored by Unesco.
TEST RESULTS IN MATHEMATICS (13-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS), 1995
) Data not available
Source: IEA, TIMSS.
1. MATHEMATICS
14 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Belgium
80
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The graph shows the results of an international math-
ematics ability test: the Third International Mathemat-
ics and Science Study (TIMSS). TIMSS is a collaborative
research study conducted by the International Associ-
ation for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement
(IEA). Tests were taken in 1995 by samples of, among
others, classes from the two adjacent grades with the
largest proportion of 13-year-old students (seventh
and eighth grades in most countries). In the survey,
which covered 41 systems of education worldwide, the
ability of seventh and eighth grade pupils to handle
mathematical symbols, terms and models, and their
mathematical thinking and problem solving abilities
were all measured.
The findings of the TIMSS study will be complemented by
OECD’s PISA study (Programme for international student
assessment) which will be carried out later this year. The
first results of this study will be published in 2001.
The graph shows the average scores of seventh and
eighth grade pupils from each country. The two hori-
zontal lines show the international averages for the
European and pre-accession countries in the seventh
(lower line) and eighth grades (upper line). The differ-
ences between grades vary from 1 percentage point in
Belgium (Flanders) to 10 percentage points in France
and in Lithuania.
European countries achieved very varied results, in
terms of percentage of correct answers in the test. They
ranged from 65 % in the seventh grade (Belgium (Flan-
ders)) to 37 % (Portugal) and from 66 % in the eighth
grade (Belgium (Flanders) and the Czech Republic) to
43 % (Portugal). It is particularly interesting to note that
central European countries such as Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia performed es-
pecially well. When the test results from the seventh and
eighth grades, shown here, are compared with those
from the fourth grade, also available in the TIMSS sur-
vey, they show a very similar pattern of results in terms
of the relative positions of the countries. This suggests
that the relative abilities in mathematics are established
early in the educational process.
In the light of this, however, it is surprising that there
does not appear to be any strong connection within
countries between the TIMSS results for pupils in the
eighth grade and those in the final classes (12th or
13th grade). A very high level of performance among
eighth grade pupils, in relation to other countries, does
not necessarily mean a comparably high level among
12th grade pupils.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 15
Some caution should be taken with the data with re-
gard to the comparability of the results of the partici-
pating countries. Attention should be drawn to some
potential problems. Firstly, some of the participating
countries did not fulfil the guidelines for drawing the
samples, thus the results cannot be guaranteed to be
fully representative. Secondly, it must be remembered
that the pupils in the participating countries are ac-
customed to different types of test. The types of task
presented in the TIMSS tests, and the manner in which
the tests were conducted, may have been familiar to
some students but unfamiliar to others. This may ex-
plain some of the variations between countries. There
were also slight differences in age among pupils test-
ed. Furthermore national differences between curricu-
la might also have had an impact on results.
Compared to their overall performance, almost all
countries did relatively better in some content areas
than they did in others indicating differences in the
curriculum emphasis between countries. Significant
differences in results can, for example, be found be-
tween geometry and algebra. The TIMSS survey points
to a range of factors that appear to be linked to high
achievement in mathematics, including the following.
• A clear positive relationship between a stronger
liking of mathematics and higher achievement. How-
ever, even in some high-scoring countries such as the
Czech Republic, Austria and the Netherlands, mathe-
matics is not necessarily very popular, with more than
40 % of students reporting that they disliked it.
• A strong positive relationship between achievement
and home environment — better educated parents, the
availability of study aids at home such as dictionaries,
computers and a study desk for the student’s own use.
There were other factors where the TIMSS survey could
establish no clear link with achievement. They includ-
ed class size, number of instructional hours in class,
amount of homework and gender.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING MATHEMATICS
The key policy issues set out here are based partly on
international discussion of the results of TIMSS, but
they are also linked to wider educational debate:
The development of teaching methods which ensure
that pupils have a positive attitude towards mathe-
matics, and that they are motivated to learn mathe-
matics and encouraged to study and apply mathemat-
ical laws independently. How can such a culture of
teaching and learning be developed and maintained
in the field of mathematics, and how can the impor-
tance of mathematics be demonstrated in order to
motivate pupils to learn?
The issue of positive and negative attitudes towards
mathematics which could influence students’ choices
of subjects studied in tertiary education. Many coun-
tries experience difficulties in attracting students to
technical and scientific studies. What experiences and
positive actions exist to encourage students to pur-
sue such fields of study, and to overcome negative
attitudes towards mathematics in this context?
Mathematics is considered to be at the very core of
the educational curriculum. High attainment levels in
mathematics are central for access to some key areas
of higher education and many professional careers.
But mathematical ability is a core sG .pne sc18.zens.9(s.)]TJ T730.1108tiesss andabiTw knowledgeudis i
TEST RESULTS IN READING LITERACY (14-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS), 1991
) Data not available
Source: IEA, Reading literacy.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 17
2. READING
Belgium
80
70
60
50
40
30
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Reading skills play a central role in an individual’s learning at school. The ability to read
and understand instructions and text is a basic requirement of success in all school sub-
jects. The importance of literacy skills does not, however, come to an end when children
leave school. Such skills are key to all areas of education and beyond, facilitating par-
ticipation in the wider context of lifelong learning and contributing to individuals’
social integration and personal development.
The indicator is based on an IEA survey in which three areas of reading literacy were as-
sessed: narrative prose, expository prose and documents. It concerns six different skills
or processes related to these areas.
The data for the proposed indicator comes from the
IEA. The tests were taken in 1991 by samples of the
classes of the grades with the largest proportion of
9-year-olds and 14-year-olds in 32 systems of educa-
tion. In the longer term, as with mathematics and sci-
ence, indicators from the PISA survey will be published
in autumn 2001. In addition, the IEA is preparing a
new study about reading literacy.
The graph above shows the mean percentages of items
successfully answered by the sample of 14-year-old
students in each country. The horizontal line corre-
sponds to the mean success percentage calculated for
the European and pre-accession countries.
As the average age of students was not exactly the
same in the different countries, their scores may be
slightly underestimated (Italy, Hungary, Spain and Bel-
gium) or overestimated (Portugal and France).
The average score is 72 %. It is not always easy to
make sense of this kind of international comparison
without some sort of frame of reference to tell us, for
example, what ‘15 %’ actually means. One can analyse
the data and see that, based on 14 identical items
from the test, the difference between the scores of
9-year-olds and 14-year-olds was around 24 %.
Although this information should be treated with cau-
tion it does provide a guideline — for example, if we
consider Belgium and Finland, separated by 15 per-
centage points, we can see that 15 percentage points
represents about two thirds of the average interna-
tional progress observed between 9 and 14 years in the
14 items referred to above (Elley, 1994: see Annex 2).
Analyses have been carried out in order to determine
what variables may be linked to the level of reading
achievement, both between countries and within each
country. It should, however, be stressed that although
statistical analyses show links between achievement
and some other variables, no country follows exactly
the same pattern. The results point more to areas for
further exploration than to definitive solutions for im-
proving reading attainment.
• The countries’ averages are linked to some charac-
teristics of the home environment (such as the pres-
ence of books, newspapers, etc.).
• Some individual students’ characteristics, such as
gender, also play a part in reading performance.
• The level of certain school resources is also associ-
ated with reading literacy achievement. Educational
18 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
policy-makers can exert some influence on these re-
sources, their distribution or their use. The most effi-
cient of these variables relates to the presence of
books in the community and parental cooperation
with the school.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING READING
At secondary school level, public libraries and book-
shops can make an essential contribution to reading
skills; the regular addition of new books to the school
library, the existence of a reading room and a teachers’
library are worth considering. They can also play an
important part in providing interesting reading mate-
rial for pedagogic use. How can the number and
quality of books available to students — and also to
teachers – be enriched?
As is the case for computers (see the ‘students per
computer’ indicator), a sufficient number of high-
quality books is necessary, but this alone will not guar-
antee high attainment levels in reading. The books
must be used in the most efficient way in order to en-
hance both students’ interest for and competence in
reading. How can teachers be supported in address-
ing the needs of different age groups? How can the
cross-curricular nature of reading be taken into
account in teacher training?
As in other domains, parental participation (see rele-
vant indicator) is important. How can parental partic-
ipation be achieved, particularly for students with
poor reading skills? How can parents be supported in
their role?
Young people are increasingly faced with forms of me-
dia which include written material (advertising, televi-
sion, CD-ROM, and multimedia, for example). How can
curriculum development and teacher training best
be managed in order to equip young people with lit-
eracy skills for the future and to allow them to
analyse in a critical way the information conveyed
by the media?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Denmark — Efforts to increase the level of attainment
in reading in compulsory education in Denmark by re-
inforcing the subject in the curriculum.
Germany — Newspapers in schools — over a period of
three months, students receive ‘their’ daily newspaper
(without paying for it). This is then used systematical-
ly within different subject matters at school.
Italy — The 1998 ‘Progetto lettura 2000’ programme
aims to promote the development of school libraries
and to encourage reading among students in all kinds
of school.
Sweden — Parents of students aged 10 to 12 are en-
couraged to spend half an hour per day reading a
good book with their child. The authorities have sup-
ported this initiative, providing money to buy interest-
ing books that both students and parents enjoy.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 19
3. SCIENCE
20 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Science gives pupils the tools to investigate their environment and to experiment, thus
increasing their ability to analyse and make sense of the world around them. It promotes
curiosity and critical thinking about a wide range of issues such as the environment, liv-
ing things, health and other issues. Science can also help pupils to develop an awareness
of the inter-relationship between people and nature, and an understanding of the finite
nature of the earth’s resources. At the level of European economy, scientific disciplines
are the bases for much of the core foundations of business and industry. In a national
perspective, well-trained researchers are indispensable to technological progress, the im-
pact of which transcends national frontiers.
TEST RESULTS IN SCIENCES (13-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS), 1995
) Data not available
Source: IEA, TIMSS.
Belgium
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
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United
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7
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grade 8
th
grade Average
As with mathematics, the proposed aggregated indicator
is taken from the Third International Mathematics and
Science Study (TIMSS) (see the ‘mathematics’ indicator
for more detail about this study). The test covers five ar-
eas: earth science, life science, physics, chemistry, as well
as environmental issues and the nature of science. Stu-
dents were expected to understand simple or complex in-
formation, to theorise, analyse and solve problems, to use
tools, routine procedures, and scientific processes and to
investigate the natural world. An analysis of how the test
corresponds to the curriculum in different countries has
shown substantial variations in the number of items
which each country considers appropriate. However,
when countries’ results in the test as a whole are com-
pared with their results in a selection of items relevant to
their own curriculum, their relative positions in the study
are not significantly affected.
The graph shows the average scores of seventh and
eighth grade pupils from each country. The two thick
lines show the international averages for the European
and pre-accession countries in seventh (lower line) and
eighth grades (upper line). The gap between the two
averages (6.4 %) gives an idea of the difference be-
tween the performances of the seventh and the eighth
grades students.
Some caution should be taken with the data. In some
cases, the error due to sampling may be larger than the
difference between the averages. Thus, for example, the
average in Greece (grade 8) cannot be considered to be
different from the average in Germany (grade 7). As the
average age of students was not exactly the same in each
country, the scores of countries may be slightly under- or
overestimated. It is also important to take into account
the fact that some countries did not meet all the sample
criteria for one or more of the areas concerned.
The graph shows some significant differences between
countries. Among the European countries, the differ-
ence between the highest-achieving country (the Czech
Republic, eighth grade: 64 %) and the lowest-achieving
one (Cyprus, eighth grade: 47 %) is 17 %. If we consid-
er this difference in relation to the difference between
average performance in the seventh grade and the
eighth grade, we see that a gap of 17 % represents ap-
proximately 2.7 years of student progress. Japan obtains
very high results at both levels, whilst the United States’
score is closer to the European mean, particularly at
eighth grade.
It is important to consider the distribution of the re-
sults around each national average. A good average
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 21
level does not necessarily imply that the school system
is a good one; disparities between highest and lowest
achievers in a particular country may still be very
large. The gap could be linked to socioeconomic differ-
ences as well as other factors (such as differences be-
tween curricula, differential selectivity, organisational
structure, etc.).
The study points to some variables which seem to be
related to the results. As concerns gender, boys per-
form better than girls in all countries (fourth grade)
and significantly so in Austria, Hungary, Netherlands
and the Czech Republic; and factors such as motiva-
tion, status of scientific studies and jobs, and method-
ological practices, also seem to be related to results.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
SCIENCES
All citizens should to be able to access and use new
technologies for their own benefit and for the eco-
nomic and social improvement of the society. It is thus
important to look not only at the average level of at-
tainment, but also at the gap between higher and low-
er achievers. How can all students be encouraged to
develop sufficient interest in science and in scien-
tific thinking?
It is crucial to distinguish between the contribution
made by schools, and other more fixed parameters
such as those resulting from social conditions. In order
to reduce disparities and raise average attainment lev-
els, it is essential to focus on what schools and teach-
ers can do. How can students learn to use the most-
efficient methodologies in experiencing science
through practical experiment?
In many countries, students’ interest in science, espe-
cially the physical sciences, is declining. As a result, the
number of students taking science is dropping. What
can we do to find out the reasons for this decline,
and to increase the numbers taking science?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — ‘Women in science’ is a mobile exhibition
illustrating the history of science through the achieve-
ments of women in different periods of history and
current trends in the feminist approach to science. It is
organised by European networks and the European
Commission to promote equal opportunities at school,
at university and in careers.
Ireland — European Union Physics Colloquium — the
colloquium examined approaches to physics education
at upper secondary level in Ireland and eight other
European education systems.
Italy — 1999, ‘Progetto SET — SET project’ — aiming to
enhance pupils’ scientific and technological culture
and to raise their achievement levels, improving teach-
ing quality.
Slovakia — ‘Schola Ludus’ promotes science education
by interactive exhibitions touring the country.
Spain — The National Science Museum has a guide of
school programmes for permanent exhibitions, tempo-
rary exhibitions, workshops, guided visits, educational
materials and courses.
22 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 23
4. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(ICT)
APPROACHES TO ICT DEFINED IN THE CURRICULUM — LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1997/98
Source: Eurydice.
LI
CY
Separate subject and used as a tool
for other subjects
Separate subject
Used as a tool for other subjects
Not included in the curriculum
In all European countries there is a broad consensus on the importance of new tech-
nologies. Information and communication technologies are not only having an impact
now but will affect the structure of human societies even more so in the future. They
are having an accelerating impact on the way we learn, live, work, consume, express and
entertain ourselves.
Learning will be ineffective if teachers fail to make coherent connections between learn-
ing in and out of school or if they do not exploit the vast potential of new multi-
sensory and interactive media.
Data on the provision and use of information and
communication technology (ICT) will be a growth area
in the future. As more information becomes available
(for example through the IEA SITES study), indicators
will provide more detailed information on the effec-
tive deployment of ICT and skills acquired (as current-
ly in other areas such as mathematics or literacy). The
map below provides a picture of uses of ICT in Euro-
pean countries showing where it is not as yet included
in the curriculum, taught as a separate subject, or used
as a tool for other subjects.
The map distinguishes four different uses of ICT. In most
of the eastern European countries ICT is treated as a sep-
arate subject. In Norway, Sweden and Ireland it is seen as
a tool for use across the curriculum, while more typically
in central European Member States (plus Iceland, Fin-
land and Latvia) it is both a subject and a tool. In Portu-
gal, Cyprus and Italy it is not formally taught. In Finland,
decisions are made at local level and the treatment of
ICT may, therefore, differ widely. There will also be dis-
parities within other countries despite the existence of
national curricula or guidelines.
Caution has to be exercised in the interpretation of
such data given that this is an area which is changing
so rapidly and in which data cease to be 100 % accu-
rate by the time they are published. Within a few years
most, if not all, countries will be able to show that ICT
permeates subjects across the whole curriculum and
that pupils routinely use ICT for homework and study
in all subjects. The precedent set by Iceland, where all
senior pupils are provided with their own laptops, will
become increasingly commonplace and such individual
access will carry major implications for learning and
teaching.
Nonetheless, the data provide an important baseline
from which to monitor progress and raise policy issues
for the future. Many countries have experimental and
pilot projects in the use of ICT which are not repre-
sented on this map (see ‘Examples of national initia-
tives’, below).
Therefore, in interpreting data, caution needs to be ex-
ercised with regard to the changing scene and wide
variations that may exist at local or school level. At
national level there may be no obvious curricular pol-
icy on the use of ICT. Imaginative cross-curricular ini-
tiatives may still be found at individual school level
and these may provide cutting-edge example for
countries in which ICT is more widespread and institu-
tionalised at national level.
In the longer term, data on ICT will need to go consid-
erably further to say something about how ICT is being
deployed and exploited for more effective pupil learn-
ing, for out-of-school learning (homework and study),
for professional development of teachers, for school
improvement and systemic change.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING ICT
Inclusion: With access to information freely available,
those who are motivated and skilled will increasingly
benefit while those who are not will be at an increas-
ing disadvantage. The gap between the ‘haves’ and the
‘have nots’ is likely to widen significantly in the future.
What forms of support or intervention can be pro-
vided for the most disadvantaged and vulnerable
sections of the population?
Special needs: Information and technology has a par-
ticularly significant role to play for children with spe-
cial educational needs. What can be done to identify
good practice in this area and to disseminate it ef-
fectively for the benefit of special needs pupils, their
parents and their teachers?
Teacher skills: One of the obstacles to development of
ICT skills of pupils is lack of teacher skills or resistance
to the use of ICT among teachers who see it as a threat
to their jobs. How can teachers in every subject area
be trained in skills which help them harness ICT to
make for better teaching?
Pupil expertise: Expertise of children and young peo-
ple already far exceeds that of their teachers in many
instances. What might schools do to fully exploit the
skills of young people to support teachers and teach
their fellow pupils?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — The eEurope initiative aims to make digital
literacy one of the basic skills of every young Euro-
pean. eLearning is intended to implement the educa-
tion/training part of eEurope.
Cyprus — The new ‘unified lyceum’ will have three key
objectives: upgrading the ICT skills of pupils; upgrad-
ing schools’ technological equipment; and improving
staff competencies.
24 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Estonia — In some Estonian schools, senior pupils are
required to spend four hours a week on mentoring and
tutoring younger children in ICT.
Hungary — Initiatives are underway to promote new
methods and teaching aids that make use of ICT tech-
nology in a range of school disciplines.
Italy — The ‘Programma di sviluppo delle tecnologie
didattiche 1997–2000’ was promoted to spread the
use of information and communication technologies
(ICT) and aims to improve the teaching/learning
processes.
The ‘Multilab’ is aimed at embracing teaching through
classroom use of computers, online and multimedia
technologies. More information is available on the In-
ternet (http://multilab.tin.it) (www.cede.it).
The Netherlands — ‘Knowledge net’ brings together
pupils, parents, teachers and cultural organisations
through a computer network which provides various
services including information, discussion groups and
technical facilities.
Poland — The ‘Interkl@sa’ programme aims to prepare
young people for the information society and to de-
velop the school as a modern centre for innovation
and creation.
Slovakia — The ‘Info-age’ project (www.infovek.sk) is
aimed at the improvement of ICT in primary and sec-
ondary schools.
Slovenia — In 1994 a long-term ICT programme
’Rac?unalnis?ko opismenjevanje’ (http://ro.zrsss.si/) was
established to spread the use of information and com-
munication technologies.
Spain — All Spanish State schools have an Internet ac-
count. More information (in Spanish) can be found on
the Internet (http://www.pntic.mec.es).
Sweden — The Government offers in-service training
for school leaders and teacher teams to learn how to
use computers as a tool.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 25
5. FOREIGN LANGUAGES
26 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
ATTITUDE TO AND SELF-ASSESSMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AMONG THE 15- TO 24-YEAR-OLD POPULATION,
1997
Source: Eurobarometer.
Knowledge of
a foreign language (%)
0
10
20
30
40
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No wish to learn
a foreign language (%)
UK
E
P
EL
D
B
A
F
IRL
FIN
S
L
DK
NL
I
Proficiency in several Community languages has become a prerequisite if citizens of the
European Union are to benefit from the professional and personal opportunities open to
them in the single market. It is, to say the least, paradoxical that people and ideas cir-
culate less freely within today’s Europe than capital and goods. Difficulty with foreign
languages, according to a Eurobarometer survey carried out in 1997, is by far the most
feared problem when young Europeans contemplate working or studying abroad.
Enlargement of the European Union in the future will make proficiency in modern
languages even more important.
Language proficiency is a key instrument for a common understanding between citizens
of Europe and for exploiting the rich cultural heritage of Europe. The decision of the
European Commission to make 2001 the ‘European year of foreign languages’ underlines
the political importance attached to knowledge of foreign languages.
It should first be made clear that, in the following
paragraphs, the term ‘foreign languages’ refers to
modern languages other than one’s mother tongue,
whether second languages, or actual foreign lan-
guages as such. Despite the importance of learning a
foreign language, there is currently virtually no inter-
national data available about the linguistic compe-
tence of young Europeans. The next phase of the PISA
survey will probably comprise a measure of the read-
ing comprehension in a foreign language as an inter-
national option.
Pending more adequate information, we can use, with
an appropriate degree of caution, the responses of
young Europeans to a Eurobarometer survey. In early
1997, at the request of the European Commission’s Ed-
ucation, Training and Youth Directorate-General (XXII),
a sample of 9 400 young people, intended to be repre-
sentative of those aged between 15 and 24 in every
European country, was asked the following questions —
‘Apart from your mother tongue, which of these lan-
guages can you speak well enough to take part in a
conversation?’ and ‘Which ones, if any, would you like
to learn?’. The 11 official languages of the European
Union were proposed, as well as the answers ‘other’,
‘none’ or ‘don’t know’.
The graph shows, for each participating country, the
percentage of young people claiming to be able to
speak at least one ‘foreign’ language and the percent-
age of those who said that they did not want to learn
a foreign language. It should be noted that the first
question in this survey addresses the perceived person-
al abilities, and not the actual capacities, of the young
people.
There seems to be a link between how widely spoken
a country’s official language is, and both the ability of
young people to speak another language and their
desire to learn another. This leads to the formation of
two broad clusters seen on the graph, with countries
such as Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden and Finland in
one (countries whose languages are relatively less
widely spoken) and France, Germany, Spain, Ireland
and Austria in the other (countries whose languages
are widely spoken). Greece, however, appears to be an
exception to this rule. The situation in the UK is clear-
ly more extreme, and unlikely to be the result solely
of the linguistic dominance of the English language
(English is the most widely spoken language in the
European Union, the mother tongue of 16 % of the
population and an additional 31 % of the adult pop-
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 27
ulation say they can hold a conversation in it). Com-
petence and interest in foreign language learning
thus seem to vary greatly from one country to the
other and to depend on social and cultural factors,
among others.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
FOREIGN LANGUAGES
It must be remembered that valid measures of young
people’s proficiency in foreign languages are required.
However, the data available indicate strongly the im-
portance of several issues.
• The choice of the languages to be taught is both
politically and pedagogically very important: if every
European language is considered a part of cultural
wealth and just as relevant as any other, active meas-
ures have to be taken. How can young people’s in-
terest in people of other cultural and linguistic
communities, and in their languages, be devel-
oped?
• Some strategies aimed at promoting linguistic di-
versity concern language teaching itself: for example,
the development of young children’s interest and com-
petency in several languages instead of introducing
them to only one language (‘language awareness’ ap-
proach). How can teachers’ competency in these
methods be increased?
• Within the context of lifelong learning, but also
in order to achieve good short-term results in lan-
guage learning, it is important to increase young peo-
ple’s interest in foreign languages. How can pupils be
made aware of the advantages of good language
skills?
• Some degree of self-confidence is necessary in or-
der to speak another language and to interact with
people whose language is different to one’s own
mother tongue. How can foreign languages be
taught in a way which promotes students’ self-
confidence?
The age at which language learning starts, the amount
of time spent on language learning in the curriculum
and the languages which may be chosen can all play
an important part in the development of foreign lan-
guage competency. How should the curriculum be or-
ganised in order to make foreign language learning
as efficient as possible?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
European Union — The aim of the ‘European label’ is
to help stimulate interest in language learning by
highlighting innovative language learning projects at
all stages of education and training.
Belgium — Department of Education offers courses in
18 languages, both European and non-European. Access
to these courses is made easy and very cheap. Some lan-
guage courses are available as distance learning
Bulgaria — In order to improve the teaching of foreign
languages, the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and
Science (MES) decided to create in 1996 a national
network of so-called ‘teacher methodologists’.
Hungary — The ‘European language portfolio’ (ELP) —
a personal document in which the students can record
their qualifications and other significant linguistic and
cultural experiences in an internationally transparent
manner.
Ireland — A project aimed at increasing the range of
foreign languages taken by students in secondary
school.
28 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 29
6. LEARNING TO LEARN
Learning to learn encompasses intellectual skills, atti-
tudes and motivation. For example, attitudes to one’s
self, perceptions of one’s own competence, ability to
think about one’s thinking (metacognition), inferring
meaning from a text, awareness of one’s own preferred
learning style, persistence in the face of difficulty, mo-
tivation to learn.
These are skills acquired and developed in various con-
texts — classrooms, homework, independent study,
day-to-day problem solving situations. They are em-
bedded in all subjects and areas of study and integral
to ‘cross-curricular competencies’. The challenge is to
help people to:
• be reflective and self-critical learners;
• access tools which help them become more effi-
cient and effective;
• be able to transfer learning to learn skills from
one context to the next;
• equip themselves to deal with new and unpre-
dictable situations in the future.
Data at European level do not as yet exist. This should,
however, be treated as a high priority. It is important
to identify examples of good practice and data which
can be used as a starting point for debate at the Euro-
pean level. A number of countries have already estab-
lished systems to identify and measure ‘learning to
learn competencies’ or are developing them with the
aim of understanding success and failure at school and
how these competencies can transfer to social and
professional life (see ‘Examples of national initiatives’,
below).
For the purposes of inter-country comparison, there-
fore, we may gather data to illustrate countries in
which:
• learning to learn policies or guidelines already
exist;
• there is public dissemination (e.g. Ministry web
page, circulation of documents);
• pilot initiatives are taking place;
• courses/programmes exist in pre-service and/or in-
service teacher education;
• no policy or initiatives yet exist.
The indicator may take the form of a map of Europe
plotting policy development, for example, by degrees of
shading to illustrate the development and penetration
of policy initiatives. These data will illustrate a spectrum
The true test of the lifelong learner is the extent to which he or she is able to go on ac-
quiring skills and knowledge in a wide variety of life situations, once formal education
has come to an end. Effective learners know how to learn and have a repertoire of tools
and strategies to serve that purpose.
The flow of new information and the rise of international cooperation have increased
the importance of such skills while the unpredictability and rapidity of change requires
a closer connection between school education and lifelong learning. These are prerequi-
sites for success in the academic world, the world of work and the society of the future.
of practice, showing clusters of countries that have
made considerable progress in putting policy into place
and from which important lessons may be learned.
In the longer term we could develop ways of gauging
learning to learn competencies at student level
through:
• students’ own assessments of their knowledge,
confidence, and competency in this area;
• performance assessment using standardised tests
which provide comparable data on how students cope
with new and unforeseen content.
The effectiveness of learning to learn skills is demon-
strated in situations to which students bring no prior
content knowledge but in which they are able to
demonstrate that they know what to do in order
to acquire, analyse and use new information, and to
process new data.
In 2001, PISA data in this area will be available for the
first time and will provide a new source of European
level data. With a more informed body of data, future
indicators will identify the acquisition of learning to
learn skills at key stages of schooling. We can see from
existing practice that different approaches are already
in place and used at different ages and stages. In the
Netherlands, for example, pilot initiatives are targeted
at 14 to15 year olds, in Italy for the 10 to 17 years’ age
range, while in Flemish Belgium these skills are a part of
the compulsory curriculum for 6 to 18 year olds.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING LEARNING TO
LEARN SKILLS
Indicator data should provide a basis for considering a
number of important policy questions.
Significant progress is being made through pilot proj-
ects in different European countries. The challenge for
policy-makers is to identify, learn from and build on
the best. What short-, medium- and long-term ini-
tiatives will ensure that learning to learn skills be-
come a policy priority?
There is likely to be inertia and resistance, both at a
structural and cultural level. What are the main ob-
stacles to progress and how can they be overcome?
There are practical implications which flow from new
policy directions. What are the implications of new
priorities:
30 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
• for curriculum design and delivery?
• for teacher knowledge and skills?
• for school leadership and management?
• for teacher education — pre- and in-service?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Belgium (Flanders) — Learning to learn skills are al-
ready a compulsory aspect of the 6 to 18 years’ core
curriculum. They are presented as a cross-curricular
theme to be integrated and applied in as many sub-
jects as possible.
England — The Department for Education and Employ-
ment has published a report on thinking skills.
Finland — Research has been conducted as a prelude
to developing a new form of national assessment.
Germany — Widespread curriculum revision is taking
place and pupils are being encouraged — through texts
and questionnaires — to reflect on their working
habits, their learning strategies, their ability to com-
municate and cooperate.
Italy — A repertoire of instruments has been developed
to measure learning to learn competencies and to pro-
vide teachers with simple tools which they can use for
remedial and individualised intervention.
The Netherlands — A cohort study of 20 000 second-
ary students is repeated every five years using a test
developed to measure the general problem solving ca-
pacities of 14- to 15-year-old pupils.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 31
7. CIVICS
ATTITUDES OF THE 15- TO 24-YEAR-OLD POPULATION
TOWARD FOREIGNERS, 1997
Source: Eurobarometer.
To be sent back (%)
0
10
20
0
Glad (%)
10 20 30 40 50
I
A
B
D
F
P
UK
E
DK
NL
L
IRL S
FIN
EL
All societies have a continuing interest in the way their young people are prepared for
citizenship, and how they learn to take part in public affairs.
In most countries, a considerable number of people tend nowadays to attribute problems
such as violence, unemployment and criminality to those who are different, without a
deeper understanding of the root causes of the issues.
The question of what effective citizenship means and the role of formal education in
building a civic culture is important not only for governments and policy-makers but
also for the public in general.
IEA has recently assessed the attitudes and competen-
cies in the domain of civics of several thousand stu-
dents in the modal grade for 14 year olds (in 20 coun-
tries out of those which are directly concerned by the
present report). The study examines young people’s
knowledge, beliefs and attitudes in different areas —
such as democracy, political authorities, rights and
duties — in relation to citizenship, national identity,
social cohesion, equal rights and tolerance. Unfortu-
nately the first report on the results of this study is
not expected until February 2001. In the meantime, no
recent international assessment of young peoples’ atti-
tudes and competencies in the domain of civics is
available. However, Eurobarometer No 47.2, which re-
ports the results of a survey of young people from 15
to 24 years old in the 15 European Union countries,
gives some interesting information in this domain. The
opinion survey was carried out in early 1997 at the re-
quest of the European Commission’s then Directorate-
General XXII — Education, Training and Youth.
The graph shows the respective percentages of young-
sters, in each of the 15 European countries surveyed,
claiming that they agreed with two assertions about
foreigners: ‘I’m glad that foreigners live in (our coun-
try)’ and ‘All foreigners should be sent back to their
country of origin’.
The graph shows the percentages of students agreeing
with each assertion in each country. These are the re-
sults of an opinion poll and should therefore be treat-
ed with some caution, although it is difficult to find
out about people’s attitudes without asking them and
surveys offer the best option in some cases. More in-
depth information and analysis on such an important
topic would, however, be desirable.
On average, 15 % of young people surveyed claimed
that they were happy with the presence of foreigners,
but 9 % felt that all foreigners should be sent back to
their country.
Although there are no clear patterns or clusters appar-
ent from the graph a negative relationship can be seen
between the numbers of respondents who said they
were ‘glad’ to have foreigners and the numbers of re-
spondents who thought foreigners should be ‘sent
back’.
The percentages of those who said they are glad of the
presence of foreigners range from 7 % (Greece) to
45 % (Finland), and at the same time the percentages
arguing for foreigners to be sent back range from 1 %
(Sweden) to 19 % (Greece).
The indicator highlights attitudes which are part of the
school curriculum in a lot of countries but at the same
time reflects values that might be influenced by a
country’s economic situation and trends in immigra-
tion. According to J. Torney-Purta et al. (1999), social
diversity and the way it is understood by policy-mak-
ers and the public seems to have a great influence on
schools, with implications for curriculum content and
methodology.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
CIVICS
In the many countries with economic or social diffi-
culties, it is often tempting to blame foreigners for the
problem. What can be done to help school students
32 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
to make a more informed analysis of social and eco-
nomic problems, particularly in the light of human
rights considerations, among others?
Social diversity may both create problems and enrich
social life. What should be done to promote social
and cultural diversity?
In some countries, civics is taught as a specific subject,
whilst in others, civic education is an integral part of
the curriculum. What are the advantages and the
drawbacks of different approaches?
Whether or not civics is a special subject, all teachers
should play a part in the civic education of their stu-
dents. How can teachers be made more sensitive to
the importance of their role in students’ develop-
ment as citizens?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Greece and Cyprus — The ‘Parliament of adolescents’
is an annual project in which elected Lyceum pupils
meet in the House of Parliament and discuss matters
of concern of the young generation as well as matters
of current importance to their country, Europe and the
world.
Italy — In all secondary schools a statute of students’
rights and duties was introduced in order to enhance
democracy in schools and widen students’ opportuni-
ties.
Poland — The KOSS programme has trained 2 000
teachers to teach civics to their students. It also cre-
ates and publishes civics programmes.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 33
8. DROP-OUT RATES
PERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION OF 18 TO 24 YEAR OLDS HAVING ACHIEVED LOWER SECONDARY LEVEL OF
EDUCATION (ISCED 2) OR LESS AND NOT ATTENDING EDUCATION OR TRAINING, 1997
) Data not available
Source: Eurostat, Labour force survey.
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
G
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e
e
c
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S
p
a
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n
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r
a
n
c
e
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a
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t
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N
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) ) )
Rates (%) Rates (%)
Europe has faced considerable challenges in recent decades. The development of our
economies and the demands of an increasingly competitive society continue to leave
some members of society by the wayside. Today’s learning or knowledge-based society is
increasingly divided into those who have adequate skills and qualifications, and those
who do not. In this rapidly changing environment, it is increasingly important for indi-
viduals to be able to continue to update their knowledge and skills throughout their
lives. Many believe that a minimum knowledge base is required in order for this to hap-
pen, and that those who finish compulsory schooling without qualifications are conse-
quently less likely to be able to participate effectively in life-long learning. Young peo-
ple with a negative attitude to learning, and/or who leave school without qualifications
are, therefore, likely to encounter significant problems later in life as a result.
Often, those who drop out of formal education lack
the fundamental skills needed to find employment.
They may have received no form of vocational training
and are therefore likely to have difficulty in finding a
job. In addition, since pupils who drop out of school
without basic skills are generally less able and less will-
ing than others to embark on a strategy of life-long
learning, the threat of unemployment may be an on-
going factor for these people in the longer term. Life-
long learning is becoming essential to the employabil-
ity of the individual, and the number of jobs requiring
no formal training is decreasing. This is particularly
true of industrial countries with highly developed
service sectors. In addition, young people without a
complete education may experience greater difficulty
than others with regard to social integration and ac-
tive participation in democratic society. Those who
leave school prematurely may consequently be at risk
of marginalisation and social exclusion.
The indicator presented here is based on the 1997
Labour force survey (Eurostat) and is an approximation
(proxy) of the drop-out rates from different Member
States (
5
). Drop-out is defined here as the share of the
total population of 18 to 24 year olds having achieved
the lower secondary level of education (ISCED level 2)
or less and not attending education or training.
As with other indicators, the data provided should be
treated with caution as they are not sufficiently differ-
entiated. In particular, they include pupils who did not
gain qualifications at the end of lower secondary educa-
tion as well as those who did, but who were unable to
obtain further qualifications or who did not wish to pur-
sue further education or vocational training. An indica-
tor showing the percentages of pupils who did not ob-
tain qualifications at the end of compulsory schooling
would be preferable. The data required for this are not,
however, available.
The graph shows that drop-out rates in the EU remain
relatively high, with an average drop-out rate of 22.5 %.
There are, however, notable differences between Mem-
ber States. The data suggest that northern Member
States perform better in combating the phenomenon
than do other Member States. Portugal (40.7 %), Italy
34 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
5
) The Community Labour force survey (LFS) is a harmonised
sample survey of the inhabitants of the country at the time
of the survey. Due to the particular socioeconomic and geo-
graphical situation of Luxembourg, the data on this indica-
tor are not, therefore, comparable with those of the other
countries.
(30.2 %), Spain (30.0 %) and the United Kingdom
(31.4 %) show alarmingly high drop-out rates, while
drop-out rates in Germany (13.2 %), Austria (11.5 %)
and the Scandinavian countries in particular (Sweden
9.6 % and Finland 8.5 %) fall significantly below the EU
average. All of the central and eastern European coun-
tries have drop-out rates below the EU average. The
highest rate among these countries is Romania (19.8 %),
while the Czech Republic has the lowest rate at 6.8 %.
The indicator does not show, however, whether drop
out in individual countries is the result of pupils not
passing examinations at the end of lower secondary
education or whether it is caused by a lack of oppor-
tunities for vocational training following lower sec-
ondary education. Nor does it illustrate regional differ-
ences in drop-out rates within individual countries.
The differences between countries are related to dif-
ferences between educational systems but also to
socioeconomic disparities. The better scores of some
northern countries, for instance, are often attributed
to the organisation of their educational systems, in the
sense that the less selective mechanisms in education
systems such as the integrated Nordic model could
help to ease the transition between different school
environments when a pupil moves from primary to
secondary level. Such systems, which cater for pupils
of all age groups, also allow adults to enrol and are
therefore providers, to some extent, of ‘life-long learn-
ing’, allowing upper secondary education to be ac-
cessed by a wide range of people. It is thus easier for
school drop-outs to return to education even after the
normal completion age for school education. Such a
system is likely to impact on aggregate drop-out rates.
A further explanation for the comparatively low drop-
out rates in Austria and Germany is the so-called ‘dual
system’, whereby pupils undertake an apprenticeship
within an enterprise as well as part-time vocational
training. Such a system can help to allow less-able
pupils, in particular, to obtain a vocational qualifica-
tion, due to the high practical element involved.
On the other hand, high drop-out rates might be
linked to economic factors such as high unemploy-
ment rates, or disparities between urban and rural
economies or between central and peripheral regions.
Research suggests, for instance, that young people at-
tending school in rural areas are often indispensable
to family businesses such as farming, and that they
may be inclined to drop out of school in times of eco-
nomic hardship. In such regions, the skills required for
employment are often seen as being passed from gen-
eration to generation rather than from teacher to
pupil. The link between formal education and success
in the labour market is often less evident in such ru-
ral economies than it is in the service-oriented
economies.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING SCHOOL
DROP-OUT
Efforts to reduce the number of drop outs must take
into account the three different sub-groups which
make up drop outs. These sub-groups are:
• pupils who leave school before completing com-
pulsory schooling
• pupils who do not achieve any qualifications at
the end of compulsory schooling
• pupils who do not receive professional training
after leaving school with or without qualifications.
What kind of support can be offered to each of these
groups in order to reduce the drop-out rates?
What is link between drop-out rates and policies re-
garding children with special educational needs? Do
different countries’ arrangements for SEN provision
affect their drop-out rates?
At its extraordinary meeting in Lisbon, in March 2000,
the European Council set a target to halve by 2010 the
number of 18 to 24 year olds with only lower second-
ary level education who are not in further education
and training. How can this reduction in drop-out
rates be achieved?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Bulgaria — In 1997, a project named ‘School for
everybody’ was launched. Its main goals were to build
up expertise for coping with this complex problem.
Europe — The ‘Second chance schools’ project offers
education and training to young people who lack the
skills and qualifications necessary to find a job or ben-
efit fully from conventional training. For further infor-
mation, see the web site
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/2chance/
homeen.html).
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 35
France — A ‘new chance’ for young people who leave
school without qualifications. This programme aims to:
improve procedures for identifying the young people
concerned and increase the available information
about the issue of drop out.
Germany — Here it has proved useful to find local in-
dustry partners who can give potential drop-out pupils
the chance to gain experience in practical working, in
parallel with their school-based learning.
The Netherlands — Early school-leaving in the Nether-
lands is challenged by a policy of cooperation between
schools at a regional level.
Poland — An educational psychology service has been
set up and many educationalists and psychologists
have been recruited to identify the individual needs of
pupils, to analyse the causes of failure and to find
ways to remedy them.
Spain — Among other initiatives one is for 16 to 21
year olds who have not finished secondary education
or have no professional qualification for the labour
market.
United Kingdom — ‘New deal’ is a key part of the UK
Government’s ‘Welfare to work’ strategy. It gives job-
seekers aged 18 to 24, 25+ and those with disabilities
a chance to develop their potential, gain skills and ex-
perience and find work (http://www.newdeal.gov.uk).
9. COMPLETION OF UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
36 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
PERCENTAGE OF YOUNG PEOPLE AGED 22 WHO HAVE SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED
AT LEAST UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1997
) Data not available
Source: Eurostat, Labour force survey.
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
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Rates (%) Rates (%)
Completion rates of upper secondary education are — like low drop-out rates — impor-
tant indications of successful education systems. The completion of upper secondary
education is considered as increasingly important, not just for successful entry into the
labour market, but also in allowing students access to the learning and training oppor-
tunities offered by higher education. In addition, the contribution made by school edu-
cation in helping young people deal with the demands of modern society should not be
underestimated. The internationalisation of trade, the global context of technology, and
above all, the rapid development of information technology have made societies
increasingly complex. Successful participation in the learning society requires the basic
building blocks offered by a secondary education.
The indicator shows the percentage of young people
aged 22 who have successfully completed upper sec-
ondary education (ISCED 3). This level of education may
either be ‘terminal’ (i.e. preparing students for entry di-
rectly into working life) or ‘preparatory’ (i.e. preparing
students for tertiary education). The figures for each
country indicate the percentage of young people aged
22 who have successfully completed at least upper sec-
ondary education. Since some students will achieve this
level in later years, the percentages reported for the in-
dividual countries may yet rise in the older age groups.
The data shown are based on the 1997 Labour force
survey (
6
).
A number of factors should be remembered when con-
sidering the information presented. The chart shows
the percentage of 22 year olds who have successfully
completed upper secondary education (ISCED 3). The
remaining group — those who have not attained this
level — consists of two categories: those covered by
the ‘drop-out rates’ indicator, and those who are con-
tinuing to work towards an equivalent level of educa-
tion at the age of 22. The indicator does not show the
relative proportions of these two groups. An indicator
giving information on the number of pupils without
final school-leaving qualifications at the end of ‘lower
secondary education’ (ISCED 2; see in addition the
‘drop-out rates’ indicator) and an indicator describing
the successful completion of ‘upper secondary educa-
tion’ (ISCED 3) at a later point in time (for example at
the age of 25), would be more suitable. The data which
would be required for this are not, however, readily
available.
The average percentage of those who successfully com-
pleted upper secondary education at the age of 22 years
was 71.2 % in the European Union in 1997. However,
there are considerable differences between the various
countries. On the one hand, there is a group of countries
whose completion rates exceed 70 %, in some cases by a
significant amount; this category includes particularly
countries such as the Czech Republic, Poland and Slove-
nia, but also the northern European countries Finland
and Sweden. On the other hand, there is a group of
countries whose completion rates fall below 70 %; this
category includes in particular southern European
countries such as Spain, Italy and Portugal and also the
United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 37
In view of the complementary nature of this indicator
and the indicator covering drop-out rates, the commen-
tary on the interpretation of the data obtained through
the ‘drop-out’ indicator also applies to this one.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING COMPLETION OF
UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
The failure to complete the upper secondary level of
education successfully cannot be considered in isola-
tion from the rest of a young person’s school career.
Nor can the impact of a country’s economic situation
be ignored. Measures aimed at increasing success rates
should therefore take both of these factors into ac-
count.
• What efforts can be made to make upper second-
ary education more attractive to all?
• What are the challenges, in terms of quality of up-
per secondary education, of the increased emphasis on
life-long learning? How should upper secondary level
education adapt to such developments, and to the
changes taking place in subsequent educational
stages?
• What are the effects of the balance between gen-
eral education and vocational training? Should oppor-
tunities for practical learning in the business and ad-
ministrative sectors be expanded in order to increase
young people’s motivation and give them a better un-
derstanding of the connection between theoretical
learning and practical activity?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Ireland — The ‘Leaving certificate applied’ — This alter-
native learning programme focuses on the needs and
interests of students using a range of methodologies.
It seeks to develop in students an enterprising outlook,
self-confidence and other skills related to success in
the workplace.
Spain — The ‘Educación a distancia’ programme in-
tends to facilitate access to education to adults and
also to non-adults who due to personal, social, geo-
graphical or other exceptional circumstances cannot
follow education at school with daily attendance. (
6
) See footnote 5 on data concerning Luxembourg.
10. PARTICIPATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
38 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
PARTICIPATION RATES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION, AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL POPULATION, BY AGE GROUP —
ISCED 5, 6 AND 7, 1996/97
) Data not available
Source: Eurostat, UOE.
25
20
15
10
5
0
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
G
e
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m
a
n
y
G
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35
25
20
15
10
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0
(%)
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) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
Students as a percentage of the 18 to 24 age group Students as a percentage of the 25 to 29 age group
The opportunities offered by tertiary education are becoming more and more important.
The demands of today’s labour market are markedly different from those of even 10 or
so years ago, and are continuing to evolve rapidly. If young people are to succeed in this
increasingly competitive and global environment then it is crucial that they acquire the
skills and competencies which will enable them to compete effectively with others.
In recent years, higher education institutions have re-
sponded more and more to the changing demands of
the labour market, endeavouring to equip their students
with the specific skills they need to succeed. Many
courses have moved away from a purely academic focus
towards a more vocational one, and the links between
higher education and industry have consequently be-
come clearer. For this reason, tertiary education is, more
than ever before, seen as the means to taking part in the
high-value-added international industries.
It is not necessarily desirable, however, to have ever
increasing levels of participation, if these are not
matched to national and international needs. Of key
importance is the need to match the supply of gradu-
ates to current demand, and to predict trends in de-
mand in the light of the development of future new
technologies, employment trends etc.
The data presented in the graph show the proportion
of students in certain age groups participating in ter-
tiary education (ISCED 5, 6 and 7), as a percentage of
the total population of that age group. The graph
presents this information for two age groups: those
aged up to 24, and those aged from 25 to 29 (
7
).
It is clear from the data that the participation rates in
tertiary education vary greatly between countries. In
the younger age group, participation ranges from 11 %
in Romania to 32 % in Belgium; in the older age group
participation varies from 3 % in Estonia to 16 % in
Greece. In all countries the participation rate in the
younger age group is higher than in the older one.
However, there are countries in which the two rates
resemble each other far more closely than in other
countries. In Germany in particular there is scarcely
any difference between the two rates (14 % and 13 %
respectively). Countries such as Germany, where the
duration of courses is relatively long and the age at
which students begin tertiary education is more varied,
will not have such high participation rates for a given
age group as countries where courses are shorter and
the age of students is more uniform.
The diagram does not differentiate between participa-
tion of men and women. Generally, however, it is the
case that participation rates of men and women are
fairly similar in the majority of countries although, in al-
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 39
most all cases, they are actually higher among women
than among men.
As for other indicator areas, caution should be applied in
drawing conclusions from the limited data available. The
very different tertiary education systems in the coun-
tries from which data was collected, and the different
characteristics of the countries themselves, make it es-
pecially difficult to draw meaningful conclusions from
this data. Nevertheless, some reasons for the varying
participation rates in tertiary education between coun-
tries and between men and women can be suggested.
• In some countries, training for certain occupations
takes place as part of upper secondary education or a
further (post-secondary non-tertiary) level, whereas, in
other countries, training for these occupations takes
place at the level of tertiary education.
• In certain countries the lack of opportunities for
undertaking vocational training pushes young people
towards tertiary education. This may be the case par-
ticularly for young women, as the opportunities open
to them outside tertiary education may be less attrac-
tive than those open to young men.
Participation rates may also be linked to the prevailing
conditions of the labour market. A weak labour market
could lead to an increase in the number of students
enrolling on higher education courses as those having
difficulty in finding a job, or who have lost their jobs,
may decide to enrol instead in higher education. It
should be remembered, however, that enrolment rates
and graduation rates cannot necessarily be equated.
Equally, the effect of numbers enrolling in higher edu-
cation may in turn impact on the labour market in a
number of ways. High participation rates will ulti-
mately lead to a well-qualified workforce, making it
more difficult for those without a higher education
qualification to find work in particular sectors. High
participation rates spread across a wide age range will
also have a significant impact on the proportion of the
population which is unavailable for work at any time.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING PARTICIPATION IN
TERTIARY EDUCATION
As a result of the very varied systems in place within
the tertiary level of education, discussion of issues sur-
rounding the data is of a fairly speculative nature. In
summary, although the data collected using this indi-
cator provide only limited information about trends in
participation in higher education, the findings raise a
(
7
) Due to the particular socioeconomic and geographical situ-
ation of Luxembourg, the data on this indicator are not
comparable with those of the other countries. Most stu-
dents study outside the country.
number of policy issues which could be explored in
more depth, in particular as follows.
• The relative proportions of men and women par-
ticipating in higher education. Why is the relative
number of women increasing? What is the male/fe-
male balance in certain subject areas (for example the
sciences and the humanities)? What is the effect of in-
creased participation in terms of unemployment rates
among women?
• The link between higher education and the labour
market. To what extent is the choice of higher educa-
tion a direct response to the labour market? Is a coun-
try’s production of graduates well matched to its over-
all needs (in terms of the labour market etc.)? Are
there too many or too few graduates in particular
countries? What is the effect on the labour market of
the trends in participation?
• The effects of high/low participation rates. What is
the relationship between participation rates among
older age groups and the productivity of the labour
market? Can the benefits of higher education be
measured in other ways, such as increased maturity,
social awareness etc.?
• The connection between secondary and tertiary
education. What are the possibilities in secondary edu-
cation for increasing the number of those — particu-
larly young women — aiming to take up take up math-
ematical, scientific or engineering studies?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Ireland — Universities and other tertiary institutions
now have programmes which are aimed at redressing
the current imbalance in the representation of the
social classes in the universities and other tertiary
institutions.
Scotland — The ‘University of the Highlands and Is-
lands’ is making extensive use of remote access teach-
ing technology to link a number of centres with
students across the remote rural region of northern
Scotland.
40 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 41
11. EVALUATION AND STEERING OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
MONITORING EDUCATION SYSTEMS AT PRIMARY AND/OR SECONDARY LEVEL — PUBLICATION OF THE OVERALL
RESULTS OF EXTERNAL TESTS, 1997/98
Source: Eurydice.
LI
CY
Publication of the overall results
of external certificated examinations
Publication of the overall results
of external tests
No publication of overall results
All educational systems require evaluation and steering. At national, local and school
level evaluation serves a number of essential purposes. It measures whether the educa-
tion system lives up to the objectives set. It offers diagnostic and formative information
for system managers, headteachers, teachers and a wider public. It opens up dialogue
and provides the basis for development planning and school improvement. Benchmarks
allow schools to measure themselves against other comparable institutions. They can be
used by inspectors or other external agents to compare the outcomes of individual
schools. They help focus on processes intended to achieve those outcomes
Evaluation may be either internal (self) or external, or a combination of the two. Both
forms of evaluation carry resource and training implications. With this in mind, most
European countries are seeking the best and most productive combination of the two
forms of evaluation. Ideally, external and self-evaluation complement each other as
vital sources of information.
As the movement for more rigorous evaluation gathers
momentum, more data will be forthcoming in the next
few years. Currently we have information on the pub-
lication of examination and test results. These are
sometimes used for diagnostic, or developmental, pur-
poses, sometimes for accountability and reporting to
parents and public.
The country map shows how practice between Member
States varies with respect to the publication of results
of external tests.
The map shows a majority of countries, mainly pre-
accession countries, where there is no publication of
external test results. In 10 countries, including all the
Scandinavian countries, there is publication of overall
examination results. In four countries more detailed
publication of attainment testing is published. How-
ever, policies and practices in these four countries
vary considerably.
The UK (except Scotland), Spain, France and Belgium
(French) are all represented by the same colour yet are
very different not only in what they do but in their
policy purpose. In England, for example, results at key
stages (ages 7, 9, 12, 14, 16 and 18) are published pri-
marily for accountability purposes and to raise stan-
dards through encouraging parental information and
choice. In France, by contrast, tests are administered
yearly for diagnostic purposes and examination results
are published as benchmarks for schools to compare
their own performance and thereby raise standards.
Legislation prevents parental choice of school in the
State sector. In Spain, individual schools make their
data available but publication of results is intended to
provide information on standards overall and is based
on a sample of schools. Scotland, in common with its
other UK partners, publishes results of external exami-
nations at 16 to 18. Attainment test scores within the
national 5 to 14 programme are used both diagnosti-
cally and for targets relevant to national standards.
In a number of countries, for example Lithuania, Bul-
garia and Portugal, piloting of new approaches is tak-
ing place and policies are changing as a consequence.
The impact at school and classroom level cannot be
illustrated by a map but it is the attitudes and compe-
tencies of individual teachers which will put the effi-
cacy of the policy to the test.
The publication of examination performance reflects a
belief in the importance of accountability to a wider
public. However, the data highlight different policy
42 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
perspectives and raise questions about whether it is
preferable to account for the performance of the sys-
tem as a whole; whether to present comparative data
at school level; or whether to make public data which
may have been designed to serve a diagnostic purpose.
All European countries are seeking the best way in
which to report school performance and to reconcile
diagnostic/developmental purposes with accountabili-
ty objectives. This is an area where policy is changing
rapidly and in which there will be different configura-
tions and more complex variations in the future as
schools and teachers become more confident in self-
evaluation and external monitoring systems adapt
their function and purpose to complement schools’
own internal evaluations.
A relatively short-term goal for the presentation of in-
dicators in the future could be to illustrate different
patterns of internal and external evaluations for
schools across Member States. Much of this informa-
tion is already available through the Standing Interna-
tional Conference of Inspectors (SICI) but some work is
needed before it can be presented in the form of an
informative indicator profile.
A longer-term goal could be to provide data which
show the development of self-evaluation in Europe
and its relationship to external evaluation. Such data
will illustrate the nature of the balance between inter-
nal and external evaluation and the role that each of
these plays in the steering and evaluation of school
systems.
As for other indicators, the data above provide a start-
ing point for a closer look at policy rationale, effec-
tiveness and viability.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING EVALUATION AND
STEERING OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Reporting of data is not a stand-alone exercise. It is
related to systems of monitoring, inspection and self-
evaluation, implicitly or explicitly conveying messages
about purpose, policy and priority. What are the key
messages which should be conveyed through the
publication of school performance data?
Monitoring schools’ performance is critical to raising
standards for all pupils but it is both expensive and
difficult to raise standards from the outside. What
powers and roles should be given to schools in the
reporting of their own performance and how can
that be achieved?
As schools’ expertise in self-evaluation increases and
their access to appropriate tools and strategies grows,
the role of inspection changes. What role is there — if
any — for external monitoring systems in these cir-
cumstances?
The trend to publish performance data is likely to grow
rather than diminish and data will continue to serve
different purposes, such as: accountability, bench-
marking or informing parental choice. At what level
(individual school, school clusters, regional, national)
should reporting be focused in order to fulfil its
purposes most effectively and economically?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — Pilot project ‘Evaluating quality in school
education’, see the web site
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/poledu/
finalrep/rep.pdf).
Austria — Rich resource site on the Internet has been
established, for schools, allowing them to access infor-
mation, ideas, procedural proposals, instruments and
other support for schools’ programme development
and self-evaluation (http://www.qis.at).
Denmark — The Danish Evaluation Institute is a single
organisation for the evaluation of all levels of educa-
tion.
Hungary — A new pilot project the ‘Quality develop-
ment programme’ will be launched, involving more
then 400 public institutions. It will focus on operation
and management.
The Netherlands — About 0.5 % of the budget for pri-
mary and secondary education is spent on external
evaluation activities. Schools also have their own sys-
tems for internal evaluation of the quality of educa-
tion.
Portugal — PEPT (Education for every student), a
programme designed to foster students’ completion
of compulsory education, involves a self-evaluation
plan which includes an observatory with 15 indica-
tors relating to context, process, resources and out-
comes.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 43
Scotland — In 1996, ‘How good is our school?’ was
published. It is a toolkit for schools to use in self-eval-
uation, based on a set of 33 performance indicators.
For more information, see the web site
(http://www/scotland.gov.uk/structure/hmi/default.htm).
Spain — INCE (Instituto Nacional de Calidad y Evalu-
ación) was created to design evaluation systems for
the different types of education governed by the
LOGSE (new law for education).
12. PARENT PARTICIPATION
44 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
POWERS OF SCHOOL-LEVEL BODIES WHICH INVOLVE PARENT REPRESENTATIVES, IN THE PREPARATION OF THE
SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT PLAN — COMPULSORY EDUCATION, 1997/98
Source: Eurydice.
Parental participation may, for example, take place
through:
• statutory advisory and decision-making bodies
(e.g., school boards)
• evaluation of their schools
• voluntary associations (e.g., parent associations)
• voluntary involvement in after-school activities
and clubs
• voluntary involvement in classroom activities (e.g.,
paired reading)
• communications with the school and support of
their children’s learning and progress.
There are a number of areas in which parents may par-
ticipate.
The map shows one significant aspect of parental in-
volvement, namely in the preparation of the school
development plan:
The data reveal that in five countries parents have de-
cision-making powers in relation to the preparation of
the school development plan. This is generally through
a representative body such as a council or board. It is
more common (18 countries) for parents to have a
consultative or advisory function. In some countries,
for example the Netherlands, the council ratifies the
plan developed by the authority. In four countries,
parents have no powers in respect of development
planning although in each of these four countries they
do have powers in other areas such as school rules,
control or allocation of expenditure.
Finland represents an exception because the powers of
councils vary so much between municipalities and the
most recent legislation (1 January 1999) does not contain
provisions for parental consultation in its school system.
These data do not tell us about the strength and com-
position of the parent constituency at school level, its
contribution or impact. Further research would be
needed in order to identify the most effective forms of
membership and the most helpful ways in which par-
ents consult and speak on behalf of their constituen-
cies. Consultative bodies by their nature involve a
minority of parents — those who volunteer and those
most likely to have the confidence, expertise or interest
in playing a role at whole school level. While parents
are a valuable resource and potentially powerful allies
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 45
of schools (for example, school governors with business
experience and connections) the majority of parents
will not be motivated to become involved at that
macro level of school policy/practice. The large majori-
ty will wish to be involved where issues are of direct
relevance to their own children’s welfare and progress.
There are many good practices which involve a wider
group of parents at school and classroom level and
which illustrate how parents can make a significant
contribution to quality and standards. This indicator
provides a good starting point for further research and
raises important policy questions about the role and
influence of parents. There are further implications for
the role of all stakeholders and how they work togeth-
er for school quality and improvement. European
unions of parents, teachers, school students and head-
teachers have already, through joint conferences, laid
the groundwork for fuller and richer collaboration.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING PARENT
PARTICIPATION
School development planning should not simply be a
mechanistic operation nor one which is confined to
school leaders or teachers. It benefits from the in-
volvement of parents and a wider constituency of
stakeholders. What particular insights and added-
value do parents bring to the process of school
development planning?
Parental involvement is often regarded as ‘a good
thing’ but it needs to be examined in the light of its
relevance for different purposes and contexts. In what
areas of consultation and decision-making are par-
ent powers most relevant and useful? In what re-
spects might policy-makers wish to limit parental
powers as well as to increase them?
Extending parent participation raises questions about
other forms of stakeholder involvement. For example,
what steps can be taken to give greater responsibil-
ity to school students and exploit the considerable
resource and expertise they offer for improving
schools?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — EPA’s ‘Training programme for parents’ is an
example of how to improve quality through coopera-
tion and constructive dialogue between parents and
teachers at school level.
Germany — Seminars for parents aim to: inform them
of new developments in learning and teaching; estab-
lish consensus on areas of school; and to motivate
them to participate in wider policy as aspects of
school.
46 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 47
13. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS
DURATION OF INITIAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR LOWER GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS,
1999/2000
) Data not available
Source: Eurydice.
5
4
3
2
1
0
B
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6
7
8
Years
5
4
3
2
1
0
6
7
8
Years
United
Kingdom
Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovenia to the equiv-
alent of almost four years in Germany.
In addition, the time spent on pedagogic/practical train-
ing in relation to the total duration of the training dif-
fers widely. In Finland and the Netherlands, for example,
the equivalent of one year is spent on pedagogic and
practical training. However, as a proportion of the total
length of training this represents approximately one
sixth and one quarter of the total duration of the
courses in these countries, respectively. By contrast, the
proportion of time spent on pedagogical/practical train-
ing in Germany is closer to two thirds.
The data reveal very different patterns of provision but
also conceal underlying complexities. They tell us
nothing about the balance, nature or relevance of
studies nor about their effectiveness in developing the
core competencies required by teachers. As countries
develop criteria for teacher competencies, they must
look again at course provision and consider its rele-
vance to teachers’ needs. Nor do the data show
whether practical training is higher-education-based
or school-based, a factor which has major resource
implications.
The data relate only to lower secondary education. In
some, but not all countries, there will be different
arrangements for primary and upper secondary
teacher training.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING TEACHER
EDUCATION
The balance of time given to teaching of subject
knowledge and pedagogy is a matter of concern to all
countries. What steps must be taken to ensure that
teacher training institutions achieve the optimum
balance in their teaching, taking into account cost-
effectiveness?
The continuing professional development of teachers
will be an increasing priority in the immediate and
long-term future. What provision should now be
made to ensure that teachers update their knowl-
edge and practice?
Teacher recruitment and retention is more of a prob-
lem in some countries than others but the situation is
liable to change as social and economic conditions
change. What can be learned from countries with a
surplus of teachers, and from others with a shortage,
in order to plan for the future?
The data shown here are for initial teacher education
in lower general secondary schools only. Data exist for
primary and upper secondary schools too (Eurydice key
data, 2000). The graph illustrates similarities and dif-
ferences among countries in:
• the length of initial training courses
• the balance in training between general education
and pedagogic practical training.
For the purposes of this indicator, two key distinctions
have been made:
• general or subject-based education and training:
knowledge related to what the trainee will be required
to teach, as well as general education which is direct-
ly linked to teaching
• pedagogic and practical training: practical place-
ments in schools, plus a range of other courses which
are related to the teaching profession (for example,
theoretical courses on didactics, adolescent psycholo-
gy, methodology, history of education, use of ICT).
In some cases it has been hard to separate the two
categories, for example where general and pedagogic
training are taught together. In these cases 50 % of
time has been attributed to each in the graph.
The graph provides information on two aspects of ini-
tial teacher training: firstly, the length and, secondly,
the amount of time spent on pedagogic and practical
training. It should be noted that, for Germany and
Austria (
8
), only training for teachers in Gymnasium or
AHS (allgemeine höhere Schule) respectively is includ-
ed (two routes are possible, depending on the type of
secondary education).
With regard to the first aspect, the data show that the
most common length of course is five years (eight
countries) or four years (14 countries). In Germany,
Luxembourg and Italy, initial courses are longer than
average, while in Belgium and Liechtenstein they are
shorter.
The graph also shows the amount of time spent on
pedagogic and practical training. This varies greatly,
from the equivalent of less than a year in Ireland,
48 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
8
) In Austria, teacher training for the Hauptschule, which rep-
resents around 70 % of teachers, is a three-year non-uni-
versity education where theoretical and practical elements
are integrated and cannot be displayed separately.
As teacher retention becomes a more pressing priority,
issues of separate pay and promotion arrangements
for particularly effective or ‘expert’ teachers will be-
come a more pressing policy issue. What can be done
to reward and retain particularly effective teachers?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Hungary — The in-service teacher training system —
The Act on Public Education has declared that each
teacher should participate in at least 120 contact-
hours of in-service teacher training during seven years
of practice.
Portugal — ‘Sailing through the Portuguese language’
is the name given to an initiative of the Department of
Secondary Education of the Portuguese Ministry of
Education, designed to provide teaching training using
Internet facilities.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 49
14. PARTICIPATION IN PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION
50 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Pre-primary education is significant in many different respects. Firstly, it makes an im-
portant contribution to the emotional and cognitive development of children and to
their social integration, thereby helping to prepare them for the school environment and
reducing the likelihood of failure at school later on. Secondly, it plays an important part
in supporting families. The changing role of the family as a social institution often
means that parents are no longer at home full time and that, as a result, they are un-
able to provide an adequate educational and social environment for their children.
AVERAGE DURATION OF ATTENDANCE BY CHILDREN AGED THREE
TO SIX AT AN EDUCATION-ORIENTED INSTITUTION, 1996/97
) Data not available
Source: Eurostat, UOE.
4
3
2
1
0
4
3
2
1
0
B
e
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g
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k
i
a
Number of years Number of years
) ) )
ISCED 0 ISCED 1
Pre-primary education is defined as the initial stage of
structured teaching. It is usually centre- or school-
based, designed to meet the educational and develop-
mental needs of children of at least three years of age,
and provided by adequately trained staff.
Even if the significance of pre-primary education is
acknowledged across Europe, opinions as to its educa-
tional function differ. Some believe that children
should play as long as possible, while others argue that
pre-school education is essential in order to facilitate
a child’s transition to primary school. Regardless of
these different approaches of individual countries, it is
the case that participation rates have been increasing
markedly during the last 30 to 40 years in almost all
European countries.
The indicator provides information about the average
attendance of children aged three to six years at pre-
primary (ISCED 0) and primary (ISCED 1) education-
oriented institutions during 1996/97. The data used are
based on information compiled by Eurostat using the
results of the UOE data collection and population statis-
tics. They take into account the fact that compulsory
primary education begins earlier in some countries than
in others. The graph does not, however, provide infor-
mation about whether attendance at the institution is
full time (all day) or part-time (half a day).
The diagram shows that a considerable number of
countries are able to offer children a place for three
full years of pre-primary education. Belgium, Denmark,
France, Italy, Hungary and Sweden are among these
countries. In many countries (including Austria, Ger-
many and the Netherlands), pre-primary places for
children aged over three are only available for two to
three years. In other countries (such as Finland, Greece
and Portugal), however, a child would, on average,
spend less than two years in the pre-primary sector. In
evaluating the differences between countries, it must
be taken into account that in some, primary education
begins at a comparatively very early age, meaning that
that fewer pre-primary places are required. This applies
particularly to the United Kingdom.
The information presented in the chart does not show
whether pre-primary provision in each country corre-
sponds to parental demand. Theoretically it is conceiv-
able that in countries with comparatively low partici-
pation, supply meets demand more closely than in
some of the countries with high participation.
The data illustrated in the chart show that the major-
ity of the countries attach high importance to pre-
primary education. Even if attendance at institutions is
generally voluntary among this age group, there is an
emerging trend for childcare to be provided for almost
all children of three years and older. This indicator
does not provide information about the educational
content of the programmes offered by institutions in
the various countries.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 51
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING PARTICIPATION IN
PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION
As participation in pre-primary education increases
across Europe, it is increasingly important to ensure
that the links between pre-primary and primary insti-
tutions are strengthened. It is widely acknowledged
that early measures can play a significant part in re-
ducing school ‘failure’ in later years. What measures
can be taken in order to facilitate successful learn-
ing at primary level and beyond, and to ensure that
the transition from playful learning in the pre-
primary setting to more formal learning within the
school setting is successful?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Italy — In Italy, three initiatives concerning quality in
infant education have been promoted by the Ministry
of Education and by the National Institute for the
Evaluation of Education Systems.
Luxembourg — All children aged between four and six
years are obliged to attend institutions of pre-primary
education. In addition, a third of three-year-olds cur-
rently attend these institutions.
Netherlands — In the Netherlands, two experimental
programmes have been implemented for early child-
hood education with a view to stimulating the cogni-
tive, social–emotional and linguistic development of
disadvantaged children aged between three and six
years.
15. NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER
52 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER — LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL, 1995 AND 1998
) Data not available
Source: IEA, TIMSS (OECD–OCTO) & SITES.
120
90
60
30
0
120
90
60
30
0
F
l
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m
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s
h
C
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m
.
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n
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a
S
l
o
v
a
k
i
a
Number of students
per computer
Number of students
per computer
1995 TIMSS 1998 SITES
150 150
F
r
e
n
c
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C
o
m
.
U
S
A
J
a
p
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n
Belgium
S
c
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t
l
a
n
d
United
Kingdom
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
238
) )
339
216
) )
880
) ) )
The information society will not only open up new channels of communication amongst
people, but it is likely to have a considerable impact on the way we live, work, consume,
interact with government as well as express and entertain ourselves.
If every European citizen is to be able to use computers effectively, schools must offer
all students the opportunity of learning to use them. Moreover, if the potential of the
Internet and educational software is to be fully exploited by teachers and students, a
sufficient number of effective and sufficiently up-to-date computers must be available.
It should not be forgotten, however, that infrastructure in itself does not guarantee the
development of high-level competencies by students. Schools’ organisation, the man-
agement of technology, the use of high-quality software, and above all teachers’ com-
petencies are all important factors (see also the indicator about ICT).
The number of students per computer in the schools
where eighth grade students are enrolled was measured
both in 1995 (IEA–TIMSS) and in 1998 (IEA–SITES).
The above graph shows the number of computers at a
particular time (in a domain in which changes are tak-
ing place very rapidly). The information about the
number of computers was derived in different ways in
different surveys. In TIMSS, the issue addressed was
the number of computers ‘available for use by teach-
ers or students’ in the school, whereas in SITES it was
the number of computers ‘available for use by stu-
dents in the entire school’. The ratios may be seen as
fairly close and comparable, although not strictly iden-
tical. OECD (1998) underlines that, in TIMSS, the indi-
cator may apply to a slightly different population. In
addition, it should be noted that some countries did
not satisfy the IEA sampling requirements.
The statistics illustrated do not provide information
about the adequacy of computers in relation to cur-
rent requirements — for example connection to Inter-
net, or ability to run powerful software — nor about
their actual use. Moreover, the indicator could vary ac-
cording to the level of the education system: the ratio
of students to computers is considerably more
favourable at upper secondary level than at lower sec-
ondary education (nine countries provided information
about both levels).
The graph shows that the range of countries’ scores is
very large in both studies: from nine (Scotland) to 880
(Romania) in TIMSS, and from 9 (Denmark) to 238
(Bulgaria) in SITES.
In every country which took part in both surveys, the
availability of computers in schools rose between 1995
and 1998. In those European or pre-accession coun-
tries which took part in both surveys, the number of
students per computer decreased from 90 to 55 on av-
erage, that is 39 % in less than four years. It may be
assumed that a similar decrease also took place in the
other countries.
Eight of the participating countries, among which
three are northern, had fewer than 20 students per
computer in at least one survey. The number of stu-
dents per computer is shown in brackets, according to
TIMSS; then SITES; ‘–’ means that the country did not
take part in the survey): United Kingdom (11 for Eng-
land and 9 for Scotland; –), Denmark (17; 9), Austria
(19; –), Sweden (19; –), Finland (–; 10), Luxembourg (–;
12), Italy (–; 16) and France (29;17). Japan and the
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 53
United States also have a high number of computers:
Japan (27; 14) and United States (16; –).
According to SITES, central and eastern European
countries (Bulgaria, Lithuania, the Czech Republic,
Slovenia and Hungary) are less well-equipped than
most others. However, Cyprus also ranks very low, but
the situation seems to be changing very fast in those
areas: between 1995 and 1998, the decrease in num-
ber of students per computer ranged from 23 %
(Lithuania) to 70 % (Slovenia).
It is important to emphasise that the indicator repre-
sents an average, concealing very different situations
in individual schools: a fairly similar level of equip-
ment in all schools, or possibly very well-equipped
schools alongside schools without any access to new
technologies.
The data clearly show a trend towards an improvement
of ICT resources in lower secondary schools. The resourc-
ing of schools appears to depend on the wealth of the
country, but the relation is not a simple one: major
progress made by several countries between 1995 and
1998 shows that solutions to a lack of resources can be
found, in some cases, through partnership.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER
Faced with the necessity of providing expensive equip-
ment to a large number of schools, some educational
systems turn to a partnership approach, in which the
partner organisation must benefit in some way from
its contribution but must respect national rules re-
garding school education. (It may not, for example, in-
terfere with the curriculum.) Exchange of experiences
in this area could eventually help countries less well-
equipped to find a means of improving their resources.
How would it be possible to create partnership with
institutions or organisations which could help to in-
crease the availability of computers in schools? How
can schools be guaranteed a real long-term benefit
from such an approach?
As technology changes rapidly, it is wise to bear in
mind from the outset the need to upgrade computers,
replace outdated models, or repair faulty machines. It
may be preferable to provide the schools with a small-
er number of computers in the first instance, in order
to ensure that the hardware remains usable and at a
suitable level of performance over time. How can
schools ensure that their equipment remains appro-
priate while costs are kept at a manageable level?
Hardware alone cannot guarantee efficient use of ICT
in schools; teachers must be able to use ICT effective-
ly themselves. How should teacher training in this
field be organised?
The importance of computer skills in today’s society is
widely recognised. How should the use of computers
in primary and secondary schools be organised in
order to ensure that pupils acquire these skills?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Belgium (French) — 1998 partnership offering all pri-
mary and secondary school a ‘cyber centre’: computers
and facilities to connect to Internet.
Estonia — The ‘Tiger leap’ programme is a national tar-
get programme with the overall objective of improving
the educational system in Estonia through the intro-
duction of modern information and communication
technologies (http://www.tiigrihype.ee/english).
Italy — 1999, companies and banks provided schools
with their old (but perfectly working) computers.
Portugal — New regulations on school administration
and management, issued in 1998, created clusters of
schools (agrupamentos) which allow for the sharing of
human as well as material resources.
54 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 55
16. EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE PER STUDENT
EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL/STUDENT (PPS) IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION, 1997
) Data not available
Source: Eurostat, UOE.
12 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
D
e
n
m
a
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k
G
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s
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a
p
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n
PPS index PPS index
10 000
12 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
10 000
) )
Tertiary education Secondary education Primary education
The share of total financial resources devoted to education is a key decision for nation-
al governments. It is an investment with long-term returns, and most governments con-
sider it to be something which impacts on several key political challenges such as social
cohesion, international competition, and sustainable growth.
The chart summarises educational expenditure per stu-
dent, differentiated according to level of education,
namely primary (ISCED 1), lower and upper secondary
(ISCED 2, 3 and 4) and tertiary education (ISCED 5 and
6). The information is based on the UOE finance data
provided by countries for the financial year 1997; in-
formation is presented for EU countries only, as data
for the remaining countries were unavailable.
The data cover only expenditure on public institutions.
They include expenditure for ancillary services such as
meals, transport and other welfare services, but do not
generally include expenditure on student fees. Expen-
diture for research is not included if it is carried out by
separate research institutions with a purely adminis-
trative link to universities.
A straightforward comparison of expenditure per pupil
is problematic on the basis of these figures. It would
not, for example, take into account national variations
in the costs of educational resources of comparable
quality. A teacher in one country could incur greater
expenditure than a teacher in another country as a re-
sult of higher salary costs. However, the work of a
teacher in the first country is not necessarily of better
quality than that of a teacher in the second country.
The reason for differences in expenditure can be at-
tributed largely to differences in salary levels. Howev-
er, factors such as the number of students enrolled and
the different duration of studies also have a decisive
influence in the amount of educational expenditure
per student.
The graph shows clearly that expenditure per head dif-
fers greatly between individual countries. Greece, for
example, has rather low levels of expenditure, while
countries such as Austria have above average expendi-
ture. The extent of the differences between the coun-
tries can be demonstrated clearly by taking the exam-
ple of secondary education. Greece spends 2 150 PPS
(purchasing power standards expressed in ecus) on
each pupil, whereas Luxembourg spends 10 009 PPS.
Between these two extremes lies a group of countries
with relatively low levels of expenditure, including
countries such as Ireland (3 637 PPS) and the United
Kingdom (3 808 PPS), as well as a group of countries
with comparatively high levels of expenditure on sec-
ondary education, such as Austria (7 676 PPS), Den-
mark (6 699 PPS) and France (6 501 PPS). With respect
to the comparatively very low level of expenditure in
Germany (4 196 PPS) it must be taken into account
that training within the dual system of the upper sec-
ondary level is financed to a considerable extent by
business, and the expenditure is not, therefore, includ-
ed here. Under the dual system, approximately one
third of students’ training takes place in schools which
are financed by the State, and two thirds in companies
which are not normally publicly funded.
The differences between countries can be explained in
part by their differing levels of prosperity. Neverthe-
less, it is interesting that in those countries which had
very high levels of expenditure per pupil, expenditure
also represents a relatively large proportion of the
gross domestic product per head of the population. In
Denmark and Austria, expenditure per pupil on educa-
tion comprised 28 % and 33 % respectively of the
gross domestic product per head of the population in
1995, taking into account the higher prosperity of
these countries, whereas it represented 16 % in
Greece, 19 % in Ireland and 24 % in the United King-
dom in that year (source: Education at a Glance,
1998).
56 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
A number of observations, beyond those already dis-
cussed, can be made on the basis of the data shown.
Even taking into account the differences in prosperity
between countries, the priority given to education
seems to vary considerably. Wealthier countries seem
to be able to ‘afford’ to make education a priority. It is
clear that different countries pursue different strate-
gies regarding expenditure on education. In the major-
ity of countries, expenditure per student increases in
line with the age of students. The variation in funding
levels between the different levels of education within
individual countries is quite marked. In Denmark, for
example, expenditure on each of the three stages is
quite similar, whereas there are clear differences in the
funding allocated to the three stages in the Nether-
lands, where the difference between secondary and
tertiary level is explained by the inclusion of research
expenditure.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING EDUCATION
EXPENDITURE
This comparative overview of expenditure on educa-
tion, combined with a knowledge of the situation of
the economies of the different countries, gives rise to
the following questions regarding the financing of
education:
• How, and according to which criteria, should
priorities be set — particularly with respect to the
different levels of education?
• How can we make sure that expenditure on
education is an investment?
• What is the role of the private sector in funding
education, especially in the context of life-long
learning? Is the contribution of private sector fund-
ing an opportunity or a danger, particularly for the
less wealthy countries?
• What is the implication of the expansion of life-
long learning on education expenditure? Who will
meet the costs of this expansion: the State, the in-
dividual participant, the private sector?
• Is the balance of expenditure between the dif-
ferent educational levels right? What are the priori-
ties in terms of funding? What are the consequences
of increasing funding at local/regional level? How
could this affect the quality of educational estab-
lishments?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Scotland — New public–private partnership arrange-
ments allow local authorities to fund school re-build-
ing programmes, which they otherwise would not have
been able to fund on such a scale.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 57
ANNEXES
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 59
1. MATHEMATICS
Austria
In Austria, as a consequence of the poor results of
Austrian upper secondary students — different from
the students of the seventh and eighth grades — the
Austrian Ministry of Education has begun a project
with two principal objectives:
• to establish measures for the further development
of instructional methods in mathematics;
• to develop a methodology for the use of materials
relevant to TIMSS in mathematics instruction.
These materials will serve as a tool in voluntary self-
evaluation of schools. The project is intended to be a
first step in relating international studies of student
achievement to practical work in schools.
Cyprus
The Mathematical Society of Cyprus, in cooperation
with the Ministry of Education and Culture, has initi-
ated mathematical contests covering all areas of the
country and all ages of pupil. The response from
pupils has been very high. The contests are helping to
build a culture which promotes excellence in mathe-
matics.
France
In France a national ‘observatory’ for mathematics
teaching and achievement has been developed jointly
by the Mathematics Teachers Association (APMEP) and
the National Institute for Pedagogical Research (INRP).
Surveys carried out over 10 years have produced many
assessments tools and teaching references for pupils
from grade 6 to grade 12. These are already used by
hundreds of teachers and are now available on the In-
ternet, and on CD-ROM, for all teachers.
Germany
In Germany, materials have been developed for math-
ematics teachers, in which the TIMSS results are ex-
plained and suggestions for the improvement of math-
ematics teaching are presented. These materials
include a CD-ROM containing excerpts from a study
video, produced in the context of TIMSS, on the teach-
ing of mathematics in Germany, Japan and the USA.
United Kingdom
Launch of the Maths Year 2000 in January to raise ex-
pectations, promote a ‘can do’ attitude towards maths
and get rid of the national fear of figures. Maths Year
2000 will make maths fun and accessible for everyone.
And most importantly, Maths Year 2000 will support
the efforts of primary teachers to drive up standards in
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 61
1. EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
maths through the government’s national numeracy
strategy. Some 27 000 teachers from schools with the
biggest challenges will receive intensive maths train-
ing.
As a response to the Unesco initiative to declare 2000
‘the year of mathematics’, most countries have set up
an agenda and projects which can be consulted
(http://wmy2000.math.jussieu.fr/). As an example, the
United Kingdom has organised a high-profile cam-
paign promoting mathematics as an enjoyable and
interesting topic. The campaign is being led by a high-
profile media personality famous for her numerical
skills. For more information go to the web site
(www.mathsyear2000.org).
2. READING
Denmark
The results from the IEA reading literacy survey from
1991 showed that Denmark was not at a high or na-
tionally acceptable level. Since then, Denmark has
made efforts to increase the reading level in compul-
sory education. One of the projects has been to
strengthen educational/pedagogical research in the
field. Furthermore, the in-service training of school
teachers has been expanded and municipalities have
decided to increase the amount of lessons in reading
and writing. Teacher training colleges have, in accor-
dance with the latest ministerial order, upgraded the
importance of Danish as a subject.
The Ministry of Education, the National Association of
Local Authorities and the Danish Union of Teachers
have together launched a big national programme
‘Folkeskolen 2000’. The aims of the programme include
setting standards for core knowledge and proficiency
for each subject. Additionally, a project named Quality
in Education, was introduced by the Danish Govern-
ment in 1998 with the aim of strengthening qualifica-
tions in Danish, mathematics and English.
Germany
Newspapers in schools — A large number of local and
regional newspapers in Germany take part in this proj-
ect: pupils receive over the period of three months
‘their’ daily newspaper (without paying for it). The
newspaper is integrated in different subject matters at
school. After four weeks of reading the local news-
paper and getting familiar with structure, special lan-
guage and different types of texts (report, comment,
etc.), the pupils also receive other newspapers (trans-
regional and weekly papers). The guided comparative
reading also makes a remarkable contribution to polit-
ical education and to media-education in general. The
project is an excellent instrument to stimulate interest
in reading, in public affairs and promotes critical
judgement. The project is financed by the publishers
and by industry-sponsors. The participation rate is
high.
Italy
In 1998, the Ministry of Education launched the ‘Prog-
etto lettura 2000’ programme aiming to promote the
development of school libraries and to encourage
reading among students of all kind of schools. Among
the initiatives proposed by the schools, two are to be
mentioned:
Students (last year of lower secondary schools and all
grades of upper secondary) can take part in their own
school in a jury which has to select the 20 most impor-
tant books of 20th century from 100 youth books pro-
posed by a group of writers. The selected books must be
reviewed explaining the reasons of the choice; the re-
views can be considered as a credit. The list of the most
favourite books at national level will be presented at the
Book Fair (May 2000) and discussed with the students.
A web site on reading ‘Giovani lettori protagonisti —
Young readers are protagonists’, wholly addressed to
pupils of primary and lower secondary schools will be
ready next April as a ‘virtual’ online library. There will
be also a section for teachers with suggestions and di-
dactic proposals in order to motivate pupils toward
book reading (www.galassia.org).
Sweden
Research has shown that young people improve their
reading skills when they participate in joint reading
experiences with a close friend or relative. Based on
this finding, regional and local school authorities in
Sweden have asked and actively encouraged parents of
students aged 10 to 12 to spend half an hour per day
reading a good book with their child. Half the time,
the student reads aloud to the parent and the other
62 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
half the child listens to the parent reading. The au-
thorities have supported this programme by funding
the purchase of interesting books that both students
and parents enjoy.
3. SCIENCE
Europe
‘Women in Science’ is a mobile exhibition, obtainable
on request from the Member States’ Education Min-
istry departments, which deals with equal opportuni-
ties and gender-related issues to be shown in the
secondary schools.
It illustrates the history of science through the
achievements of women in different periods of history
and current trends in the feminist approach to science,
accompanied by figures and bibliographies, and also
illustrates initiatives organised by European networks
and by the European Commission to promote equal
opportunities at school, at university and in careers.
The content of the exhibition can be put to use by
teachers as a platform for discussing equal opportuni-
ties in schools and perhaps for getting more girls to
opt for scientific and technical subjects.
Ireland
European Union Physics Colloquium — The Colloquium
on Attainment in Physics at 16+ was held in 1998 and
involved Ireland and eight other European education
systems. The colloquium examined approaches to
physics education at upper secondary level in the par-
ticipating countries. Each country prepared a detailed
paper on physics education. The outcome of the collo-
quium was a report on the principal issues in physics
education in upper secondary education in Europe.
Italy
In 1999, a national four-year programme ‘Progetto SET
— SET project’ was launched, aiming to enhance pupils’
scientific and technological skills and to raise their
achievement levels. The programme is based on four
basic assumptions: a unified vision of science and
technology; a wider concept of laboratory skills in-
cluding experimental skills and capacity to evaluate
the social relevance of science and technology; the
strategic role of multimedia, telematics and informa-
tion technologies; the interdisciplinary meaning of the
content areas proposed by the programme.
An initiative has been carried out aiming to improve
teaching/learning processes in science and to prevent
learning difficulties during the last year of primary
school (fifth grade) by means of individualised learning
units and materials. The experience was based on the
DIVA model of individualised teaching (Didattica individ-
ualizzata con valutazione analogica/Individualised
teaching with analogical assessment): using analogy, this
approach allows diagnostic tests to be developed which
identify potential learning difficulties regarding specific
subject content. In this way remedial action can be
planned before failure has actually happened and indi-
vidualised learning/teaching units can be prepared. The
content area selected for this innovative initiative deals
with physical, chemical and biological phenomena.
Slovakia
‘Schola Ludus’, launched by scientists of Comenius
University, is an NGO operated, and MoE supported,
programme commemorating Jan Amos Comenius’ be-
lief in the effectiveness of learning by playing. ‘Schola
Ludus’ promotes science education by interactive exhi-
bitions touring the country.
Spain
The National Science Museum has a guide of school
programmes for permanent exhibitions, temporary ex-
hibitions, workshops, guided visits, didactical materials
and courses.
The ‘Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas’ or-
ganises guided visits for groups to several scientific insti-
tutes to acquaint young people with scientific research.
4. ICT
Europe
One of the objectives of President Prodi’s eEurope ini-
tiative is to make digital literacy one of the basic skills
of every young European. eLearning is intended to im-
plement the education/training part of eEurope. This
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 63
initiative has four components: to equip schools with
multimedia computers; to train European teachers in
digital technologies; to develop European educational
services and software and to speed up the networking
of schools and teachers.
Most of the resources to be mobilised will be national,
but they should be backed by European Structural
Fund assistance in the eligible regions, mobilisation of
the Community programmes to promote digitalisation
and development of partnerships between public au-
thorities and industry.
Cyprus
From the school year 2000–01, the new type of lyceum
— ‘the unified lyceum’ (upper secondary education) —
will be introduced in Cyprus. Following an extensive
four-year pilot, the new lyceum will have three key
new elements:
• upgrading the ICT skills of pupils by introducing
curricular changes that provide for more teaching pe-
riods in ICT;
• upgrading schools’ technological equipment;
• developing the skills of staff to enable the provi-
sion of a more flexible programme of studies to suit
the needs and aspirations of all pupils.
Estonia
In some Estonian schools, senior pupils are required to
spend four hours a week on mentoring and tutoring
younger children in ICT, acting as a mediator between
them and their teachers. The benefits to older pupils
are seen to be as significant as those for the younger
children who gain from working with peers whose ex-
perience is more relevant. This takes place as part of a
wide national initiative to increase the use of ICT and
develop the expertise of teachers.
Hungary
In Hungary, initiatives are underway to promote new
methods and teaching aids that make use of ICT technol-
ogy in a range of school disciplines. Successful applicants
are expected, in exchange for funds for equipment and
software, to develop and test computer-assisted se-
quences of lessons and give reports on student develop-
ment. A scheme to offer tax reductions for the purchase of
home computers is currently being developed along with
support schemes for teachers to acquire PCs for home use.
Italy
A large-scale programme, the PSTD ‘Programma di
sviluppo delle tecnologie didattiche 1997–2000’, was
promoted to spread information and communication
technologies (ICT) and aims to improve the
teaching/learning processes.
The programme has defined three large categories of
objectives:
1. to promote students’ mastery of multimedia in
terms of understanding and using different tools, or
adopting new cognitive styles in the study, design and
the conduct of experiments in communication.
2. to improve the effectiveness of the
teaching/learning processes and the pedagogical or-
ganisation eTw er regarding subject-bound competen-
cies or the acquisition of cross-curricular skills.
3. to develop the professionalism of teachers not on-
ly through education, but also by giving them tools
and services for their daily job.
An experimental teaching project called ‘Multilab’
(multimedia laboratory) aims to revolutionise teaching
through the use of computers in classrooms. A net-
work of seven schools has been set up in each of the
20 cities involved in the project and one of the upper
secondary schools selected is responsible for the coor-
dination and implementation of the initial in-service
training phase for the teachers.
Multilab does not, however, propose a single model for
methods of teaching. The project is presented to the
schools as an offer of the necessary structure and
equipment.
The New erlands
The Dutch ‘knowledge net’ is a project of the Ministry
of Education bringing togew er pupils, parents, teach-
ers and cultural organisations. It is a computer net-
work which also provides services: information, discus-
sion groups, and technical facilities. Business firms re-
ceive tax benefits if they provide computers to schools.
Pupils (and teachers) receive a qualification, called the
64 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
‘digital educational driver’s licence’ (digitaal rijbewijs)
which sets a standard for basic ICT skills.
Poland
The ‘Interkl@sa’ programme aims to prepare young
people for work in the information society and to de-
velop schools as modern centres for innovation and
creation. It also brings together two projects: the first
establishing an Internet workshop in each commune,
and the second planning an Internet workshop in each
secondary school.
Slovakia
Info-age — Infovek, in Slovak (www.infovek.sk) — is a
non-profit-making NGO operated programme aimed
at the improvement of ICT in primary and secondary
schools. Reflecting US and EU activities of this type,
access to Internet, at least one multimedia laboratory
and training of teachers is to be provided for all pri-
mary and secondary schools. The programme was
launched in 1999. It is supported by MoE and backed
by the President of the Parliament. It continues the ef-
forts of Dutch–Czechoslovak project Comenius from
early 1990s and the recent ‘Open society fund’ pro-
gramme which have already provided Internet access
to 138 schools.
Slovenia
The objective of the ‘Developing computer literacy’
programme (http://ro.zrsss.si/) is to: train teachers and
pupils for the use of information technology; imple-
ment a standardisation of computer supported trans-
fer of data between schools and other institutions;
unify the computer software used for teaching and
administration purposes in schools; supply schools
with up-to-date computer and data equipment; and
provide the possibilities for research and development
in the field of implementing new information tech-
nologies in schools.
Spain
All Spanish State schools have an official Internet ac-
count and space to publish a web page. Many schools
have created their own website. All teachers of State
schools have the opportunity to ask for a personal ac-
count for e-mail and access to Internet. Around
65 000 teachers have an account. More information
(in Spanish) is available on the Internet
(http://www,pntic.mec.es/).
Sweden
In Sweden the government offers in-service training
for school leaders and teacher teams to learn how to
use computers as a tool. Money has been allocated by
the government to supply 60 000 teachers with a per-
sonal computer. A specific State allowance is given to
each school so that they can link up to the Internet.
Within a few years all Swedish students will have their
own personal e-mail address.
5. FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Europe
The aim of the ‘European label’ is to help stimulate in-
terest in language learning by highlighting innovative
language learning projects at all stages of education
and training. The European label was launched in the
context of the Commission’s 1995 white paper ‘Teach-
ing and learning: towards the learning society’, which
set the objective of helping all EU citizens to be profi-
cient in three European languages.
The label can be awarded to any initiative in the field
of language teaching and learning, whatever type of
organisation is responsible and whatever the age of
the learners involved. Some projects will involve the
use of new technologies, but that is not essential.
What is important is that a project makes good use of
the resources available to it.
Belgium
Due to the limited international importance of Dutch
(the mother tongue in Flanders), foreign language
learning has a prominent position in Flanders. An im-
pressive number of people attend foreign language
courses, not only in compulsory education (from age
12 to 18), but mainly in all kinds of adult education.
The most important provider is the Department of Ed-
ucation, which offers courses in 18 languages (both,
European and non-European). Access to these courses
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 65
is made easy and very cheap. Some language courses
are on offer as distance learning. In addition, specific
types of work-related language training courses are
offered in the sector of occupational (VDAB) and self-
employment training (VIZO). Finally, many companies
invest in modern foreign language training.
The wish to interrelate the general and vocational lan-
guage offer has resulted in developments on the
macro-level. The educational authorities have decided
to work out a qualification structure in which both
types of language offer are integrated.
To that end the Department for Educational Develop-
ment (DED) has worked out a common tool for build-
ing user-friendly and transparent language learning
curricula. It is a common framework to describe the
entire language offer (both general and occupational)
provided by the Department of Education. This frame-
work uses a European-level indication as described in
the common European framework of the Council of
Europe ‘Breakthrough up to effectiveness’. The frame-
work:
• is based on the need for effective communication;
• meets the demands of society and the world of
work by describing final objectives in terms of lan-
guage tasks. These tasks are described in a systematic
way, using a fixed set of building blocks. The final ob-
jectives are then clustered into certified modules.
The first new curricula based on this framework will be
on offer by September 2000 (basic level to Break-
through); higher levels of proficiency will be intro-
duced in 2001.
Bulgaria
Improving foreign language (FL) teaching through cre-
ation of a network of ‘methodology teachers’ In order
to improve FL teaching, the Bulgarian Ministry of Edu-
cation and Science (MES) decided to create in 1996 a
national network of so-called ‘teacher methodologists’.
After a highly competitive selection process, over 150
candidates in four languages (English, German, French
and Russian) were appointed to attend one- to two-
year special part-time ‘training of trainers’ pro-
grammes, and sat exams to become teacher methodol-
ogists. In 1998, corresponding legislative changes were
made and the position of ‘teacher methodologist’ was
introduced in the school system. About 150 teacher
methodologists took this position all over the country.
They have half-time classroom work. They have addi-
tional duties, aimed at regular training of other FL
teachers in several neighbouring municipalities in
state-of-the-art teaching methods; analysing the
needs of in-service training for the municipalities for
which they are responsible, planning and managing
the in-service training jointly with the regional inspec-
tors in FL. This cascade model of teacher training is
proving very successful, and currently similar consider-
ations are under way for all other subjects.
Hungary
Hungary, as other countries, has been participating in
an experience of the Council of Europe (Modern Lan-
guages Division) concerning a European language
portfolio (ELP) since its launch in 1998. The ELP is a
personal document in which students can record their
qualifications and other significant linguistic and cul-
tural experiences in an internationally transparent
manner, thus motivating learners and acknowledging
their efforts to extend and diversify their language
learning at all levels in a life-long perspective.
Ireland
In Ireland, a project has commenced aimed at increas-
ing the range of foreign languages taken by students
in secondary school. At present, French has by far been
the dominant foreign language taught in Irish schools
with the number of students taking German less than
one-third of the number taking French. Very few stu-
dents take Spanish and far fewer take Italian. The
project is aimed at increasing the numbers taking
Spanish and Italian by increasing the number of
schools which offer these languages. It is also intend-
ed to introduce Japanese to the school curriculum. In
its initial stage the project is exploring how best this
extension of foreign languages may take place.
6. LEARNING TO LEARN
Belgium (Flanders)
In Flemish Belgium, learning to learn skills are already a
compulsory aspect of the 6 to 18 core curriculum. They
are presented as a cross-curricular theme to be integrated
and applied in as many subjects as possible. Skills include
66 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
the ability to reflect on your own learning, choose appro-
priate strategies for solving problems, being aware of
feelings and be able to channel these effectively, and to
make informed choices about subjects and careers.
England
In England, the Department for Education and Em-
ployment (DfEE) has commissioned and published a re-
port on thinking skills (McGuinness, Thinking Skills,
DfEE, 1999) and made a Ministerial press release indi-
cating the importance of this is an emerging govern-
ment priority. At the level of practice level there are
numerous authorities and schools undertaking training
and examples of large-scale initiatives such as the
University of the First Age, in Birmingham, which holds
summer schools in which schoolchildren of secondary
age practice accelerated learning techniques.
Finland
In Finland, research has been conducted as a prelude to
developing a new form of national assessment. The re-
search analysed factors which cut across and permeate
school subjects and came to be called ‘learning to learn
competencies’. Identification of these factors will, it is
hoped, help to explain relative success and failure in
general and in specific subjects. The national study of
sixth graders in 1996 has provided a national norm for
later testing, leading in 1997 to a study of ninth graders,
similarly furnishing a national norm. Further extensions
and developments are now building on this work.
Germany
In Germany, widespread curriculum revision is taking
place, encouraging pupils through the use of texts and
questionnaires to reflect on their working habits, their
learning strategies, their ability to communicate and
cooperate. Teachers are given criteria for the measure-
ment of self-regulated, cross-curricular work, in order
to certificate competencies in these areas.
Italy
In Italy, a repertoire of instruments has been developed
to measure learning to learn competencies and to pro-
vide teachers with simple tools which they can use for
remedial and individualised intervention. Question-
naires have been developed for two age groups. One, for
students of 10 to 15 years of age, covers four main ar-
eas: learning strategies; learning styles; awareness of
learning (‘metacognition’); and attitudes to school and
learning. The second, aimed at students aged 14 to 17 in
general and vocational education, has 14 scales, seven
of which tap cognitive, or thinking, skills while the other
seven tap into affective, or feeling, aspects such as test
performance anxiety, self explanations for success and
failure, perceptions of one’s own competence or ability.
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, a cohort study of 20 000 second-
ary students is repeated every five years using a test
developed to measure the general problem solving ca-
pacities of 14- to 15-year-old pupils.
7. CIVICS
Greece and Cyprus
In Greece and Cyprus, the ‘Parliament of adolescents’ is
an annual project in which elected Lyceum pupils act
as representatives of all other pupils living in all areas
of the two countries. They meet in the House of Par-
liament and discuss matters of concern of the young
generation as well as matters of current importance to
Greece and Cyprus. In their discussions they follow the
rules and regulations of the real Parliament. The proj-
ect has been successful in providing pupils with rich
experiences in civics education.
Italy
In all secondary schools a ‘Statute of students’ rights
and duties’ was introduced in order to enhance
democracy in schools and widen students’ opportuni-
ties (i.e., the right to be informed about learning goals
and assessment criteria, to participate in support ac-
tivities to prevent drop out; the duty of the schools to
respect cultural and religious values of foreign stu-
dents and to organise intercultural activities etc.).
The following are examples of courses and initiatives
of ‘cross-curricular education’ dealing with civics at
both curricular and extra curricular level:
• peace and human rights education: Amnesty In-
ternational organised in-service teachers’ training and
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 67
elaborated students’ and teachers’ materials and
teaching units for schools in Rome and other Italian
towns (http://www.amnesty.it/edu/index.html);
• environmental education and education for cul-
tural heritage: at national level many schools are in-
volved in initiatives for the ‘adoption’ of monuments
and local areas allowing students to develop a sense of
belonging to their local communities. See the web site
(http://www.legambiente.com/scuola/index.html),
which is in Italian;
• intercultural education: Peter Pan is a European
multilingual school magazine, on paper and online.
The online version (http://www.geocities.com/
CollegePark/Theater/8153/index.html) and chat-line
(http://members.xoom.it/PeterPanNews/chat.html) can
be found on the Internet;
• education for lawfulness: the national cultural asso-
ciation LIBERA (Associations, names and numbers against
mafias) signed an agreement with the Italian Ministry of
Education in order to carry out a plan of action-research
in schools aiming to define specific competencies in this
area. The agreement provides for the collaboration of all
provincial representative councils of students.
Poland
In accordance with the requirements and needs of the
education reform taking place in the country, the
KOSS programme has trained 2 000 teachers to teach
civics to their students. It also creates and publishes
civics programmes.
‘Law and civics education in secondary schools’ is a
programme which deals with the creation of courses in
cooperation with the pupils. Within the framework of
this programme, lessons are developed and conducted
with the active participation of pupils.
An estimated 200 000 pupils from primary and sec-
ondary school (the ‘Gymnasium’ system, implemented
following educational reform) have learned and are
learning civics through the KOSS programme.
‘Young citizens are active’ is a project aiming to teach
young people to participate in everyday life in an ac-
tive and productive way. Pupils have to try to find so-
lutions to the most important problems they feel exist
within their society and to convince the local authori-
ties to develop their ideas.
In the field of ‘Education for Europe’, the National
Centre for Teachers’ Improvement has trained 1 200
teachers using a multimedia methodological tool ‘An
educational package on the European integration’.
8. DROP-OUT RATES
Europe
At European level, the ‘Second chance schools’ project
offers education and training to young people who
lack the skills and qualifications necessary to find a job
or benefit fully from conventional training. The project
aims to set up long-term partnerships between all
those concerned, at local level, with the social and
economic integration of young people at risk of social
exclusion. More information can be found on the In-
ternet (http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/2chance/
homeen.html).
Bulgaria
In 1997, a Phare project was launched to cope with
the increase in school drop outs as a result of the un-
stable economic situation. The project was named
‘School for everybody’. Its main goals were to build ex-
pertise for coping with this complex problem through
appropriate training, involving all concerned stake-
holders, and building centres of expertise and aid
throughout the country. As a result of the project, 13
project centres were established countrywide, three of
which are resource centres for teacher training, and
the rest are centres for school dialogue. Considerable
training of teachers, headmasters and other stakehold-
ers took place too. At the end of the project the 13
centres officially became part of the educational sys-
tem. They offer various expertise and training in meth-
ods, curriculum design, psychology training, advice,
pupil consultancy services, and support to schools,
municipalities, parents and pupils to cope with the
drop-out problem. They are obliged to train staff for
other such centres to be created in each of the 28 re-
gions of the country.
France
A ‘New chance’ for young people who leave school
without qualifications. Each year some 57 000 young
68 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
people leave the educational system in France without
qualifications and therefore risk social and profession-
al exclusion. The French Government takes the view
that schools are not only responsible for education
and training of the young people attending them, but
also for the future of those who leave school where no
arrangements for transition are in place. This new ac-
tion:
• encourages responses for each young person
rather than general solutions;
• facilitates initiatives and supports innovation;
• acts together with partners, particularly enterprises.
The programme, which was launched in May 1999, has
a number of objectives. It aims to: improve procedures
for identifying the young people concerned and in-
crease the available information about the issue of
drop out; prevent disaffection in upper secondary
schools; enrich training up to the level of CAP; and de-
velop a European dimension (the integration of the
European ‘Second chance schools’ projects into the
‘New chance’ programme is explicitly mentioned).
Germany
Some pupils will become drop outs because they lose
interest in theoretical learning at school. In Germany it
has proved useful to find local industry partners who
can give those pupils the chance to gain experience in
practical working, in parallel with their school-based
learning. It has been shown that a relatively large
number of pupils gain new motivation for education
at school as a result of this approach.
The Netherlands
Early school-leaving in the Netherlands is challenged
by a policy of cooperation between schools at a re-
gional level. Early school-leavers are registered and are
put back into schools as much as possible in order to
give them the opportunity to achieve an upper sec-
ondary qualification. To achieve this, 39 regional cen-
tres (RMC) have been formed with responsibility for
registering early school-leavers and coordinating ac-
tions. These regional centres take into account the dif-
ferent responsibilities of the stakeholders in the region
(school, employment agencies, justice, youth care, mu-
nicipalities, etc.) in deciding how best to act. A law is
currently being prepared which will make it obligatory
for schools to report early school-leavers to the
municipality.
Poland
To help reduce the numbers of those dropping out in
Poland, an educational psychology service was set up
and, in 1998/99, 7 646 school educationalists were re-
cruited by schools to identify pupils’ individual needs,
to analyse the causes of failure and to find ways of
remedying them. In the same year, 978 psychologists
were hired by schools to look at the potential difficul-
ties facing pupils and to organise different forms of
psychological therapy. In addition, they provide advice
to students and teachers and cooperate with the edu-
cationalists and parents in order to prevent behaviour-
al disorders and initiate educational assistance inside
and outside schools.
Spain
Three different initiatives, two of them depending on
the Ministry of Education or the autonomous commu-
nity, the other depending on the Ministry of Labour or
the autonomous community.
• ‘Programmas de garantía social’ for 16 to 21 year olds
who have not finished secondary education or have no
professional qualification to the labour market. These
programmes are described (in Spanish) on the Internet
(http://www.mec.es/cnrop/portada_cnrop_40.htm).
• ‘Formación profesional ocupacional’ provided by
the Ministry of Labour and funded by the European So-
cial Fund. Details, in Spanish, can be found on the Inter-
net (http://www.inem.es/ciudadano/p_formacion.html).
• Secondary education for adults (ESPA).
United Kingdom
‘New deal’ is a key part of the UK Government’s ‘Wel-
fare to work’ strategy. It gives jobseekers aged 18 to
24, 25 + and those with disabilities a chance to devel-
op their potential, gain skills and experience and find
work. It also provides an opportunity for businesses to
make use of the untapped energies and talents of a
new labour force. More than 67 000 companies have
signed ‘New deal’ employer agreements so far. Partner-
ship between the Employment Service and a wide
range of organisations is crucial to the success of ‘New
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 69
deal’. ‘New deal’ was created to help unemployed peo-
ple into work by closing the gap between the skills
employers want and the skills people can offer.
9. COMPLETION OF UPPER SECONDARY
EDUCATION
Ireland
In Ireland, one of the most important aims of educa-
tion policy is to maximise the numbers of students
who complete upper secondary education. To that end
an alternative programme, the ‘Leaving certificate ap-
plied’, has been devised for students for whom the
mainstream programmes are not suitable. This pro-
gramme focuses on the needs and interests of students
using a range of methodologies. It also seeks to devel-
op in the students an enterprising outlook, self-confi-
dence and other skills related to success in the work-
place. Students are required to perform tasks during
the two years of the ‘Leaving certificate applied’,
which are assessed and count towards the student’s fi-
nal examination. Work experience and preparation for
the world of work are also important aspects of the
programme.
Spain
The ‘Centro para la Innovación y Desarrollo de la Edu-
cación a Distancia’ (CIDEAD) organises and coordinates
‘Educación a distancia’ intending to facilitate access to
education to adults and also to non-adults who due to
personal, social, geographical or other exceptional cir-
cumstances cannot follow education at school with
daily attendance. It provides primary education, sec-
ondary, and secondary for adults and non-compulsory
post-secondary education.
10. PARTICIPATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
Ireland
In Ireland, many of the universities and other tertiary in-
stitutions now have programmes which are aimed at re-
dressing the current imbalance in the representation of
the social classes in the universities and other tertiary
institutions. These are organised at institutional level
and between institutions, in line with Government pol-
icy, and are supported in different ways by the State.
One example is the ‘Accessing college education’ proj-
ect. Sixty students were accepted into the project and
while at school they benefited from extra classes and
supervised study and also tuition in study skills. As the
students are encouraged to forgo paid employment
while at school, they are each given money each month
by the project. They are also provided with academic,
personal and financial support while they are in college.
Scotland
In Scotland, the ‘Open University’ and ‘Open College’
are interesting examples of making tertiary education
more available to mature students and those in remote
areas. Perhaps more topical is the development of the
new ‘University of the Highlands and Islands’, which is
making extensive use of remote access teaching tech-
nology to link a number of centres with students
across the remote rural region of northern Scotland.
11. EVALUATION AND STEERING OF SCHOOL
EDUCATION
Austria
In advance of the general introduction of compulsory
school planning and self-evaluation, a rich resource site
on the Internet has been established for schools, allowing
them to access information, ideas, procedural proposals,
instruments and other support for schools programme
development and self-evaluation (http://www.qis.at).
Denmark
Denmark launched the Danish Evaluation Institute, in
August 1999, a single organisation for the evaluation
of all levels of education. The mandate of the institute
is internationally unique, because it is given the task
by Parliament to undertake systematic and mandatory
evaluation of teaching and learning at all levels of the
educational system from kindergarten classes to post-
graduate courses.
In order to understand the expectations of Government
and Parliament it is necessary to point to two highly vis-
70 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
ible elements in the recent Danish political debate on
education. Firstly, there has been much concern about
the transition from one level to the next in the educa-
tional system, whether it be the transition from primary
to secondary or from secondary to tertiary education.
Secondly, OECD surveys during the 1990s have ques-
tioned the skill levels of Danish primary school pupils in
elementary reading and mathematics.
Europe
The European pilot project ‘Evaluating quality in
school education’, a self-evaluation profile, provided a
highly stimulating starting activity and influenced pol-
icy developments in a number of countries and in
some, for example Italy and Portugal, the pilot has
been extended to involve a wider group of schools.
For the full report see the web site
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/poledu/
finalrep/rep.pdf).
Hungary
The improvement of quality has a prominent place in
the strategy of the Ministry of Education in Hungary.
A comprehensive programme of quality development
has been initiated by the Ministry. A new pilot project
will be launched with more then 400 public institutes,
nursery schools (pre-primary education institutes),
primary and secondary schools (including the voca-
tional training schools) and hostels. The programme
focuses on the operation and management of the
schools, thus internal development work will be car-
ried out by the institutions themselves. The success of
the quality development programme is largely based
on the cooperation of teachers, providers, and those
responsible for quality assurance in the domain of in-
dustry. One of the most important elements of pro-
fessional support is the Manual of Quality Improve-
ment, published by the Ministry, which is available for
each institution.
The Netherlands
About 0.5 % of the budget for primary and secondary
education is spent on external evaluation activities
such as tests, examinations, evaluations by the inspec-
torate, and large-scale evaluation research. School also
have their own systems for internal evaluation of the
quality of education.
Portugal
Evaluation and steering of schools is now seen in Por-
tugal as very much connected with the definition of
educational plans which schools are required to elabo-
rate and follow.
PEPT (Education for every student), a programme de-
signed in 1991 to foster students completion of com-
pulsory education, made it obligatory for every school
to structure a self-evaluation plan which includes an
observatory with 15 indicators relating to context,
process, resources and outcomes.
Similarly the Institute of Educational Innovation (IIE),
is currently taking forward work on self-evaluation of
quality education in schools first developed and fi-
nanced by the European Commission.
Scotland
Scotland has a well-developed approach to promoting
self-evaluation in schools, backed up by publication of
examination results and a regular programme of inde-
pendent inspections of individual establishments. ‘How
good is our school?’ was published in 1996. It is a
toolkit for schools to use in self-evaluation, based on a
set of 33 performance indicators. These were organised
into seven key areas. In the latest development of this
approach many schools across the country (in some
cases schools within a local authority) are beginning to
publish their own self-evaluation reports (standards
and quality reports) in which they summarise their
own evaluation of their performance in each of the
key areas for their stakeholders. Development of the
self-evaluation approach in Scotland is being taken
forward through the nationally coordinated ‘Quality
initiative in Scottish schools’.
Spain
• INCE (Instituto Nacional de Calidad y Evaluación)
was created to design evaluation systems for the dif-
ferent types of education governed by the LOGSE (new
law for education).
• Self-evaluation of schools is mandatory in Spain;
schools are free to follow their own model of self-
evaluation. The Ministry of Education has published
the ‘Modelo Europeo de Gestión de Calidad’, but train-
ing is needed to put the model into practice.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 71
The Ministry of Education holds an annual contest for
an award of quality in education, the objectives of
which are to foster quality improvement in education
through quality in the management of schools and to
foster use of the ‘Modelo europeo de gestión de cali-
dad’ as a systematic tool of self-evaluation for im-
provement.
12. PARENT PARTICIPATION
Europe
EPA’s ‘Training programme in partnership’ is an exam-
ple of how to improve quality through cooperation
and constructive dialogue between parents and teach-
ers at the school level.
Many parents do not come to the school — through
fear, lack of knowledge, lack of time or lack of aware-
ness. EPA’s training course targets these parents and
highlights their important role and responsibility in
the education of their own child. It provides them with
the confidence to communicate effectively with
teachers.
Germany
In Germany, seminars for parents are provided at both
classroom and school level with three primary aims:
• to inform them of new developments in learning
and teaching and the part they can play in supporting
their children’s learning;
• to establish consensus on areas of school life, such
as social education and values education;
• to motivate them to participate in wider aspects
of school policy such as school rules and policies on
violence, drugs, etc.
13. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS
Hungary
The in-service teacher training system — the Act on
Public Education has declared that each teacher
should participate in at least 120 contact-hours of in-
service teacher training during seven years of practice.
The courses could be supplied by any kind of training
organisation including HE institutions, pedagogical in-
stitutions, schools, training firms, NGOs or even private
individuals. The courses should go through an accredi-
tation process which includes two phases: first, the
professional accreditation of the programme and, sec-
ond, the accreditation of the local implementation of
the programme — this allows organisations to imple-
ment programmes created by others if they agree.
Each programme is required to have an internal quali-
ty assurance and quality management system. All edu-
cation institutions receive per capita funding based on
the number of teachers employed form the state
budget to cover the costs of the courses (tuition and
other expenses).
Portugal
‘Sailing through the Portuguese language’ is the name
given to an initiative of the Department of Secondary
Education of the Portuguese Ministry of Education, de-
signed to provide teaching training using Internet facil-
ities. This initiative started in October 1999 and is in-
tended for teachers of the Portuguese language who
work with 11th grade students. There are now 158
teachers following this initiative. ‘Sailing through the
Portuguese language’ offers a range of opportunities
including glossary, activities and solutions to problems
and participating in a group discussion through the
Internet.
14. PARTICIPATION RATES IN PRE-PRIMARY
EDUCATION
Italy
In Italy, three initiatives concerning quality in infant
education have been promoted by the Ministry of Ed-
ucation and by the National Institute for the Evalua-
tion of Education Systems.
A four-year national programme of in-service teacher
training aims to:
• promote a process of action research and imple-
ment innovations in four areas: curriculum, education-
al organisation, life contexts of children, professional
identity of teachers;
72 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
• encourage and record innovative experiences;
• disseminate relevant results and practices at re-
gional and national level;
• enhance teachers’ expertise;
• set up a network of professional resources able to
support innovative processes and to meet new de-
mands of teacher training.
A project entitled ‘Special actions to evaluate quality
in infant schools’ aims to:
• carry out a national survey of schools’ experiences
of self-evaluation in the context of factors which con-
tribute to children’s learning and development;
• develop a scale to be used by teachers for evalu-
ating the quality of different aspects of the school
setting.
The project QUASI (Quality of infant school) is a study
aiming to define a repertoire of quality indicators rel-
evant to infant schools.
Luxembourg
In Luxembourg, all children aged between four and six
years are obliged to attend institutions of pre-primary
education. In addition, a third of three-year-olds at-
tend these institutions. Pre-primary education places
considerable emphasis on language development in a
multilingual environment.
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the Ministry of Education and the
Ministry of Health have implemented two experimen-
tal programmes for early childhood education (Pi-
ramide and Kaleidoscope) with a view to stimulating
the cognitive, social-emotional and linguistic develop-
ment of disadvantaged children aged between three
and six years. The programme aims to give these chil-
dren a better start in primary education. The pro-
grammes are implemented in close cooperation with
both childcare centres and schools for pre-primary ed-
ucation, and allow the children to receive more per-
sonal attention. Evaluation shows that there is a sig-
nificant (initial) effect, especially on the cognitive de-
velopment of these children, and also on their vocab-
ulary and thought processes.
15. NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER
Belgium (French)
In 1998, a partnership was signed between the French
Community of Belgium (responsible for education and
teachers training), Walloon or Brussels Capital regions
(responsible for technology and equipment) and the Fed-
eral State (responsible for telecommunications) in order
to offer to each primary and secondary school a ‘cyber
centre’: computers and facilities to connect to Internet.
Estonia
The Estonian ‘Tiger leap’ programme is a national tar-
get programme with the overall objective of improving
the educational system in Estonia through the intro-
duction of modern information and communication
technologies. The programme is aimed at general edu-
cation systems, but it also involves vocational educa-
tion. Further information can be found on the Internet
(http://www.tiigrihype.ee/english).
Italy
In 1999, many important companies and banks (Tele-
com, Enel, Alitalia, Benetton, Banca di Roma, etc.) pro-
vided schools with their old (but perfectly working)
computers. In March 2000, the Italian Government
launched a national plan for spreading the use of
computers among students at home, based on an
agreement with the Italian Association of Banks. The
initiative provides an interest-free loan for purchasing
a computer.
Portugal
Computers have been provided to schools in recent
years and, currently, every school, from 5th through to
12th grade, has a least one computer with access to
the Internet. The new regulations on school adminis-
tration and management, issued in 1998, created clus-
ters of schools (agrupamentos) which allow for the
sharing of human as well as material resources.
FOCO — the Portuguese programme for teacher train-
ing — defined the area of technology information and
communication as one of its first priorities. FOCO is
developed in the 150 teacher training centres created
by the association of several schools.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 73
16. EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE PER STUDENT
Scotland
In Scotland, the Government has encouraged the use
of new public–private partnership arrangements to al-
low local authorities to fund school rebuilding pro-
grammes which they otherwise would not have been
able to fund on such a scale. These arrangements make
it attractive for private investors to put the money up
front for major building programmes. In Glasgow, for
example, this is allowing the authority to create sever-
al completely refurbished schools at once, thus ratio-
nalising inefficient, under-capacity schools and replac-
ing poor-quality buildings. This sort of initiative allow
major quality improvements in education to be funded
efficiently without capital funds all having to come
from the public purse.
74 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Mathematics
Black, P., Atkin, M., Changing the subject: Innova-
tions in science, mathematics, and technology edu-
cation, London and Paris, 1996.
Keitel, C., Kilpatrick, J., ‘The Rationality and irra-
tionality of international comparative studies’, in:
Kaiser, G., Luna, E., Huntley, I., International com-
parisons in mathematics education, London, 1998,
pp. 241–257.
For more information on the TIMSS study visithttp://timss.bc.edu
Reading
Dombey, H. (coord.), Early literacy teaching and
learning. Innovative practice in four different na-
tional contexts: a thematic network, European
Commission, Brussels, 1998.
Elley, W. B., How in the world do students read?, The
International Association for the Evaluation of Edu-
cational Achievement, La Haye, 1992.
Elley, W. B. (ed.), The IEA study of reading literacy:
achievement and instruction in thirty-two school
systems, Pergamon, Oxford, 1994.
European Commission (Education, Training, Youth
DG), Initial teaching of reading in the European
Union. Studies, Office for Official Publications of
the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1999.
Lafontaine, D., ‘From comprehension to literacy:
thirty years of reading assessment’, in OECD, Net-
work A 2000, OECD, Paris (not yet published).
Postlethwaite, T. N. and Ross, K. N., Effective schools
in reading. Implications for educational planners,
The International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement, La Haye, 1992.
For more information about the IEA Reading Litera-
cy study visit:http://uttou2.to.utwente.nl/rl/iea-rl.htm
Science
Adey, P., The science of thinking, and science for
thinking: A description of cognitive acceleration
through science education (CASE), International Bu-
reau of Education (Unesco), 1999.
Beaton, A. E., Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S, Gonzalez,
E. J., Smith, T. A. and Kelly, D. L., ‘Science achieve-
ment in the middle school years’, IEA’s third inter-
national mathematics and science study (TIMSS),
Boston College, Chestnut Hill (Ma.), 1996.
Coughlan, R. (ed.), Attainment in physics — Pro-
ceedings of the colloquium on attainment in
physics at 16+, Stationery Office, Dublin, 1999.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 75
2. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, E. J., Smith, T.
A. and Kelly, D. L., ‘School contexts for learning and
instruction’, IEA’s third international mathematics
and science study,. Boston College, Chestnut Hill
(Ma.), 1999.
Séré, M. G. (coord.), Improving science education:
Issues and research on innovative empirical and
computer-based approaches to labwork in Europe,
European Communities, Brussels, 1998.
Wise, K. C. and Okey, J. R., ‘A meta-analysis of the
effects of various science teaching strategies on
achievement’, Journal of Research Science Teaching,
20 (5), 1983, pp. 419–435.
For more information on the TIMSS study visit:http://timss.bc.edu
Foreign languages
Blondin, C. (coord. and ed.), European Commission
(Education, Training, Youth DG), Learning modern
languages at school in the European Union. Studies
— No 6, Office for Official Publications of the Euro-
pean Communities, Luxembourg, 1997.
Bonnet, G. (ed.), The effectiveness of the teaching
of English in the European Union. Report of the col-
loquium. Background documents (October 1997),
Ministère de l’Education Nationale, Direction de l’é-
valuation et de la prospective, Paris, 1998. See also:http://www.education.gouv.fr/dpd/colloq/
INRA (Europe) — European coordination office,
‘Young Europeans’, Eurobarometer, No 47.2, Euro-
pean Commission, Directorate-General XXII, Brus-
sels, 1997.
For more information on the Eurobarometer surveys
visit:http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg10/epo/eb/surveys.html
For details of DIA-LANG, a diagnostic computer-
based assessment project funded by the European
Commission under the Socrates programme, visit:http://www.jyu.fi/DIALANG/general.html
Civics
Torney-Purta, J., Schwille, J. and Amadeo, J. A. (eds.),
Civic education across countries: Twenty-four na-
tional case studies from the IEA civic education
project, Eburon Publishers, Delft (Netherlands),
1999.
INRA (Europe) – European coordination office,
‘Young Europeans’, Eurobarometer, No 47.2, Euro-
pean Commission, Directorate-General XXII, Brus-
sels, 1997.
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visithttp://europa.eu.int/comm/dg10/epo/eb/
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Drop-out rates
Bucchi, M. — IARD (Istituto di Ricerca), Dropping out
and secondary education, European Commission,
Directorate-General XXII, Brussels.
Colson, D., Gérard, Fr.-M., Guitard, Cl. and. Mar-
tynow, N. (Bureau d’Ingénierie en Education et en
Formation, Louvain-la-Neuve), Getting on with
training, European Commission, Directorate General
XXII, Brussels.
Eurydice, Measures to combat failure at school. A
challenge for the construction of Europe, Brussels,
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Institut de la Méditerranée, Colloque de Marseille,
L’école de la deuxième chance, Editions de l’Aube,
Saint-Etienne, 1997.
Ides Nicaise (ed), Success for all? Educational
strategies for socially disadvantaged youth in six
European countries, Leuven, 1999.
OECD, Venir à bout de l’échec scolaire, OECD, Paris,
1998.
Serrano Pascual, A., Ouali, N. and Desmarez, P. (Cen-
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mation (TEF), Université Libre de Bruxelles), Prevent-
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XXII, Brussels.
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SICI, Inspectorates of education in Europe — A de-
scriptive study, Brussels, 1999.
76 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Parents’ participation
Eurydice, The role of parents in the education sys-
tems of Europe, Brussels, 1997.
Number of students per computer
Pelgrum, W. J. and Andersen, R. E., ICT and the
emerging paradigm for life long learning: A world-
wide educational assessment of infrastructure,
goals and practices, OCTO, Enschede (the Nether-
lands), 1999.
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General
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation
(CERI), ‘Education at a glance’, OECD indicators,
OECD, Paris, 1996, 1997 and 1998.
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(CERI), Education Policy Analysis, OECD, Paris, 1997
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dedans, Unesco, Paris, 1996.
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through education and training, Office for Official
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Statistics and Indicators 1999, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxem-
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education — A European pilot project, Office for Of-
ficial Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 1999.
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on education in Europe 1999–2000, Office for Offi-
cial Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 2000.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 77
BELGIUM
Mrs Martine HERPHELIN
Directrice générale adjointe
Direction de la Recherche en éducation et pilotage in-
terréseaux
Administration générale de l’Enseignement et de la
Recherche scientifique
Ministère de la Communauté française
Mrs Fanny CONSTANT
Attachée
Direction de la Recherche en éducation et du Pilotage
interréseaux
Administration générale de l’Enseignement et de la
Recherche scientifique
Ministère de la Communauté française
Mr Etienne GILLIARD
Attaché
Administration générale de l’Enseignement et de la
Recherche scientifique
Ministère de la Communauté française
Mr Roger STANDAERT
Directeur
Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap
Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling
DENMARK
Mrs Birgitte BOVIN
Head of Section
Uddannelsesstyrelsen
Undervisningsministeriet
GERMANY
Frau Ministerialrätin Helga HINKE
Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Unterricht und Kultus
GREECE
Prof Nikitas PATINIOTIS
Laboratory of Sociology and Education
University of Patras
SPAIN
Mrs María L. MORENO MARTINEZ
Technical Advisor
Instituto Nacional de Calidad y Evaluación
FRANCE
Mr Gérard BONNET
Chargé de mission auprès du directeur de la program-
mation et du développement
Direction de la programmation et du développement
Ministère de l’éducation nationale
Mr Jacques PERRIN
Inspecteur général
Ministère de l’éducation nationale
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 79
3. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE
WORKING COMMITTEE ON QUALITY
INDICATORS
IRELAND
Dr Carl Ó DÁLAIGH
Deputy Chief Inspector
Department of Education and Science
Mr Richard COUGHLAN
Senior Inspector
Evaluation Support & Research Unit
Department of Education and Science
ITALY
Prof. Benedetto VERTECCHI
President
C.E.D.E. — Centro Europeo Dell’Educazione
Istituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema del-
l’Istruzione
Prof. Vega SCALERA
Researcher
C.E.D.E.— Centro Europeo Dell’Educazione
Istituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema del-
l’Istruzione
LUXEMBOURG
Mr Dominique PORTANTE
Directeur
Service de Coordination de la Recherche et de l’Inno-
vation pédagogiques et technologiques
Ministère de l’Education nationale, de la formation
professionnelle et des Sports
THE NETHERLANDS
Mr Jan van RAVENS
Head
Unit Multilateral Affairs and Knowledge
Department of International Relations
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
Mr Jaco van RIJN
Researcher
Unit Information Policy and Forecasting
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
Mr Ruud ABELN
Head
Unit Information Policy and Forecasting
Department of Financial Economic Affairs
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
AUSTRIA
Dr Herbert PELZELMAYER
Leiter der Abt. I/3 des Bundesministeriums für Bildung,
Wissenschaft und Kultur; Bildungsforschung, Planung,
Kooperation
Dr Werner SPECHT
ZSEII — Zentrum für Schulentwicklung
Abt.II: Evaluation und Schulforschung
Mag. Erich SVECNIK
Researcher
ZSEII — Zentrum für Schulentwicklung
Abt.II: Evaluation und Schulforschung
PORTUGAL
Mrs Gloria RAMALHO
Directora
Gabinete de Avaliação Educacional
FINLAND
Mr Simo JUVA
Director
General Education Division
Ministry of Education
SWEDEN
Mr Ulf P. LUNDGREN
Director General
National Agency for Education
Mr Mats EKHOLM
Director General
National Agency for Education
Mrs Eva EDSTRÖM-FORS
Director
Ministry of Education and Science
Mr Staffan LUNDH
Director
National Agency for Education
UNITED KINGDOM
Ms Chloe WEST
Team Leader
Pupil Performance and Research Team
Department for Education and Employment
80 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Mr Chris WORMALD
Team Leader
Excellence in Cities Initiative, Standards & Effective-
ness Unit
Department for Education and Employment
UNITED KINGDOM (SCOTLAND)
Dr Wray BODYS
Lead Officer
HM Inspector of Schools/Audit Unit
Education Department
Scottish Executive
Dr Bill MAXWELL
Lead Officer
Quality, Standards and Audit Division
HM Inspectors of Schools
Scottish Executive Education Department
BULGARIA
Mr Pencho MIHNEV
Senior Expert
Department ‘General Education’
Ministry of Education and Science
CYPRUS
Dr Kyriacos PILLAS
Head
Research & Evaluation Unit
Pedagogical Institute
Ministry of Education & Culture
Mr Vasilis PHILIPPOU
Secretary A
Permanent Delegation of the Republic of Cyprus to the
European Union
CZECH REPUBLIC
Dr Jan SOKOL
Former Minister of Education
Ministry of Education, Youth & Sports
ESTONIA
Mrs Epp. REBANE
Head
General Education Department
Ministry of Education
HUNGARY
Mr Zoltàn BOGDÁNY
Deputy Head
The Minister’s Cabinet
Ministry of Education
Mrs Katalin HERNECZKI
Director of Comenius 2000
Quality Improvement Programme Bureau
LATVIA
Mr Nils SAKSS
Mission of Latvia to the European Commission
Dr Andrejs RAUHVARGERS
Deputy Head of State Secretary for
Education Strategy & Int. Cooperation
Ministry of Education and Science
LITHUANIA
Mr Ric?ardas ALIS
?
AUSKAS
Head
Education Development Division
Ministry of Education and Science
Mr Arûnas PLIKS
?
NYS
Director
General Education Department
Ministry of Education and Science
POLAND
Mrs Aldona HILDEBRANDT
Chief Inspector
Department of Teachers’ Improvement
Ministry of National Education
Mrs Ewa KOLASINSKA
Senior Inspector
Department of Teachers’ Improvement
Ministry of National Education
ROMANIA
Mr Alexandru MODRESCU
Head
Department for Documentation and Education Analysis
Socrates National Agency
Mr Mircea MANIU
General Director of the International Relations Department
Ministry of National Education
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 81
SLOVAKIA
Dr Juraj VANTUCH
Faculty of Education
Comenius University
SLOVENIA
Mr Janez KREK
Assistant
Faculty of Education
University of Ljubljana
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Mr Anders J. HINGEL
Head of Unit
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Mr Lars Bo JAKOBSEN
Detached national expert
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Mr Ben ROLLES
Trainee
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Miss Kate LYONS
Trainee
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Miss Liliane LAUBACH
Secretary
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Mr Spyridon PILOS
Education and training statistics
Coordination
Eurostat
UNITE EUROPEENNE D’Eurydice
Madame Luce PEPIN
Directrice
Madame Arlette DELHAXHE
Directrice adjointe/Etudes et analyses
Mr Patrice BREL
Graphiste
EXPERTS
Mrs Christiane BLONDIN
Service de pédagogie expérimentale
Université de Liège
Mr Marc DEMEUSE
Maître de Conférences
Service de pédagogie expérimentale
Université de Liège
Prof. Dr Klaus KLEMM
Fachbereich 2
Universität/Gesamthochschule Essen
Prof. John MACBEATH
Quality in Education Centre
University of Strathclyde
OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development
Mr Andreas SCHLEICHER
Deputy Head
Statistics on Indicators Division
Mr Tom SMITH
Statistics on Indicators Division
82 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
European Commission
European report on the quality of school education
Sixteen quality indicators
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2001 — 82 pp. — 21 x 29.7 cm
ISBN 92-894-0536-8
EUROPEAN REPORT
ON THE QUALITY OF
SCHOOL EDUCATION
SIXTEEN QUALITY INDICATORS
Report based on the work
of the Working Committee on Quality Indicators
European Commission
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
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9 789289 405362
doc_189286568.pdf
ON THE QUALITY OF
SCHOOL EDUCATION
SIXTEEN QUALITY INDICATORS
Report based on the work
of the Working Committee on Quality Indicators
European Commission
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
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9 789289 405362
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for
Education and Culture
EUROPEAN REPORT
ON THE QUALITY OF
SCHOOL EDUCATION
SIXTEEN QUALITY INDICATORS
Report based on the work of
the Working Committee
on Quality Indicators (
1
)
MAY 2000
(1) The working committee includes experts selected by the Ministers of Education of the
following countries: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Sweden, the United Kingdom,
Cyprus, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Bulgaria, the
Czech Republic, and Slovenia.
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.
It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001
ISBN 92-894-0536-8
© European Communities, 2001
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Italy
A. INTRODUCTION 5
B. FIVE CHALLENGES TO THE QUALITY OF
EDUCATION IN EUROPE 9
SIXTEEN INDICATORS
ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION 13
Indicators on attainment
1. Mathematics 14
2. Reading 17
3. Science 20
4. Information and communication 23
technologies (ICT)
5. Foreign languages 26
6. Learning to learn 29
7. Civics 31
Indicators on success and transition
8. Drop-out rates 33
9. Completion of upper secondary education 36
10. Participation in tertiary education 38
Indicators on monitoring of education
11. Evaluation and steering of school education 41
12. Parent participation 44
Indicators on resources and structures
13. Education and training of teachers 47
14. Participation in pre-primary education 50
15. Number of students per computer 52
16. Educational expenditure per student 55
Annexes:
1. EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES 61
2. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING 75
3. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE WORKING 79
COMMITTEE ON QUALITY INDICATORS
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 3
CONTENTS
The quality of education and training is considered in
all Member States to be a concern of the highest po-
litical priority. High levels of knowledge, competencies
and skills are considered to be the very basic condi-
tions for active citizenship, employment and social co-
hesion. Lifelong learning is an important means of
shaping one’s future on a professional and personal
level, and high-quality education is essential in the
light of labour market policies, and the free movement
of workers within the European Union.
It is stated in Article 149 of the EC Treaty that ‘the
Community shall contribute to the development of
quality education by encouraging cooperation be-
tween Member States and, if necessary, by supporting
and supplementing their actions while fully respecting
the responsibility of the Member States for the con-
tent of teaching and the organisation of educational
systems and their cultural and linguistic diversity’. The
Education Council has debated this subject on numer-
ous occasions. A number of conclusions and resolu-
tions have been adopted, inviting Member States and
the Commission to initiate cooperation in the field. In
the Council resolution of 26 November 1999, Ministers
of Education identified the quality of education as one
of the priority issues for consideration under the new
cooperation model of the ‘Rolling agenda’.
Under the Community action programme Socrates,
quality of education is the key objective of the pro-
gramme actions. Quality of education has thus been a
priority issue for analysis, and a number of studies and
research projects have been launched with a view to
strengthening cooperation at European level in the
field. These initiatives have paved the way for the pilot
project on quality evaluation in school education
which was implemented in 101 secondary schools
across Europe in 1997/98. Based on the results of the
pilot scheme, the Commission adopted in January
2000 a proposal for a recommendation of the Euro-
pean Parliament and the Council on ‘European cooper-
ation in quality evaluation in school education’, based
on Article 149 and 150 of the Treaty.
The need for cooperation in the field of quality evalu-
ation was equally underlined at the conference, held in
Prague in June 1998, of the Education Ministers of the
European Union and of the 11 acceding countries as
well the Education Ministers from the three non-asso-
ciated countries of central and eastern Europe partici-
pating as observers. The Education Ministers from the
26 participating countries invited the Commission to
establish a working committee of national experts des-
ignated by the Ministers with a view to agreeing a
‘limited number of indicators or benchmarks for school
standards to assist national evaluation of systems’. A
working group consisting of experts of 26 European
countries was subsequently set up in February 1999 (
2
).
Two progress reports were prepared by the Commission.
The first report, containing the basic criteria for the
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 5
A. INTRODUCTION
(
2
) The list is also available on the Internet
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/indic/membersen.html).
selection of indicators, was presented to the European
Ministers of Education, in Budapest, in June 1999. The
second report, setting out a preliminary outline of the
indicators to be considered, was submitted to the Edu-
cation Council at the meeting on 26 November 1999. (
3
)
This European report on the quality of school education is
based on the 16 indicators which were selected by the
working group in cooperation with the Commission. These
indicators cover four broad areas: attainment levels; edu-
cational success and transition; monitoring of school edu-
cation; and educational resources and structures.
The Commission envisages submitting this report to the
Education Council under Portuguese Presidency (8 June
2000) and to the Conference of European Education Min-
isters to be held in Bucharest (18 to 20 June 2000). The re-
port will constitute a key element of the ‘Rolling agenda’
of the Education Council in the field of quality of educa-
tion. The Commission’s intention is to update and to com-
plement the selected indicators on a regular basis.
The European report on the quality of school educa-
tion represents the Commission’s first response to the
conclusions of the special European Council meeting
in Lisbon on 23 and 24 March 2000. At this meeting
the Union set itself the strategic target of becoming
the most competitive economy in the world capable of
sustainable growth, with more, higher quality jobs and
greater social cohesion. Achieving this goal requires an
overall strategy aimed at preparing the development
of the knowledge-based economy and a strategy de-
signed to modernise the European social model by in-
vesting in people and by combating social exclusion.
At the core of this strategic reorientation of priorities,
the conclusions of the Lisbon European Summit (March
2000) recognised the essential role of education and
training in moving towards the goal of full employment
through the development of the knowledge economy.
The European Council clearly identified the need to set
quantifiable targets, indicators and benchmarks as a
means of comparing best practice and as instruments
for monitoring and reviewing the progress achieved.
The Commission is convinced that this first European re-
port on the quality of school education will contribute
a European dimension to the shared knowledge pool
available for educational policy-making. The Commis-
sion hopes that the report will foster cooperation across
Europe and stimulate a wide ranging debate among all
stakeholders on quality policies of education.
PRESENTATION OF THE 16 INDICATORS
The 16 indicators on quality of school education se-
lected by the working committee of national experts
provide a complementary set of information, which be-
gins to paint a picture of quality in European schools.
The 16 indicators are shown in the table below:
6 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
3
) The two progress reports can be found on the Internet
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/indic/backen.html).
AREA INDICATOR
Attainment
1. Mathematics
2. Reading
3. Science
4. Information and communication technologies
(ICT)
5. Foreign languages
6. Learning to learn
7. Civics
Success and transition
8. Drop out
9. Completion of upper secondary education
10. Participation in tertiary education
Monitoring of school education
11. Evaluation and steering of school education
12. Parental participation
Resources and Structures
13. Education and training of teachers
14. Participation in pre-primary education
15. Number of students per computer
16. Educational expenditure per student
The indicators fall into four areas:
1. Attainment.
In this area are seven indicators of attainment which
are seen as critical for all European countries in the
present and for the future. In some fields — ‘mathe-
matics’, ‘reading’, ‘science’ — data already exist. To
some degree this reflects the relative ease of measure-
ment in these curricular areas. At the other end of the
spectrum ‘learning to learn’ is an indicator covering a
much less easily measurable set of skills but nonethe-
less critical for an unpredictable social and economic
future where no comparable data is presently avail-
able. In between are subjects such as ‘civics’, for which
little data as yet exists, and ‘foreign languages’, which
has also still to be developed. ‘Information and com-
munication technology’ (ICT) is also included in this
attainment set because, although little good data cur-
rently exists, it will be a key indicator in years to come.
All of these areas of attainment remain important
goals for the future.
2. Success and transition.
Into this area fall three indicators of highly significant
policy relevance. They are closely inter-related —
‘drop-out rate from school’, ‘completion of upper
secondary education’ and ‘participation in tertiary
education’.
3. Monitoring of school education.
Two indicators currently fall into this area. These are
‘evaluation and steering of school education’ and
‘parental participation’. Both are concerned with stake-
holder participation where heads of schools, teachers,
students and parents are key stakeholders, consumers
of information and active players in school improve-
ment.
4. Resources and structures.
This category includes four indicators, each concerned
with key aspects of infrastructure which underpin
school performance and pupil success. These are ‘educa-
tional expenditure per student’, ‘education and training
of teachers’, ‘participation rates in pre-primary educa-
tion’ and ‘number of students per computer’.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 7
USING INDICATORS AND BENCHMARKS IN POLICY-
MAKING
It is through graphical portrayal of similarities and dif-
ferences between countries that indicators and bench-
marks truly come into their own. This allows countries
to learn from one another through comparison of both
common interests and shared differences. The aim of
benchmarks is not to set standards or targets, but
rather to provide policy-makers with reference points.
Benchmarks are used to identify issues which need to
be investigated further, and to suggest alternative
routes to policy goals.
As an example we might look at existing data on the
use of ICT in schools.
Why choose ‘ I CT attai nment’ as i ndi cator
for qual i ty of educati on?
This topic is selected because ICT is of the most criti-
cal policy relevance. It is already having far-reaching
effects on people’s lives and children’s learning, with,
for example, 40 % of all UK market shares in ICT.
Why choose data on ‘ the use of I CT i n
school s’ ?
The indicator selected is simply one of many. It com-
pares countries’ approaches to the use of ICT as a cur-
ricular subject and/or as a generic tool. While the
data are limited in how much they reveal, they pro-
vide an introduction to policy discussion by raising a
number of questions about the future place, purpose
and practice of ICT in European schools. For example:
• Which is better — to teach ICT as a subject in its
own right or to use it as a tool across all subjects?
• What does this mean for the education of teach-
ers — specialist skills or generic skills?
• What are the demands of the labour market —
for high level specialists (e.g., programmers) or young
people with broad computer literacy?
And looking to the immediate and longer-term
future:
• What are the cost benefits of alternative forms
of provision? How much of learning can be inde-
pendent, teacher-led, peer group-led, or home,
school, or community based?
All the indicators lead into a number of different pol-
icy areas and into the examination of promising prac-
tices that already exist within Europe. Within each of
the indicator areas in this document, examples of such
practices are illustrated. They suggest what can be
done with imagination and commitment. For instance,
within ICT, examples are given of interesting initiatives
in Estonia and Sweden. The Swedish example covers a
number of key areas, including teacher education and
student resourcing, but carries significant cost impli-
cations. The Estonian example, on the other hand, sug-
gests innovative ways of using hidden resources
(school students) to actually minimise costs and simul-
taneously raise achievement. So, indicators lead to
benchmarks, to issues and questions and thence to
examples of practice which provide a focus for policy
development in every European country.
FROM DATA TO POLICY AND PRACTICE
In this report, each of the 16 indicators is presented in
sequence, which does not represent an order of prior-
ity. In some cases data is long-standing and well-
researched. In some, data is new and less well tested.
In others there is no data available as yet but the indi-
cator is included as an area of important emerging
policy issues.
In all cases, however, comparability has to be ap-
proached with caution and an open mind. Even the
most robust of data conceal historical and cultural dif-
ferences and value systems. National goals and priori-
ties differ and will continue to differ but much may
still be learned from innovative practice and new and
different approaches to old problems.
So, promising or interesting examples of what is hap-
pening across Europe are presented to stimulate dis-
cussion further and to illustrate principles which may
be transferable across countries. Some examples of
practice go well beyond the parameters of the associ-
ated indicator but in so doing illustrate the potential
of the data to make a difference both at policy level
and in school or classroom practice.
8 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
The new millennium may be only a symbolic change of
date but it marks an important stage for policy-mak-
ers in European countries. It encourages us to look to
the future and turn our attention to the challenges
which that future presents. For policy-makers, the
challenge will be to stay in touch with, and ahead of,
national and transnational movements which will
change the face of Europe and impact on national sys-
tems of education. The 16 indicators presented in this
report lead us to identify five key challenges for the
future:
• the knowledge challenge
• the challenge of decentralisation
• the resource challenge
• the challenge of social inclusion
• the challenge of data and comparability.
The knowledge challenge
The challenge of the knowledge society brings us back
to the essential purposes of school education, in rela-
tion to the world of work, to social life and lifelong
learning. The information explosion demands funda-
mental rethinking of traditional conceptions of
knowledge, its ‘transmission’, ‘delivery’ by teachers
and ‘acquisition’ by students. It raises questions about
the assessment and testing of knowledge and the
more demanding resources of skills, attitudes and
motivation to learn. It questions curriculum content
and the prioritisation and compartmentalisation of
‘subjects’.
Reading, mathematics and science claim their place as
indicators because they provide essential knowledge
tools and provide the foundations for lifelong learning
skills. Less easily measurable competencies in civics,
foreign languages and ICT will be no less significant in
the future. Least developed of all in terms of the indi-
cator areas presented in this report are learning to
learn skills but, arguably, they may be the most critical
and enduring of competencies in the society of the
third millennium.
All of these areas of knowledge and skills present ma-
jor challenges for the teaching profession and to the
content of teaching in initial and in-service training.
Indicators in these areas do not provide the answer but
do raise critical questions about how and where teach-
ers should be trained in the future and how continu-
ing professional development can be ensured.
Change requires rethinking, reappraisal, re-evaluation
of accepted practices, challenging what has always
been done and accepted. Change often requires both
restructuring and re-culturing of organisations. It im-
poses new demands on hierarchies, status and rela-
tionships. It may unsettle teachers and puzzle parents
who have cast schools in the mould of what they
knew.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 9
B. FIVE CHALLENGES TO THE QUALITY
OF EDUCATION IN EUROPE
However, as the examples of promising practice show,
these challenges are being met. Initiatives are under-
way to up-skill teachers, to exploit new technologies,
to break new ground in learning to learn competen-
cies. Meeting the knowledge challenge means learning
from the good and implementing the best.
The challenge of decentralisation
During the last two decades, many European educa-
tional systems have devolved more autonomy and re-
sponsibility to schools, bringing increasing demands
for accountability at school and, in some cases, class-
room level. The scale and rate of decentralisation has
been very different within European countries. In some
(for example, the Netherlands and the United King-
dom), schools have acquired a large measure of auton-
omy, while in Belgium (Flanders), Denmark, Finland
and Sweden most decisions are now taken at school
level. In Italy, a reform, which involves a greaost gree
of school autonomy, has been mooted since 1997. In
Austria, reforms in 1993–94 enhanced the autonomy
of the schools.
The trend to devolve decision-making to school level is
a high stakes political strategy, the result in part of a
lack of trust in the State’s capacity to respond ade-
quately to each and every need of an increasingly de-
manding population. It has been argued thaosthose
most concerned with the outcome of a decision are in
the best position to take decisions which most directly
affecosthem. In a sense, decentralisation is a means of
taking the political debate on quality down to lower
levels of the education system.
In doing so it raises questions about comparability,
equity, quality assurance and inspecoion. Empowering
stakeholders at lower levels means making them re-
sponsible for defining whaosthey understand by quali-
ty in education and giving them ‘ownership’ of their
part in the education system.
The process of decentralisation is often seen as both
positive and inevitable, but with its own attendant
problems. Since it is the responsibility of the State to
provide quality education for all, there needs to be
some guarantee thaosthe system is, in fact, fulfilling
thaosobjecoive. Decentralisation by its very nature leads
to greaoer differences in standards among schools. The
policy challenge is to acknowledge thaosthese differ-
ences exist, and to ensure thaosdifferences are turned
to opportunities and thaosthey do not hinder pupils in
achieving their full potential.
It has been argued thaoscentralised systems, which pre-
scribe and control education inputs (curriculum, form
content, etc.) need less monitoring and control than
decentralised systems, which place less emphasis on
the control of input and require greaoer emphasis
on the control of output. A closer look at indicators on
the steering and evaluation of systems does not en-
tirely support such a contention but does reveal quite
divergent systems enveloping apparently similar
pracoices.
The resource challenge
For many people within the educational systems the
solution to the pressures of change is more resources.
Education is increasingly being viewed around the
world as investment. While opening up choice to con-
sumers in new educational markets, the economic im-
perative is for cost-effecoive aloernatives to expensive
institutional pracoices. Technology will become cheap-
er and widely accessible while professional manpower
will become scarcer and costlier, in both a social and
economic sense. The indicator on numbers of comput-
ers per pupil is already daoed as schools experience
rapid increases in provision. The real challenge lies in
the most intelligent and cost-effecoive use and de-
ployment of new technologies.
In most European countries there are twin trends
which increase resource demands at both ends of the
compulsory schooling. More and more people are using
the education system for a longer and longer period of
their lives, so increasing resource demands on educa-
oion. Enrolment in further and higher education is in-
creasing steadily. Aosthe other end of the education
system, pre-school education is becoming more and
more common and, alohough its nature and timing is a
debaoed issue, there is wide agreement thaosearly
childhood experiences have a deoermining influence
on intelligence, on personal development and on sub-
sequent social integration. However desirable, and
however much investment in early childhood repre-
sents long-oerm investment,sthese accelerating trends
also bring pressure on resource provision and require
creaoive policy thinking.
As provision becomes less institutionalised, individuals
will need to adapt by assembling their own qualifica-
tions, their own building blocks of knowledge, on the
10 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
job, in more informal ways or in new contexts still to
be identified. Learning throughout life is becoming the
key to controlling one’s future on both a professional
and a personal level, making it possible to participate
more actively in society.
Again policy-makers will benefit from data which
monitors important trends, but beyond the numbers
and graphics lie issues about the nature and effective-
ness of provision and the need for more and better
data, sensitive enough to inform decision-making in
these areas.
The challenge of social inclusion
All European education systems aim to be inclusive, to
offer children and young people the opportunity to
benefit from school education and to prepare them for
life after school.
No system is entirely successful in achieving these aims
and all countries recognise the increasing magnitude
of the task. It is becoming all the more challenging be-
cause school structures, curricula and the learning
environment are seen by many young people as un-
congenial or irrelevant to their lives. For many there is
no apparent incentive from home or community to go
to school and no benefit from attending on a regular
basis. All Member States are realising that the future
brings a monumental challenge to traditional struc-
tures of educational institutions. This means finding
ways of educating people beyond school and outside
the classroom, helping them acquire the skills and
competencies which will make them less vulnerable in
the global economy. The European pilot project ‘Sec-
ond chance schools’, which presently counts 13
schools in 11 Member States, addresses this problem by
showing that those young people who have left edu-
cation without the basic skills necessary to find jobs
and permit integration can be reintegrated through
individualised education and training schemes in close
cooperation with local employers.
The civics indicator provides one measure of social in-
clusion. It reminds us of how ‘foreigners’, however de-
fined, are perceived, and suggests that it is for social
agencies and schools in particular to address this issue.
Attitudes towards foreigners can be affected not sim-
ply through the context of the curriculum, but
through the very structures and culture of schools
themselves.
This indicator is a reminder that the relationship be-
tween school and society is a vital ingredient in poli-
cy-making. Policy-makers need to know the answers to
questions such as the following.
1. What implicit and explicit messages do schools
convey on social inclusion?
2. Where is the system losing young people — and
why?
3. Where are the problems most acute?
4. Where can we identify successes in engaging and
retaining young people?
5. What are the alternatives for the future?
The challenge of data and comparability
The 16 indicators presented in this report provide a
timely reminder that countries can no longer look in-
wards, but that they must look outwards to see how
they are performing in comparison to their neigh-
bours. A new term has entered the policy discourse —
benchmarking. Benchmarks bring a new way of think-
ing, about national performance, about local and re-
gional effectiveness, and performance at the level of
individual schools. Benchmarks can be used diagnosti-
cally and formatively to inform policy and practice but
are sometimes also viewed as a threat.
The challenge of comparability is to create an open
and positive climate for dialogue. Comparison which is
perceived as unfair becomes detrimental to the posi-
tive and constructive use of benchmark data. The ob-
vious place to start is with standards attained by chil-
dren at school — their outcomes on leaving school,
their acquisition of basic skills at key stages of devel-
opment.
Data on pupil attainment at given ages is, however, of
limited use to policy-making without knowledge of
the conditions in which attainment is raised and
of limited value without an understanding of factors
which contribute to good teaching and effective
learning.
This raises the question of the availability of compara-
tive data. Many indicators in this report clearly lack
sufficient data to support a policy discussion and to
enable the identification of good practices. Problems
related to data have been identified and are listed
below.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 11
ing the best use of the ‘European statistical system’
and the ‘Community statistical programme’ (
4
) would
allow us to derive greater benefit from the use of
comparative indicators and benchmarks in terms of
improving the quality of education.
Comparing systems
Europe is a rich mix of cultures and histories, brought
together in one union, facing common problems and
pursing common goals while preserving cultural and
linguistic diversity.
European countries share many common objectives.
They are all concerned to offer young people the
chance to achieve high levels of literacy and numera-
cy, to provide a stimulating school experience and to
instil a desire for learning which will serve young peo-
ple well for their lives beyond school. Such objectives
are not contested. Nor is there disagreement about key
subjects of the school curriculum. This background
provides a strong basis for sharing and learning from
one another.
However, subject areas are given different priorities in
different Member States. Varying emphases are placed
on the context of learning at different ages and
stages. Methodologies differ. Teaching and learning is
embedded in different structures. Countries diverge in
their linguistic and cultural histories. These cultural
patterns bring a depth and richness to the dialogue at
European level. They provide a strong basis for Mem-
ber States to learn from one another.
This is why, in selecting indicators and benchmarks, it
is important to choose those which are most genera-
tive in stimulating an open policy dialogue; one which
looks forward — to policy implications of the data and
lines for further inquiry in the future. Data for all
countries are embedded in a cultural and historical
context. All data are suggestive rather than definitive.
Indicators should be regarded as starting points, limit-
ed in their internal meaning but unlimited in their im-
plications for improving raising standards for all.
• The problem of obtaining data for all the coun-
tries involved. In only three cases have we been able to
show full coverage of all the 26 countries involved by
using Eurydice data. These are the indicators covering:
parents’ participation, ICT usage and evaluation and
monitoring systems. The extension of the Eurostat UOE
data collection and Labour Force Survey to all these
countries is ongoing (five statistical indicators).
• The problem of a lack of data in relation to specif-
ic indicators. The report is not currently supported by
data on attainment in foreign languages, learning to
learn, ICT or civics. The results from the PISA study
(OECD) and the IEA (International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement) survey on
civics, which will be published by 2001, will provide
answers to some of these problems, but for ‘foreign
languages’ there are no measures in place to address
the lack of available data. Furthermore, data on
parental participation, and more broadly ‘stakeholder
participation’, clearly needs to be further elaborated
than is presently the case, as does data on the evalua-
tion and monitoring of school education. In the latter
case, new comparative data should look in particular
at the links between external and internal evaluation.
• For some indicators, the age of the data used is
clearly a problem. This is particularly so in the field of
‘reading’, where the data used in this report are almost
10 years old. Publication of some new data is, howev-
er, planned within the coming months and years. This
is the situation for six of the seven attainment indica-
tors (mathematics, reading, science, learning to learn,
ICT, civics). The availability of regularly updated valid
data will continue to be of major concern.
• The problem of the usefulness of the data has
been discussed throughout the preparation of this re-
port. One could question whether the data which is
presently available, or planned, on attainment levels
provide sufficient insight into each country’s educa-
tional specificity. Establishing a strong awareness of
the particular nature of a country’s educational system
would better allow countries, which may so desire, to
take remedial action in specific areas. More refined
methodologies would allow a move away from
straightforward comparisons and allow the reader to
understand better not only the levels of skills in spe-
cific areas but also how these skills are attained in
diverse educational systems.
A common approach between European countries to
defining the indicator needs and methodologies mak-
12 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
4
) Council Decision No 1999/12/EC of 22 December 1998 on
the Community statistical programme 1998 to 2002 (OJ
L 42, 16.2.1999, p. 1).
Indicators on attainment
1. Mathematics
2. Reading
3. Science
4. Information and communication
technologies (ICT)
5. Foreign languages
6. Learning to learn
7. Civics
Indicators on success and transition
8. Drop-out rates
9. Completion of upper secondary education
10. Participation in tertiary education
Indicators on monitoring of education
11. Evaluation and steering of school education
12. Parent participation
Indicators on resources and structures
13. Education and training of teachers
14. Participation in pre-primary education
15. Number of students per computer
16. Educational expenditure per student
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 13
SIXTEEN INDICATORS ON THE QUALITY
OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
A solid grounding in mathematics belongs at the very core of the educational curricu-
lum. Analytical skills, logic skills and reasoning are all enhanced through the study of
mathematics. Compulsory training of children in mathematics is therefore an important
requirement for participation in society, ultimately making an indispensable contribution
to national competitiveness and the knowledge society. All countries seem to share this
view and place basic learning in mathematics at the heart of early learning. The year
2000 has been announced ‘Year of mathematics’ by the International Mathematical
Union and sponsored by Unesco.
TEST RESULTS IN MATHEMATICS (13-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS), 1995
) Data not availableSource: IEA, TIMSS.
1. MATHEMATICS
14 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Belgium
80
70
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% of items with a correct answer
8
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grade 8
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grade Average
The graph shows the results of an international math-
ematics ability test: the Third International Mathemat-
ics and Science Study (TIMSS). TIMSS is a collaborative
research study conducted by the International Associ-
ation for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement
(IEA). Tests were taken in 1995 by samples of, among
others, classes from the two adjacent grades with the
largest proportion of 13-year-old students (seventh
and eighth grades in most countries). In the survey,
which covered 41 systems of education worldwide, the
ability of seventh and eighth grade pupils to handle
mathematical symbols, terms and models, and their
mathematical thinking and problem solving abilities
were all measured.
The findings of the TIMSS study will be complemented by
OECD’s PISA study (Programme for international student
assessment) which will be carried out later this year. The
first results of this study will be published in 2001.
The graph shows the average scores of seventh and
eighth grade pupils from each country. The two hori-
zontal lines show the international averages for the
European and pre-accession countries in the seventh
(lower line) and eighth grades (upper line). The differ-
ences between grades vary from 1 percentage point in
Belgium (Flanders) to 10 percentage points in France
and in Lithuania.
European countries achieved very varied results, in
terms of percentage of correct answers in the test. They
ranged from 65 % in the seventh grade (Belgium (Flan-
ders)) to 37 % (Portugal) and from 66 % in the eighth
grade (Belgium (Flanders) and the Czech Republic) to
43 % (Portugal). It is particularly interesting to note that
central European countries such as Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia performed es-
pecially well. When the test results from the seventh and
eighth grades, shown here, are compared with those
from the fourth grade, also available in the TIMSS sur-
vey, they show a very similar pattern of results in terms
of the relative positions of the countries. This suggests
that the relative abilities in mathematics are established
early in the educational process.
In the light of this, however, it is surprising that there
does not appear to be any strong connection within
countries between the TIMSS results for pupils in the
eighth grade and those in the final classes (12th or
13th grade). A very high level of performance among
eighth grade pupils, in relation to other countries, does
not necessarily mean a comparably high level among
12th grade pupils.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 15
Some caution should be taken with the data with re-
gard to the comparability of the results of the partici-
pating countries. Attention should be drawn to some
potential problems. Firstly, some of the participating
countries did not fulfil the guidelines for drawing the
samples, thus the results cannot be guaranteed to be
fully representative. Secondly, it must be remembered
that the pupils in the participating countries are ac-
customed to different types of test. The types of task
presented in the TIMSS tests, and the manner in which
the tests were conducted, may have been familiar to
some students but unfamiliar to others. This may ex-
plain some of the variations between countries. There
were also slight differences in age among pupils test-
ed. Furthermore national differences between curricu-
la might also have had an impact on results.
Compared to their overall performance, almost all
countries did relatively better in some content areas
than they did in others indicating differences in the
curriculum emphasis between countries. Significant
differences in results can, for example, be found be-
tween geometry and algebra. The TIMSS survey points
to a range of factors that appear to be linked to high
achievement in mathematics, including the following.
• A clear positive relationship between a stronger
liking of mathematics and higher achievement. How-
ever, even in some high-scoring countries such as the
Czech Republic, Austria and the Netherlands, mathe-
matics is not necessarily very popular, with more than
40 % of students reporting that they disliked it.
• A strong positive relationship between achievement
and home environment — better educated parents, the
availability of study aids at home such as dictionaries,
computers and a study desk for the student’s own use.
There were other factors where the TIMSS survey could
establish no clear link with achievement. They includ-
ed class size, number of instructional hours in class,
amount of homework and gender.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING MATHEMATICS
The key policy issues set out here are based partly on
international discussion of the results of TIMSS, but
they are also linked to wider educational debate:
The development of teaching methods which ensure
that pupils have a positive attitude towards mathe-
matics, and that they are motivated to learn mathe-
matics and encouraged to study and apply mathemat-
ical laws independently. How can such a culture of
teaching and learning be developed and maintained
in the field of mathematics, and how can the impor-
tance of mathematics be demonstrated in order to
motivate pupils to learn?
The issue of positive and negative attitudes towards
mathematics which could influence students’ choices
of subjects studied in tertiary education. Many coun-
tries experience difficulties in attracting students to
technical and scientific studies. What experiences and
positive actions exist to encourage students to pur-
sue such fields of study, and to overcome negative
attitudes towards mathematics in this context?
Mathematics is considered to be at the very core of
the educational curriculum. High attainment levels in
mathematics are central for access to some key areas
of higher education and many professional careers.
But mathematical ability is a core sG .pne sc18.zens.9(s.)]TJ T730.1108tiesss andabiTw knowledgeudis i
TEST RESULTS IN READING LITERACY (14-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS), 1991
) Data not availableSource: IEA, Reading literacy.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 17
2. READING
Belgium
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
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80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
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Reading skills play a central role in an individual’s learning at school. The ability to read
and understand instructions and text is a basic requirement of success in all school sub-
jects. The importance of literacy skills does not, however, come to an end when children
leave school. Such skills are key to all areas of education and beyond, facilitating par-
ticipation in the wider context of lifelong learning and contributing to individuals’
social integration and personal development.
The indicator is based on an IEA survey in which three areas of reading literacy were as-
sessed: narrative prose, expository prose and documents. It concerns six different skills
or processes related to these areas.
The data for the proposed indicator comes from the
IEA. The tests were taken in 1991 by samples of the
classes of the grades with the largest proportion of
9-year-olds and 14-year-olds in 32 systems of educa-
tion. In the longer term, as with mathematics and sci-
ence, indicators from the PISA survey will be published
in autumn 2001. In addition, the IEA is preparing a
new study about reading literacy.
The graph above shows the mean percentages of items
successfully answered by the sample of 14-year-old
students in each country. The horizontal line corre-
sponds to the mean success percentage calculated for
the European and pre-accession countries.
As the average age of students was not exactly the
same in the different countries, their scores may be
slightly underestimated (Italy, Hungary, Spain and Bel-
gium) or overestimated (Portugal and France).
The average score is 72 %. It is not always easy to
make sense of this kind of international comparison
without some sort of frame of reference to tell us, for
example, what ‘15 %’ actually means. One can analyse
the data and see that, based on 14 identical items
from the test, the difference between the scores of
9-year-olds and 14-year-olds was around 24 %.
Although this information should be treated with cau-
tion it does provide a guideline — for example, if we
consider Belgium and Finland, separated by 15 per-
centage points, we can see that 15 percentage points
represents about two thirds of the average interna-
tional progress observed between 9 and 14 years in the
14 items referred to above (Elley, 1994: see Annex 2).
Analyses have been carried out in order to determine
what variables may be linked to the level of reading
achievement, both between countries and within each
country. It should, however, be stressed that although
statistical analyses show links between achievement
and some other variables, no country follows exactly
the same pattern. The results point more to areas for
further exploration than to definitive solutions for im-
proving reading attainment.
• The countries’ averages are linked to some charac-
teristics of the home environment (such as the pres-
ence of books, newspapers, etc.).
• Some individual students’ characteristics, such as
gender, also play a part in reading performance.
• The level of certain school resources is also associ-
ated with reading literacy achievement. Educational
18 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
policy-makers can exert some influence on these re-
sources, their distribution or their use. The most effi-
cient of these variables relates to the presence of
books in the community and parental cooperation
with the school.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING READING
At secondary school level, public libraries and book-
shops can make an essential contribution to reading
skills; the regular addition of new books to the school
library, the existence of a reading room and a teachers’
library are worth considering. They can also play an
important part in providing interesting reading mate-
rial for pedagogic use. How can the number and
quality of books available to students — and also to
teachers – be enriched?
As is the case for computers (see the ‘students per
computer’ indicator), a sufficient number of high-
quality books is necessary, but this alone will not guar-
antee high attainment levels in reading. The books
must be used in the most efficient way in order to en-
hance both students’ interest for and competence in
reading. How can teachers be supported in address-
ing the needs of different age groups? How can the
cross-curricular nature of reading be taken into
account in teacher training?
As in other domains, parental participation (see rele-
vant indicator) is important. How can parental partic-
ipation be achieved, particularly for students with
poor reading skills? How can parents be supported in
their role?
Young people are increasingly faced with forms of me-
dia which include written material (advertising, televi-
sion, CD-ROM, and multimedia, for example). How can
curriculum development and teacher training best
be managed in order to equip young people with lit-
eracy skills for the future and to allow them to
analyse in a critical way the information conveyed
by the media?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Denmark — Efforts to increase the level of attainment
in reading in compulsory education in Denmark by re-
inforcing the subject in the curriculum.
Germany — Newspapers in schools — over a period of
three months, students receive ‘their’ daily newspaper
(without paying for it). This is then used systematical-
ly within different subject matters at school.
Italy — The 1998 ‘Progetto lettura 2000’ programme
aims to promote the development of school libraries
and to encourage reading among students in all kinds
of school.
Sweden — Parents of students aged 10 to 12 are en-
couraged to spend half an hour per day reading a
good book with their child. The authorities have sup-
ported this initiative, providing money to buy interest-
ing books that both students and parents enjoy.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 19
3. SCIENCE
20 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Science gives pupils the tools to investigate their environment and to experiment, thus
increasing their ability to analyse and make sense of the world around them. It promotes
curiosity and critical thinking about a wide range of issues such as the environment, liv-
ing things, health and other issues. Science can also help pupils to develop an awareness
of the inter-relationship between people and nature, and an understanding of the finite
nature of the earth’s resources. At the level of European economy, scientific disciplines
are the bases for much of the core foundations of business and industry. In a national
perspective, well-trained researchers are indispensable to technological progress, the im-
pact of which transcends national frontiers.
TEST RESULTS IN SCIENCES (13-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS), 1995
) Data not availableSource: IEA, TIMSS.
Belgium
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
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80
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60
50
40
30
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As with mathematics, the proposed aggregated indicator
is taken from the Third International Mathematics and
Science Study (TIMSS) (see the ‘mathematics’ indicator
for more detail about this study). The test covers five ar-
eas: earth science, life science, physics, chemistry, as well
as environmental issues and the nature of science. Stu-
dents were expected to understand simple or complex in-
formation, to theorise, analyse and solve problems, to use
tools, routine procedures, and scientific processes and to
investigate the natural world. An analysis of how the test
corresponds to the curriculum in different countries has
shown substantial variations in the number of items
which each country considers appropriate. However,
when countries’ results in the test as a whole are com-
pared with their results in a selection of items relevant to
their own curriculum, their relative positions in the study
are not significantly affected.
The graph shows the average scores of seventh and
eighth grade pupils from each country. The two thick
lines show the international averages for the European
and pre-accession countries in seventh (lower line) and
eighth grades (upper line). The gap between the two
averages (6.4 %) gives an idea of the difference be-
tween the performances of the seventh and the eighth
grades students.
Some caution should be taken with the data. In some
cases, the error due to sampling may be larger than the
difference between the averages. Thus, for example, the
average in Greece (grade 8) cannot be considered to be
different from the average in Germany (grade 7). As the
average age of students was not exactly the same in each
country, the scores of countries may be slightly under- or
overestimated. It is also important to take into account
the fact that some countries did not meet all the sample
criteria for one or more of the areas concerned.
The graph shows some significant differences between
countries. Among the European countries, the differ-
ence between the highest-achieving country (the Czech
Republic, eighth grade: 64 %) and the lowest-achieving
one (Cyprus, eighth grade: 47 %) is 17 %. If we consid-
er this difference in relation to the difference between
average performance in the seventh grade and the
eighth grade, we see that a gap of 17 % represents ap-
proximately 2.7 years of student progress. Japan obtains
very high results at both levels, whilst the United States’
score is closer to the European mean, particularly at
eighth grade.
It is important to consider the distribution of the re-
sults around each national average. A good average
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 21
level does not necessarily imply that the school system
is a good one; disparities between highest and lowest
achievers in a particular country may still be very
large. The gap could be linked to socioeconomic differ-
ences as well as other factors (such as differences be-
tween curricula, differential selectivity, organisational
structure, etc.).
The study points to some variables which seem to be
related to the results. As concerns gender, boys per-
form better than girls in all countries (fourth grade)
and significantly so in Austria, Hungary, Netherlands
and the Czech Republic; and factors such as motiva-
tion, status of scientific studies and jobs, and method-
ological practices, also seem to be related to results.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
SCIENCES
All citizens should to be able to access and use new
technologies for their own benefit and for the eco-
nomic and social improvement of the society. It is thus
important to look not only at the average level of at-
tainment, but also at the gap between higher and low-
er achievers. How can all students be encouraged to
develop sufficient interest in science and in scien-
tific thinking?
It is crucial to distinguish between the contribution
made by schools, and other more fixed parameters
such as those resulting from social conditions. In order
to reduce disparities and raise average attainment lev-
els, it is essential to focus on what schools and teach-
ers can do. How can students learn to use the most-
efficient methodologies in experiencing science
through practical experiment?
In many countries, students’ interest in science, espe-
cially the physical sciences, is declining. As a result, the
number of students taking science is dropping. What
can we do to find out the reasons for this decline,
and to increase the numbers taking science?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — ‘Women in science’ is a mobile exhibition
illustrating the history of science through the achieve-
ments of women in different periods of history and
current trends in the feminist approach to science. It is
organised by European networks and the European
Commission to promote equal opportunities at school,
at university and in careers.
Ireland — European Union Physics Colloquium — the
colloquium examined approaches to physics education
at upper secondary level in Ireland and eight other
European education systems.
Italy — 1999, ‘Progetto SET — SET project’ — aiming to
enhance pupils’ scientific and technological culture
and to raise their achievement levels, improving teach-
ing quality.
Slovakia — ‘Schola Ludus’ promotes science education
by interactive exhibitions touring the country.
Spain — The National Science Museum has a guide of
school programmes for permanent exhibitions, tempo-
rary exhibitions, workshops, guided visits, educational
materials and courses.
22 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 23
4. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(ICT)
APPROACHES TO ICT DEFINED IN THE CURRICULUM — LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1997/98
Source: Eurydice.
LI
CY
Separate subject and used as a tool
for other subjects
Separate subject
Used as a tool for other subjects
Not included in the curriculum
In all European countries there is a broad consensus on the importance of new tech-
nologies. Information and communication technologies are not only having an impact
now but will affect the structure of human societies even more so in the future. They
are having an accelerating impact on the way we learn, live, work, consume, express and
entertain ourselves.
Learning will be ineffective if teachers fail to make coherent connections between learn-
ing in and out of school or if they do not exploit the vast potential of new multi-
sensory and interactive media.
Data on the provision and use of information and
communication technology (ICT) will be a growth area
in the future. As more information becomes available
(for example through the IEA SITES study), indicators
will provide more detailed information on the effec-
tive deployment of ICT and skills acquired (as current-
ly in other areas such as mathematics or literacy). The
map below provides a picture of uses of ICT in Euro-
pean countries showing where it is not as yet included
in the curriculum, taught as a separate subject, or used
as a tool for other subjects.
The map distinguishes four different uses of ICT. In most
of the eastern European countries ICT is treated as a sep-
arate subject. In Norway, Sweden and Ireland it is seen as
a tool for use across the curriculum, while more typically
in central European Member States (plus Iceland, Fin-
land and Latvia) it is both a subject and a tool. In Portu-
gal, Cyprus and Italy it is not formally taught. In Finland,
decisions are made at local level and the treatment of
ICT may, therefore, differ widely. There will also be dis-
parities within other countries despite the existence of
national curricula or guidelines.
Caution has to be exercised in the interpretation of
such data given that this is an area which is changing
so rapidly and in which data cease to be 100 % accu-
rate by the time they are published. Within a few years
most, if not all, countries will be able to show that ICT
permeates subjects across the whole curriculum and
that pupils routinely use ICT for homework and study
in all subjects. The precedent set by Iceland, where all
senior pupils are provided with their own laptops, will
become increasingly commonplace and such individual
access will carry major implications for learning and
teaching.
Nonetheless, the data provide an important baseline
from which to monitor progress and raise policy issues
for the future. Many countries have experimental and
pilot projects in the use of ICT which are not repre-
sented on this map (see ‘Examples of national initia-
tives’, below).
Therefore, in interpreting data, caution needs to be ex-
ercised with regard to the changing scene and wide
variations that may exist at local or school level. At
national level there may be no obvious curricular pol-
icy on the use of ICT. Imaginative cross-curricular ini-
tiatives may still be found at individual school level
and these may provide cutting-edge example for
countries in which ICT is more widespread and institu-
tionalised at national level.
In the longer term, data on ICT will need to go consid-
erably further to say something about how ICT is being
deployed and exploited for more effective pupil learn-
ing, for out-of-school learning (homework and study),
for professional development of teachers, for school
improvement and systemic change.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING ICT
Inclusion: With access to information freely available,
those who are motivated and skilled will increasingly
benefit while those who are not will be at an increas-
ing disadvantage. The gap between the ‘haves’ and the
‘have nots’ is likely to widen significantly in the future.
What forms of support or intervention can be pro-
vided for the most disadvantaged and vulnerable
sections of the population?
Special needs: Information and technology has a par-
ticularly significant role to play for children with spe-
cial educational needs. What can be done to identify
good practice in this area and to disseminate it ef-
fectively for the benefit of special needs pupils, their
parents and their teachers?
Teacher skills: One of the obstacles to development of
ICT skills of pupils is lack of teacher skills or resistance
to the use of ICT among teachers who see it as a threat
to their jobs. How can teachers in every subject area
be trained in skills which help them harness ICT to
make for better teaching?
Pupil expertise: Expertise of children and young peo-
ple already far exceeds that of their teachers in many
instances. What might schools do to fully exploit the
skills of young people to support teachers and teach
their fellow pupils?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — The eEurope initiative aims to make digital
literacy one of the basic skills of every young Euro-
pean. eLearning is intended to implement the educa-
tion/training part of eEurope.
Cyprus — The new ‘unified lyceum’ will have three key
objectives: upgrading the ICT skills of pupils; upgrad-
ing schools’ technological equipment; and improving
staff competencies.
24 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Estonia — In some Estonian schools, senior pupils are
required to spend four hours a week on mentoring and
tutoring younger children in ICT.
Hungary — Initiatives are underway to promote new
methods and teaching aids that make use of ICT tech-
nology in a range of school disciplines.
Italy — The ‘Programma di sviluppo delle tecnologie
didattiche 1997–2000’ was promoted to spread the
use of information and communication technologies
(ICT) and aims to improve the teaching/learning
processes.
The ‘Multilab’ is aimed at embracing teaching through
classroom use of computers, online and multimedia
technologies. More information is available on the In-
ternet (http://multilab.tin.it) (www.cede.it).
The Netherlands — ‘Knowledge net’ brings together
pupils, parents, teachers and cultural organisations
through a computer network which provides various
services including information, discussion groups and
technical facilities.
Poland — The ‘Interkl@sa’ programme aims to prepare
young people for the information society and to de-
velop the school as a modern centre for innovation
and creation.
Slovakia — The ‘Info-age’ project (www.infovek.sk) is
aimed at the improvement of ICT in primary and sec-
ondary schools.
Slovenia — In 1994 a long-term ICT programme
’Rac?unalnis?ko opismenjevanje’ (http://ro.zrsss.si/) was
established to spread the use of information and com-
munication technologies.
Spain — All Spanish State schools have an Internet ac-
count. More information (in Spanish) can be found on
the Internet (http://www.pntic.mec.es).
Sweden — The Government offers in-service training
for school leaders and teacher teams to learn how to
use computers as a tool.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 25
5. FOREIGN LANGUAGES
26 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
ATTITUDE TO AND SELF-ASSESSMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AMONG THE 15- TO 24-YEAR-OLD POPULATION,
1997
Source: Eurobarometer.
Knowledge of
a foreign language (%)
0
10
20
30
40
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No wish to learn
a foreign language (%)
UK
E
P
EL
D
B
A
F
IRL
FIN
S
L
DK
NL
I
Proficiency in several Community languages has become a prerequisite if citizens of the
European Union are to benefit from the professional and personal opportunities open to
them in the single market. It is, to say the least, paradoxical that people and ideas cir-
culate less freely within today’s Europe than capital and goods. Difficulty with foreign
languages, according to a Eurobarometer survey carried out in 1997, is by far the most
feared problem when young Europeans contemplate working or studying abroad.
Enlargement of the European Union in the future will make proficiency in modern
languages even more important.
Language proficiency is a key instrument for a common understanding between citizens
of Europe and for exploiting the rich cultural heritage of Europe. The decision of the
European Commission to make 2001 the ‘European year of foreign languages’ underlines
the political importance attached to knowledge of foreign languages.
It should first be made clear that, in the following
paragraphs, the term ‘foreign languages’ refers to
modern languages other than one’s mother tongue,
whether second languages, or actual foreign lan-
guages as such. Despite the importance of learning a
foreign language, there is currently virtually no inter-
national data available about the linguistic compe-
tence of young Europeans. The next phase of the PISA
survey will probably comprise a measure of the read-
ing comprehension in a foreign language as an inter-
national option.
Pending more adequate information, we can use, with
an appropriate degree of caution, the responses of
young Europeans to a Eurobarometer survey. In early
1997, at the request of the European Commission’s Ed-
ucation, Training and Youth Directorate-General (XXII),
a sample of 9 400 young people, intended to be repre-
sentative of those aged between 15 and 24 in every
European country, was asked the following questions —
‘Apart from your mother tongue, which of these lan-
guages can you speak well enough to take part in a
conversation?’ and ‘Which ones, if any, would you like
to learn?’. The 11 official languages of the European
Union were proposed, as well as the answers ‘other’,
‘none’ or ‘don’t know’.
The graph shows, for each participating country, the
percentage of young people claiming to be able to
speak at least one ‘foreign’ language and the percent-
age of those who said that they did not want to learn
a foreign language. It should be noted that the first
question in this survey addresses the perceived person-
al abilities, and not the actual capacities, of the young
people.
There seems to be a link between how widely spoken
a country’s official language is, and both the ability of
young people to speak another language and their
desire to learn another. This leads to the formation of
two broad clusters seen on the graph, with countries
such as Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden and Finland in
one (countries whose languages are relatively less
widely spoken) and France, Germany, Spain, Ireland
and Austria in the other (countries whose languages
are widely spoken). Greece, however, appears to be an
exception to this rule. The situation in the UK is clear-
ly more extreme, and unlikely to be the result solely
of the linguistic dominance of the English language
(English is the most widely spoken language in the
European Union, the mother tongue of 16 % of the
population and an additional 31 % of the adult pop-
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 27
ulation say they can hold a conversation in it). Com-
petence and interest in foreign language learning
thus seem to vary greatly from one country to the
other and to depend on social and cultural factors,
among others.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
FOREIGN LANGUAGES
It must be remembered that valid measures of young
people’s proficiency in foreign languages are required.
However, the data available indicate strongly the im-
portance of several issues.
• The choice of the languages to be taught is both
politically and pedagogically very important: if every
European language is considered a part of cultural
wealth and just as relevant as any other, active meas-
ures have to be taken. How can young people’s in-
terest in people of other cultural and linguistic
communities, and in their languages, be devel-
oped?
• Some strategies aimed at promoting linguistic di-
versity concern language teaching itself: for example,
the development of young children’s interest and com-
petency in several languages instead of introducing
them to only one language (‘language awareness’ ap-
proach). How can teachers’ competency in these
methods be increased?
• Within the context of lifelong learning, but also
in order to achieve good short-term results in lan-
guage learning, it is important to increase young peo-
ple’s interest in foreign languages. How can pupils be
made aware of the advantages of good language
skills?
• Some degree of self-confidence is necessary in or-
der to speak another language and to interact with
people whose language is different to one’s own
mother tongue. How can foreign languages be
taught in a way which promotes students’ self-
confidence?
The age at which language learning starts, the amount
of time spent on language learning in the curriculum
and the languages which may be chosen can all play
an important part in the development of foreign lan-
guage competency. How should the curriculum be or-
ganised in order to make foreign language learning
as efficient as possible?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
European Union — The aim of the ‘European label’ is
to help stimulate interest in language learning by
highlighting innovative language learning projects at
all stages of education and training.
Belgium — Department of Education offers courses in
18 languages, both European and non-European. Access
to these courses is made easy and very cheap. Some lan-
guage courses are available as distance learning
Bulgaria — In order to improve the teaching of foreign
languages, the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and
Science (MES) decided to create in 1996 a national
network of so-called ‘teacher methodologists’.
Hungary — The ‘European language portfolio’ (ELP) —
a personal document in which the students can record
their qualifications and other significant linguistic and
cultural experiences in an internationally transparent
manner.
Ireland — A project aimed at increasing the range of
foreign languages taken by students in secondary
school.
28 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 29
6. LEARNING TO LEARN
Learning to learn encompasses intellectual skills, atti-
tudes and motivation. For example, attitudes to one’s
self, perceptions of one’s own competence, ability to
think about one’s thinking (metacognition), inferring
meaning from a text, awareness of one’s own preferred
learning style, persistence in the face of difficulty, mo-
tivation to learn.
These are skills acquired and developed in various con-
texts — classrooms, homework, independent study,
day-to-day problem solving situations. They are em-
bedded in all subjects and areas of study and integral
to ‘cross-curricular competencies’. The challenge is to
help people to:
• be reflective and self-critical learners;
• access tools which help them become more effi-
cient and effective;
• be able to transfer learning to learn skills from
one context to the next;
• equip themselves to deal with new and unpre-
dictable situations in the future.
Data at European level do not as yet exist. This should,
however, be treated as a high priority. It is important
to identify examples of good practice and data which
can be used as a starting point for debate at the Euro-
pean level. A number of countries have already estab-
lished systems to identify and measure ‘learning to
learn competencies’ or are developing them with the
aim of understanding success and failure at school and
how these competencies can transfer to social and
professional life (see ‘Examples of national initiatives’,
below).
For the purposes of inter-country comparison, there-
fore, we may gather data to illustrate countries in
which:
• learning to learn policies or guidelines already
exist;
• there is public dissemination (e.g. Ministry web
page, circulation of documents);
• pilot initiatives are taking place;
• courses/programmes exist in pre-service and/or in-
service teacher education;
• no policy or initiatives yet exist.
The indicator may take the form of a map of Europe
plotting policy development, for example, by degrees of
shading to illustrate the development and penetration
of policy initiatives. These data will illustrate a spectrum
The true test of the lifelong learner is the extent to which he or she is able to go on ac-
quiring skills and knowledge in a wide variety of life situations, once formal education
has come to an end. Effective learners know how to learn and have a repertoire of tools
and strategies to serve that purpose.
The flow of new information and the rise of international cooperation have increased
the importance of such skills while the unpredictability and rapidity of change requires
a closer connection between school education and lifelong learning. These are prerequi-
sites for success in the academic world, the world of work and the society of the future.
of practice, showing clusters of countries that have
made considerable progress in putting policy into place
and from which important lessons may be learned.
In the longer term we could develop ways of gauging
learning to learn competencies at student level
through:
• students’ own assessments of their knowledge,
confidence, and competency in this area;
• performance assessment using standardised tests
which provide comparable data on how students cope
with new and unforeseen content.
The effectiveness of learning to learn skills is demon-
strated in situations to which students bring no prior
content knowledge but in which they are able to
demonstrate that they know what to do in order
to acquire, analyse and use new information, and to
process new data.
In 2001, PISA data in this area will be available for the
first time and will provide a new source of European
level data. With a more informed body of data, future
indicators will identify the acquisition of learning to
learn skills at key stages of schooling. We can see from
existing practice that different approaches are already
in place and used at different ages and stages. In the
Netherlands, for example, pilot initiatives are targeted
at 14 to15 year olds, in Italy for the 10 to 17 years’ age
range, while in Flemish Belgium these skills are a part of
the compulsory curriculum for 6 to 18 year olds.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING LEARNING TO
LEARN SKILLS
Indicator data should provide a basis for considering a
number of important policy questions.
Significant progress is being made through pilot proj-
ects in different European countries. The challenge for
policy-makers is to identify, learn from and build on
the best. What short-, medium- and long-term ini-
tiatives will ensure that learning to learn skills be-
come a policy priority?
There is likely to be inertia and resistance, both at a
structural and cultural level. What are the main ob-
stacles to progress and how can they be overcome?
There are practical implications which flow from new
policy directions. What are the implications of new
priorities:
30 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
• for curriculum design and delivery?
• for teacher knowledge and skills?
• for school leadership and management?
• for teacher education — pre- and in-service?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Belgium (Flanders) — Learning to learn skills are al-
ready a compulsory aspect of the 6 to 18 years’ core
curriculum. They are presented as a cross-curricular
theme to be integrated and applied in as many sub-
jects as possible.
England — The Department for Education and Employ-
ment has published a report on thinking skills.
Finland — Research has been conducted as a prelude
to developing a new form of national assessment.
Germany — Widespread curriculum revision is taking
place and pupils are being encouraged — through texts
and questionnaires — to reflect on their working
habits, their learning strategies, their ability to com-
municate and cooperate.
Italy — A repertoire of instruments has been developed
to measure learning to learn competencies and to pro-
vide teachers with simple tools which they can use for
remedial and individualised intervention.
The Netherlands — A cohort study of 20 000 second-
ary students is repeated every five years using a test
developed to measure the general problem solving ca-
pacities of 14- to 15-year-old pupils.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 31
7. CIVICS
ATTITUDES OF THE 15- TO 24-YEAR-OLD POPULATION
TOWARD FOREIGNERS, 1997
Source: Eurobarometer.
To be sent back (%)
0
10
20
0
Glad (%)
10 20 30 40 50
I
A
B
D
F
P
UK
E
DK
NL
L
IRL S
FIN
EL
All societies have a continuing interest in the way their young people are prepared for
citizenship, and how they learn to take part in public affairs.
In most countries, a considerable number of people tend nowadays to attribute problems
such as violence, unemployment and criminality to those who are different, without a
deeper understanding of the root causes of the issues.
The question of what effective citizenship means and the role of formal education in
building a civic culture is important not only for governments and policy-makers but
also for the public in general.
IEA has recently assessed the attitudes and competen-
cies in the domain of civics of several thousand stu-
dents in the modal grade for 14 year olds (in 20 coun-
tries out of those which are directly concerned by the
present report). The study examines young people’s
knowledge, beliefs and attitudes in different areas —
such as democracy, political authorities, rights and
duties — in relation to citizenship, national identity,
social cohesion, equal rights and tolerance. Unfortu-
nately the first report on the results of this study is
not expected until February 2001. In the meantime, no
recent international assessment of young peoples’ atti-
tudes and competencies in the domain of civics is
available. However, Eurobarometer No 47.2, which re-
ports the results of a survey of young people from 15
to 24 years old in the 15 European Union countries,
gives some interesting information in this domain. The
opinion survey was carried out in early 1997 at the re-
quest of the European Commission’s then Directorate-
General XXII — Education, Training and Youth.
The graph shows the respective percentages of young-
sters, in each of the 15 European countries surveyed,
claiming that they agreed with two assertions about
foreigners: ‘I’m glad that foreigners live in (our coun-
try)’ and ‘All foreigners should be sent back to their
country of origin’.
The graph shows the percentages of students agreeing
with each assertion in each country. These are the re-
sults of an opinion poll and should therefore be treat-
ed with some caution, although it is difficult to find
out about people’s attitudes without asking them and
surveys offer the best option in some cases. More in-
depth information and analysis on such an important
topic would, however, be desirable.
On average, 15 % of young people surveyed claimed
that they were happy with the presence of foreigners,
but 9 % felt that all foreigners should be sent back to
their country.
Although there are no clear patterns or clusters appar-
ent from the graph a negative relationship can be seen
between the numbers of respondents who said they
were ‘glad’ to have foreigners and the numbers of re-
spondents who thought foreigners should be ‘sent
back’.
The percentages of those who said they are glad of the
presence of foreigners range from 7 % (Greece) to
45 % (Finland), and at the same time the percentages
arguing for foreigners to be sent back range from 1 %
(Sweden) to 19 % (Greece).
The indicator highlights attitudes which are part of the
school curriculum in a lot of countries but at the same
time reflects values that might be influenced by a
country’s economic situation and trends in immigra-
tion. According to J. Torney-Purta et al. (1999), social
diversity and the way it is understood by policy-mak-
ers and the public seems to have a great influence on
schools, with implications for curriculum content and
methodology.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
CIVICS
In the many countries with economic or social diffi-
culties, it is often tempting to blame foreigners for the
problem. What can be done to help school students
32 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
to make a more informed analysis of social and eco-
nomic problems, particularly in the light of human
rights considerations, among others?
Social diversity may both create problems and enrich
social life. What should be done to promote social
and cultural diversity?
In some countries, civics is taught as a specific subject,
whilst in others, civic education is an integral part of
the curriculum. What are the advantages and the
drawbacks of different approaches?
Whether or not civics is a special subject, all teachers
should play a part in the civic education of their stu-
dents. How can teachers be made more sensitive to
the importance of their role in students’ develop-
ment as citizens?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Greece and Cyprus — The ‘Parliament of adolescents’
is an annual project in which elected Lyceum pupils
meet in the House of Parliament and discuss matters
of concern of the young generation as well as matters
of current importance to their country, Europe and the
world.
Italy — In all secondary schools a statute of students’
rights and duties was introduced in order to enhance
democracy in schools and widen students’ opportuni-
ties.
Poland — The KOSS programme has trained 2 000
teachers to teach civics to their students. It also cre-
ates and publishes civics programmes.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 33
8. DROP-OUT RATES
PERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION OF 18 TO 24 YEAR OLDS HAVING ACHIEVED LOWER SECONDARY LEVEL OF
EDUCATION (ISCED 2) OR LESS AND NOT ATTENDING EDUCATION OR TRAINING, 1997
) Data not availableSource: Eurostat, Labour force survey.
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
G
r
e
e
c
e
S
p
a
i
n
F
r
a
n
c
e
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
I
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k
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) ) )Rates (%) Rates (%)
Europe has faced considerable challenges in recent decades. The development of our
economies and the demands of an increasingly competitive society continue to leave
some members of society by the wayside. Today’s learning or knowledge-based society is
increasingly divided into those who have adequate skills and qualifications, and those
who do not. In this rapidly changing environment, it is increasingly important for indi-
viduals to be able to continue to update their knowledge and skills throughout their
lives. Many believe that a minimum knowledge base is required in order for this to hap-
pen, and that those who finish compulsory schooling without qualifications are conse-
quently less likely to be able to participate effectively in life-long learning. Young peo-
ple with a negative attitude to learning, and/or who leave school without qualifications
are, therefore, likely to encounter significant problems later in life as a result.
Often, those who drop out of formal education lack
the fundamental skills needed to find employment.
They may have received no form of vocational training
and are therefore likely to have difficulty in finding a
job. In addition, since pupils who drop out of school
without basic skills are generally less able and less will-
ing than others to embark on a strategy of life-long
learning, the threat of unemployment may be an on-
going factor for these people in the longer term. Life-
long learning is becoming essential to the employabil-
ity of the individual, and the number of jobs requiring
no formal training is decreasing. This is particularly
true of industrial countries with highly developed
service sectors. In addition, young people without a
complete education may experience greater difficulty
than others with regard to social integration and ac-
tive participation in democratic society. Those who
leave school prematurely may consequently be at risk
of marginalisation and social exclusion.
The indicator presented here is based on the 1997
Labour force survey (Eurostat) and is an approximation
(proxy) of the drop-out rates from different Member
States (
5
). Drop-out is defined here as the share of the
total population of 18 to 24 year olds having achieved
the lower secondary level of education (ISCED level 2)
or less and not attending education or training.
As with other indicators, the data provided should be
treated with caution as they are not sufficiently differ-
entiated. In particular, they include pupils who did not
gain qualifications at the end of lower secondary educa-
tion as well as those who did, but who were unable to
obtain further qualifications or who did not wish to pur-
sue further education or vocational training. An indica-
tor showing the percentages of pupils who did not ob-
tain qualifications at the end of compulsory schooling
would be preferable. The data required for this are not,
however, available.
The graph shows that drop-out rates in the EU remain
relatively high, with an average drop-out rate of 22.5 %.
There are, however, notable differences between Mem-
ber States. The data suggest that northern Member
States perform better in combating the phenomenon
than do other Member States. Portugal (40.7 %), Italy
34 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
5
) The Community Labour force survey (LFS) is a harmonised
sample survey of the inhabitants of the country at the time
of the survey. Due to the particular socioeconomic and geo-
graphical situation of Luxembourg, the data on this indica-
tor are not, therefore, comparable with those of the other
countries.
(30.2 %), Spain (30.0 %) and the United Kingdom
(31.4 %) show alarmingly high drop-out rates, while
drop-out rates in Germany (13.2 %), Austria (11.5 %)
and the Scandinavian countries in particular (Sweden
9.6 % and Finland 8.5 %) fall significantly below the EU
average. All of the central and eastern European coun-
tries have drop-out rates below the EU average. The
highest rate among these countries is Romania (19.8 %),
while the Czech Republic has the lowest rate at 6.8 %.
The indicator does not show, however, whether drop
out in individual countries is the result of pupils not
passing examinations at the end of lower secondary
education or whether it is caused by a lack of oppor-
tunities for vocational training following lower sec-
ondary education. Nor does it illustrate regional differ-
ences in drop-out rates within individual countries.
The differences between countries are related to dif-
ferences between educational systems but also to
socioeconomic disparities. The better scores of some
northern countries, for instance, are often attributed
to the organisation of their educational systems, in the
sense that the less selective mechanisms in education
systems such as the integrated Nordic model could
help to ease the transition between different school
environments when a pupil moves from primary to
secondary level. Such systems, which cater for pupils
of all age groups, also allow adults to enrol and are
therefore providers, to some extent, of ‘life-long learn-
ing’, allowing upper secondary education to be ac-
cessed by a wide range of people. It is thus easier for
school drop-outs to return to education even after the
normal completion age for school education. Such a
system is likely to impact on aggregate drop-out rates.
A further explanation for the comparatively low drop-
out rates in Austria and Germany is the so-called ‘dual
system’, whereby pupils undertake an apprenticeship
within an enterprise as well as part-time vocational
training. Such a system can help to allow less-able
pupils, in particular, to obtain a vocational qualifica-
tion, due to the high practical element involved.
On the other hand, high drop-out rates might be
linked to economic factors such as high unemploy-
ment rates, or disparities between urban and rural
economies or between central and peripheral regions.
Research suggests, for instance, that young people at-
tending school in rural areas are often indispensable
to family businesses such as farming, and that they
may be inclined to drop out of school in times of eco-
nomic hardship. In such regions, the skills required for
employment are often seen as being passed from gen-
eration to generation rather than from teacher to
pupil. The link between formal education and success
in the labour market is often less evident in such ru-
ral economies than it is in the service-oriented
economies.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING SCHOOL
DROP-OUT
Efforts to reduce the number of drop outs must take
into account the three different sub-groups which
make up drop outs. These sub-groups are:
• pupils who leave school before completing com-
pulsory schooling
• pupils who do not achieve any qualifications at
the end of compulsory schooling
• pupils who do not receive professional training
after leaving school with or without qualifications.
What kind of support can be offered to each of these
groups in order to reduce the drop-out rates?
What is link between drop-out rates and policies re-
garding children with special educational needs? Do
different countries’ arrangements for SEN provision
affect their drop-out rates?
At its extraordinary meeting in Lisbon, in March 2000,
the European Council set a target to halve by 2010 the
number of 18 to 24 year olds with only lower second-
ary level education who are not in further education
and training. How can this reduction in drop-out
rates be achieved?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Bulgaria — In 1997, a project named ‘School for
everybody’ was launched. Its main goals were to build
up expertise for coping with this complex problem.
Europe — The ‘Second chance schools’ project offers
education and training to young people who lack the
skills and qualifications necessary to find a job or ben-
efit fully from conventional training. For further infor-
mation, see the web site
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/2chance/
homeen.html).
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 35
France — A ‘new chance’ for young people who leave
school without qualifications. This programme aims to:
improve procedures for identifying the young people
concerned and increase the available information
about the issue of drop out.
Germany — Here it has proved useful to find local in-
dustry partners who can give potential drop-out pupils
the chance to gain experience in practical working, in
parallel with their school-based learning.
The Netherlands — Early school-leaving in the Nether-
lands is challenged by a policy of cooperation between
schools at a regional level.
Poland — An educational psychology service has been
set up and many educationalists and psychologists
have been recruited to identify the individual needs of
pupils, to analyse the causes of failure and to find
ways to remedy them.
Spain — Among other initiatives one is for 16 to 21
year olds who have not finished secondary education
or have no professional qualification for the labour
market.
United Kingdom — ‘New deal’ is a key part of the UK
Government’s ‘Welfare to work’ strategy. It gives job-
seekers aged 18 to 24, 25+ and those with disabilities
a chance to develop their potential, gain skills and ex-
perience and find work (http://www.newdeal.gov.uk).
9. COMPLETION OF UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
36 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
PERCENTAGE OF YOUNG PEOPLE AGED 22 WHO HAVE SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED
AT LEAST UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1997
) Data not availableSource: Eurostat, Labour force survey.
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
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Completion rates of upper secondary education are — like low drop-out rates — impor-
tant indications of successful education systems. The completion of upper secondary
education is considered as increasingly important, not just for successful entry into the
labour market, but also in allowing students access to the learning and training oppor-
tunities offered by higher education. In addition, the contribution made by school edu-
cation in helping young people deal with the demands of modern society should not be
underestimated. The internationalisation of trade, the global context of technology, and
above all, the rapid development of information technology have made societies
increasingly complex. Successful participation in the learning society requires the basic
building blocks offered by a secondary education.
The indicator shows the percentage of young people
aged 22 who have successfully completed upper sec-
ondary education (ISCED 3). This level of education may
either be ‘terminal’ (i.e. preparing students for entry di-
rectly into working life) or ‘preparatory’ (i.e. preparing
students for tertiary education). The figures for each
country indicate the percentage of young people aged
22 who have successfully completed at least upper sec-
ondary education. Since some students will achieve this
level in later years, the percentages reported for the in-
dividual countries may yet rise in the older age groups.
The data shown are based on the 1997 Labour force
survey (
6
).
A number of factors should be remembered when con-
sidering the information presented. The chart shows
the percentage of 22 year olds who have successfully
completed upper secondary education (ISCED 3). The
remaining group — those who have not attained this
level — consists of two categories: those covered by
the ‘drop-out rates’ indicator, and those who are con-
tinuing to work towards an equivalent level of educa-
tion at the age of 22. The indicator does not show the
relative proportions of these two groups. An indicator
giving information on the number of pupils without
final school-leaving qualifications at the end of ‘lower
secondary education’ (ISCED 2; see in addition the
‘drop-out rates’ indicator) and an indicator describing
the successful completion of ‘upper secondary educa-
tion’ (ISCED 3) at a later point in time (for example at
the age of 25), would be more suitable. The data which
would be required for this are not, however, readily
available.
The average percentage of those who successfully com-
pleted upper secondary education at the age of 22 years
was 71.2 % in the European Union in 1997. However,
there are considerable differences between the various
countries. On the one hand, there is a group of countries
whose completion rates exceed 70 %, in some cases by a
significant amount; this category includes particularly
countries such as the Czech Republic, Poland and Slove-
nia, but also the northern European countries Finland
and Sweden. On the other hand, there is a group of
countries whose completion rates fall below 70 %; this
category includes in particular southern European
countries such as Spain, Italy and Portugal and also the
United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 37
In view of the complementary nature of this indicator
and the indicator covering drop-out rates, the commen-
tary on the interpretation of the data obtained through
the ‘drop-out’ indicator also applies to this one.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING COMPLETION OF
UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION
The failure to complete the upper secondary level of
education successfully cannot be considered in isola-
tion from the rest of a young person’s school career.
Nor can the impact of a country’s economic situation
be ignored. Measures aimed at increasing success rates
should therefore take both of these factors into ac-
count.
• What efforts can be made to make upper second-
ary education more attractive to all?
• What are the challenges, in terms of quality of up-
per secondary education, of the increased emphasis on
life-long learning? How should upper secondary level
education adapt to such developments, and to the
changes taking place in subsequent educational
stages?
• What are the effects of the balance between gen-
eral education and vocational training? Should oppor-
tunities for practical learning in the business and ad-
ministrative sectors be expanded in order to increase
young people’s motivation and give them a better un-
derstanding of the connection between theoretical
learning and practical activity?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Ireland — The ‘Leaving certificate applied’ — This alter-
native learning programme focuses on the needs and
interests of students using a range of methodologies.
It seeks to develop in students an enterprising outlook,
self-confidence and other skills related to success in
the workplace.
Spain — The ‘Educación a distancia’ programme in-
tends to facilitate access to education to adults and
also to non-adults who due to personal, social, geo-
graphical or other exceptional circumstances cannot
follow education at school with daily attendance. (
6
) See footnote 5 on data concerning Luxembourg.
10. PARTICIPATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
38 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
PARTICIPATION RATES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION, AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL POPULATION, BY AGE GROUP —
ISCED 5, 6 AND 7, 1996/97
) Data not availableSource: Eurostat, UOE.
25
20
15
10
5
0
B
e
l
g
i
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m
D
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n
m
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(%)
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30
35
25
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5
0
(%)
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) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )Students as a percentage of the 18 to 24 age group Students as a percentage of the 25 to 29 age group
The opportunities offered by tertiary education are becoming more and more important.
The demands of today’s labour market are markedly different from those of even 10 or
so years ago, and are continuing to evolve rapidly. If young people are to succeed in this
increasingly competitive and global environment then it is crucial that they acquire the
skills and competencies which will enable them to compete effectively with others.
In recent years, higher education institutions have re-
sponded more and more to the changing demands of
the labour market, endeavouring to equip their students
with the specific skills they need to succeed. Many
courses have moved away from a purely academic focus
towards a more vocational one, and the links between
higher education and industry have consequently be-
come clearer. For this reason, tertiary education is, more
than ever before, seen as the means to taking part in the
high-value-added international industries.
It is not necessarily desirable, however, to have ever
increasing levels of participation, if these are not
matched to national and international needs. Of key
importance is the need to match the supply of gradu-
ates to current demand, and to predict trends in de-
mand in the light of the development of future new
technologies, employment trends etc.
The data presented in the graph show the proportion
of students in certain age groups participating in ter-
tiary education (ISCED 5, 6 and 7), as a percentage of
the total population of that age group. The graph
presents this information for two age groups: those
aged up to 24, and those aged from 25 to 29 (
7
).
It is clear from the data that the participation rates in
tertiary education vary greatly between countries. In
the younger age group, participation ranges from 11 %
in Romania to 32 % in Belgium; in the older age group
participation varies from 3 % in Estonia to 16 % in
Greece. In all countries the participation rate in the
younger age group is higher than in the older one.
However, there are countries in which the two rates
resemble each other far more closely than in other
countries. In Germany in particular there is scarcely
any difference between the two rates (14 % and 13 %
respectively). Countries such as Germany, where the
duration of courses is relatively long and the age at
which students begin tertiary education is more varied,
will not have such high participation rates for a given
age group as countries where courses are shorter and
the age of students is more uniform.
The diagram does not differentiate between participa-
tion of men and women. Generally, however, it is the
case that participation rates of men and women are
fairly similar in the majority of countries although, in al-
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 39
most all cases, they are actually higher among women
than among men.
As for other indicator areas, caution should be applied in
drawing conclusions from the limited data available. The
very different tertiary education systems in the coun-
tries from which data was collected, and the different
characteristics of the countries themselves, make it es-
pecially difficult to draw meaningful conclusions from
this data. Nevertheless, some reasons for the varying
participation rates in tertiary education between coun-
tries and between men and women can be suggested.
• In some countries, training for certain occupations
takes place as part of upper secondary education or a
further (post-secondary non-tertiary) level, whereas, in
other countries, training for these occupations takes
place at the level of tertiary education.
• In certain countries the lack of opportunities for
undertaking vocational training pushes young people
towards tertiary education. This may be the case par-
ticularly for young women, as the opportunities open
to them outside tertiary education may be less attrac-
tive than those open to young men.
Participation rates may also be linked to the prevailing
conditions of the labour market. A weak labour market
could lead to an increase in the number of students
enrolling on higher education courses as those having
difficulty in finding a job, or who have lost their jobs,
may decide to enrol instead in higher education. It
should be remembered, however, that enrolment rates
and graduation rates cannot necessarily be equated.
Equally, the effect of numbers enrolling in higher edu-
cation may in turn impact on the labour market in a
number of ways. High participation rates will ulti-
mately lead to a well-qualified workforce, making it
more difficult for those without a higher education
qualification to find work in particular sectors. High
participation rates spread across a wide age range will
also have a significant impact on the proportion of the
population which is unavailable for work at any time.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING PARTICIPATION IN
TERTIARY EDUCATION
As a result of the very varied systems in place within
the tertiary level of education, discussion of issues sur-
rounding the data is of a fairly speculative nature. In
summary, although the data collected using this indi-
cator provide only limited information about trends in
participation in higher education, the findings raise a
(
7
) Due to the particular socioeconomic and geographical situ-
ation of Luxembourg, the data on this indicator are not
comparable with those of the other countries. Most stu-
dents study outside the country.
number of policy issues which could be explored in
more depth, in particular as follows.
• The relative proportions of men and women par-
ticipating in higher education. Why is the relative
number of women increasing? What is the male/fe-
male balance in certain subject areas (for example the
sciences and the humanities)? What is the effect of in-
creased participation in terms of unemployment rates
among women?
• The link between higher education and the labour
market. To what extent is the choice of higher educa-
tion a direct response to the labour market? Is a coun-
try’s production of graduates well matched to its over-
all needs (in terms of the labour market etc.)? Are
there too many or too few graduates in particular
countries? What is the effect on the labour market of
the trends in participation?
• The effects of high/low participation rates. What is
the relationship between participation rates among
older age groups and the productivity of the labour
market? Can the benefits of higher education be
measured in other ways, such as increased maturity,
social awareness etc.?
• The connection between secondary and tertiary
education. What are the possibilities in secondary edu-
cation for increasing the number of those — particu-
larly young women — aiming to take up take up math-
ematical, scientific or engineering studies?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Ireland — Universities and other tertiary institutions
now have programmes which are aimed at redressing
the current imbalance in the representation of the
social classes in the universities and other tertiary
institutions.
Scotland — The ‘University of the Highlands and Is-
lands’ is making extensive use of remote access teach-
ing technology to link a number of centres with
students across the remote rural region of northern
Scotland.
40 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 41
11. EVALUATION AND STEERING OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
MONITORING EDUCATION SYSTEMS AT PRIMARY AND/OR SECONDARY LEVEL — PUBLICATION OF THE OVERALL
RESULTS OF EXTERNAL TESTS, 1997/98
Source: Eurydice.
LI
CY
Publication of the overall results
of external certificated examinations
Publication of the overall results
of external tests
No publication of overall results
All educational systems require evaluation and steering. At national, local and school
level evaluation serves a number of essential purposes. It measures whether the educa-
tion system lives up to the objectives set. It offers diagnostic and formative information
for system managers, headteachers, teachers and a wider public. It opens up dialogue
and provides the basis for development planning and school improvement. Benchmarks
allow schools to measure themselves against other comparable institutions. They can be
used by inspectors or other external agents to compare the outcomes of individual
schools. They help focus on processes intended to achieve those outcomes
Evaluation may be either internal (self) or external, or a combination of the two. Both
forms of evaluation carry resource and training implications. With this in mind, most
European countries are seeking the best and most productive combination of the two
forms of evaluation. Ideally, external and self-evaluation complement each other as
vital sources of information.
As the movement for more rigorous evaluation gathers
momentum, more data will be forthcoming in the next
few years. Currently we have information on the pub-
lication of examination and test results. These are
sometimes used for diagnostic, or developmental, pur-
poses, sometimes for accountability and reporting to
parents and public.
The country map shows how practice between Member
States varies with respect to the publication of results
of external tests.
The map shows a majority of countries, mainly pre-
accession countries, where there is no publication of
external test results. In 10 countries, including all the
Scandinavian countries, there is publication of overall
examination results. In four countries more detailed
publication of attainment testing is published. How-
ever, policies and practices in these four countries
vary considerably.
The UK (except Scotland), Spain, France and Belgium
(French) are all represented by the same colour yet are
very different not only in what they do but in their
policy purpose. In England, for example, results at key
stages (ages 7, 9, 12, 14, 16 and 18) are published pri-
marily for accountability purposes and to raise stan-
dards through encouraging parental information and
choice. In France, by contrast, tests are administered
yearly for diagnostic purposes and examination results
are published as benchmarks for schools to compare
their own performance and thereby raise standards.
Legislation prevents parental choice of school in the
State sector. In Spain, individual schools make their
data available but publication of results is intended to
provide information on standards overall and is based
on a sample of schools. Scotland, in common with its
other UK partners, publishes results of external exami-
nations at 16 to 18. Attainment test scores within the
national 5 to 14 programme are used both diagnosti-
cally and for targets relevant to national standards.
In a number of countries, for example Lithuania, Bul-
garia and Portugal, piloting of new approaches is tak-
ing place and policies are changing as a consequence.
The impact at school and classroom level cannot be
illustrated by a map but it is the attitudes and compe-
tencies of individual teachers which will put the effi-
cacy of the policy to the test.
The publication of examination performance reflects a
belief in the importance of accountability to a wider
public. However, the data highlight different policy
42 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
perspectives and raise questions about whether it is
preferable to account for the performance of the sys-
tem as a whole; whether to present comparative data
at school level; or whether to make public data which
may have been designed to serve a diagnostic purpose.
All European countries are seeking the best way in
which to report school performance and to reconcile
diagnostic/developmental purposes with accountabili-
ty objectives. This is an area where policy is changing
rapidly and in which there will be different configura-
tions and more complex variations in the future as
schools and teachers become more confident in self-
evaluation and external monitoring systems adapt
their function and purpose to complement schools’
own internal evaluations.
A relatively short-term goal for the presentation of in-
dicators in the future could be to illustrate different
patterns of internal and external evaluations for
schools across Member States. Much of this informa-
tion is already available through the Standing Interna-
tional Conference of Inspectors (SICI) but some work is
needed before it can be presented in the form of an
informative indicator profile.
A longer-term goal could be to provide data which
show the development of self-evaluation in Europe
and its relationship to external evaluation. Such data
will illustrate the nature of the balance between inter-
nal and external evaluation and the role that each of
these plays in the steering and evaluation of school
systems.
As for other indicators, the data above provide a start-
ing point for a closer look at policy rationale, effec-
tiveness and viability.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING EVALUATION AND
STEERING OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Reporting of data is not a stand-alone exercise. It is
related to systems of monitoring, inspection and self-
evaluation, implicitly or explicitly conveying messages
about purpose, policy and priority. What are the key
messages which should be conveyed through the
publication of school performance data?
Monitoring schools’ performance is critical to raising
standards for all pupils but it is both expensive and
difficult to raise standards from the outside. What
powers and roles should be given to schools in the
reporting of their own performance and how can
that be achieved?
As schools’ expertise in self-evaluation increases and
their access to appropriate tools and strategies grows,
the role of inspection changes. What role is there — if
any — for external monitoring systems in these cir-
cumstances?
The trend to publish performance data is likely to grow
rather than diminish and data will continue to serve
different purposes, such as: accountability, bench-
marking or informing parental choice. At what level
(individual school, school clusters, regional, national)
should reporting be focused in order to fulfil its
purposes most effectively and economically?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — Pilot project ‘Evaluating quality in school
education’, see the web site
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/poledu/
finalrep/rep.pdf).
Austria — Rich resource site on the Internet has been
established, for schools, allowing them to access infor-
mation, ideas, procedural proposals, instruments and
other support for schools’ programme development
and self-evaluation (http://www.qis.at).
Denmark — The Danish Evaluation Institute is a single
organisation for the evaluation of all levels of educa-
tion.
Hungary — A new pilot project the ‘Quality develop-
ment programme’ will be launched, involving more
then 400 public institutions. It will focus on operation
and management.
The Netherlands — About 0.5 % of the budget for pri-
mary and secondary education is spent on external
evaluation activities. Schools also have their own sys-
tems for internal evaluation of the quality of educa-
tion.
Portugal — PEPT (Education for every student), a
programme designed to foster students’ completion
of compulsory education, involves a self-evaluation
plan which includes an observatory with 15 indica-
tors relating to context, process, resources and out-
comes.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 43
Scotland — In 1996, ‘How good is our school?’ was
published. It is a toolkit for schools to use in self-eval-
uation, based on a set of 33 performance indicators.
For more information, see the web site
(http://www/scotland.gov.uk/structure/hmi/default.htm).
Spain — INCE (Instituto Nacional de Calidad y Evalu-
ación) was created to design evaluation systems for
the different types of education governed by the
LOGSE (new law for education).
12. PARENT PARTICIPATION
44 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
POWERS OF SCHOOL-LEVEL BODIES WHICH INVOLVE PARENT REPRESENTATIVES, IN THE PREPARATION OF THE
SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT PLAN — COMPULSORY EDUCATION, 1997/98
Source: Eurydice.
Parental participation may, for example, take place
through:
• statutory advisory and decision-making bodies
(e.g., school boards)
• evaluation of their schools
• voluntary associations (e.g., parent associations)
• voluntary involvement in after-school activities
and clubs
• voluntary involvement in classroom activities (e.g.,
paired reading)
• communications with the school and support of
their children’s learning and progress.
There are a number of areas in which parents may par-
ticipate.
The map shows one significant aspect of parental in-
volvement, namely in the preparation of the school
development plan:
The data reveal that in five countries parents have de-
cision-making powers in relation to the preparation of
the school development plan. This is generally through
a representative body such as a council or board. It is
more common (18 countries) for parents to have a
consultative or advisory function. In some countries,
for example the Netherlands, the council ratifies the
plan developed by the authority. In four countries,
parents have no powers in respect of development
planning although in each of these four countries they
do have powers in other areas such as school rules,
control or allocation of expenditure.
Finland represents an exception because the powers of
councils vary so much between municipalities and the
most recent legislation (1 January 1999) does not contain
provisions for parental consultation in its school system.
These data do not tell us about the strength and com-
position of the parent constituency at school level, its
contribution or impact. Further research would be
needed in order to identify the most effective forms of
membership and the most helpful ways in which par-
ents consult and speak on behalf of their constituen-
cies. Consultative bodies by their nature involve a
minority of parents — those who volunteer and those
most likely to have the confidence, expertise or interest
in playing a role at whole school level. While parents
are a valuable resource and potentially powerful allies
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 45
of schools (for example, school governors with business
experience and connections) the majority of parents
will not be motivated to become involved at that
macro level of school policy/practice. The large majori-
ty will wish to be involved where issues are of direct
relevance to their own children’s welfare and progress.
There are many good practices which involve a wider
group of parents at school and classroom level and
which illustrate how parents can make a significant
contribution to quality and standards. This indicator
provides a good starting point for further research and
raises important policy questions about the role and
influence of parents. There are further implications for
the role of all stakeholders and how they work togeth-
er for school quality and improvement. European
unions of parents, teachers, school students and head-
teachers have already, through joint conferences, laid
the groundwork for fuller and richer collaboration.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING PARENT
PARTICIPATION
School development planning should not simply be a
mechanistic operation nor one which is confined to
school leaders or teachers. It benefits from the in-
volvement of parents and a wider constituency of
stakeholders. What particular insights and added-
value do parents bring to the process of school
development planning?
Parental involvement is often regarded as ‘a good
thing’ but it needs to be examined in the light of its
relevance for different purposes and contexts. In what
areas of consultation and decision-making are par-
ent powers most relevant and useful? In what re-
spects might policy-makers wish to limit parental
powers as well as to increase them?
Extending parent participation raises questions about
other forms of stakeholder involvement. For example,
what steps can be taken to give greater responsibil-
ity to school students and exploit the considerable
resource and expertise they offer for improving
schools?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Europe — EPA’s ‘Training programme for parents’ is an
example of how to improve quality through coopera-
tion and constructive dialogue between parents and
teachers at school level.
Germany — Seminars for parents aim to: inform them
of new developments in learning and teaching; estab-
lish consensus on areas of school; and to motivate
them to participate in wider policy as aspects of
school.
46 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 47
13. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS
DURATION OF INITIAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR LOWER GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS,
1999/2000
) Data not availableSource: Eurydice.
5
4
3
2
1
0
B
e
l
g
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6
7
8
Years
5
4
3
2
1
0
6
7
8
Years
United
Kingdom
Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovenia to the equiv-
alent of almost four years in Germany.
In addition, the time spent on pedagogic/practical train-
ing in relation to the total duration of the training dif-
fers widely. In Finland and the Netherlands, for example,
the equivalent of one year is spent on pedagogic and
practical training. However, as a proportion of the total
length of training this represents approximately one
sixth and one quarter of the total duration of the
courses in these countries, respectively. By contrast, the
proportion of time spent on pedagogical/practical train-
ing in Germany is closer to two thirds.
The data reveal very different patterns of provision but
also conceal underlying complexities. They tell us
nothing about the balance, nature or relevance of
studies nor about their effectiveness in developing the
core competencies required by teachers. As countries
develop criteria for teacher competencies, they must
look again at course provision and consider its rele-
vance to teachers’ needs. Nor do the data show
whether practical training is higher-education-based
or school-based, a factor which has major resource
implications.
The data relate only to lower secondary education. In
some, but not all countries, there will be different
arrangements for primary and upper secondary
teacher training.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING TEACHER
EDUCATION
The balance of time given to teaching of subject
knowledge and pedagogy is a matter of concern to all
countries. What steps must be taken to ensure that
teacher training institutions achieve the optimum
balance in their teaching, taking into account cost-
effectiveness?
The continuing professional development of teachers
will be an increasing priority in the immediate and
long-term future. What provision should now be
made to ensure that teachers update their knowl-
edge and practice?
Teacher recruitment and retention is more of a prob-
lem in some countries than others but the situation is
liable to change as social and economic conditions
change. What can be learned from countries with a
surplus of teachers, and from others with a shortage,
in order to plan for the future?
The data shown here are for initial teacher education
in lower general secondary schools only. Data exist for
primary and upper secondary schools too (Eurydice key
data, 2000). The graph illustrates similarities and dif-
ferences among countries in:
• the length of initial training courses
• the balance in training between general education
and pedagogic practical training.
For the purposes of this indicator, two key distinctions
have been made:
• general or subject-based education and training:
knowledge related to what the trainee will be required
to teach, as well as general education which is direct-
ly linked to teaching
• pedagogic and practical training: practical place-
ments in schools, plus a range of other courses which
are related to the teaching profession (for example,
theoretical courses on didactics, adolescent psycholo-
gy, methodology, history of education, use of ICT).
In some cases it has been hard to separate the two
categories, for example where general and pedagogic
training are taught together. In these cases 50 % of
time has been attributed to each in the graph.
The graph provides information on two aspects of ini-
tial teacher training: firstly, the length and, secondly,
the amount of time spent on pedagogic and practical
training. It should be noted that, for Germany and
Austria (
8
), only training for teachers in Gymnasium or
AHS (allgemeine höhere Schule) respectively is includ-
ed (two routes are possible, depending on the type of
secondary education).
With regard to the first aspect, the data show that the
most common length of course is five years (eight
countries) or four years (14 countries). In Germany,
Luxembourg and Italy, initial courses are longer than
average, while in Belgium and Liechtenstein they are
shorter.
The graph also shows the amount of time spent on
pedagogic and practical training. This varies greatly,
from the equivalent of less than a year in Ireland,
48 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
(
8
) In Austria, teacher training for the Hauptschule, which rep-
resents around 70 % of teachers, is a three-year non-uni-
versity education where theoretical and practical elements
are integrated and cannot be displayed separately.
As teacher retention becomes a more pressing priority,
issues of separate pay and promotion arrangements
for particularly effective or ‘expert’ teachers will be-
come a more pressing policy issue. What can be done
to reward and retain particularly effective teachers?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Hungary — The in-service teacher training system —
The Act on Public Education has declared that each
teacher should participate in at least 120 contact-
hours of in-service teacher training during seven years
of practice.
Portugal — ‘Sailing through the Portuguese language’
is the name given to an initiative of the Department of
Secondary Education of the Portuguese Ministry of
Education, designed to provide teaching training using
Internet facilities.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 49
14. PARTICIPATION IN PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION
50 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Pre-primary education is significant in many different respects. Firstly, it makes an im-
portant contribution to the emotional and cognitive development of children and to
their social integration, thereby helping to prepare them for the school environment and
reducing the likelihood of failure at school later on. Secondly, it plays an important part
in supporting families. The changing role of the family as a social institution often
means that parents are no longer at home full time and that, as a result, they are un-
able to provide an adequate educational and social environment for their children.
AVERAGE DURATION OF ATTENDANCE BY CHILDREN AGED THREE
TO SIX AT AN EDUCATION-ORIENTED INSTITUTION, 1996/97
) Data not availableSource: Eurostat, UOE.
4
3
2
1
0
4
3
2
1
0
B
e
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g
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k
i
a
Number of years Number of years
) ) )ISCED 0 ISCED 1
Pre-primary education is defined as the initial stage of
structured teaching. It is usually centre- or school-
based, designed to meet the educational and develop-
mental needs of children of at least three years of age,
and provided by adequately trained staff.
Even if the significance of pre-primary education is
acknowledged across Europe, opinions as to its educa-
tional function differ. Some believe that children
should play as long as possible, while others argue that
pre-school education is essential in order to facilitate
a child’s transition to primary school. Regardless of
these different approaches of individual countries, it is
the case that participation rates have been increasing
markedly during the last 30 to 40 years in almost all
European countries.
The indicator provides information about the average
attendance of children aged three to six years at pre-
primary (ISCED 0) and primary (ISCED 1) education-
oriented institutions during 1996/97. The data used are
based on information compiled by Eurostat using the
results of the UOE data collection and population statis-
tics. They take into account the fact that compulsory
primary education begins earlier in some countries than
in others. The graph does not, however, provide infor-
mation about whether attendance at the institution is
full time (all day) or part-time (half a day).
The diagram shows that a considerable number of
countries are able to offer children a place for three
full years of pre-primary education. Belgium, Denmark,
France, Italy, Hungary and Sweden are among these
countries. In many countries (including Austria, Ger-
many and the Netherlands), pre-primary places for
children aged over three are only available for two to
three years. In other countries (such as Finland, Greece
and Portugal), however, a child would, on average,
spend less than two years in the pre-primary sector. In
evaluating the differences between countries, it must
be taken into account that in some, primary education
begins at a comparatively very early age, meaning that
that fewer pre-primary places are required. This applies
particularly to the United Kingdom.
The information presented in the chart does not show
whether pre-primary provision in each country corre-
sponds to parental demand. Theoretically it is conceiv-
able that in countries with comparatively low partici-
pation, supply meets demand more closely than in
some of the countries with high participation.
The data illustrated in the chart show that the major-
ity of the countries attach high importance to pre-
primary education. Even if attendance at institutions is
generally voluntary among this age group, there is an
emerging trend for childcare to be provided for almost
all children of three years and older. This indicator
does not provide information about the educational
content of the programmes offered by institutions in
the various countries.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 51
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING PARTICIPATION IN
PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION
As participation in pre-primary education increases
across Europe, it is increasingly important to ensure
that the links between pre-primary and primary insti-
tutions are strengthened. It is widely acknowledged
that early measures can play a significant part in re-
ducing school ‘failure’ in later years. What measures
can be taken in order to facilitate successful learn-
ing at primary level and beyond, and to ensure that
the transition from playful learning in the pre-
primary setting to more formal learning within the
school setting is successful?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Italy — In Italy, three initiatives concerning quality in
infant education have been promoted by the Ministry
of Education and by the National Institute for the
Evaluation of Education Systems.
Luxembourg — All children aged between four and six
years are obliged to attend institutions of pre-primary
education. In addition, a third of three-year-olds cur-
rently attend these institutions.
Netherlands — In the Netherlands, two experimental
programmes have been implemented for early child-
hood education with a view to stimulating the cogni-
tive, social–emotional and linguistic development of
disadvantaged children aged between three and six
years.
15. NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER
52 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER — LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL, 1995 AND 1998
) Data not availableSource: IEA, TIMSS (OECD–OCTO) & SITES.
120
90
60
30
0
120
90
60
30
0
F
l
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m
i
s
h
C
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a
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i
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S
l
o
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n
i
a
S
l
o
v
a
k
i
a
Number of students
per computer
Number of students
per computer
1995 TIMSS 1998 SITES
150 150
F
r
e
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c
h
C
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m
.
U
S
A
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d
United
Kingdom
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )238
) )339
216
) )880
) ) )The information society will not only open up new channels of communication amongst
people, but it is likely to have a considerable impact on the way we live, work, consume,
interact with government as well as express and entertain ourselves.
If every European citizen is to be able to use computers effectively, schools must offer
all students the opportunity of learning to use them. Moreover, if the potential of the
Internet and educational software is to be fully exploited by teachers and students, a
sufficient number of effective and sufficiently up-to-date computers must be available.
It should not be forgotten, however, that infrastructure in itself does not guarantee the
development of high-level competencies by students. Schools’ organisation, the man-
agement of technology, the use of high-quality software, and above all teachers’ com-
petencies are all important factors (see also the indicator about ICT).
The number of students per computer in the schools
where eighth grade students are enrolled was measured
both in 1995 (IEA–TIMSS) and in 1998 (IEA–SITES).
The above graph shows the number of computers at a
particular time (in a domain in which changes are tak-
ing place very rapidly). The information about the
number of computers was derived in different ways in
different surveys. In TIMSS, the issue addressed was
the number of computers ‘available for use by teach-
ers or students’ in the school, whereas in SITES it was
the number of computers ‘available for use by stu-
dents in the entire school’. The ratios may be seen as
fairly close and comparable, although not strictly iden-
tical. OECD (1998) underlines that, in TIMSS, the indi-
cator may apply to a slightly different population. In
addition, it should be noted that some countries did
not satisfy the IEA sampling requirements.
The statistics illustrated do not provide information
about the adequacy of computers in relation to cur-
rent requirements — for example connection to Inter-
net, or ability to run powerful software — nor about
their actual use. Moreover, the indicator could vary ac-
cording to the level of the education system: the ratio
of students to computers is considerably more
favourable at upper secondary level than at lower sec-
ondary education (nine countries provided information
about both levels).
The graph shows that the range of countries’ scores is
very large in both studies: from nine (Scotland) to 880
(Romania) in TIMSS, and from 9 (Denmark) to 238
(Bulgaria) in SITES.
In every country which took part in both surveys, the
availability of computers in schools rose between 1995
and 1998. In those European or pre-accession coun-
tries which took part in both surveys, the number of
students per computer decreased from 90 to 55 on av-
erage, that is 39 % in less than four years. It may be
assumed that a similar decrease also took place in the
other countries.
Eight of the participating countries, among which
three are northern, had fewer than 20 students per
computer in at least one survey. The number of stu-
dents per computer is shown in brackets, according to
TIMSS; then SITES; ‘–’ means that the country did not
take part in the survey): United Kingdom (11 for Eng-
land and 9 for Scotland; –), Denmark (17; 9), Austria
(19; –), Sweden (19; –), Finland (–; 10), Luxembourg (–;
12), Italy (–; 16) and France (29;17). Japan and the
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 53
United States also have a high number of computers:
Japan (27; 14) and United States (16; –).
According to SITES, central and eastern European
countries (Bulgaria, Lithuania, the Czech Republic,
Slovenia and Hungary) are less well-equipped than
most others. However, Cyprus also ranks very low, but
the situation seems to be changing very fast in those
areas: between 1995 and 1998, the decrease in num-
ber of students per computer ranged from 23 %
(Lithuania) to 70 % (Slovenia).
It is important to emphasise that the indicator repre-
sents an average, concealing very different situations
in individual schools: a fairly similar level of equip-
ment in all schools, or possibly very well-equipped
schools alongside schools without any access to new
technologies.
The data clearly show a trend towards an improvement
of ICT resources in lower secondary schools. The resourc-
ing of schools appears to depend on the wealth of the
country, but the relation is not a simple one: major
progress made by several countries between 1995 and
1998 shows that solutions to a lack of resources can be
found, in some cases, through partnership.
KEY POLICY ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION CONCERNING
THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER
Faced with the necessity of providing expensive equip-
ment to a large number of schools, some educational
systems turn to a partnership approach, in which the
partner organisation must benefit in some way from
its contribution but must respect national rules re-
garding school education. (It may not, for example, in-
terfere with the curriculum.) Exchange of experiences
in this area could eventually help countries less well-
equipped to find a means of improving their resources.
How would it be possible to create partnership with
institutions or organisations which could help to in-
crease the availability of computers in schools? How
can schools be guaranteed a real long-term benefit
from such an approach?
As technology changes rapidly, it is wise to bear in
mind from the outset the need to upgrade computers,
replace outdated models, or repair faulty machines. It
may be preferable to provide the schools with a small-
er number of computers in the first instance, in order
to ensure that the hardware remains usable and at a
suitable level of performance over time. How can
schools ensure that their equipment remains appro-
priate while costs are kept at a manageable level?
Hardware alone cannot guarantee efficient use of ICT
in schools; teachers must be able to use ICT effective-
ly themselves. How should teacher training in this
field be organised?
The importance of computer skills in today’s society is
widely recognised. How should the use of computers
in primary and secondary schools be organised in
order to ensure that pupils acquire these skills?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Belgium (French) — 1998 partnership offering all pri-
mary and secondary school a ‘cyber centre’: computers
and facilities to connect to Internet.
Estonia — The ‘Tiger leap’ programme is a national tar-
get programme with the overall objective of improving
the educational system in Estonia through the intro-
duction of modern information and communication
technologies (http://www.tiigrihype.ee/english).
Italy — 1999, companies and banks provided schools
with their old (but perfectly working) computers.
Portugal — New regulations on school administration
and management, issued in 1998, created clusters of
schools (agrupamentos) which allow for the sharing of
human as well as material resources.
54 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 55
16. EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE PER STUDENT
EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL/STUDENT (PPS) IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION, 1997
) Data not availableSource: Eurostat, UOE.
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) )Tertiary education Secondary education Primary education
The share of total financial resources devoted to education is a key decision for nation-
al governments. It is an investment with long-term returns, and most governments con-
sider it to be something which impacts on several key political challenges such as social
cohesion, international competition, and sustainable growth.
The chart summarises educational expenditure per stu-
dent, differentiated according to level of education,
namely primary (ISCED 1), lower and upper secondary
(ISCED 2, 3 and 4) and tertiary education (ISCED 5 and
6). The information is based on the UOE finance data
provided by countries for the financial year 1997; in-
formation is presented for EU countries only, as data
for the remaining countries were unavailable.
The data cover only expenditure on public institutions.
They include expenditure for ancillary services such as
meals, transport and other welfare services, but do not
generally include expenditure on student fees. Expen-
diture for research is not included if it is carried out by
separate research institutions with a purely adminis-
trative link to universities.
A straightforward comparison of expenditure per pupil
is problematic on the basis of these figures. It would
not, for example, take into account national variations
in the costs of educational resources of comparable
quality. A teacher in one country could incur greater
expenditure than a teacher in another country as a re-
sult of higher salary costs. However, the work of a
teacher in the first country is not necessarily of better
quality than that of a teacher in the second country.
The reason for differences in expenditure can be at-
tributed largely to differences in salary levels. Howev-
er, factors such as the number of students enrolled and
the different duration of studies also have a decisive
influence in the amount of educational expenditure
per student.
The graph shows clearly that expenditure per head dif-
fers greatly between individual countries. Greece, for
example, has rather low levels of expenditure, while
countries such as Austria have above average expendi-
ture. The extent of the differences between the coun-
tries can be demonstrated clearly by taking the exam-
ple of secondary education. Greece spends 2 150 PPS
(purchasing power standards expressed in ecus) on
each pupil, whereas Luxembourg spends 10 009 PPS.
Between these two extremes lies a group of countries
with relatively low levels of expenditure, including
countries such as Ireland (3 637 PPS) and the United
Kingdom (3 808 PPS), as well as a group of countries
with comparatively high levels of expenditure on sec-
ondary education, such as Austria (7 676 PPS), Den-
mark (6 699 PPS) and France (6 501 PPS). With respect
to the comparatively very low level of expenditure in
Germany (4 196 PPS) it must be taken into account
that training within the dual system of the upper sec-
ondary level is financed to a considerable extent by
business, and the expenditure is not, therefore, includ-
ed here. Under the dual system, approximately one
third of students’ training takes place in schools which
are financed by the State, and two thirds in companies
which are not normally publicly funded.
The differences between countries can be explained in
part by their differing levels of prosperity. Neverthe-
less, it is interesting that in those countries which had
very high levels of expenditure per pupil, expenditure
also represents a relatively large proportion of the
gross domestic product per head of the population. In
Denmark and Austria, expenditure per pupil on educa-
tion comprised 28 % and 33 % respectively of the
gross domestic product per head of the population in
1995, taking into account the higher prosperity of
these countries, whereas it represented 16 % in
Greece, 19 % in Ireland and 24 % in the United King-
dom in that year (source: Education at a Glance,
1998).
56 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
A number of observations, beyond those already dis-
cussed, can be made on the basis of the data shown.
Even taking into account the differences in prosperity
between countries, the priority given to education
seems to vary considerably. Wealthier countries seem
to be able to ‘afford’ to make education a priority. It is
clear that different countries pursue different strate-
gies regarding expenditure on education. In the major-
ity of countries, expenditure per student increases in
line with the age of students. The variation in funding
levels between the different levels of education within
individual countries is quite marked. In Denmark, for
example, expenditure on each of the three stages is
quite similar, whereas there are clear differences in the
funding allocated to the three stages in the Nether-
lands, where the difference between secondary and
tertiary level is explained by the inclusion of research
expenditure.
KEY POLICY ISSUES CONCERNING EDUCATION
EXPENDITURE
This comparative overview of expenditure on educa-
tion, combined with a knowledge of the situation of
the economies of the different countries, gives rise to
the following questions regarding the financing of
education:
• How, and according to which criteria, should
priorities be set — particularly with respect to the
different levels of education?
• How can we make sure that expenditure on
education is an investment?
• What is the role of the private sector in funding
education, especially in the context of life-long
learning? Is the contribution of private sector fund-
ing an opportunity or a danger, particularly for the
less wealthy countries?
• What is the implication of the expansion of life-
long learning on education expenditure? Who will
meet the costs of this expansion: the State, the in-
dividual participant, the private sector?
• Is the balance of expenditure between the dif-
ferent educational levels right? What are the priori-
ties in terms of funding? What are the consequences
of increasing funding at local/regional level? How
could this affect the quality of educational estab-
lishments?
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
(For more information see Annex 1)
Scotland — New public–private partnership arrange-
ments allow local authorities to fund school re-build-
ing programmes, which they otherwise would not have
been able to fund on such a scale.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 57
ANNEXES
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 59
1. MATHEMATICS
Austria
In Austria, as a consequence of the poor results of
Austrian upper secondary students — different from
the students of the seventh and eighth grades — the
Austrian Ministry of Education has begun a project
with two principal objectives:
• to establish measures for the further development
of instructional methods in mathematics;
• to develop a methodology for the use of materials
relevant to TIMSS in mathematics instruction.
These materials will serve as a tool in voluntary self-
evaluation of schools. The project is intended to be a
first step in relating international studies of student
achievement to practical work in schools.
Cyprus
The Mathematical Society of Cyprus, in cooperation
with the Ministry of Education and Culture, has initi-
ated mathematical contests covering all areas of the
country and all ages of pupil. The response from
pupils has been very high. The contests are helping to
build a culture which promotes excellence in mathe-
matics.
France
In France a national ‘observatory’ for mathematics
teaching and achievement has been developed jointly
by the Mathematics Teachers Association (APMEP) and
the National Institute for Pedagogical Research (INRP).
Surveys carried out over 10 years have produced many
assessments tools and teaching references for pupils
from grade 6 to grade 12. These are already used by
hundreds of teachers and are now available on the In-
ternet, and on CD-ROM, for all teachers.
Germany
In Germany, materials have been developed for math-
ematics teachers, in which the TIMSS results are ex-
plained and suggestions for the improvement of math-
ematics teaching are presented. These materials
include a CD-ROM containing excerpts from a study
video, produced in the context of TIMSS, on the teach-
ing of mathematics in Germany, Japan and the USA.
United Kingdom
Launch of the Maths Year 2000 in January to raise ex-
pectations, promote a ‘can do’ attitude towards maths
and get rid of the national fear of figures. Maths Year
2000 will make maths fun and accessible for everyone.
And most importantly, Maths Year 2000 will support
the efforts of primary teachers to drive up standards in
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 61
1. EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL INITIATIVES
maths through the government’s national numeracy
strategy. Some 27 000 teachers from schools with the
biggest challenges will receive intensive maths train-
ing.
As a response to the Unesco initiative to declare 2000
‘the year of mathematics’, most countries have set up
an agenda and projects which can be consulted
(http://wmy2000.math.jussieu.fr/). As an example, the
United Kingdom has organised a high-profile cam-
paign promoting mathematics as an enjoyable and
interesting topic. The campaign is being led by a high-
profile media personality famous for her numerical
skills. For more information go to the web site
(www.mathsyear2000.org).
2. READING
Denmark
The results from the IEA reading literacy survey from
1991 showed that Denmark was not at a high or na-
tionally acceptable level. Since then, Denmark has
made efforts to increase the reading level in compul-
sory education. One of the projects has been to
strengthen educational/pedagogical research in the
field. Furthermore, the in-service training of school
teachers has been expanded and municipalities have
decided to increase the amount of lessons in reading
and writing. Teacher training colleges have, in accor-
dance with the latest ministerial order, upgraded the
importance of Danish as a subject.
The Ministry of Education, the National Association of
Local Authorities and the Danish Union of Teachers
have together launched a big national programme
‘Folkeskolen 2000’. The aims of the programme include
setting standards for core knowledge and proficiency
for each subject. Additionally, a project named Quality
in Education, was introduced by the Danish Govern-
ment in 1998 with the aim of strengthening qualifica-
tions in Danish, mathematics and English.
Germany
Newspapers in schools — A large number of local and
regional newspapers in Germany take part in this proj-
ect: pupils receive over the period of three months
‘their’ daily newspaper (without paying for it). The
newspaper is integrated in different subject matters at
school. After four weeks of reading the local news-
paper and getting familiar with structure, special lan-
guage and different types of texts (report, comment,
etc.), the pupils also receive other newspapers (trans-
regional and weekly papers). The guided comparative
reading also makes a remarkable contribution to polit-
ical education and to media-education in general. The
project is an excellent instrument to stimulate interest
in reading, in public affairs and promotes critical
judgement. The project is financed by the publishers
and by industry-sponsors. The participation rate is
high.
Italy
In 1998, the Ministry of Education launched the ‘Prog-
etto lettura 2000’ programme aiming to promote the
development of school libraries and to encourage
reading among students of all kind of schools. Among
the initiatives proposed by the schools, two are to be
mentioned:
Students (last year of lower secondary schools and all
grades of upper secondary) can take part in their own
school in a jury which has to select the 20 most impor-
tant books of 20th century from 100 youth books pro-
posed by a group of writers. The selected books must be
reviewed explaining the reasons of the choice; the re-
views can be considered as a credit. The list of the most
favourite books at national level will be presented at the
Book Fair (May 2000) and discussed with the students.
A web site on reading ‘Giovani lettori protagonisti —
Young readers are protagonists’, wholly addressed to
pupils of primary and lower secondary schools will be
ready next April as a ‘virtual’ online library. There will
be also a section for teachers with suggestions and di-
dactic proposals in order to motivate pupils toward
book reading (www.galassia.org).
Sweden
Research has shown that young people improve their
reading skills when they participate in joint reading
experiences with a close friend or relative. Based on
this finding, regional and local school authorities in
Sweden have asked and actively encouraged parents of
students aged 10 to 12 to spend half an hour per day
reading a good book with their child. Half the time,
the student reads aloud to the parent and the other
62 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
half the child listens to the parent reading. The au-
thorities have supported this programme by funding
the purchase of interesting books that both students
and parents enjoy.
3. SCIENCE
Europe
‘Women in Science’ is a mobile exhibition, obtainable
on request from the Member States’ Education Min-
istry departments, which deals with equal opportuni-
ties and gender-related issues to be shown in the
secondary schools.
It illustrates the history of science through the
achievements of women in different periods of history
and current trends in the feminist approach to science,
accompanied by figures and bibliographies, and also
illustrates initiatives organised by European networks
and by the European Commission to promote equal
opportunities at school, at university and in careers.
The content of the exhibition can be put to use by
teachers as a platform for discussing equal opportuni-
ties in schools and perhaps for getting more girls to
opt for scientific and technical subjects.
Ireland
European Union Physics Colloquium — The Colloquium
on Attainment in Physics at 16+ was held in 1998 and
involved Ireland and eight other European education
systems. The colloquium examined approaches to
physics education at upper secondary level in the par-
ticipating countries. Each country prepared a detailed
paper on physics education. The outcome of the collo-
quium was a report on the principal issues in physics
education in upper secondary education in Europe.
Italy
In 1999, a national four-year programme ‘Progetto SET
— SET project’ was launched, aiming to enhance pupils’
scientific and technological skills and to raise their
achievement levels. The programme is based on four
basic assumptions: a unified vision of science and
technology; a wider concept of laboratory skills in-
cluding experimental skills and capacity to evaluate
the social relevance of science and technology; the
strategic role of multimedia, telematics and informa-
tion technologies; the interdisciplinary meaning of the
content areas proposed by the programme.
An initiative has been carried out aiming to improve
teaching/learning processes in science and to prevent
learning difficulties during the last year of primary
school (fifth grade) by means of individualised learning
units and materials. The experience was based on the
DIVA model of individualised teaching (Didattica individ-
ualizzata con valutazione analogica/Individualised
teaching with analogical assessment): using analogy, this
approach allows diagnostic tests to be developed which
identify potential learning difficulties regarding specific
subject content. In this way remedial action can be
planned before failure has actually happened and indi-
vidualised learning/teaching units can be prepared. The
content area selected for this innovative initiative deals
with physical, chemical and biological phenomena.
Slovakia
‘Schola Ludus’, launched by scientists of Comenius
University, is an NGO operated, and MoE supported,
programme commemorating Jan Amos Comenius’ be-
lief in the effectiveness of learning by playing. ‘Schola
Ludus’ promotes science education by interactive exhi-
bitions touring the country.
Spain
The National Science Museum has a guide of school
programmes for permanent exhibitions, temporary ex-
hibitions, workshops, guided visits, didactical materials
and courses.
The ‘Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas’ or-
ganises guided visits for groups to several scientific insti-
tutes to acquaint young people with scientific research.
4. ICT
Europe
One of the objectives of President Prodi’s eEurope ini-
tiative is to make digital literacy one of the basic skills
of every young European. eLearning is intended to im-
plement the education/training part of eEurope. This
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 63
initiative has four components: to equip schools with
multimedia computers; to train European teachers in
digital technologies; to develop European educational
services and software and to speed up the networking
of schools and teachers.
Most of the resources to be mobilised will be national,
but they should be backed by European Structural
Fund assistance in the eligible regions, mobilisation of
the Community programmes to promote digitalisation
and development of partnerships between public au-
thorities and industry.
Cyprus
From the school year 2000–01, the new type of lyceum
— ‘the unified lyceum’ (upper secondary education) —
will be introduced in Cyprus. Following an extensive
four-year pilot, the new lyceum will have three key
new elements:
• upgrading the ICT skills of pupils by introducing
curricular changes that provide for more teaching pe-
riods in ICT;
• upgrading schools’ technological equipment;
• developing the skills of staff to enable the provi-
sion of a more flexible programme of studies to suit
the needs and aspirations of all pupils.
Estonia
In some Estonian schools, senior pupils are required to
spend four hours a week on mentoring and tutoring
younger children in ICT, acting as a mediator between
them and their teachers. The benefits to older pupils
are seen to be as significant as those for the younger
children who gain from working with peers whose ex-
perience is more relevant. This takes place as part of a
wide national initiative to increase the use of ICT and
develop the expertise of teachers.
Hungary
In Hungary, initiatives are underway to promote new
methods and teaching aids that make use of ICT technol-
ogy in a range of school disciplines. Successful applicants
are expected, in exchange for funds for equipment and
software, to develop and test computer-assisted se-
quences of lessons and give reports on student develop-
ment. A scheme to offer tax reductions for the purchase of
home computers is currently being developed along with
support schemes for teachers to acquire PCs for home use.
Italy
A large-scale programme, the PSTD ‘Programma di
sviluppo delle tecnologie didattiche 1997–2000’, was
promoted to spread information and communication
technologies (ICT) and aims to improve the
teaching/learning processes.
The programme has defined three large categories of
objectives:
1. to promote students’ mastery of multimedia in
terms of understanding and using different tools, or
adopting new cognitive styles in the study, design and
the conduct of experiments in communication.
2. to improve the effectiveness of the
teaching/learning processes and the pedagogical or-
ganisation eTw er regarding subject-bound competen-
cies or the acquisition of cross-curricular skills.
3. to develop the professionalism of teachers not on-
ly through education, but also by giving them tools
and services for their daily job.
An experimental teaching project called ‘Multilab’
(multimedia laboratory) aims to revolutionise teaching
through the use of computers in classrooms. A net-
work of seven schools has been set up in each of the
20 cities involved in the project and one of the upper
secondary schools selected is responsible for the coor-
dination and implementation of the initial in-service
training phase for the teachers.
Multilab does not, however, propose a single model for
methods of teaching. The project is presented to the
schools as an offer of the necessary structure and
equipment.
The New erlands
The Dutch ‘knowledge net’ is a project of the Ministry
of Education bringing togew er pupils, parents, teach-
ers and cultural organisations. It is a computer net-
work which also provides services: information, discus-
sion groups, and technical facilities. Business firms re-
ceive tax benefits if they provide computers to schools.
Pupils (and teachers) receive a qualification, called the
64 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
‘digital educational driver’s licence’ (digitaal rijbewijs)
which sets a standard for basic ICT skills.
Poland
The ‘Interkl@sa’ programme aims to prepare young
people for work in the information society and to de-
velop schools as modern centres for innovation and
creation. It also brings together two projects: the first
establishing an Internet workshop in each commune,
and the second planning an Internet workshop in each
secondary school.
Slovakia
Info-age — Infovek, in Slovak (www.infovek.sk) — is a
non-profit-making NGO operated programme aimed
at the improvement of ICT in primary and secondary
schools. Reflecting US and EU activities of this type,
access to Internet, at least one multimedia laboratory
and training of teachers is to be provided for all pri-
mary and secondary schools. The programme was
launched in 1999. It is supported by MoE and backed
by the President of the Parliament. It continues the ef-
forts of Dutch–Czechoslovak project Comenius from
early 1990s and the recent ‘Open society fund’ pro-
gramme which have already provided Internet access
to 138 schools.
Slovenia
The objective of the ‘Developing computer literacy’
programme (http://ro.zrsss.si/) is to: train teachers and
pupils for the use of information technology; imple-
ment a standardisation of computer supported trans-
fer of data between schools and other institutions;
unify the computer software used for teaching and
administration purposes in schools; supply schools
with up-to-date computer and data equipment; and
provide the possibilities for research and development
in the field of implementing new information tech-
nologies in schools.
Spain
All Spanish State schools have an official Internet ac-
count and space to publish a web page. Many schools
have created their own website. All teachers of State
schools have the opportunity to ask for a personal ac-
count for e-mail and access to Internet. Around
65 000 teachers have an account. More information
(in Spanish) is available on the Internet
(http://www,pntic.mec.es/).
Sweden
In Sweden the government offers in-service training
for school leaders and teacher teams to learn how to
use computers as a tool. Money has been allocated by
the government to supply 60 000 teachers with a per-
sonal computer. A specific State allowance is given to
each school so that they can link up to the Internet.
Within a few years all Swedish students will have their
own personal e-mail address.
5. FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Europe
The aim of the ‘European label’ is to help stimulate in-
terest in language learning by highlighting innovative
language learning projects at all stages of education
and training. The European label was launched in the
context of the Commission’s 1995 white paper ‘Teach-
ing and learning: towards the learning society’, which
set the objective of helping all EU citizens to be profi-
cient in three European languages.
The label can be awarded to any initiative in the field
of language teaching and learning, whatever type of
organisation is responsible and whatever the age of
the learners involved. Some projects will involve the
use of new technologies, but that is not essential.
What is important is that a project makes good use of
the resources available to it.
Belgium
Due to the limited international importance of Dutch
(the mother tongue in Flanders), foreign language
learning has a prominent position in Flanders. An im-
pressive number of people attend foreign language
courses, not only in compulsory education (from age
12 to 18), but mainly in all kinds of adult education.
The most important provider is the Department of Ed-
ucation, which offers courses in 18 languages (both,
European and non-European). Access to these courses
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 65
is made easy and very cheap. Some language courses
are on offer as distance learning. In addition, specific
types of work-related language training courses are
offered in the sector of occupational (VDAB) and self-
employment training (VIZO). Finally, many companies
invest in modern foreign language training.
The wish to interrelate the general and vocational lan-
guage offer has resulted in developments on the
macro-level. The educational authorities have decided
to work out a qualification structure in which both
types of language offer are integrated.
To that end the Department for Educational Develop-
ment (DED) has worked out a common tool for build-
ing user-friendly and transparent language learning
curricula. It is a common framework to describe the
entire language offer (both general and occupational)
provided by the Department of Education. This frame-
work uses a European-level indication as described in
the common European framework of the Council of
Europe ‘Breakthrough up to effectiveness’. The frame-
work:
• is based on the need for effective communication;
• meets the demands of society and the world of
work by describing final objectives in terms of lan-
guage tasks. These tasks are described in a systematic
way, using a fixed set of building blocks. The final ob-
jectives are then clustered into certified modules.
The first new curricula based on this framework will be
on offer by September 2000 (basic level to Break-
through); higher levels of proficiency will be intro-
duced in 2001.
Bulgaria
Improving foreign language (FL) teaching through cre-
ation of a network of ‘methodology teachers’ In order
to improve FL teaching, the Bulgarian Ministry of Edu-
cation and Science (MES) decided to create in 1996 a
national network of so-called ‘teacher methodologists’.
After a highly competitive selection process, over 150
candidates in four languages (English, German, French
and Russian) were appointed to attend one- to two-
year special part-time ‘training of trainers’ pro-
grammes, and sat exams to become teacher methodol-
ogists. In 1998, corresponding legislative changes were
made and the position of ‘teacher methodologist’ was
introduced in the school system. About 150 teacher
methodologists took this position all over the country.
They have half-time classroom work. They have addi-
tional duties, aimed at regular training of other FL
teachers in several neighbouring municipalities in
state-of-the-art teaching methods; analysing the
needs of in-service training for the municipalities for
which they are responsible, planning and managing
the in-service training jointly with the regional inspec-
tors in FL. This cascade model of teacher training is
proving very successful, and currently similar consider-
ations are under way for all other subjects.
Hungary
Hungary, as other countries, has been participating in
an experience of the Council of Europe (Modern Lan-
guages Division) concerning a European language
portfolio (ELP) since its launch in 1998. The ELP is a
personal document in which students can record their
qualifications and other significant linguistic and cul-
tural experiences in an internationally transparent
manner, thus motivating learners and acknowledging
their efforts to extend and diversify their language
learning at all levels in a life-long perspective.
Ireland
In Ireland, a project has commenced aimed at increas-
ing the range of foreign languages taken by students
in secondary school. At present, French has by far been
the dominant foreign language taught in Irish schools
with the number of students taking German less than
one-third of the number taking French. Very few stu-
dents take Spanish and far fewer take Italian. The
project is aimed at increasing the numbers taking
Spanish and Italian by increasing the number of
schools which offer these languages. It is also intend-
ed to introduce Japanese to the school curriculum. In
its initial stage the project is exploring how best this
extension of foreign languages may take place.
6. LEARNING TO LEARN
Belgium (Flanders)
In Flemish Belgium, learning to learn skills are already a
compulsory aspect of the 6 to 18 core curriculum. They
are presented as a cross-curricular theme to be integrated
and applied in as many subjects as possible. Skills include
66 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
the ability to reflect on your own learning, choose appro-
priate strategies for solving problems, being aware of
feelings and be able to channel these effectively, and to
make informed choices about subjects and careers.
England
In England, the Department for Education and Em-
ployment (DfEE) has commissioned and published a re-
port on thinking skills (McGuinness, Thinking Skills,
DfEE, 1999) and made a Ministerial press release indi-
cating the importance of this is an emerging govern-
ment priority. At the level of practice level there are
numerous authorities and schools undertaking training
and examples of large-scale initiatives such as the
University of the First Age, in Birmingham, which holds
summer schools in which schoolchildren of secondary
age practice accelerated learning techniques.
Finland
In Finland, research has been conducted as a prelude to
developing a new form of national assessment. The re-
search analysed factors which cut across and permeate
school subjects and came to be called ‘learning to learn
competencies’. Identification of these factors will, it is
hoped, help to explain relative success and failure in
general and in specific subjects. The national study of
sixth graders in 1996 has provided a national norm for
later testing, leading in 1997 to a study of ninth graders,
similarly furnishing a national norm. Further extensions
and developments are now building on this work.
Germany
In Germany, widespread curriculum revision is taking
place, encouraging pupils through the use of texts and
questionnaires to reflect on their working habits, their
learning strategies, their ability to communicate and
cooperate. Teachers are given criteria for the measure-
ment of self-regulated, cross-curricular work, in order
to certificate competencies in these areas.
Italy
In Italy, a repertoire of instruments has been developed
to measure learning to learn competencies and to pro-
vide teachers with simple tools which they can use for
remedial and individualised intervention. Question-
naires have been developed for two age groups. One, for
students of 10 to 15 years of age, covers four main ar-
eas: learning strategies; learning styles; awareness of
learning (‘metacognition’); and attitudes to school and
learning. The second, aimed at students aged 14 to 17 in
general and vocational education, has 14 scales, seven
of which tap cognitive, or thinking, skills while the other
seven tap into affective, or feeling, aspects such as test
performance anxiety, self explanations for success and
failure, perceptions of one’s own competence or ability.
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, a cohort study of 20 000 second-
ary students is repeated every five years using a test
developed to measure the general problem solving ca-
pacities of 14- to 15-year-old pupils.
7. CIVICS
Greece and Cyprus
In Greece and Cyprus, the ‘Parliament of adolescents’ is
an annual project in which elected Lyceum pupils act
as representatives of all other pupils living in all areas
of the two countries. They meet in the House of Par-
liament and discuss matters of concern of the young
generation as well as matters of current importance to
Greece and Cyprus. In their discussions they follow the
rules and regulations of the real Parliament. The proj-
ect has been successful in providing pupils with rich
experiences in civics education.
Italy
In all secondary schools a ‘Statute of students’ rights
and duties’ was introduced in order to enhance
democracy in schools and widen students’ opportuni-
ties (i.e., the right to be informed about learning goals
and assessment criteria, to participate in support ac-
tivities to prevent drop out; the duty of the schools to
respect cultural and religious values of foreign stu-
dents and to organise intercultural activities etc.).
The following are examples of courses and initiatives
of ‘cross-curricular education’ dealing with civics at
both curricular and extra curricular level:
• peace and human rights education: Amnesty In-
ternational organised in-service teachers’ training and
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 67
elaborated students’ and teachers’ materials and
teaching units for schools in Rome and other Italian
towns (http://www.amnesty.it/edu/index.html);
• environmental education and education for cul-
tural heritage: at national level many schools are in-
volved in initiatives for the ‘adoption’ of monuments
and local areas allowing students to develop a sense of
belonging to their local communities. See the web site
(http://www.legambiente.com/scuola/index.html),
which is in Italian;
• intercultural education: Peter Pan is a European
multilingual school magazine, on paper and online.
The online version (http://www.geocities.com/
CollegePark/Theater/8153/index.html) and chat-line
(http://members.xoom.it/PeterPanNews/chat.html) can
be found on the Internet;
• education for lawfulness: the national cultural asso-
ciation LIBERA (Associations, names and numbers against
mafias) signed an agreement with the Italian Ministry of
Education in order to carry out a plan of action-research
in schools aiming to define specific competencies in this
area. The agreement provides for the collaboration of all
provincial representative councils of students.
Poland
In accordance with the requirements and needs of the
education reform taking place in the country, the
KOSS programme has trained 2 000 teachers to teach
civics to their students. It also creates and publishes
civics programmes.
‘Law and civics education in secondary schools’ is a
programme which deals with the creation of courses in
cooperation with the pupils. Within the framework of
this programme, lessons are developed and conducted
with the active participation of pupils.
An estimated 200 000 pupils from primary and sec-
ondary school (the ‘Gymnasium’ system, implemented
following educational reform) have learned and are
learning civics through the KOSS programme.
‘Young citizens are active’ is a project aiming to teach
young people to participate in everyday life in an ac-
tive and productive way. Pupils have to try to find so-
lutions to the most important problems they feel exist
within their society and to convince the local authori-
ties to develop their ideas.
In the field of ‘Education for Europe’, the National
Centre for Teachers’ Improvement has trained 1 200
teachers using a multimedia methodological tool ‘An
educational package on the European integration’.
8. DROP-OUT RATES
Europe
At European level, the ‘Second chance schools’ project
offers education and training to young people who
lack the skills and qualifications necessary to find a job
or benefit fully from conventional training. The project
aims to set up long-term partnerships between all
those concerned, at local level, with the social and
economic integration of young people at risk of social
exclusion. More information can be found on the In-
ternet (http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/2chance/
homeen.html).
Bulgaria
In 1997, a Phare project was launched to cope with
the increase in school drop outs as a result of the un-
stable economic situation. The project was named
‘School for everybody’. Its main goals were to build ex-
pertise for coping with this complex problem through
appropriate training, involving all concerned stake-
holders, and building centres of expertise and aid
throughout the country. As a result of the project, 13
project centres were established countrywide, three of
which are resource centres for teacher training, and
the rest are centres for school dialogue. Considerable
training of teachers, headmasters and other stakehold-
ers took place too. At the end of the project the 13
centres officially became part of the educational sys-
tem. They offer various expertise and training in meth-
ods, curriculum design, psychology training, advice,
pupil consultancy services, and support to schools,
municipalities, parents and pupils to cope with the
drop-out problem. They are obliged to train staff for
other such centres to be created in each of the 28 re-
gions of the country.
France
A ‘New chance’ for young people who leave school
without qualifications. Each year some 57 000 young
68 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
people leave the educational system in France without
qualifications and therefore risk social and profession-
al exclusion. The French Government takes the view
that schools are not only responsible for education
and training of the young people attending them, but
also for the future of those who leave school where no
arrangements for transition are in place. This new ac-
tion:
• encourages responses for each young person
rather than general solutions;
• facilitates initiatives and supports innovation;
• acts together with partners, particularly enterprises.
The programme, which was launched in May 1999, has
a number of objectives. It aims to: improve procedures
for identifying the young people concerned and in-
crease the available information about the issue of
drop out; prevent disaffection in upper secondary
schools; enrich training up to the level of CAP; and de-
velop a European dimension (the integration of the
European ‘Second chance schools’ projects into the
‘New chance’ programme is explicitly mentioned).
Germany
Some pupils will become drop outs because they lose
interest in theoretical learning at school. In Germany it
has proved useful to find local industry partners who
can give those pupils the chance to gain experience in
practical working, in parallel with their school-based
learning. It has been shown that a relatively large
number of pupils gain new motivation for education
at school as a result of this approach.
The Netherlands
Early school-leaving in the Netherlands is challenged
by a policy of cooperation between schools at a re-
gional level. Early school-leavers are registered and are
put back into schools as much as possible in order to
give them the opportunity to achieve an upper sec-
ondary qualification. To achieve this, 39 regional cen-
tres (RMC) have been formed with responsibility for
registering early school-leavers and coordinating ac-
tions. These regional centres take into account the dif-
ferent responsibilities of the stakeholders in the region
(school, employment agencies, justice, youth care, mu-
nicipalities, etc.) in deciding how best to act. A law is
currently being prepared which will make it obligatory
for schools to report early school-leavers to the
municipality.
Poland
To help reduce the numbers of those dropping out in
Poland, an educational psychology service was set up
and, in 1998/99, 7 646 school educationalists were re-
cruited by schools to identify pupils’ individual needs,
to analyse the causes of failure and to find ways of
remedying them. In the same year, 978 psychologists
were hired by schools to look at the potential difficul-
ties facing pupils and to organise different forms of
psychological therapy. In addition, they provide advice
to students and teachers and cooperate with the edu-
cationalists and parents in order to prevent behaviour-
al disorders and initiate educational assistance inside
and outside schools.
Spain
Three different initiatives, two of them depending on
the Ministry of Education or the autonomous commu-
nity, the other depending on the Ministry of Labour or
the autonomous community.
• ‘Programmas de garantía social’ for 16 to 21 year olds
who have not finished secondary education or have no
professional qualification to the labour market. These
programmes are described (in Spanish) on the Internet
(http://www.mec.es/cnrop/portada_cnrop_40.htm).
• ‘Formación profesional ocupacional’ provided by
the Ministry of Labour and funded by the European So-
cial Fund. Details, in Spanish, can be found on the Inter-
net (http://www.inem.es/ciudadano/p_formacion.html).
• Secondary education for adults (ESPA).
United Kingdom
‘New deal’ is a key part of the UK Government’s ‘Wel-
fare to work’ strategy. It gives jobseekers aged 18 to
24, 25 + and those with disabilities a chance to devel-
op their potential, gain skills and experience and find
work. It also provides an opportunity for businesses to
make use of the untapped energies and talents of a
new labour force. More than 67 000 companies have
signed ‘New deal’ employer agreements so far. Partner-
ship between the Employment Service and a wide
range of organisations is crucial to the success of ‘New
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 69
deal’. ‘New deal’ was created to help unemployed peo-
ple into work by closing the gap between the skills
employers want and the skills people can offer.
9. COMPLETION OF UPPER SECONDARY
EDUCATION
Ireland
In Ireland, one of the most important aims of educa-
tion policy is to maximise the numbers of students
who complete upper secondary education. To that end
an alternative programme, the ‘Leaving certificate ap-
plied’, has been devised for students for whom the
mainstream programmes are not suitable. This pro-
gramme focuses on the needs and interests of students
using a range of methodologies. It also seeks to devel-
op in the students an enterprising outlook, self-confi-
dence and other skills related to success in the work-
place. Students are required to perform tasks during
the two years of the ‘Leaving certificate applied’,
which are assessed and count towards the student’s fi-
nal examination. Work experience and preparation for
the world of work are also important aspects of the
programme.
Spain
The ‘Centro para la Innovación y Desarrollo de la Edu-
cación a Distancia’ (CIDEAD) organises and coordinates
‘Educación a distancia’ intending to facilitate access to
education to adults and also to non-adults who due to
personal, social, geographical or other exceptional cir-
cumstances cannot follow education at school with
daily attendance. It provides primary education, sec-
ondary, and secondary for adults and non-compulsory
post-secondary education.
10. PARTICIPATION IN TERTIARY EDUCATION
Ireland
In Ireland, many of the universities and other tertiary in-
stitutions now have programmes which are aimed at re-
dressing the current imbalance in the representation of
the social classes in the universities and other tertiary
institutions. These are organised at institutional level
and between institutions, in line with Government pol-
icy, and are supported in different ways by the State.
One example is the ‘Accessing college education’ proj-
ect. Sixty students were accepted into the project and
while at school they benefited from extra classes and
supervised study and also tuition in study skills. As the
students are encouraged to forgo paid employment
while at school, they are each given money each month
by the project. They are also provided with academic,
personal and financial support while they are in college.
Scotland
In Scotland, the ‘Open University’ and ‘Open College’
are interesting examples of making tertiary education
more available to mature students and those in remote
areas. Perhaps more topical is the development of the
new ‘University of the Highlands and Islands’, which is
making extensive use of remote access teaching tech-
nology to link a number of centres with students
across the remote rural region of northern Scotland.
11. EVALUATION AND STEERING OF SCHOOL
EDUCATION
Austria
In advance of the general introduction of compulsory
school planning and self-evaluation, a rich resource site
on the Internet has been established for schools, allowing
them to access information, ideas, procedural proposals,
instruments and other support for schools programme
development and self-evaluation (http://www.qis.at).
Denmark
Denmark launched the Danish Evaluation Institute, in
August 1999, a single organisation for the evaluation
of all levels of education. The mandate of the institute
is internationally unique, because it is given the task
by Parliament to undertake systematic and mandatory
evaluation of teaching and learning at all levels of the
educational system from kindergarten classes to post-
graduate courses.
In order to understand the expectations of Government
and Parliament it is necessary to point to two highly vis-
70 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
ible elements in the recent Danish political debate on
education. Firstly, there has been much concern about
the transition from one level to the next in the educa-
tional system, whether it be the transition from primary
to secondary or from secondary to tertiary education.
Secondly, OECD surveys during the 1990s have ques-
tioned the skill levels of Danish primary school pupils in
elementary reading and mathematics.
Europe
The European pilot project ‘Evaluating quality in
school education’, a self-evaluation profile, provided a
highly stimulating starting activity and influenced pol-
icy developments in a number of countries and in
some, for example Italy and Portugal, the pilot has
been extended to involve a wider group of schools.
For the full report see the web site
(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/poledu/
finalrep/rep.pdf).
Hungary
The improvement of quality has a prominent place in
the strategy of the Ministry of Education in Hungary.
A comprehensive programme of quality development
has been initiated by the Ministry. A new pilot project
will be launched with more then 400 public institutes,
nursery schools (pre-primary education institutes),
primary and secondary schools (including the voca-
tional training schools) and hostels. The programme
focuses on the operation and management of the
schools, thus internal development work will be car-
ried out by the institutions themselves. The success of
the quality development programme is largely based
on the cooperation of teachers, providers, and those
responsible for quality assurance in the domain of in-
dustry. One of the most important elements of pro-
fessional support is the Manual of Quality Improve-
ment, published by the Ministry, which is available for
each institution.
The Netherlands
About 0.5 % of the budget for primary and secondary
education is spent on external evaluation activities
such as tests, examinations, evaluations by the inspec-
torate, and large-scale evaluation research. School also
have their own systems for internal evaluation of the
quality of education.
Portugal
Evaluation and steering of schools is now seen in Por-
tugal as very much connected with the definition of
educational plans which schools are required to elabo-
rate and follow.
PEPT (Education for every student), a programme de-
signed in 1991 to foster students completion of com-
pulsory education, made it obligatory for every school
to structure a self-evaluation plan which includes an
observatory with 15 indicators relating to context,
process, resources and outcomes.
Similarly the Institute of Educational Innovation (IIE),
is currently taking forward work on self-evaluation of
quality education in schools first developed and fi-
nanced by the European Commission.
Scotland
Scotland has a well-developed approach to promoting
self-evaluation in schools, backed up by publication of
examination results and a regular programme of inde-
pendent inspections of individual establishments. ‘How
good is our school?’ was published in 1996. It is a
toolkit for schools to use in self-evaluation, based on a
set of 33 performance indicators. These were organised
into seven key areas. In the latest development of this
approach many schools across the country (in some
cases schools within a local authority) are beginning to
publish their own self-evaluation reports (standards
and quality reports) in which they summarise their
own evaluation of their performance in each of the
key areas for their stakeholders. Development of the
self-evaluation approach in Scotland is being taken
forward through the nationally coordinated ‘Quality
initiative in Scottish schools’.
Spain
• INCE (Instituto Nacional de Calidad y Evaluación)
was created to design evaluation systems for the dif-
ferent types of education governed by the LOGSE (new
law for education).
• Self-evaluation of schools is mandatory in Spain;
schools are free to follow their own model of self-
evaluation. The Ministry of Education has published
the ‘Modelo Europeo de Gestión de Calidad’, but train-
ing is needed to put the model into practice.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 71
The Ministry of Education holds an annual contest for
an award of quality in education, the objectives of
which are to foster quality improvement in education
through quality in the management of schools and to
foster use of the ‘Modelo europeo de gestión de cali-
dad’ as a systematic tool of self-evaluation for im-
provement.
12. PARENT PARTICIPATION
Europe
EPA’s ‘Training programme in partnership’ is an exam-
ple of how to improve quality through cooperation
and constructive dialogue between parents and teach-
ers at the school level.
Many parents do not come to the school — through
fear, lack of knowledge, lack of time or lack of aware-
ness. EPA’s training course targets these parents and
highlights their important role and responsibility in
the education of their own child. It provides them with
the confidence to communicate effectively with
teachers.
Germany
In Germany, seminars for parents are provided at both
classroom and school level with three primary aims:
• to inform them of new developments in learning
and teaching and the part they can play in supporting
their children’s learning;
• to establish consensus on areas of school life, such
as social education and values education;
• to motivate them to participate in wider aspects
of school policy such as school rules and policies on
violence, drugs, etc.
13. EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS
Hungary
The in-service teacher training system — the Act on
Public Education has declared that each teacher
should participate in at least 120 contact-hours of in-
service teacher training during seven years of practice.
The courses could be supplied by any kind of training
organisation including HE institutions, pedagogical in-
stitutions, schools, training firms, NGOs or even private
individuals. The courses should go through an accredi-
tation process which includes two phases: first, the
professional accreditation of the programme and, sec-
ond, the accreditation of the local implementation of
the programme — this allows organisations to imple-
ment programmes created by others if they agree.
Each programme is required to have an internal quali-
ty assurance and quality management system. All edu-
cation institutions receive per capita funding based on
the number of teachers employed form the state
budget to cover the costs of the courses (tuition and
other expenses).
Portugal
‘Sailing through the Portuguese language’ is the name
given to an initiative of the Department of Secondary
Education of the Portuguese Ministry of Education, de-
signed to provide teaching training using Internet facil-
ities. This initiative started in October 1999 and is in-
tended for teachers of the Portuguese language who
work with 11th grade students. There are now 158
teachers following this initiative. ‘Sailing through the
Portuguese language’ offers a range of opportunities
including glossary, activities and solutions to problems
and participating in a group discussion through the
Internet.
14. PARTICIPATION RATES IN PRE-PRIMARY
EDUCATION
Italy
In Italy, three initiatives concerning quality in infant
education have been promoted by the Ministry of Ed-
ucation and by the National Institute for the Evalua-
tion of Education Systems.
A four-year national programme of in-service teacher
training aims to:
• promote a process of action research and imple-
ment innovations in four areas: curriculum, education-
al organisation, life contexts of children, professional
identity of teachers;
72 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
• encourage and record innovative experiences;
• disseminate relevant results and practices at re-
gional and national level;
• enhance teachers’ expertise;
• set up a network of professional resources able to
support innovative processes and to meet new de-
mands of teacher training.
A project entitled ‘Special actions to evaluate quality
in infant schools’ aims to:
• carry out a national survey of schools’ experiences
of self-evaluation in the context of factors which con-
tribute to children’s learning and development;
• develop a scale to be used by teachers for evalu-
ating the quality of different aspects of the school
setting.
The project QUASI (Quality of infant school) is a study
aiming to define a repertoire of quality indicators rel-
evant to infant schools.
Luxembourg
In Luxembourg, all children aged between four and six
years are obliged to attend institutions of pre-primary
education. In addition, a third of three-year-olds at-
tend these institutions. Pre-primary education places
considerable emphasis on language development in a
multilingual environment.
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the Ministry of Education and the
Ministry of Health have implemented two experimen-
tal programmes for early childhood education (Pi-
ramide and Kaleidoscope) with a view to stimulating
the cognitive, social-emotional and linguistic develop-
ment of disadvantaged children aged between three
and six years. The programme aims to give these chil-
dren a better start in primary education. The pro-
grammes are implemented in close cooperation with
both childcare centres and schools for pre-primary ed-
ucation, and allow the children to receive more per-
sonal attention. Evaluation shows that there is a sig-
nificant (initial) effect, especially on the cognitive de-
velopment of these children, and also on their vocab-
ulary and thought processes.
15. NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER COMPUTER
Belgium (French)
In 1998, a partnership was signed between the French
Community of Belgium (responsible for education and
teachers training), Walloon or Brussels Capital regions
(responsible for technology and equipment) and the Fed-
eral State (responsible for telecommunications) in order
to offer to each primary and secondary school a ‘cyber
centre’: computers and facilities to connect to Internet.
Estonia
The Estonian ‘Tiger leap’ programme is a national tar-
get programme with the overall objective of improving
the educational system in Estonia through the intro-
duction of modern information and communication
technologies. The programme is aimed at general edu-
cation systems, but it also involves vocational educa-
tion. Further information can be found on the Internet
(http://www.tiigrihype.ee/english).
Italy
In 1999, many important companies and banks (Tele-
com, Enel, Alitalia, Benetton, Banca di Roma, etc.) pro-
vided schools with their old (but perfectly working)
computers. In March 2000, the Italian Government
launched a national plan for spreading the use of
computers among students at home, based on an
agreement with the Italian Association of Banks. The
initiative provides an interest-free loan for purchasing
a computer.
Portugal
Computers have been provided to schools in recent
years and, currently, every school, from 5th through to
12th grade, has a least one computer with access to
the Internet. The new regulations on school adminis-
tration and management, issued in 1998, created clus-
ters of schools (agrupamentos) which allow for the
sharing of human as well as material resources.
FOCO — the Portuguese programme for teacher train-
ing — defined the area of technology information and
communication as one of its first priorities. FOCO is
developed in the 150 teacher training centres created
by the association of several schools.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 73
16. EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE PER STUDENT
Scotland
In Scotland, the Government has encouraged the use
of new public–private partnership arrangements to al-
low local authorities to fund school rebuilding pro-
grammes which they otherwise would not have been
able to fund on such a scale. These arrangements make
it attractive for private investors to put the money up
front for major building programmes. In Glasgow, for
example, this is allowing the authority to create sever-
al completely refurbished schools at once, thus ratio-
nalising inefficient, under-capacity schools and replac-
ing poor-quality buildings. This sort of initiative allow
major quality improvements in education to be funded
efficiently without capital funds all having to come
from the public purse.
74 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Mathematics
Black, P., Atkin, M., Changing the subject: Innova-
tions in science, mathematics, and technology edu-
cation, London and Paris, 1996.
Keitel, C., Kilpatrick, J., ‘The Rationality and irra-
tionality of international comparative studies’, in:
Kaiser, G., Luna, E., Huntley, I., International com-
parisons in mathematics education, London, 1998,
pp. 241–257.
For more information on the TIMSS study visithttp://timss.bc.edu
Reading
Dombey, H. (coord.), Early literacy teaching and
learning. Innovative practice in four different na-
tional contexts: a thematic network, European
Commission, Brussels, 1998.
Elley, W. B., How in the world do students read?, The
International Association for the Evaluation of Edu-
cational Achievement, La Haye, 1992.
Elley, W. B. (ed.), The IEA study of reading literacy:
achievement and instruction in thirty-two school
systems, Pergamon, Oxford, 1994.
European Commission (Education, Training, Youth
DG), Initial teaching of reading in the European
Union. Studies, Office for Official Publications of
the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1999.
Lafontaine, D., ‘From comprehension to literacy:
thirty years of reading assessment’, in OECD, Net-
work A 2000, OECD, Paris (not yet published).
Postlethwaite, T. N. and Ross, K. N., Effective schools
in reading. Implications for educational planners,
The International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement, La Haye, 1992.
For more information about the IEA Reading Litera-
cy study visit:http://uttou2.to.utwente.nl/rl/iea-rl.htm
Science
Adey, P., The science of thinking, and science for
thinking: A description of cognitive acceleration
through science education (CASE), International Bu-
reau of Education (Unesco), 1999.
Beaton, A. E., Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S, Gonzalez,
E. J., Smith, T. A. and Kelly, D. L., ‘Science achieve-
ment in the middle school years’, IEA’s third inter-
national mathematics and science study (TIMSS),
Boston College, Chestnut Hill (Ma.), 1996.
Coughlan, R. (ed.), Attainment in physics — Pro-
ceedings of the colloquium on attainment in
physics at 16+, Stationery Office, Dublin, 1999.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 75
2. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, E. J., Smith, T.
A. and Kelly, D. L., ‘School contexts for learning and
instruction’, IEA’s third international mathematics
and science study,. Boston College, Chestnut Hill
(Ma.), 1999.
Séré, M. G. (coord.), Improving science education:
Issues and research on innovative empirical and
computer-based approaches to labwork in Europe,
European Communities, Brussels, 1998.
Wise, K. C. and Okey, J. R., ‘A meta-analysis of the
effects of various science teaching strategies on
achievement’, Journal of Research Science Teaching,
20 (5), 1983, pp. 419–435.
For more information on the TIMSS study visit:http://timss.bc.edu
Foreign languages
Blondin, C. (coord. and ed.), European Commission
(Education, Training, Youth DG), Learning modern
languages at school in the European Union. Studies
— No 6, Office for Official Publications of the Euro-
pean Communities, Luxembourg, 1997.
Bonnet, G. (ed.), The effectiveness of the teaching
of English in the European Union. Report of the col-
loquium. Background documents (October 1997),
Ministère de l’Education Nationale, Direction de l’é-
valuation et de la prospective, Paris, 1998. See also:http://www.education.gouv.fr/dpd/colloq/
INRA (Europe) — European coordination office,
‘Young Europeans’, Eurobarometer, No 47.2, Euro-
pean Commission, Directorate-General XXII, Brus-
sels, 1997.
For more information on the Eurobarometer surveys
visit:http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg10/epo/eb/surveys.html
For details of DIA-LANG, a diagnostic computer-
based assessment project funded by the European
Commission under the Socrates programme, visit:http://www.jyu.fi/DIALANG/general.html
Civics
Torney-Purta, J., Schwille, J. and Amadeo, J. A. (eds.),
Civic education across countries: Twenty-four na-
tional case studies from the IEA civic education
project, Eburon Publishers, Delft (Netherlands),
1999.
INRA (Europe) – European coordination office,
‘Young Europeans’, Eurobarometer, No 47.2, Euro-
pean Commission, Directorate-General XXII, Brus-
sels, 1997.
For more information on the Eurobarometer surveys
visithttp://europa.eu.int/comm/dg10/epo/eb/
surveys.html or for IEA civic education study, visithttp://www2.hu-berlin.de/empir_bf/iea_e.html.
Drop-out rates
Bucchi, M. — IARD (Istituto di Ricerca), Dropping out
and secondary education, European Commission,
Directorate-General XXII, Brussels.
Colson, D., Gérard, Fr.-M., Guitard, Cl. and. Mar-
tynow, N. (Bureau d’Ingénierie en Education et en
Formation, Louvain-la-Neuve), Getting on with
training, European Commission, Directorate General
XXII, Brussels.
Eurydice, Measures to combat failure at school. A
challenge for the construction of Europe, Brussels,
1994.
Institut de la Méditerranée, Colloque de Marseille,
L’école de la deuxième chance, Editions de l’Aube,
Saint-Etienne, 1997.
Ides Nicaise (ed), Success for all? Educational
strategies for socially disadvantaged youth in six
European countries, Leuven, 1999.
OECD, Venir à bout de l’échec scolaire, OECD, Paris,
1998.
Serrano Pascual, A., Ouali, N. and Desmarez, P. (Cen-
tre de sociologie du travail, de l’emploi ed de la for-
mation (TEF), Université Libre de Bruxelles), Prevent-
ing failure at school and in professional life in Eu-
rope, European Commission, Directorate-General
XXII, Brussels.
Evaluation and steering of school education
SICI, Inspectorates of education in Europe — A de-
scriptive study, Brussels, 1999.
76 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Parents’ participation
Eurydice, The role of parents in the education sys-
tems of Europe, Brussels, 1997.
Number of students per computer
Pelgrum, W. J. and Andersen, R. E., ICT and the
emerging paradigm for life long learning: A world-
wide educational assessment of infrastructure,
goals and practices, OCTO, Enschede (the Nether-
lands), 1999.
For more information on the TIMSS study, visithttp://timss.bc.edu
For more information on the IEA/SITES study, visit:http://www.mscp.edte.utwente.nl/sitesm1/
General
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation
(CERI), ‘Education at a glance’, OECD indicators,
OECD, Paris, 1996, 1997 and 1998.
Centre for Educational Research and Innovation
(CERI), Education Policy Analysis, OECD, Paris, 1997
and 1999.
Jacques Delors, L’Education — Un trésor est caché
dedans, Unesco, Paris, 1996.
European Commission, Accomplishing Europe
through education and training, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxem-
bourg, 1997.
European Commission, Education across Europe —
Statistics and Indicators 1999, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxem-
bourg, 2000
European Commission, Evaluating quality in school
education — A European pilot project, Office for Of-
ficial Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 1999.
European Commission/Eurydice/Eurostat, Key data
on education in Europe 1999–2000, Office for Offi-
cial Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 2000.
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 77
BELGIUM
Mrs Martine HERPHELIN
Directrice générale adjointe
Direction de la Recherche en éducation et pilotage in-
terréseaux
Administration générale de l’Enseignement et de la
Recherche scientifique
Ministère de la Communauté française
Mrs Fanny CONSTANT
Attachée
Direction de la Recherche en éducation et du Pilotage
interréseaux
Administration générale de l’Enseignement et de la
Recherche scientifique
Ministère de la Communauté française
Mr Etienne GILLIARD
Attaché
Administration générale de l’Enseignement et de la
Recherche scientifique
Ministère de la Communauté française
Mr Roger STANDAERT
Directeur
Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap
Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling
DENMARK
Mrs Birgitte BOVIN
Head of Section
Uddannelsesstyrelsen
Undervisningsministeriet
GERMANY
Frau Ministerialrätin Helga HINKE
Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Unterricht und Kultus
GREECE
Prof Nikitas PATINIOTIS
Laboratory of Sociology and Education
University of Patras
SPAIN
Mrs María L. MORENO MARTINEZ
Technical Advisor
Instituto Nacional de Calidad y Evaluación
FRANCE
Mr Gérard BONNET
Chargé de mission auprès du directeur de la program-
mation et du développement
Direction de la programmation et du développement
Ministère de l’éducation nationale
Mr Jacques PERRIN
Inspecteur général
Ministère de l’éducation nationale
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 79
3. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE
WORKING COMMITTEE ON QUALITY
INDICATORS
IRELAND
Dr Carl Ó DÁLAIGH
Deputy Chief Inspector
Department of Education and Science
Mr Richard COUGHLAN
Senior Inspector
Evaluation Support & Research Unit
Department of Education and Science
ITALY
Prof. Benedetto VERTECCHI
President
C.E.D.E. — Centro Europeo Dell’Educazione
Istituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema del-
l’Istruzione
Prof. Vega SCALERA
Researcher
C.E.D.E.— Centro Europeo Dell’Educazione
Istituto Nazionale per la Valutazione del Sistema del-
l’Istruzione
LUXEMBOURG
Mr Dominique PORTANTE
Directeur
Service de Coordination de la Recherche et de l’Inno-
vation pédagogiques et technologiques
Ministère de l’Education nationale, de la formation
professionnelle et des Sports
THE NETHERLANDS
Mr Jan van RAVENS
Head
Unit Multilateral Affairs and Knowledge
Department of International Relations
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
Mr Jaco van RIJN
Researcher
Unit Information Policy and Forecasting
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
Mr Ruud ABELN
Head
Unit Information Policy and Forecasting
Department of Financial Economic Affairs
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
AUSTRIA
Dr Herbert PELZELMAYER
Leiter der Abt. I/3 des Bundesministeriums für Bildung,
Wissenschaft und Kultur; Bildungsforschung, Planung,
Kooperation
Dr Werner SPECHT
ZSEII — Zentrum für Schulentwicklung
Abt.II: Evaluation und Schulforschung
Mag. Erich SVECNIK
Researcher
ZSEII — Zentrum für Schulentwicklung
Abt.II: Evaluation und Schulforschung
PORTUGAL
Mrs Gloria RAMALHO
Directora
Gabinete de Avaliação Educacional
FINLAND
Mr Simo JUVA
Director
General Education Division
Ministry of Education
SWEDEN
Mr Ulf P. LUNDGREN
Director General
National Agency for Education
Mr Mats EKHOLM
Director General
National Agency for Education
Mrs Eva EDSTRÖM-FORS
Director
Ministry of Education and Science
Mr Staffan LUNDH
Director
National Agency for Education
UNITED KINGDOM
Ms Chloe WEST
Team Leader
Pupil Performance and Research Team
Department for Education and Employment
80 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
Mr Chris WORMALD
Team Leader
Excellence in Cities Initiative, Standards & Effective-
ness Unit
Department for Education and Employment
UNITED KINGDOM (SCOTLAND)
Dr Wray BODYS
Lead Officer
HM Inspector of Schools/Audit Unit
Education Department
Scottish Executive
Dr Bill MAXWELL
Lead Officer
Quality, Standards and Audit Division
HM Inspectors of Schools
Scottish Executive Education Department
BULGARIA
Mr Pencho MIHNEV
Senior Expert
Department ‘General Education’
Ministry of Education and Science
CYPRUS
Dr Kyriacos PILLAS
Head
Research & Evaluation Unit
Pedagogical Institute
Ministry of Education & Culture
Mr Vasilis PHILIPPOU
Secretary A
Permanent Delegation of the Republic of Cyprus to the
European Union
CZECH REPUBLIC
Dr Jan SOKOL
Former Minister of Education
Ministry of Education, Youth & Sports
ESTONIA
Mrs Epp. REBANE
Head
General Education Department
Ministry of Education
HUNGARY
Mr Zoltàn BOGDÁNY
Deputy Head
The Minister’s Cabinet
Ministry of Education
Mrs Katalin HERNECZKI
Director of Comenius 2000
Quality Improvement Programme Bureau
LATVIA
Mr Nils SAKSS
Mission of Latvia to the European Commission
Dr Andrejs RAUHVARGERS
Deputy Head of State Secretary for
Education Strategy & Int. Cooperation
Ministry of Education and Science
LITHUANIA
Mr Ric?ardas ALIS
?
AUSKAS
Head
Education Development Division
Ministry of Education and Science
Mr Arûnas PLIKS
?
NYS
Director
General Education Department
Ministry of Education and Science
POLAND
Mrs Aldona HILDEBRANDT
Chief Inspector
Department of Teachers’ Improvement
Ministry of National Education
Mrs Ewa KOLASINSKA
Senior Inspector
Department of Teachers’ Improvement
Ministry of National Education
ROMANIA
Mr Alexandru MODRESCU
Head
Department for Documentation and Education Analysis
Socrates National Agency
Mr Mircea MANIU
General Director of the International Relations Department
Ministry of National Education
EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION | 81
SLOVAKIA
Dr Juraj VANTUCH
Faculty of Education
Comenius University
SLOVENIA
Mr Janez KREK
Assistant
Faculty of Education
University of Ljubljana
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Mr Anders J. HINGEL
Head of Unit
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Mr Lars Bo JAKOBSEN
Detached national expert
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Mr Ben ROLLES
Trainee
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Miss Kate LYONS
Trainee
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Miss Liliane LAUBACH
Secretary
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
Development of education policies
Mr Spyridon PILOS
Education and training statistics
Coordination
Eurostat
UNITE EUROPEENNE D’Eurydice
Madame Luce PEPIN
Directrice
Madame Arlette DELHAXHE
Directrice adjointe/Etudes et analyses
Mr Patrice BREL
Graphiste
EXPERTS
Mrs Christiane BLONDIN
Service de pédagogie expérimentale
Université de Liège
Mr Marc DEMEUSE
Maître de Conférences
Service de pédagogie expérimentale
Université de Liège
Prof. Dr Klaus KLEMM
Fachbereich 2
Universität/Gesamthochschule Essen
Prof. John MACBEATH
Quality in Education Centre
University of Strathclyde
OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development
Mr Andreas SCHLEICHER
Deputy Head
Statistics on Indicators Division
Mr Tom SMITH
Statistics on Indicators Division
82 | EUROPEAN REPORT ON THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
European Commission
European report on the quality of school education
Sixteen quality indicators
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2001 — 82 pp. — 21 x 29.7 cm
ISBN 92-894-0536-8
EUROPEAN REPORT
ON THE QUALITY OF
SCHOOL EDUCATION
SIXTEEN QUALITY INDICATORS
Report based on the work
of the Working Committee on Quality Indicators
European Commission
Directorate-General for Education and Culture
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