Description
Entrepreneurship is the process of starting a business, a startup company or other organization. The entrepreneur develops a business plan, acquires the human and other required resources, and is fully responsible for its success or failure.[1] Entrepreneurship operates within an entrepreneurship ecosystem.
1.1
19
Introduction
This section will discuss policies relating to the development of entrepre-
neurship and the underlying ideas that inform them. It discusses how key agen-
cies are helping to inform broader, more inclusive and differentiated approaches
to entrepreneurship and how these might guide entrepreneurship education in
higher education contexts. The nature of the creative industries, how they are
defined and some of the key issues affecting their growth are explored. Finally
the development of art, design and media in education and their key characteris-
tics are discussed.
1.1 Policy action to support developing entrepreneurship education
Entrepreneurship policy
In policy terms, entrepreneurship tends to be situated in a business or com-
mercial environment, it is frequently measured by rates of business start-up,
and there is often a privileged focus on innovations in science and technology.
However, the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) has also made efforts
to understand non-profit enterprise creation, and has identified a new class of
Community Interest Firms (DTI, 2002b). This may become an important factor
in raising the visibility of creative industry practitioners who in many cases
operate outside of conventional commercial situations, particularly where they
are dependent on public subsidy.
Entrepreneurship education
The agencies that play a major role in promoting entrepreneurship recog-
nise that education is important in raising entrepreneurial capacity. The DTI, for
example, has acknowledged the strong relationship between education and eco-
nomic growth. The Lambert Review of Business-University Collaboration (DTI,
2003) recommended support for “university departments undertaking work that
industry values”. In 2001 the DTI made the first awards under the Higher
Education Innovation Fund (HEIF) to assist universities in efforts in meeting
these recommendations. HEIF is now in its third cycle, and although in earlier
versions it focused on technological and scientific innovations it has expanded
to include initiatives aimed at supporting innovative “engagement with the
wider community”. Despite this, the HEIF still tends to be focused on technolo-
gy, science, and medical education, and universities appear to have been slow or
unable to apply the fund to support creative subjects in substantial ways. The
DTI is also responsible for the UK Research Councils through the Office of
Science and Innovation.
The Davies Review (DfES, 2002a), commissioned by the Department for
Education and Skills (DfES), highlighted that “many teachers are believed to
need considerable support in terms of their knowledge, skills and experience of
business and enterprise”, and that “business needs to be more closely involved
with education”. The report proposed an entrepreneurial approach to managing
1.0
Entrepreneurship
education is
important to
sustainable growth in
the creative industries
UNIVERSITIES SHOULD
CONSIDER THE SCOPE FOR
ENCOURAGING
ENTREPRENEURSHIP THROUGH
INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND
THROUGH SPECIALIST
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMMES.
21 20
1.1
schools to act as a role model for students. Although the Davies Review primarily
focused on the schools sector, it was preceded by the National Committee of
Inquiry into Higher Education’s Dearing Report (NCIHE, 1997) which proposed
substantial changes to the funding, organisation and delivery of higher educa-
tion. It included the recommendation that universities should “consider the
scope for encouraging entrepreneurship through innovative approaches to pro-
gramme design and through specialist postgraduate programmes”.
Subsequently, the Department of Culture Media and Sport (DCMS) Creative
Industries Further and Higher Education Forum (DCMS, 2006b) has advocated
key roles for higher education in developing entrepreneurship in the creative
industries.
The creative industries
The DCMS first defined the creative industries in the Creative Industries
Mapping Document as “those industries which have their origin in individual
creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation
through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property” (DCMS, 1998,
2001). The sectors included in the definition are: advertising; architecture; the
art and antiques market; crafts; design; designer fashion; film and video; interac-
tive leisure software (such as computer games); music; the performing arts;
publishing; software and computer services; and television and radio. The most
recent comprehensive research by the National Endowment for Science,
Technology and the Arts (NESTA, 2006), suggests that the definition is too
broad and includes industry sectors and activities that would not commonly be
regarded as creative, for example software and computer services. The definition
also does not differentiate in relation to size. Some sectors are either relatively
small or comprise relatively small-scale enterprises unlikely to grow at a rate
great enough to contribute in any significant way to the UK economy. Although
never intended as an analytical model, the DCMS definition has limited value in
conceptualising the sector.
Based on these observations NESTA has evolved a “refined model of the cre-
ative industries” (NESTA, 2006) focusing on how commercial value is created.
The model is not intended to differentiate in a way that discriminates in favour
of a particular segment or group of sub-sectors. However it is aimed at shaping
policy to effect changes and bring about enhancement by targeting advice, sup-
port and investment tailored to the patterns of activity, potential for growth and
development based on “analysis of sectors rather than creative activities based
on individual talent”. The model organises the creative industries based on four
characteristics: creative service providers, creative content producers, creative
experience providers and creative originals producers. Activities or discrete busi-
nesses can be located in respect of these characteristic types but also in relation
to other activities and enterprises across the typology. For example creative serv-
ice providers will include public relations, marketing and heritage and tourism
services, while performing arts, galleries and museums are creative experience
providers. However there are closer relationships between, say, performing arts
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
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23
the formation of cultural quarters lie at the centre of many regional and urban
redevelopment plans, both for economic growth and for social and cultural
development.
However, recent research, including NESTA’s (NESTA, 2003 and 2006), the
Cox Review (Cox, 2005), the DCMS Creative Industry Task Group report
(DCMS, 2006b) and the Design Skills Consultation (CCSkills/Design Council,
2006) - has identified increased entrepreneurship as a key aspect in enhancing
the performance of UK industry generally and the creative industries in particu-
lar. NESTA has identified three factors that are at the heart of this issue: scale,
access to markets and innovation. Lack of scale inhibits the opportunity for cre-
ative businesses to respond effectively to the pressures of competition, particu-
larly from international businesses. Lack of scale is not a consequence of a lack
of creative talent, but can be due to conflicting ambitions. Graduates and owner-
managers are frequently passionate about their profession and can sometimes
value “doing good work”, peer recognition and cultural fulfilment over commer-
cial growth. Many of them tend to take an organic approach to their business,
growing slowly, adding to their customer and client base through the distinctive-
ness of their work. Further, many markets for creative products and services are
highly consolidated and controlled by a handful of major gatekeepers who limit
access to the distribution network. It is often assumed that commercial success
arises from creative outputs and this has focused support, advice and develop-
ment on the supply side. Support aimed at increasing entrepreneurial capacity
in the creative industries can assume that access to markets is a given, but in
terms of entrepreneurship it is often innovation in strategies, processes and
business models to develop and diversify markets that will deliver greater
growth and profitability.
Measuring entrepreneurship
There is little doubt that the establishment of new businesses remains an
important factor in the UK’s economy. Small businesses have the fastest rates of
growth and are the primary engine for overall growth in the economy. It is also
widely believed that new business start-ups introduce new products and services
into the marketplace. Further, many local and regional authorities now place
business start-up at the centre of regeneration policies and there is greater
recognition of the role of social enterprise and community interest projects in
building environments in which commercial enterprise will flourish.
In policy terms the number of business start-ups has become the measure
of economic health and a proxy for entrepreneurship (as indicated in surveys
such as the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor). However there is also the issue
of entrepreneurship beyond start-up, in terms of sustained growth and access-
ing larger markets. The design industry is a good illustration here. This sector
of the creative industries is characterised by a large number of small businesses,
however few of these grow to become significant within the national economy
or world leaders in the design industry. The amount of spending on design
products has begun to decline and yet the number of start-ups has continued to
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1.1
and heritage and tourism services as industry activities than between museums
and marketing. It is important to note that in this model it is the sub-sectors’
similarities or differences in terms of business model, value chain and market
structure rather than the nature and value of the product that situates it within
the model. So, film production has greater commonalities with designer fashion
than it does with cinemas.
The creative industries have grown in economic significance throughout the
developed world and the UK has been a leader in prioritising the creative indus-
tries in the policy landscape. According to the UK government the creative
industries sectors accounted for 8% of Gross Added Value (GAV) in 2003, and
between 1997 and 2003 the creative industries grew by an average of 6% per
annum compared to 3% for the whole economy (DCMS, 2006b). In 2004 there
were an estimated 113,000 creative companies in the UK and total employment
in these sectors exceeded 1.8 million. The creative industries workforce has a
larger than average percentage of people with post-16 qualifications. For exam-
ple, 35.6% of the total workforce in TV production and 63% of the workforce in
film production are graduates (Skillset, 2005). Higher education qualifications
are now the norm for people wanting to work in production roles in the creative
industries.
Policy initiatives aimed at developing entrepreneurship in the creative
industries have been developed across the UK. In April 2005 the Cultural
Enterprise Offices opened in Scotland to deliver tailored support and business
advice to creative industries, in particular to sole practitioners and micro-busi-
nesses in the sector. Also in Scotland the Digital Media and Creative Industries
Project Fund administered by Scottish Enterprise aims to develop and assist pri-
vate investment in film, interactive games, music, publishing and TV and radio
enterprises. In Northern Ireland, a coordinated strategy for the development of
creative and cultural resources and the role of education in their development is
supported through the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure’s Unlocking
Creativity programme (DCAL, 2000). DCAL, the Department of Education, the
Department for Employment and Learning, the Department of Enterprise, Trade
and Investment and Invest Northern Ireland jointly launched a programme for
entrepreneurship development demonstrating and emphasising a coordinated
approach to entrepreneurship. This programme’s key indicators include targets
for growth in turnover and exports across the UK and internationally for creative
businesses. In 2004, the Welsh Assembly Government published Creative
Success: A Strategy for the Creative Industries in Wales (WAG, 2004). It expands
support aimed at the creative industries in Wales and focuses on developing a
demand-led sector producing outputs more attractive to UK and international
markets. The intention is to increase the profits of Welsh creative businesses by
retention of intellectual property (IP) and penetration of new markets, and
includes a £7 million investment in the Intellectual Property Fund along with
specialist support for creative industries based in Wales. Across the English
regions, regional development agencies and cities have placed a greater empha-
sis on developing clusters of creative businesses. The creative industries and
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.1
25
rise, suggesting that a greater number of businesses are sharing a declining
market. All indications are that it is not failure to start new design businesses
but a lack of access to developing new markets that inhibits entrepreneurship in
the design sector.
The traditional focus of measurement on rates of business start-up, irre-
spective of context or demand, has led to largely undifferentiated policies for
supporting entrepreneurship and tends to promote a supply-led economy.
Although these conditions apply to all sectors of industry they may present
particular problems for the creative industries. It is relatively easy to start a new
business in many creative industry sectors. Creative industry activities, particu-
larly those offering services or bespoke products, require little capital investment
at the outset compared to many other industries, but almost all creative enter-
prises have limited direct access to their consumers. Distributors often control
the flow of products and services to the consumer and absorb a significant pro-
portion of the value.
Stereotypes of entrepreneurs
The popular view of an entrepreneur is of a self-made man, probably with
little experience of education beyond school. He is focused, determined, good at
networking and has ‘bootstrapped’ his way to success. Economic historians have
reinforced this stereotype by concentrating on the contributions made to the
development of the UK economy by captains of industry. The story of the indus-
trial revolution is characterised by the shaping of our social, economic and phys-
ical landscape by a few highly significant industries. Mining, engineering and
manufacturing are large-scale and highly visible and tend to be rigidly hierarchi-
cal with a few entrepreneurs at the pinnacle of each enterprise. In trade, particu-
larly world trade, the focus is on a few pioneers who opened new trade routes in
the Empire or explorer-engineers who built the railways, roads and plantations.
Then there is the parallel model of the great scientist-inventor, the technological
innovator, often successful in business but just as often a tragic figure battling
with a world of small-minded conservative financiers to materialise their vision,
a vision which with the advantage of hindsight seems self-evident. The currency
of these stereotypes is also reflected in the popularity of contemporary reality TV
shows about entrepreneurship such as The Apprentice and Dragon’s Den.
1.1 Summary
• The creative industries have grown rapidly over the last ten years but there
are signs that growth is slowing and some sectors are in decline.
• National policies for developing entrepreneurship tend to be undifferentiat-
ed. Only recently have more integrated policies begun to appear that coordi-
nate development across education, commerce, social enterprise and public
subsidy sectors.
many local and regional
authorities now place
business start-up at the
centre of regeneration
policies
All indications are that it is
not failure to start new design
businesses but a lack of access
to developing new markets
that inhibits entrepreneurship
in the design sector.
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1.2
27
initiatives sited within higher education institutions have demonstrated that it is
possible to both learn to be entrepreneurial and to deliver educational pro-
grammes to develop entrepreneurship.
In a key piece of research carried out by Prof. Allan Gibb for the NCGE, per-
haps the most significant finding is that graduate entrepreneurship is cultivated
best when it has been developed in relationship to the core subject being stud-
ied (contrary to the view that entrepreneurship is a function of business and
commerce, and is best absorbed into the practices of business and management
schools). This suggests that models of entrepreneurial activity are best aligned
with the pedagogic practice appropriate to a subject, and that definitions of
entrepreneurship need to be broad in order to encompass a range of practices or
adaptable to different learning contexts. This is why this project suggests that
“Entrepreneurial learning is acquired on a ‘how to’ and ‘need to know’ basis
dominated by processes of ‘doing’, solving problems, grasping opportunities,
copying from others, mistake making and experiment” (Gibb, 2005). It is signif-
icant that this description is closely aligned with processes already in place in
the curricula for art, design and media.
1.2 Summary
• Entrepreneurship education has a prominent place on the agenda of nation-
al and regional agencies.
• Educational development agencies working across the higher education sec-
tor focused on art, design and media are supporting the development of
entrepreneurship education.
• The NCGE has demonstrated that higher education has a role in developing
and delivering entrepreneurship education, ensuring that entrepreneurship
is more widely adopted in commercial and social enterprise.
• Art, design and media higher education is well placed to contribute to this
development.
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1.2
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
• Social entrepreneurship has been acknowledged as an important factor in
regeneration and economic growth, particularly at the level of regional
development. The creative industries are often placed at the centre of these
strategies but there is a lack of articulation of the different factors applied to
social and commercial entrepreneurship.
• Recent research and reports have identified entrepreneurship - including
developing scale, identifying and accessing new markets, audiences and
consumers and innovation in practice, products and services - as key to sus-
tainable growth for creative industries.
• The definitions and metrics for entrepreneurship are narrowly focused on
business start-up as the key indicator of levels of entrepreneurship. These
do not take account of context, business type or measure sustainable
growth.
• The stereotypes of entrepreneurs are robust but limited. They are reinforced
by entertainment media and suggest an exclusivity that may discourage
individuals from seeing themselves as potential entrepreneurs.
1.2 Action on entrepreneurship education in art, design and media
Entrepreneurship education and development agencies
Most major agencies engaging with art, design and media higher education
recommend the need to develop the entrepreneurial capacity of undergraduates.
The Cox Review of Creativity in Business (Cox, 2006) advocated a broadening of
creativity learning. Although this should not be understood as a synonym for
entrepreneurship there is a relationship between the two. The Design Council is
undertaking a programme of research examining the development of more
entrepreneurial design businesses. The Sector Skills Councils are focused pri-
marily on industry skills in education but aim to effect changes to promote
growth in industry. Research by NESTA has identified the need for enhanced
entrepreneurship and innovation at all levels in the creative industries. While
the National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship (NCGE) is committed to
exploring the role of higher education in contributing to a more entrepreneurial
society, and has opened a debate to examine what can be realistically achieved
within higher education, what is already being done and what evidence can be
offered to demonstrate good practice.
Can higher education deliver entrepreneurship education?
There is clear evidence that entrepreneurship can be learned, and many pro-
grammes within higher education and beyond are aimed at supporting entre-
preneurship education. The NCGE’s Flying Start Programme, the Shell
Technology Enterprise Programme, NESTA’s Creative Pioneer Programme and
At the centre of pedagogy
for creative practice-
based subjects, as
distinct from the broader
group of practice-based
subjects is a notion of
divergent thinking where
solutions develop
through intelligent
problem creation and
resolution
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1.3
1.3 The creative subjects in UK higher education
The scale of art, design and media in higher education
The Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) recorded more than
100,000 full-time undergraduate students studying on art, design and media
courses for a first degree in 2004, representing around 10% of the total popula-
tion of undergraduates. The University and Colleges Applications Service
(UCAS) lists more than 1,200 undergraduate degree courses in art, design and
media related subjects. There is a huge range of combined art and design cours-
es. Media students in particular are offered a bewildering range of courses rang-
ing from those wholly dedicated to media practice including, for example
interactive design, film and TV production or graphic design, to combined
courses in film studies, for example. These might be theory-based courses with
elements of film production. This situation is complicated by overlaps with dis-
ciplines that are not based in art, design and media departments. For example,
many computing courses include games design or engineering departments
might offer product or industrial design courses. More recently, growth in the
higher education sector, particularly a rise in student applications, has encour-
aged institutions to expand and develop their courses in the creative subjects
that have proved popular with the growing number of young people entering
the sector. The total of all combined and full courses including art, design and
media education on offer in 2006 exceeds 6,000.
The development of courses has also been shaped by external factors, in par-
ticular a density of particular sectors of industries or audiences and consumers.
London and the South East of England combined has the greatest density of
media industries in the UK and so it is no surprise to find that it also has the
greatest density of educational provision relating to these areas. Similarly, the
South East of England probably has the UK’s greatest density of consumers of
fine art objects and designed artefacts and there is also a concentration of art
and design provision (Design Council, 2005). Manchester and the North West of
England have strong traditions in textiles and other manufacturing and again
there is a concentration of fashion and textiles design courses. Specialisation in
industry has also led to pockets or concentrations of a particular subject, for
example jewellery and automotive design in the West Midlands.
The character of art, design and media education
Most educational programmes for creative subjects have elements of occu-
pational learning, focused on how to be a practitioner, that imitate real-world
practice. Fine artists, designers, musicians, architects, web-designers and actors
learn practical, technical and cognitive skills associated with the practice of fine
art, design, music and so on. In most cases these align closely with professional
and commercial skills and conventions but in many there may still be a signifi-
cant distance between educational and commercial settings. For example, a stu-
dent musician or fine artist may not be learning within a single professional
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1.3
model that guides the curriculum. Taken alone, a focus on occupational learning
lacks sufficient resolution to define the creative subjects. Learning to practice is
also central to medicine, law and engineering education. However there are
clear differences in pedagogy, in the nature and means of learning and the way
knowledge is developed and applied. At the centre of pedagogy for creative prac-
tice-based subjects, as distinct from the broader group of practice-based subjects
is a notion of divergent thinking where solutions develop through intelligent
problem creation and resolution. This is quite distinct from more convergent
thinking applied in for example, medicine and engineering where solutions are
arrived at through the application of well established diagnostic skills and tech-
nical instruments.
There are long-established historical links between art, design and media
education and practice. For example, the fine arts are often assumed to be the
least connected to commercial and industry-based practices. However by the
19th century manufacturers were calling on the skills of artists, particularly
those practising the decorative arts. By the 20th century other academic tradi-
tions particularly the Bauhaus were informing the curricula of art schools. The
Bauhaus connected fine arts with applied art and industrial design and promot-
ed an integration of art, design and commerce and shaped the curricula steering
it away from the classical academic syllabus.
The oldest of the design professions in the UK is architecture and prior to
the formation of the first schools of architecture in 1834, apprentice architects
would take courses at the Royal Academy in London. Clearly, occupations and
activities related to what we now understand as design existed long before the
introduction of formal education. Fashion design, furniture design, silverware
and ceramics have long commercial histories, but their regulation into formal
curricula only began in the late 19th century. Most design schools began as
either trade and craft schools or as schools founded specifically to develop new,
well-designed products for the factories of the 19th century. There was a natural
co-location of technical, design and artistic skills. Some of this was driven by the
influential Arts and Crafts Movement that sought to both preserve and develop
artistic and craft skills in the production of architecture, furniture, jewellery, tex-
tiles and so on. By the 1960s, degree courses were being developed and many of
the crafts and design schools and independent art schools eventually became
part of polytechnic higher education institutions.
Media subjects also often include varying degrees of media practice. Film,
TV and radio production and journalism can cover all aspects of working in
these sectors with the exception of practical training for in front of camera/front
of microphone work. There are several strands to the development of formal
programmes for media education. Some developed out of art and design
schools, particularly those that grew from the more arts-based traditions of
graphic design and illustration, some out of crafts and design, for example
printing and typography. Media subjects like photography are closely associated
with fine art principles such as composition or the traditions of landscape paint-
ing and portraiture. Film and more recently TV have tended to develop as
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.3
31
discrete subjects perhaps because of their highly technical or team-working
aspects, perhaps because they required investment in specialised equipment.
Digitally based work arises from the visual arts and moving image but equally
from the design of hardware and software. It is possible to find media courses
in art, design or media departments or in engineering or computer departments
as well as specialist and independent film and TV schools. This complexity is
now increased as film and TV and photography increasingly move towards digi-
tal production to supplement or ultimately replace traditional film and tape tech-
nologies. The situation in other areas of digital production is equally complex,
for example in computer games scriptwriters are central to the production of
several major plot-driven games titles. The more text-oriented media practices
are another strand of development and journalism, writing for radio, script and
creative writing are key subjects in higher education institutions as either free-
standing courses or specialisms within media programmes.
Art, design and media disciplines share a natural intersection of practices.
Even in the most staunchly academic traditions fine art has ‘borrowed’ from
other practices. Decorative arts have maintained strong links with fine art which
has in turn adapted to digital technologies and performance-based media.
Similarly, crafts-based subjects such as furniture design, ceramics and jewellery
- most often located in design - have shared practices and processes with fine
arts and vice versa. Media is also less well defined when examined more closely.
In some departments, subjects such as graphic design, photography and film
making might be strongly aligned with fine arts and design and delivered as
courses within an art or design department.
The destinations of art, design and media graduates
Art, design and media courses have been subject to the sector-wide curricu-
lum development agenda. The capability curriculum (Stephenson, 1992) intro-
duced outcomes for transferable, subject and professional skills. The Quality
Assurance Agency for Higher Education Subject Benchmarks (1999 onwards) define
both ‘graduateness’ and baseline learning outcomes for all graduates. The
employability agenda has seen the introduction of employability standards in
the curriculum and the development of more proactive careers services in high-
er education institutions and latterly the promotion of personal development
planning.
However, there is a lack of coherent and up-to-date data on the destinations
of art, design and media graduates or for the proportion of the workforce within
a sector holding a cognate award. For example, Skillset notes that 63% of those
entering film and TV production are graduates but only 25% come from media-
related courses (Skillset, 2005). This may reflect the complex range of activities
encompassed by film and TV production, it may be that the industry is accus-
tomed to employing graduates from a wide range of subjects and such training
as exists may be based within the industry. One of the by-products of this
appears to have been significant media coverage and the growth in the minds of
a lay public that art, design and media degrees, in particular media studies
1.3
33
individual enterprises do have sufficient scale and long-term planning capacity
to deliver some direct sponsorship, but on the whole the creative industries are
too diverse and diffuse to impact on curriculum in direct ways. There are some
agencies, in particular the Sector Skills Councils, who may be in a position to
broker local provision. But the costs of designing and delivering an undergradu-
ate programme, particularly in the relatively high cost art, design and media
subjects will dilute their national impact.
Further, there are few areas of the creative industries that are prescribed by
Professional and Statutory Regulatory Bodies (PSRB). With the exception of
architecture, none of the creative industries are regulated by statute in this way
and there is no compliance structure requiring curriculum development to
address particular issues. While there is a wide range of subject associations in
art, design and media subjects which are able to act as brokers between educa-
tion and industry, the majority of their members are academics and the associa-
tions tend to be regarded as vehicles by which curriculum and academic
developers are able to reach out to subject specialists as part of consultation
processes for educational development.
1.3 Summary
• Art, design and media include a wide range of practices including produc-
tion of original works, crafts-based practices, product and industrial design
and those using digital technologies and focusing on cultural and commer-
cially orientated outputs.
• There is considerable overlap in subject knowledge between different kinds
of practices.
• Art, design and media subjects share characteristic pedagogies and learning
outcomes including high levels of applied, occupational and vocational
learning, situated learning (learning-by-doing) and are characterised by
divergent approaches to problem solving.
• There has been consistent growth in the art, design and media sector in
higher education. This has led to or resulted in a diversification in courses
including adoption by ‘non-creative’ disciplines and faculties of ‘creative’
focus for their courses.
• Art, design and media students are a significant proportion of the total high-
er education student population.
• There is a lack of recent longitudinal research on the destinations of art,
design and media graduates but data that does exist suggests that graduates
are highly employable and ultimately work in the creative industries.
32
1.3
degrees are not a route to employment.
However Graduate Prospects, the government-funded agency advising appli-
cants to higher education courses claims that “many art and design graduates
initially work outside the art and design sector. However, studies show a steady
movement over time back to the creative sector as graduates gain experience.
Only 20% remain outside art and design in the long term”
(www.prospects.ac.uk). The Destinations and Reflections longitudinal study of art
and design graduates from 14 institutions (Blackwell and Harvey, 1999) found
that not only were they more likely to be involved in self-employment overall,
but that they were also more likely to become self-employed at an earlier stage
in their career, whether on a full or part-time basis. For many graduates,
employment in the creative industries is seen as part of their learning rather
than the ultimate goal. This may be part of portfolio career development and a
way of financing a start-up or gaining business experience and clients. This is
particularly true of design-based students, whether involved in crafts-based pro-
duction or businesses aimed at offering design services. In focus groups con-
ducted as part of the Creating Entrepreneurship research, students revealed a
remarkable consistency in their aim to set up their own design company, work-
shop or studio. In media production, students recognised that they may work
for global corporations, the BBC, large-scale film and TV production companies
or smaller production agencies, but also assumed they would eventually form
either their own production businesses or operate as freelancers selling their
creative skills and output to creative industries consumers.
Art, design and media education and the creative industries
Many of the relationships between individual higher education departments
and specific creative industries have evolved out of traditional links, for example
where an industry has contributed to the foundation of a department or where
programmes have developed out of occupational training delivered by colleges.
Despite this, a considerable distance has opened up between higher educational
institutions and the creative industries. This may be because a direct link
between funding by industry and delivery has been broken or be a consequence
of a change in focus from vocational to academic development.
Recommendations made by the National Advisory Council on Art Education in
the early 60s (better known as the Coldstream Reports, NACAE, 1961 onwards)
resulted in a movement away from vocational design education towards a more
liberal system of art education. Coldstream aimed to bring art and design educa-
tion in line with undergraduate degrees by including a compulsory academic
element into the Diploma in Art and Design. Whatever the causes, the effect is
that industry can no longer be seen as the commissioners of education for their
workforce. It is expected that students, as the consumers of education, will pay
an increasing proportion of the cost of their education and their expectations are
much wider than employability alone.
It is unlikely that a return to the direct sponsorship of education by the cre-
ative industries would be achievable or sustainable. Some sub-sectors or
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
conclusions 1.4
35
Policy focusing on entrepreneurship has developed on a national and region-
al level but much of this is informed by a narrow view of what constitutes entre-
preneurship. This, and the definitions and metrics that inform it have tended to
focus on business start-up as both the aim of and measure of entrepreneurship.
Stereotypes of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship are robust and widely held,
but often offer inappropriate role models for art, design and media students -
suggesting that entrepreneurship is something beyond their reach or not relevant
to their activities.
However, there is evidence of a broadening of views on what constitutes
entrepreneurship. This broader view is more inclusive - being informed by evi-
dence-based research - but has yet to have an impact on policy. National support
and development agencies for the creative industries and for higher education
are working to develop new interpretations and frameworks to assist in the devel-
opment of entrepreneurship education. Some of this is sector-wide, although it is
complicated by also focusing on occupational skills development, work-force
development and continuing professional development. Yet it shows that entre-
preneurship can be learned and that higher education institutions can play a key
role in facilitating this learning.
Art, design and media subjects have varying traditions and distinct bodies of
knowledge, but they tend to share some common pedagogical approaches, in
particular: project-based, situated learning that commonly employs divergent
rather than convergent thinking. Art, design and media have traditions of engage-
ment with industry and until the 1930s state intervention focused on these rela-
tionships. The Coldstream Report (NACAE, 1962) precipitated the move to a more
liberal arts tradition away from provisions for vocational and occupational train-
ing. Since then most new state intervention in higher education has been sector-
wide rather than having a subject focus. Despite this, many specialist art, design
and media institutions and departments retain or have developed new relation-
ships with the creative industries.
34
1.3
• Although there is a much higher than average proportion of graduates in
the creative industries workforce, there is difficulty in gauging the propor-
tion of the creative industries workforce who are graduates from art, design
and media subjects. There is evidence that some sub-sectors recruit from a
broad range of subjects to production roles.
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
doc_535019100.pdf
Entrepreneurship is the process of starting a business, a startup company or other organization. The entrepreneur develops a business plan, acquires the human and other required resources, and is fully responsible for its success or failure.[1] Entrepreneurship operates within an entrepreneurship ecosystem.
1.1
19
Introduction
This section will discuss policies relating to the development of entrepre-
neurship and the underlying ideas that inform them. It discusses how key agen-
cies are helping to inform broader, more inclusive and differentiated approaches
to entrepreneurship and how these might guide entrepreneurship education in
higher education contexts. The nature of the creative industries, how they are
defined and some of the key issues affecting their growth are explored. Finally
the development of art, design and media in education and their key characteris-
tics are discussed.
1.1 Policy action to support developing entrepreneurship education
Entrepreneurship policy
In policy terms, entrepreneurship tends to be situated in a business or com-
mercial environment, it is frequently measured by rates of business start-up,
and there is often a privileged focus on innovations in science and technology.
However, the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) has also made efforts
to understand non-profit enterprise creation, and has identified a new class of
Community Interest Firms (DTI, 2002b). This may become an important factor
in raising the visibility of creative industry practitioners who in many cases
operate outside of conventional commercial situations, particularly where they
are dependent on public subsidy.
Entrepreneurship education
The agencies that play a major role in promoting entrepreneurship recog-
nise that education is important in raising entrepreneurial capacity. The DTI, for
example, has acknowledged the strong relationship between education and eco-
nomic growth. The Lambert Review of Business-University Collaboration (DTI,
2003) recommended support for “university departments undertaking work that
industry values”. In 2001 the DTI made the first awards under the Higher
Education Innovation Fund (HEIF) to assist universities in efforts in meeting
these recommendations. HEIF is now in its third cycle, and although in earlier
versions it focused on technological and scientific innovations it has expanded
to include initiatives aimed at supporting innovative “engagement with the
wider community”. Despite this, the HEIF still tends to be focused on technolo-
gy, science, and medical education, and universities appear to have been slow or
unable to apply the fund to support creative subjects in substantial ways. The
DTI is also responsible for the UK Research Councils through the Office of
Science and Innovation.
The Davies Review (DfES, 2002a), commissioned by the Department for
Education and Skills (DfES), highlighted that “many teachers are believed to
need considerable support in terms of their knowledge, skills and experience of
business and enterprise”, and that “business needs to be more closely involved
with education”. The report proposed an entrepreneurial approach to managing
1.0
Entrepreneurship
education is
important to
sustainable growth in
the creative industries
UNIVERSITIES SHOULD
CONSIDER THE SCOPE FOR
ENCOURAGING
ENTREPRENEURSHIP THROUGH
INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND
THROUGH SPECIALIST
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMMES.
21 20
1.1
schools to act as a role model for students. Although the Davies Review primarily
focused on the schools sector, it was preceded by the National Committee of
Inquiry into Higher Education’s Dearing Report (NCIHE, 1997) which proposed
substantial changes to the funding, organisation and delivery of higher educa-
tion. It included the recommendation that universities should “consider the
scope for encouraging entrepreneurship through innovative approaches to pro-
gramme design and through specialist postgraduate programmes”.
Subsequently, the Department of Culture Media and Sport (DCMS) Creative
Industries Further and Higher Education Forum (DCMS, 2006b) has advocated
key roles for higher education in developing entrepreneurship in the creative
industries.
The creative industries
The DCMS first defined the creative industries in the Creative Industries
Mapping Document as “those industries which have their origin in individual
creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation
through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property” (DCMS, 1998,
2001). The sectors included in the definition are: advertising; architecture; the
art and antiques market; crafts; design; designer fashion; film and video; interac-
tive leisure software (such as computer games); music; the performing arts;
publishing; software and computer services; and television and radio. The most
recent comprehensive research by the National Endowment for Science,
Technology and the Arts (NESTA, 2006), suggests that the definition is too
broad and includes industry sectors and activities that would not commonly be
regarded as creative, for example software and computer services. The definition
also does not differentiate in relation to size. Some sectors are either relatively
small or comprise relatively small-scale enterprises unlikely to grow at a rate
great enough to contribute in any significant way to the UK economy. Although
never intended as an analytical model, the DCMS definition has limited value in
conceptualising the sector.
Based on these observations NESTA has evolved a “refined model of the cre-
ative industries” (NESTA, 2006) focusing on how commercial value is created.
The model is not intended to differentiate in a way that discriminates in favour
of a particular segment or group of sub-sectors. However it is aimed at shaping
policy to effect changes and bring about enhancement by targeting advice, sup-
port and investment tailored to the patterns of activity, potential for growth and
development based on “analysis of sectors rather than creative activities based
on individual talent”. The model organises the creative industries based on four
characteristics: creative service providers, creative content producers, creative
experience providers and creative originals producers. Activities or discrete busi-
nesses can be located in respect of these characteristic types but also in relation
to other activities and enterprises across the typology. For example creative serv-
ice providers will include public relations, marketing and heritage and tourism
services, while performing arts, galleries and museums are creative experience
providers. However there are closer relationships between, say, performing arts
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.1
23
the formation of cultural quarters lie at the centre of many regional and urban
redevelopment plans, both for economic growth and for social and cultural
development.
However, recent research, including NESTA’s (NESTA, 2003 and 2006), the
Cox Review (Cox, 2005), the DCMS Creative Industry Task Group report
(DCMS, 2006b) and the Design Skills Consultation (CCSkills/Design Council,
2006) - has identified increased entrepreneurship as a key aspect in enhancing
the performance of UK industry generally and the creative industries in particu-
lar. NESTA has identified three factors that are at the heart of this issue: scale,
access to markets and innovation. Lack of scale inhibits the opportunity for cre-
ative businesses to respond effectively to the pressures of competition, particu-
larly from international businesses. Lack of scale is not a consequence of a lack
of creative talent, but can be due to conflicting ambitions. Graduates and owner-
managers are frequently passionate about their profession and can sometimes
value “doing good work”, peer recognition and cultural fulfilment over commer-
cial growth. Many of them tend to take an organic approach to their business,
growing slowly, adding to their customer and client base through the distinctive-
ness of their work. Further, many markets for creative products and services are
highly consolidated and controlled by a handful of major gatekeepers who limit
access to the distribution network. It is often assumed that commercial success
arises from creative outputs and this has focused support, advice and develop-
ment on the supply side. Support aimed at increasing entrepreneurial capacity
in the creative industries can assume that access to markets is a given, but in
terms of entrepreneurship it is often innovation in strategies, processes and
business models to develop and diversify markets that will deliver greater
growth and profitability.
Measuring entrepreneurship
There is little doubt that the establishment of new businesses remains an
important factor in the UK’s economy. Small businesses have the fastest rates of
growth and are the primary engine for overall growth in the economy. It is also
widely believed that new business start-ups introduce new products and services
into the marketplace. Further, many local and regional authorities now place
business start-up at the centre of regeneration policies and there is greater
recognition of the role of social enterprise and community interest projects in
building environments in which commercial enterprise will flourish.
In policy terms the number of business start-ups has become the measure
of economic health and a proxy for entrepreneurship (as indicated in surveys
such as the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor). However there is also the issue
of entrepreneurship beyond start-up, in terms of sustained growth and access-
ing larger markets. The design industry is a good illustration here. This sector
of the creative industries is characterised by a large number of small businesses,
however few of these grow to become significant within the national economy
or world leaders in the design industry. The amount of spending on design
products has begun to decline and yet the number of start-ups has continued to
22
1.1
and heritage and tourism services as industry activities than between museums
and marketing. It is important to note that in this model it is the sub-sectors’
similarities or differences in terms of business model, value chain and market
structure rather than the nature and value of the product that situates it within
the model. So, film production has greater commonalities with designer fashion
than it does with cinemas.
The creative industries have grown in economic significance throughout the
developed world and the UK has been a leader in prioritising the creative indus-
tries in the policy landscape. According to the UK government the creative
industries sectors accounted for 8% of Gross Added Value (GAV) in 2003, and
between 1997 and 2003 the creative industries grew by an average of 6% per
annum compared to 3% for the whole economy (DCMS, 2006b). In 2004 there
were an estimated 113,000 creative companies in the UK and total employment
in these sectors exceeded 1.8 million. The creative industries workforce has a
larger than average percentage of people with post-16 qualifications. For exam-
ple, 35.6% of the total workforce in TV production and 63% of the workforce in
film production are graduates (Skillset, 2005). Higher education qualifications
are now the norm for people wanting to work in production roles in the creative
industries.
Policy initiatives aimed at developing entrepreneurship in the creative
industries have been developed across the UK. In April 2005 the Cultural
Enterprise Offices opened in Scotland to deliver tailored support and business
advice to creative industries, in particular to sole practitioners and micro-busi-
nesses in the sector. Also in Scotland the Digital Media and Creative Industries
Project Fund administered by Scottish Enterprise aims to develop and assist pri-
vate investment in film, interactive games, music, publishing and TV and radio
enterprises. In Northern Ireland, a coordinated strategy for the development of
creative and cultural resources and the role of education in their development is
supported through the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure’s Unlocking
Creativity programme (DCAL, 2000). DCAL, the Department of Education, the
Department for Employment and Learning, the Department of Enterprise, Trade
and Investment and Invest Northern Ireland jointly launched a programme for
entrepreneurship development demonstrating and emphasising a coordinated
approach to entrepreneurship. This programme’s key indicators include targets
for growth in turnover and exports across the UK and internationally for creative
businesses. In 2004, the Welsh Assembly Government published Creative
Success: A Strategy for the Creative Industries in Wales (WAG, 2004). It expands
support aimed at the creative industries in Wales and focuses on developing a
demand-led sector producing outputs more attractive to UK and international
markets. The intention is to increase the profits of Welsh creative businesses by
retention of intellectual property (IP) and penetration of new markets, and
includes a £7 million investment in the Intellectual Property Fund along with
specialist support for creative industries based in Wales. Across the English
regions, regional development agencies and cities have placed a greater empha-
sis on developing clusters of creative businesses. The creative industries and
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.1
25
rise, suggesting that a greater number of businesses are sharing a declining
market. All indications are that it is not failure to start new design businesses
but a lack of access to developing new markets that inhibits entrepreneurship in
the design sector.
The traditional focus of measurement on rates of business start-up, irre-
spective of context or demand, has led to largely undifferentiated policies for
supporting entrepreneurship and tends to promote a supply-led economy.
Although these conditions apply to all sectors of industry they may present
particular problems for the creative industries. It is relatively easy to start a new
business in many creative industry sectors. Creative industry activities, particu-
larly those offering services or bespoke products, require little capital investment
at the outset compared to many other industries, but almost all creative enter-
prises have limited direct access to their consumers. Distributors often control
the flow of products and services to the consumer and absorb a significant pro-
portion of the value.
Stereotypes of entrepreneurs
The popular view of an entrepreneur is of a self-made man, probably with
little experience of education beyond school. He is focused, determined, good at
networking and has ‘bootstrapped’ his way to success. Economic historians have
reinforced this stereotype by concentrating on the contributions made to the
development of the UK economy by captains of industry. The story of the indus-
trial revolution is characterised by the shaping of our social, economic and phys-
ical landscape by a few highly significant industries. Mining, engineering and
manufacturing are large-scale and highly visible and tend to be rigidly hierarchi-
cal with a few entrepreneurs at the pinnacle of each enterprise. In trade, particu-
larly world trade, the focus is on a few pioneers who opened new trade routes in
the Empire or explorer-engineers who built the railways, roads and plantations.
Then there is the parallel model of the great scientist-inventor, the technological
innovator, often successful in business but just as often a tragic figure battling
with a world of small-minded conservative financiers to materialise their vision,
a vision which with the advantage of hindsight seems self-evident. The currency
of these stereotypes is also reflected in the popularity of contemporary reality TV
shows about entrepreneurship such as The Apprentice and Dragon’s Den.
1.1 Summary
• The creative industries have grown rapidly over the last ten years but there
are signs that growth is slowing and some sectors are in decline.
• National policies for developing entrepreneurship tend to be undifferentiat-
ed. Only recently have more integrated policies begun to appear that coordi-
nate development across education, commerce, social enterprise and public
subsidy sectors.
many local and regional
authorities now place
business start-up at the
centre of regeneration
policies
All indications are that it is
not failure to start new design
businesses but a lack of access
to developing new markets
that inhibits entrepreneurship
in the design sector.
24
1.2
27
initiatives sited within higher education institutions have demonstrated that it is
possible to both learn to be entrepreneurial and to deliver educational pro-
grammes to develop entrepreneurship.
In a key piece of research carried out by Prof. Allan Gibb for the NCGE, per-
haps the most significant finding is that graduate entrepreneurship is cultivated
best when it has been developed in relationship to the core subject being stud-
ied (contrary to the view that entrepreneurship is a function of business and
commerce, and is best absorbed into the practices of business and management
schools). This suggests that models of entrepreneurial activity are best aligned
with the pedagogic practice appropriate to a subject, and that definitions of
entrepreneurship need to be broad in order to encompass a range of practices or
adaptable to different learning contexts. This is why this project suggests that
“Entrepreneurial learning is acquired on a ‘how to’ and ‘need to know’ basis
dominated by processes of ‘doing’, solving problems, grasping opportunities,
copying from others, mistake making and experiment” (Gibb, 2005). It is signif-
icant that this description is closely aligned with processes already in place in
the curricula for art, design and media.
1.2 Summary
• Entrepreneurship education has a prominent place on the agenda of nation-
al and regional agencies.
• Educational development agencies working across the higher education sec-
tor focused on art, design and media are supporting the development of
entrepreneurship education.
• The NCGE has demonstrated that higher education has a role in developing
and delivering entrepreneurship education, ensuring that entrepreneurship
is more widely adopted in commercial and social enterprise.
• Art, design and media higher education is well placed to contribute to this
development.
26
1.2
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
• Social entrepreneurship has been acknowledged as an important factor in
regeneration and economic growth, particularly at the level of regional
development. The creative industries are often placed at the centre of these
strategies but there is a lack of articulation of the different factors applied to
social and commercial entrepreneurship.
• Recent research and reports have identified entrepreneurship - including
developing scale, identifying and accessing new markets, audiences and
consumers and innovation in practice, products and services - as key to sus-
tainable growth for creative industries.
• The definitions and metrics for entrepreneurship are narrowly focused on
business start-up as the key indicator of levels of entrepreneurship. These
do not take account of context, business type or measure sustainable
growth.
• The stereotypes of entrepreneurs are robust but limited. They are reinforced
by entertainment media and suggest an exclusivity that may discourage
individuals from seeing themselves as potential entrepreneurs.
1.2 Action on entrepreneurship education in art, design and media
Entrepreneurship education and development agencies
Most major agencies engaging with art, design and media higher education
recommend the need to develop the entrepreneurial capacity of undergraduates.
The Cox Review of Creativity in Business (Cox, 2006) advocated a broadening of
creativity learning. Although this should not be understood as a synonym for
entrepreneurship there is a relationship between the two. The Design Council is
undertaking a programme of research examining the development of more
entrepreneurial design businesses. The Sector Skills Councils are focused pri-
marily on industry skills in education but aim to effect changes to promote
growth in industry. Research by NESTA has identified the need for enhanced
entrepreneurship and innovation at all levels in the creative industries. While
the National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship (NCGE) is committed to
exploring the role of higher education in contributing to a more entrepreneurial
society, and has opened a debate to examine what can be realistically achieved
within higher education, what is already being done and what evidence can be
offered to demonstrate good practice.
Can higher education deliver entrepreneurship education?
There is clear evidence that entrepreneurship can be learned, and many pro-
grammes within higher education and beyond are aimed at supporting entre-
preneurship education. The NCGE’s Flying Start Programme, the Shell
Technology Enterprise Programme, NESTA’s Creative Pioneer Programme and
At the centre of pedagogy
for creative practice-
based subjects, as
distinct from the broader
group of practice-based
subjects is a notion of
divergent thinking where
solutions develop
through intelligent
problem creation and
resolution
29 28
1.3
1.3 The creative subjects in UK higher education
The scale of art, design and media in higher education
The Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) recorded more than
100,000 full-time undergraduate students studying on art, design and media
courses for a first degree in 2004, representing around 10% of the total popula-
tion of undergraduates. The University and Colleges Applications Service
(UCAS) lists more than 1,200 undergraduate degree courses in art, design and
media related subjects. There is a huge range of combined art and design cours-
es. Media students in particular are offered a bewildering range of courses rang-
ing from those wholly dedicated to media practice including, for example
interactive design, film and TV production or graphic design, to combined
courses in film studies, for example. These might be theory-based courses with
elements of film production. This situation is complicated by overlaps with dis-
ciplines that are not based in art, design and media departments. For example,
many computing courses include games design or engineering departments
might offer product or industrial design courses. More recently, growth in the
higher education sector, particularly a rise in student applications, has encour-
aged institutions to expand and develop their courses in the creative subjects
that have proved popular with the growing number of young people entering
the sector. The total of all combined and full courses including art, design and
media education on offer in 2006 exceeds 6,000.
The development of courses has also been shaped by external factors, in par-
ticular a density of particular sectors of industries or audiences and consumers.
London and the South East of England combined has the greatest density of
media industries in the UK and so it is no surprise to find that it also has the
greatest density of educational provision relating to these areas. Similarly, the
South East of England probably has the UK’s greatest density of consumers of
fine art objects and designed artefacts and there is also a concentration of art
and design provision (Design Council, 2005). Manchester and the North West of
England have strong traditions in textiles and other manufacturing and again
there is a concentration of fashion and textiles design courses. Specialisation in
industry has also led to pockets or concentrations of a particular subject, for
example jewellery and automotive design in the West Midlands.
The character of art, design and media education
Most educational programmes for creative subjects have elements of occu-
pational learning, focused on how to be a practitioner, that imitate real-world
practice. Fine artists, designers, musicians, architects, web-designers and actors
learn practical, technical and cognitive skills associated with the practice of fine
art, design, music and so on. In most cases these align closely with professional
and commercial skills and conventions but in many there may still be a signifi-
cant distance between educational and commercial settings. For example, a stu-
dent musician or fine artist may not be learning within a single professional
30
1.3
model that guides the curriculum. Taken alone, a focus on occupational learning
lacks sufficient resolution to define the creative subjects. Learning to practice is
also central to medicine, law and engineering education. However there are
clear differences in pedagogy, in the nature and means of learning and the way
knowledge is developed and applied. At the centre of pedagogy for creative prac-
tice-based subjects, as distinct from the broader group of practice-based subjects
is a notion of divergent thinking where solutions develop through intelligent
problem creation and resolution. This is quite distinct from more convergent
thinking applied in for example, medicine and engineering where solutions are
arrived at through the application of well established diagnostic skills and tech-
nical instruments.
There are long-established historical links between art, design and media
education and practice. For example, the fine arts are often assumed to be the
least connected to commercial and industry-based practices. However by the
19th century manufacturers were calling on the skills of artists, particularly
those practising the decorative arts. By the 20th century other academic tradi-
tions particularly the Bauhaus were informing the curricula of art schools. The
Bauhaus connected fine arts with applied art and industrial design and promot-
ed an integration of art, design and commerce and shaped the curricula steering
it away from the classical academic syllabus.
The oldest of the design professions in the UK is architecture and prior to
the formation of the first schools of architecture in 1834, apprentice architects
would take courses at the Royal Academy in London. Clearly, occupations and
activities related to what we now understand as design existed long before the
introduction of formal education. Fashion design, furniture design, silverware
and ceramics have long commercial histories, but their regulation into formal
curricula only began in the late 19th century. Most design schools began as
either trade and craft schools or as schools founded specifically to develop new,
well-designed products for the factories of the 19th century. There was a natural
co-location of technical, design and artistic skills. Some of this was driven by the
influential Arts and Crafts Movement that sought to both preserve and develop
artistic and craft skills in the production of architecture, furniture, jewellery, tex-
tiles and so on. By the 1960s, degree courses were being developed and many of
the crafts and design schools and independent art schools eventually became
part of polytechnic higher education institutions.
Media subjects also often include varying degrees of media practice. Film,
TV and radio production and journalism can cover all aspects of working in
these sectors with the exception of practical training for in front of camera/front
of microphone work. There are several strands to the development of formal
programmes for media education. Some developed out of art and design
schools, particularly those that grew from the more arts-based traditions of
graphic design and illustration, some out of crafts and design, for example
printing and typography. Media subjects like photography are closely associated
with fine art principles such as composition or the traditions of landscape paint-
ing and portraiture. Film and more recently TV have tended to develop as
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1.3
31
discrete subjects perhaps because of their highly technical or team-working
aspects, perhaps because they required investment in specialised equipment.
Digitally based work arises from the visual arts and moving image but equally
from the design of hardware and software. It is possible to find media courses
in art, design or media departments or in engineering or computer departments
as well as specialist and independent film and TV schools. This complexity is
now increased as film and TV and photography increasingly move towards digi-
tal production to supplement or ultimately replace traditional film and tape tech-
nologies. The situation in other areas of digital production is equally complex,
for example in computer games scriptwriters are central to the production of
several major plot-driven games titles. The more text-oriented media practices
are another strand of development and journalism, writing for radio, script and
creative writing are key subjects in higher education institutions as either free-
standing courses or specialisms within media programmes.
Art, design and media disciplines share a natural intersection of practices.
Even in the most staunchly academic traditions fine art has ‘borrowed’ from
other practices. Decorative arts have maintained strong links with fine art which
has in turn adapted to digital technologies and performance-based media.
Similarly, crafts-based subjects such as furniture design, ceramics and jewellery
- most often located in design - have shared practices and processes with fine
arts and vice versa. Media is also less well defined when examined more closely.
In some departments, subjects such as graphic design, photography and film
making might be strongly aligned with fine arts and design and delivered as
courses within an art or design department.
The destinations of art, design and media graduates
Art, design and media courses have been subject to the sector-wide curricu-
lum development agenda. The capability curriculum (Stephenson, 1992) intro-
duced outcomes for transferable, subject and professional skills. The Quality
Assurance Agency for Higher Education Subject Benchmarks (1999 onwards) define
both ‘graduateness’ and baseline learning outcomes for all graduates. The
employability agenda has seen the introduction of employability standards in
the curriculum and the development of more proactive careers services in high-
er education institutions and latterly the promotion of personal development
planning.
However, there is a lack of coherent and up-to-date data on the destinations
of art, design and media graduates or for the proportion of the workforce within
a sector holding a cognate award. For example, Skillset notes that 63% of those
entering film and TV production are graduates but only 25% come from media-
related courses (Skillset, 2005). This may reflect the complex range of activities
encompassed by film and TV production, it may be that the industry is accus-
tomed to employing graduates from a wide range of subjects and such training
as exists may be based within the industry. One of the by-products of this
appears to have been significant media coverage and the growth in the minds of
a lay public that art, design and media degrees, in particular media studies
1.3
33
individual enterprises do have sufficient scale and long-term planning capacity
to deliver some direct sponsorship, but on the whole the creative industries are
too diverse and diffuse to impact on curriculum in direct ways. There are some
agencies, in particular the Sector Skills Councils, who may be in a position to
broker local provision. But the costs of designing and delivering an undergradu-
ate programme, particularly in the relatively high cost art, design and media
subjects will dilute their national impact.
Further, there are few areas of the creative industries that are prescribed by
Professional and Statutory Regulatory Bodies (PSRB). With the exception of
architecture, none of the creative industries are regulated by statute in this way
and there is no compliance structure requiring curriculum development to
address particular issues. While there is a wide range of subject associations in
art, design and media subjects which are able to act as brokers between educa-
tion and industry, the majority of their members are academics and the associa-
tions tend to be regarded as vehicles by which curriculum and academic
developers are able to reach out to subject specialists as part of consultation
processes for educational development.
1.3 Summary
• Art, design and media include a wide range of practices including produc-
tion of original works, crafts-based practices, product and industrial design
and those using digital technologies and focusing on cultural and commer-
cially orientated outputs.
• There is considerable overlap in subject knowledge between different kinds
of practices.
• Art, design and media subjects share characteristic pedagogies and learning
outcomes including high levels of applied, occupational and vocational
learning, situated learning (learning-by-doing) and are characterised by
divergent approaches to problem solving.
• There has been consistent growth in the art, design and media sector in
higher education. This has led to or resulted in a diversification in courses
including adoption by ‘non-creative’ disciplines and faculties of ‘creative’
focus for their courses.
• Art, design and media students are a significant proportion of the total high-
er education student population.
• There is a lack of recent longitudinal research on the destinations of art,
design and media graduates but data that does exist suggests that graduates
are highly employable and ultimately work in the creative industries.
32
1.3
degrees are not a route to employment.
However Graduate Prospects, the government-funded agency advising appli-
cants to higher education courses claims that “many art and design graduates
initially work outside the art and design sector. However, studies show a steady
movement over time back to the creative sector as graduates gain experience.
Only 20% remain outside art and design in the long term”
(www.prospects.ac.uk). The Destinations and Reflections longitudinal study of art
and design graduates from 14 institutions (Blackwell and Harvey, 1999) found
that not only were they more likely to be involved in self-employment overall,
but that they were also more likely to become self-employed at an earlier stage
in their career, whether on a full or part-time basis. For many graduates,
employment in the creative industries is seen as part of their learning rather
than the ultimate goal. This may be part of portfolio career development and a
way of financing a start-up or gaining business experience and clients. This is
particularly true of design-based students, whether involved in crafts-based pro-
duction or businesses aimed at offering design services. In focus groups con-
ducted as part of the Creating Entrepreneurship research, students revealed a
remarkable consistency in their aim to set up their own design company, work-
shop or studio. In media production, students recognised that they may work
for global corporations, the BBC, large-scale film and TV production companies
or smaller production agencies, but also assumed they would eventually form
either their own production businesses or operate as freelancers selling their
creative skills and output to creative industries consumers.
Art, design and media education and the creative industries
Many of the relationships between individual higher education departments
and specific creative industries have evolved out of traditional links, for example
where an industry has contributed to the foundation of a department or where
programmes have developed out of occupational training delivered by colleges.
Despite this, a considerable distance has opened up between higher educational
institutions and the creative industries. This may be because a direct link
between funding by industry and delivery has been broken or be a consequence
of a change in focus from vocational to academic development.
Recommendations made by the National Advisory Council on Art Education in
the early 60s (better known as the Coldstream Reports, NACAE, 1961 onwards)
resulted in a movement away from vocational design education towards a more
liberal system of art education. Coldstream aimed to bring art and design educa-
tion in line with undergraduate degrees by including a compulsory academic
element into the Diploma in Art and Design. Whatever the causes, the effect is
that industry can no longer be seen as the commissioners of education for their
workforce. It is expected that students, as the consumers of education, will pay
an increasing proportion of the cost of their education and their expectations are
much wider than employability alone.
It is unlikely that a return to the direct sponsorship of education by the cre-
ative industries would be achievable or sustainable. Some sub-sectors or
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
conclusions 1.4
35
Policy focusing on entrepreneurship has developed on a national and region-
al level but much of this is informed by a narrow view of what constitutes entre-
preneurship. This, and the definitions and metrics that inform it have tended to
focus on business start-up as both the aim of and measure of entrepreneurship.
Stereotypes of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship are robust and widely held,
but often offer inappropriate role models for art, design and media students -
suggesting that entrepreneurship is something beyond their reach or not relevant
to their activities.
However, there is evidence of a broadening of views on what constitutes
entrepreneurship. This broader view is more inclusive - being informed by evi-
dence-based research - but has yet to have an impact on policy. National support
and development agencies for the creative industries and for higher education
are working to develop new interpretations and frameworks to assist in the devel-
opment of entrepreneurship education. Some of this is sector-wide, although it is
complicated by also focusing on occupational skills development, work-force
development and continuing professional development. Yet it shows that entre-
preneurship can be learned and that higher education institutions can play a key
role in facilitating this learning.
Art, design and media subjects have varying traditions and distinct bodies of
knowledge, but they tend to share some common pedagogical approaches, in
particular: project-based, situated learning that commonly employs divergent
rather than convergent thinking. Art, design and media have traditions of engage-
ment with industry and until the 1930s state intervention focused on these rela-
tionships. The Coldstream Report (NACAE, 1962) precipitated the move to a more
liberal arts tradition away from provisions for vocational and occupational train-
ing. Since then most new state intervention in higher education has been sector-
wide rather than having a subject focus. Despite this, many specialist art, design
and media institutions and departments retain or have developed new relation-
ships with the creative industries.
34
1.3
• Although there is a much higher than average proportion of graduates in
the creative industries workforce, there is difficulty in gauging the propor-
tion of the creative industries workforce who are graduates from art, design
and media subjects. There is evidence that some sub-sectors recruit from a
broad range of subjects to production roles.
CREATING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
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