Disciplining domestic regulation: the World Trade Organization and the market for professi

Description
This paper presents an institutional analysis of the processes underlying the globalization of professional service and
labor markets. Focusing on the accountancy sector, the research documents the ongoing efforts by non-market institutions,
including transnational accounting firms and industry lobbies in Europe and the US, to create a global market
for accounting and auditing services under the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The research shows
how international trade agreements, specifically the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Disciplines
on Domestic Regulation in the Accountancy Sector, are being used to eliminate domestic regulations that industry views

Disciplining domestic regulation: the World
Trade Organization and the market for professional services
Patricia J. Arnold
School of Business Administration, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, P.O. Box 742, Mikwaukee, WI 53201, USA
Abstract
This paper presents an institutional analysis of the processes underlying the globalization of professional service and
labor markets. Focusing on the accountancy sector, the research documents the ongoing e?orts by non-market insti-
tutions, including transnational accounting ?rms and industry lobbies in Europe and the US, to create a global market
for accounting and auditing services under the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The research shows
how international trade agreements, speci?cally the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Disciplines
on Domestic Regulation in the Accountancy Sector, are being used to eliminate domestic regulations that industry views
as barriers to trade and investment, such as diverse national and sub-national licensing and quali?cation requirements,
regulations limiting scope of practice and forms of business organization, and non-harmonized technical standards. The
paper discusses the implications of theses trends for the future of domestic regulation and democratic forms of eco-
nomic governance.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Citizens and workers who are confronted with
the negative social repercussions of globalization,
such as job ?ight to low wage markets, global
environmental destruction, and unstable interna-
tional ?nancial markets often feel powerless in the
face of change. This sense of powerlessness is
heightened by a contemporary mythology that
portrays globalization as natural and inevitable––
an impersonal and immutable force, akin to the
weather, that is beyond human intervention and
control; a force that workers and companies, alike,
must adapt to and accommodate, and that nations
are powerless to control or subordinate to goals
such as sustainable economic development or
greater social equity. The main thesis of this paper
is that the contemporary forms of globalization
and the constraints that global economic integra-
tion imposes on popular sovereignty are neither
impersonal nor inevitable. To the contrary, global
markets are politically constructed institutions
that are shaped by non-market actors––including
multinational corporations and industry trade
lobbies––by means of international trade agree-
ments. These trade agreements institutionalize
treaty-based legal regimes that not only liberalize
trade and investment, but also impose constraints
on local autonomy, and hence on the capacity of
democratic societies to govern their economies and
regulate markets. E-mail address: [email protected] (P.J. Arnold).
0361-3682/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aos.2004.04.001
Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
www.elsevier.com/locate/aos
The paper develops this thesis through a case
study of the World Trade Organization’s (WTO)
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS),
and its impact on professional service markets.
The study shows how non-market institutions,
including transnational accounting ?rms and
industry lobbies in the United States and Europe,
are exploiting the legal authority of WTO services
agreement and the Disciplines on Domestic Regu-
lation in the Accountancy Sector (Disciplines) to
create a global market for accounting and auditing
services. The analysis of the accounting sector
further indicates that the transnational accounting
industry’s attempt to use the WTO’s legal frame-
work to dismantle domestic regulations that
industry views as barriers to trade (such as diverse
national and sub-national licensing and quali?ca-
tion requirements and non-harmonized technical
standards) could, if unchallenged, limit local
autonomy and the ability of national and sub-
national regulators to e?ectively govern the
accounting industry.
While situated within the accounting literature
(Annisette, 2000; Caramanis, 2002; Chau & Poul-
laos, 2002; Cooper, Greenwood, Hinings, &
Brown, 1998; Hopwood, 1997), this research has
implications that extend beyond accounting. Since
the Disciplines on domestic regulation of accoun-
tancy are likely to become the model for WTO
rules in other sectors, an understanding of devel-
opments within the accountancy sector can inform
other professional ?elds such as engineering,
architecture, medicine, and law.
1
The sociological
literature on professions (Abbott, 1988; Dezalay,
1995; Larson, 1977) has yet to fully understand
and appreciate the impact of treaty-based legal
regimes on local modes of regulating professions
and the e?ect of free trade agreements on the
market for professional labor.
More generally, the accountancy case presages
trends in other transnational service industries
ranging from banking and insurance to healthcare
and education. Since the Disciplines on Domestic
Regulation in the Accountancy Sector represent the
WTO’s ?rst attempt to exercise its authority to
impose disciplines on non-discriminatory domestic
regulation under the GATS’ controversial Article
VI:4,
2
the accountancy sector is setting precedent
that will delineate the scope of WTO’s power over
the domestic a?airs of Member states. The case,
thus, provides a window through which we can
view the broader economic and political processes
and institutional actors that are shaping contem-
porary forms of globalization.
This research shows that global markets are not
the result of impersonal market forces, but speci?c
actors who are working from deregulatory agen-
das that are not necessarily representative of
broader societal interests. Since these actors are
operating, largely within closed forums and with-
out broad popular input, to develop binding
international trade pacts that could limit local
autonomy (Hegarty, 1997) and the ability of par-
liamentary majorities to govern the conduct of
markets (Gowan, 2003), the case has important
implications for the future of nationally based
regulation, and the prospects of achieving demo-
cratic forms of economic governance. An analysis
of the GATS indicates that the capacity of workers
and citizens to regulate transnational capital and
govern the economies in which they live is in
danger of being compromised––not by abstract
and immutable market forces––but rather, by
concrete, politically negotiated, and therefore
negotiable, treaty-based rules that impose con-
straints on domestic regulation.
Methods and objectives
The accounting literature (Arnold & Sikka,
2001; Caramanis, 2002; Cooper et al., 1998; Han-
lon, 1994; Hopwood, 1997) recognizes the need for
research aimed at a richer theoretical understand-
ing of accounting’s role in and relationship to the
processes of contemporary globalization. Theo-
retical synthesis, however, cannot occur in the
1
See Terry (2001) for an analysis of the applicability of the
GATS to the legal profession.
2
GATS Article VI:4 grants the WTO authority to develop
disciplines on domestic regulation to ensure that licensing,
quali?cation and technical standards are not more trade-
restrictive than necessary.
300 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
absence of descriptive research that identi?es pre-
cisely what these processes are. As Hopwood
(1997, p. iii) notes:
While accounting in action is now embedded
in multi-national enterprises and multi-na-
tional audit ?rms, and subject to emerging
forms of supranational regulation, account-
ing research still tends to focus on national
contexts and thereby remains largely in?u-
enced by national traditions and schools of
thought. One result is that we still have a
rather crude notion of accounting diversity
and the reasons for it, and rather minimal
understanding of the nature and forms of
international pressure for change.
Knowledge of emerging forms of supranational
regulation, and the nature and form of interna-
tional pressure for change can be illusive since
globalization is a contemporary phenomenon that
is enfolding even as we attempt to understand it. In
the case of the WTO, a new round of negotiations
on trade in services opened in 2000. The outcomes
of the most recent negotiating round, known as the
GATS 2000 Round, will not be known before 2005
at the earliest, and their signi?cance may not be
appreciated for years to come as the agreement is
implemented and extended in future rounds of
negotiations. The di?culty of obtaining relevant
information about ‘‘accounting in action’’ is
compounded by the fact that trade negotiations
are conducted in closed sessions, access to WTO
working party and dispute resolution proceedings
is prohibited, and many documents related to
current negotiations are restricted.
As a result, the task of compiling a working
knowledge of the content and history of the WTO
services agreement, and analyzing its signi?cance
for accounting and other professional services is a
sizable research project in itself. This paper uses
several data sources to address the substantial gap
in our knowledge and understanding of the GATS
process and its implications for professional ser-
vices. The descriptive sections of the study rely
extensively on primary source material drawn
from the WTO archives; these documents include
legal texts, decisions, reports, minutes and com-
muniques from WTO working parties and
administrative bodies.
3
The section of the study
that documents the accounting industry’s
involvement in the GATS process draws from
industry trade publications and Internet sites
maintained by private sector trade lobbies. Por-
tions of the study that discuss the signi?cance of
the current GATS 2000 negotiating round draw
from various sources of information, including
initial negotiating requests and o?ers,
4
to identify
the issues on the negotiation table that could im-
pact the accountancy sector. The archival research
is supplemented by unstructured participant
interviews.
5
The paper is organized to address three inter-
related objectives: (1) to refute the conventional
view that the globalization of accounting and
other professional services industries is market
driven, (2) to analyze of the implications of the
GATS and the accountancy Disciplines for local
sovereignty, that is the ability to e?ectively regu-
late auditing ?rms and ?nancial reporting prac-
tices, and (3) to discuss the implications of the
empirical ?ndings for the accounting literature.
The ?rst objective of the paper is to show how
the record of lobbying by international accounting
?rms and industry organizations contradicts the
conventional wisdom that attributes primacy to
market forces in the process of globalization. The
conventional wisdom, which we will call the mar-
ket model of globalization, argues that techno-
logical change, notably advances in electronics
and commuter technology, has spawned the
3
Primary sources are referenced in the footnotes. WTO
documents, including legal texts, proposals, reports, minutes
and press releases, are archived in an on-line database main-
tained by the WTO, and available at www.wto.org. Referenced
WTO documents are publicly available unless otherwise indi-
cated in the footnotes.
4
The USTR has released summaries of its initial negotiating
o?ers and requests. Other documents related to the GATS 2000
negotiating round, including the European Union’s initial
requests, have been leaked, distributed widely and posted on
the Internet. Footnotes references to these documents provide
web addresses where the documents can be obtained.
5
Interviews were used primarily to con?rm the author’s
interpretation of primary source materials. Footnote references
are given in cases where interviews were relied upon as the
primary source of information.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 301
development of global ?nancial markets. Global
markets, in turn, require transparency in ?nancial
reporting to function e?ciently. Accounting and
auditing, theoretically, serve the market’s need for
transparent ?nancial information by mitigating
agency problems and reducing transactions costs.
The accounting profession plays a reactive role
within this model; for markets to operate properly,
the accounting profession supposedly must adapt
and modernize in response to the globalization of
?nance and investment. This functionalist inter-
pretation of accounting’s role within global mar-
kets has been used to argue in support of adaptive
responses ranging from global professional cre-
dentialing to adoption of international accounting
standards. The market model views resistance to
change on the part of national and sub-national
regulators as an outmoded rigidity that must
eventually give way to the imperative for market
e?ciency, and the ostensibly progressive and
impersonal forces of globalization.
In contrast to the market model of globaliza-
tion, the evidence presented in this paper supports
an institutional theory of globalization by showing
that the transnational accounting industry, work-
ing with and through states and international
economic institutions, has worked proactively to
create a global market for accounting and auditing
services. The premises underlying the market and
institutional models are contrasted in Fig. 1.
Whereas the market model assumes that the pro-
cess of globalization begins with market forces and
ends with industry adaptation, the institutional
model begins with the agency of states, corporate
forms of capital (transnational corporations and
industry lobbies), and international economic
institutions (such as the WTO, IMF, OECD and
World Bank) and culminates in the creation of
global markets. Unlike the market paradigm,
institutional theory (Granovetter, 1985) recognizes
that economies are politically embedded in the
sense that macro-economic outcomes are shaped
by non-market institutions
6
through historical
processes that are often politically saturated
(Zukin & DiMaggio, 1990). In this view, global-
ization is not the product of impersonal or immu-
table forces; instead, global markets are politically
constructed by the actions of non-market actors
working from deregulatory agendas to promote
privatization of state enterprises and dismantling
of regulatory barriers to trade and investment.
The institutional framework provides a non-
functionalist explanation of the transnational
accounting industry’s role in the process of glob-
alization. As posited by the institutional model,
this research shows that the accounting industry is
not merely adapting reactively to the forces of
market globalization. Instead, transnational
accounting ?rms and industry lobbies in the Uni-
ted States and European Union whose interests in
expanding export trade and direct foreign invest-
ment, align with those of other transnational ser-
Market Model of Globalization
Global Need for Transparency Industry
Markets & Accountability Response
Institutional Model of Globalization
TNCs, States Deregulation Global
& International & Privatization Markets
Institutions
Fig. 1. Market versus institutional models of globalization.
6
Non-market institutions can be broadly de?ned to include
social, cultural and cognitive structures (including customs,
norms, beliefs, law, and ideology) as well as macro-institutions
such as states, TNCs, and other non-market economic institu-
tions.
302 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
vice conglomerates, have played and continue to
play a formative role in the globalization of pro-
fessional service markets through its in?uence on
the GATS process.
The second objective of the paper is to analyze
the implications of the GATS and the accountancy
Disciplines for the ability of national and local
regulators to e?ectively govern ?nancial reporting
practices and the conduct of audit ?rms. A com-
plex mix of ideological and institutional factors
constrains the range of policy debate within trade
ministries and international economic institutions
(Stiglitz, 2002). Among these is the hegemony of
the neoliberal thought, which rests on an unques-
tioned belief in market e?ciency, free trade, and
minimal government––assumptions that sti?e in-
quiry into the potential social and political reper-
cussions of trade liberalization. As a result,
regulatory policy choices are at best limited––and
at worst driven by what Stiglitz (2002, p. xiii) de-
scribes as a blend of ideology and bad economics
that seems sometimes to thinly veil special inter-
ests. In accountancy, the neoliberal deregulatory
agenda has dominated trade discussion to such an
extent that the adequacy of industry self-regula-
tion as a framework for global accounting and
audit practice has been largely unquestioned in the
GATS process.
Recently, Trolliet and Hegarty (2002, p. 22)
challenged the accounting industry’s misconcep-
tion that it can regulate itself without external
accountability and supervision.
7
While they sug-
gest that absence of an adequate regulatory
framework governing international accounting
and audit practices may have negative repercus-
sions for audit quality and public protections, they
do not criticize the deregulatory aims of the GATS
or the accountancy Disciplines. Although the US
accounting scandals in the early 2000s, exposed the
failure of industry-self-regulation as a basis for
governing global auditing practice, there has been
no substantive critique within the accounting lit-
erature of the potential for free trade agreements
to impede e?ective regulation of ?nancial report-
ing practices and auditing ?rms.
Outside the academy, an important interna-
tional debate is being waged on the implications of
free trade agreements for the environment, labor,
consumer protections and democratic governance
(Barlow & Clarke, 2001; Wallach & Sforza, 1999).
Critics of the GATS (Sinclair, 2000; Sinclair &
Grieshaber-Otto, 2002) contend that the WTO
services agreement poses a threat to the future of
public services (Pollack & Price, 2000) and will
undermine the ability of state and local polities to
e?ectively regulate economic activity within their
own boarders (Gould, 2002). Trade ministries, the
WTO (2001) and the OECD (2001), in turn, have
denied these charges. Since industry views certain
domestic regulations (e.g. diverse national and
sub-national licensing and quali?cation require-
ments, restrictions of corporate forms of owner-
ship, and non-uniform ?nancial reporting and
auditing standards) as barriers to trade in profes-
sional services, the question of whether free trade
pacts will undermine existing domestic modes of
regulating auditing and ?nancial reporting prac-
tices, is especially relevant to accounting.
This research supports the contention of GATS
critics that the WTO services agreement has the
potential to undermine domestic regulation and
local autonomy. The paper shows how extensively
WTO deliberations on domestic regulation of
accountancy enter into areas traditionally consid-
ered the province of domestic policy including,
professional licensing, education, ethics, and
standard setting. It further shows that industry
calls for ‘‘regulatory reform’’ to ensure that na-
tional and sub-national laws that are ‘‘pro-com-
petitive’’ and ‘‘least trade-restrictive’’, are not
empty rhetoric, but concrete political objectives
that are being given life and institutional form as
they are brought to the negotiating table and
worked into the details of WTO rules on domestic
regulation. While the outcome of such processes
can never be known with certainty, the analysis
indicates that negotiations around apparently
7
Trolliet works at the World Trade Organization. He served
a Secretary to the Working Party on Professional Services,
which developed the accountancy Disciplines. Hegarty is
Regional Financial Management Advisor to the World Bank’s
Europe and Central Asia Region, and Chair of the Bank’s
Financial Management Sector Board’s Private Sector Commit-
tee. Their views on accounting regulation are personal and
should not be attributed to the WTO or the World Bank.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 303
mundane and arcane trade regulations are likely
over time to e?ect major change in accounting
regulation by imposing external legal and institu-
tional constraints on the ability of national and
local regulators to e?ectively govern auditing and
?nancial reporting practices and the conduct of
accounting ?rms.
The ?nal objective of the paper is to begin the
process of theoretical synthesis by discussing the
implications of the ?ndings for the accounting
literature and suggesting directions for further re-
search. Prior research has shown that British
accounting associations and more recently the US
accounting industry has historically exercised
control over the development of indigenous
accounting professions in colonial and post-colo-
nial societies (Annisette, 2000; Caramanis, 1999,
2002; Chau & Poullaos, 1998, 2002; Johnson,
1973). We encourage further research to examine
how the predominance of Anglo-American
interests in the GATS’ deliberations on accoun-
tancy continues and diverges from this historical
pattern. While this case study supports a theory of
unequal exchange between nations at the center
and periphery of the world economy, it also shows
that the GATS a?ects the balance of political
power, and hence social class relations, within the
United States, Europe and other metropolitan
centers. We, therefore, caution against interpret-
ing the GATS simply as an instrument of geo-
political hegemony. Although the nation state
remains the seat of social and political rights, na-
tions in the north as well as the south are being
stripped of their role in the governance of markets.
This decoupling of economic and political gover-
nance, which Streeck (1996) refers to as the
‘‘fragmentation of sovereignty’’, has dangerous
consequences for democracy in rich as well as poor
nations.
Lastly, the empirical ?ndings are framed within
the context of the literature on the sociology of the
professions (Abbott, 1983; Dezalay, 1995; Larson,
1977). We encourage further research to examine
how current industry e?orts to construct a global
market for professional expertise under the aus-
pices of the WTO both parallels and diverges from
earlier attempts by occupational groups in indus-
trialized countries to marshal the power of the
state, control over a knowledge base, and cultural
authority to constitute themselves as ‘‘professions’’
in national markets. Following Dezalay (1995), we
argue that the internationalization of the market
for professional services signi?es more than an
intra-professional jurisdictional dispute (Abbott,
1988) or micro-political ‘‘turf war’’ within the
ranks of the professions. Because the globalization
of professional services promises to radically
restructure professional labor markets by facili-
tating the international mobility of professional
labor, the o?shoring of accounting work, and the
decline of autonomous forms of professional
work, the WTO negotiations on accountancy and
other professional services have broad macro-
political implications for labor markets in general
that merit further research.
The World Trade Organization and accounting
services
The World Trade Organization (WTO), along
with the IMF and World Bank, has been a major
institutional actor in the construction of global
markets. Created in 1995 after the conclusion of
the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negoti-
ations, the WTO was given unprecedented power
to enforce international trade agreements through
a binding dispute resolution mechanism. WTO
dispute resolution panels adjudicate trade disputes
between Member nations; the decisions of these
bodies are binding and cannot be appealed outside
the WTO. The WTO is also notable in that the
scope of its authority extends beyond the tradi-
tional domain of trade in goods to encompass
non-traditional matters such as agreements on
intellectual property rights,
8
food and technical
standards,
9
and trade in services––including pro-
fessional services.
The WTO trade pact of particular concern to
accounting and other professional services is the
8
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Prop-
erty Rights.
9
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures, and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.
304 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS).
10
The GATS is an existing trade agree-
ment that is renegotiated periodically to extend its
reach. The agreement’s objective is to open the
borders of the WTO Member nations to trade in
all types of services, including accounting and
auditing.
11
The GATS reach is extensive. It not
only covers all types of services; it also applies to
all possible modes of delivering services, including:
(1) cross-border delivery, (2) consumption abroad,
(3) commercial presence, and (4) movement of
natural persons (Fig. 2 provides technical de?ni-
tions of these four modes of service delivery). With
respect to accountancy, the GATS’ de?nes ‘‘trade
in services’’ broadly to encompass accounting and
audit services delivered across borders via elec-
tronic technologies, direct foreign investment in
accounting and auditing ?rms, and the movement
of professional workers across borders to practice
as accountants and auditors. Nations can commit
to liberalizing trade in accounting and auditing in
any of the four modes of service by guaranteeing
market access
12
and national treatment
13
to all
WTO Members on a most-favored nation basis.
14
In short, the GATS provides the legal framework
for creating a single market for accounting and
auditing services, while the WTO provides the
institutional and legal mechanisms for disciplining
Mode 1: Cross-boarder delivery of accounting and auditing services where professional
accountants (or accounting firms) located in one country deliver services to
clients located in another country. Mode 1 covers work performed via the Internet
or other telecommunications technologies.
Mode 2: Consumption abroad where clients located in one country travel to another
country to purchase the accounting or auditing services.
Mode 3: Commercial presences where accounting firms incorporated in one country
establish a commercial presence in another country. Mode 3 covers direct
foreign investment in accounting firms.
Mode 4: Movement of natural persons where individuals from one country move
temporarily to another country to deliver accounting or auditing services.
Mode 4 covers the mobility of professional workers to practice as accountants
& auditors in other countries.
Fig. 2. GATS de?nes four modes of service delivery. Source: Adapted from GATS Article I.
10
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), Annex
1B of the Uruguay Round Final Act; hereinafter cited as
GATS. The full legal text is available at www.wto.org.
11
The GATS applies to professional services including: legal
services; accounting, auditing and bookkeeping services; taxa-
tion services; architectural services; engineering services; inte-
grated engineering services; urban planning and landscape
architectural services; medical and dental services; veterinary
services; and services provided by midwives, nurses, physio-
therapists and para-medical personnel.
12
In sectors where market access commitments are under-
taken, WTO Members may not maintain or adopt laws that (1)
limit the number of services suppliers via quotas, monopolies,
or exclusive service suppliers, (2) limit the total value of services
transactions, (3) limit the total number of services operations or
the total quantity of service output, (4) limit the total number of
natural persons that may be employed in a particular service
sector, (5) restrict or require speci?c types of legal entity or joint
venture through which a service supplier may supply a service,
and (6) limit the participation of foreign capital in terms of
maximum percentage limits on foreign shareholding or the total
value of individual or aggregate foreign investment (GATS,
Article XVI).
13
National treatment means that treatment given a foreign
service supplier is no less favorable than that accorded to
domestic service suppliers. United States International Trade
Commission (USITC), ‘‘US Schedules of Commitments under
the General Agreement on Trade in Services’’, Investigation
No. 332–354, August 1988, p. E-2; hereafter cited as USITC,
1988.
14
Most-favored nation (MFN) is a trading status accorded
to a nation wherein the terms and conditions of trade with that
nation are as favorable as those with any other nation (USITC,
1988, p. E-2).
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 305
Member states who construct barriers to trade in
services as it is broadly de?ned by the GATS.
An integrated global market for accounting
services does not currently exist. Although the
major accounting ?rms operate globally under a
single name (e.g. Deloitte Touche, Ernst & Young,
KPMG, PriceWaterhouseCoopers), they are not
organized as centralized transnational corpora-
tions with foreign subsidiaries and branches. In-
stead, international accounting ?rms are organized
as loose networks of a?liate partnerships located
in di?erent countries throughout the world. Al-
though the core o?ces of the major ?rms are lo-
cated in the United States and Europe, particularly
the United Kingdom, their international a?liates
are separate and independent legal entities whose
activities are subject to the laws and professional
obligations of the country in which they practice
(Arnold & Sikka, 2001; Trolliet & Hegarty, 2002,
p. 16). Industry views the existence of diverse na-
tional and sub-national professional licensing and
quali?cation requirements, restrictions on owner-
ship and forms of business organization, limita-
tions on direct foreign investment, and the lack of
consistency in accounting, auditing, educational,
and ethics standards across jurisdictional bound-
aries stand as barriers to the consolidation of
genuinely transnational professional service cor-
porations.
The WTO services agreement has the potential
to dramatically restructure the market for profes-
sional accounting services by facilitating direct
foreign investment and consolidation of account-
ing ?rms, the mobility of professional labor and
cross-border delivery of services. GATS’ promise,
however, has yet to be fully realized due, in part, to
the GATS’ so-called ‘‘bottom up’’ architecture.
While many of GATS obligations including the
provisions on dispute resolution and most-favored
nation treatment are general obligations that apply
(‘‘top down’’) to all WTO Members, each WTO
Member is able to decide (‘‘bottom up’’), in the
course of negotiations, whether and the extent to
which it will commit accounting and auditing ser-
vices in any of the four modes to the GATS
requirements for market access (Article XVI) and
national treatment (Article XVII). Accordingly,
di?erent countries have made varying levels of
commitments to liberalize trade in the accounting
and auditing services.
15
Market access and na-
tional treatment commitments are inscribed in
national ‘‘Schedules of Speci?c Commitments’’,
which are annexed to the GATS ; the ‘‘Schedules’’
also specify any limitations on market access or
national treatment commitments that a country
chooses to maintain.
16
A large majority of coun-
tries that have scheduled commitments in the
accountancy sector still maintain some form of
market access and or national treatment limitation
for one or more of the four modes of supply
(Trolliet & Hegarty, 2002, p. 4). The United States,
for example, has made commitments to open its
borders to trade in accounting and auditing ser-
vices delivered through all modes, except Mode 4
(movement of persons). The United States has also
written some limitations into its GATS commit-
ments in order to shield speci?c state-level accoun-
tancy laws that would otherwise be GATS illegal, such
as residence requirements for CPA licensure and laws
that limited ownership of accounting ?rms to persons
licensed as accountants.
17
In the initial Uruguay Round of the multilateral
negotiations (1986–1994), many nations under-
took limited commitments that served to lock in
the status quo, but did not radically liberalize
trade in services. The e?ect of locking in existing
levels of liberalization, however, is non-trivial;
once a country undertakes commitments in the
accounting sector, they are binding and cannot be
altered with impunity. From the perspective of
institutional theory (Oliver, 1992; Scott, 2001;
Tolbert & Zucker, 1996), one of the most signi?-
cant aspects of a treaty-based legal regime is that it
institutionalizes change; what was once the subject
15
At the end of the Uruguay Round, 47 Members (counting
the European Communities as one) took commitments in the
accounting sector; subsequent accessions to the WTO have
brought the total to 69 as of 2002 (Trolliet & Hegarty, 2002,
p. 4).
16
Speci?c commitments made by WTO Members in profes-
sional services (a sub-sector of Business Services), including
commitments in accounting, auditing and bookkeeping can be
found on the WTO Services Database athttp://tsdb.wto.org/
wto/WTOHomepublic.htm.
17
WTO, United States of America-Schedule of Speci?c
Commitments, GATS/SC/90, April 1994, p. 35.
306 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
negotiation and agreement becomes ?xed and
taken-for-granted––eventually free trade regimes,
open borders and deregulation come to be seen as
natural or inevitable.
GATS’ legal framework contains provisions that
make it di?cult for nations to modify or withdraw
commitments once they are undertaken;
18
accordingly, GATS e?ectively captures the market
liberalization and privatization that took place
during the 1980s and 1990s and makes it costly for
governments to reinstate restrictions on market
access or policies favoring local providers. By
insuring that steps taken toward liberalization of
trade in accounting services is not subject to regu-
latory backsliding, the GATS makes the path to
global market integration unidirectional.
Heeter (1996, p. 3) a former Andersen partner
and industry advisor to the USTR,
19
has stated
that the GATS has already ‘‘paid dividends’’ in
Greece where new restrictions in accountancy were
‘‘resisted on the basis of GATS commitments’’.
When indigenous Greek auditors attempted to
recapture control of the market after it had been
liberalized in 1992, intense international political
pressure was mobilized by the United States, the
OECD and international accounting ?rms to suc-
cessfully block the attempt (Caramanis, 2002). The
Greek example illustrates that even in the absence
of a formal legal ruling by a WTO dispute reso-
lution body or the imposition of trade sanctions,
international trade commitments can be leveraged
informally to curtail e?orts by national govern-
ments to re-regulate markets or reinstate policies
that protect local providers once the accounting
sector has been opened to international competi-
tion.
In addition to its power to lock in existing levels
of liberalization, the GATS, includes a formal
mandate to conduct successive rounds of negoti-
ations aimed at ‘‘achieving a progressively higher
level of liberalization’’ of trade in services.
20
The
second round of service negotiations began in 2000
and is scheduled to conclude by 2005 at the earli-
est.
21
During the GATS 2000 Round, nations can
agree to undertake new market access and national
treatment commitments in the accounting and
auditing sector, and/or remove limitations on prior
commitments. Although these negotiations are
being held in a closed forum, available documents
indicted that accountancy is again on the negoti-
ating table. For example, several trading partners
have asked the United States to eliminate state
residency requirements for CPA licensure,
22
and
the European Union (EU) has indicated its intent
to use the GATS 2000 negotiations to press for US
recognition of international accounting stan-
dards.
23
The United States, in turn, has proposed
18
While WTO Members may modify or withdraw commit-
ments in it Schedule, the modifying Member must, upon the
request of any Member whose bene?ts are a?ected, enter into
negotiations aimed at reaching on agreement on any necessary
‘‘compensatory adjustment’’. If agreement is not reached
between the modifying Member and any a?ected Member, the
a?ected Member may refer the matter to arbitration. The
modifying Member may not modify or withdraw is commit-
ment until it has made compensatory adjustments in conformity
with the ?ndings of the arbitration (GATS Article XXI).
19
Heeter represented Arthur Andersen on the Industry
Sector Advisory Committee of Services (ISAC 13) which
advices the O?ce of the United States Trade Representative
(USTR) on trade matters. After Andersen’s breakup, he
continued to occupy that position as a representative of
Deloitte and Touche, LLP (www.ita.doc.gov/td/icp/isac.html).
20
GATS, Article XIX.
21
At the Doha Ministerial Conference speci?c deadlines
were set for the GATS negotiations. June 2002 was set as a
deadline for WTO Members were to exchange requests iden-
tifying new commitments they wanted their negotiating part-
ners to take. March 2003 was set as the deadline for Members
to respond to requests and present their initial o?ers. Bilateral
negotiations on initial o?ers and requests, and multilateral
negotiations to draft new GATS rules were scheduled to
conclude by the end of 2004. As of December 2003, only 62
(out of a total of 148) WTO Members had submitted formal
negotiating requests and about forty had submitted o?ers
(Gould, 2004). At this writing, it is unclear, whether the
January 2005 deadline originally set for the conclusion of
negotiations will be met.
22
United States Trade Representative (USTR), Memoran-
dum to State Points of Contact and the Intergovernmental
Policy Advisory Committee on US o?ers under the General
Agreement on Trade in Services, January 17, 2003. Requests by
state are available at www.citizen.org/documents/GATS-
requestsbystate.pdf.
23
Restricted document. GATS 2000: Request of the EC and
its Member State to the United States of America, 30 June
2002. Draft (March 2002) and ?nal (July 2002) EC requests to
the US and to 108 other WTO Members were leaked and are
available at www.gatswatch.org/requests-o?ers.html and
www.polarisinstitute.org/gats/main.html.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 307
that other WTO Members formulate commitments
in the accounting sector to eliminate a host of
perceived regulatory barriers to trade in account-
ing services, including local equity requirements,
residency requirements, taxes on repatriation of
pro?ts, and restrictions on ownership, control or
form of organization permitted for foreign
accounting ?rms.
24
Because the GATS mandates successive rounds
of trade negotiations aimed at progressive liber-
alization of trade in services, the agreement’s po-
tential to forge a single global market for
accounting services cannot be judged solely on the
basis on progress to date. In many respects, the
GATS is a living document that is still being
shaped. As yet, few trade disputes related to vio-
lations of the GATS agreements have been liti-
gated before WTO dispute panels. As more
comprehensive commitments are undertaken in
successive negotiating rounds, we can expect more
disputes, legal interpretations, and decisions that
will illuminate the extent of the GATS’ power to
enforce free trade in accounting and auditing ser-
vices. The extent of the GATS’ power will be
constituted not only in the process of ongoing
negotiations, but also by the legal interpretations
of dispute resolution bodies, and by the actions of
WTO working groups as they implement the
provisions of the existing agreement.
The WTO is currently poised to implement one
of the most controversial provisions of the agree-
ment, GATS Article VI:4 on domestic regulation.
This article empowers the WTO to develop so-
called ‘‘disciplines’’ to ensure that the domestic
laws and regulations (speci?cally licensing and
quali?cation requirements and technical stan-
dards) of WTO Members do not constitute
unnecessary barriers to trade in services. The
provision potentially gives the WTO extraordinary
authority to intervene in the domestic a?airs of its
Member states in order to eliminate perceived
regulatory barriers to international trade in ser-
vices. Accounting and auditing has been selected
as the ?rst sector to be disciplined under Article
VI:4. The Disciplines on Domestic Regulation in the
Accountancy Sector
25
have been drawn up and are
scheduled to become e?ective upon completion of
the GATS 2000 negotiating round.
26
The accountancy disciplines and the outcome of
ongoing negotiations on domestic regulation are
of enormous signi?cance both within and outside
the accounting profession. Accounting is likely to
become the model for GATS disciplines in other
professional services such as law, engineering,
architecture, and medicine. The WTO Working
Party on Domestic Regulation (WPDR) has con-
sidered using the accounting disciplines as a pro-
totype for disciplines in other ?elds and/or as a
model for developing horizontal disciplines that
would apply to all professional services.
27
In its
opening o?er in the GATS 2000 negotiating round,
the United States indicated its willingness to adopt
disciplines similar to accountancy for the archi-
tecture and engineering professions.
28
More
importantly, as the ?rst sector to be disciplined
under GATS controversial Article VI:4, the out-
come of deliberations on the accountancy disci-
plines will set WTO precedent and de?ne the
parameters of the WTO’s power over the domestic
laws and regulations of Member states in general.
The transnational accounting industry’s role in
the WTO
Although widely accepted, the market-led view
of globalization is based on assumptions that fail
to appreciate the active role that institutional ac-
tors––such as states, corporate forms of capital,
and international institutions like the International
24
USTR, US Proposals for Liberalizing Trade in Services:
Executive Summary, 1 July 2002 and WTO, Council for Trade
in Services. Communication for the Untied States: Accountancy
Services, S/CSS/W/20, 18 December 2000, p. 2.
25
WTO, Disciplines on Domestic Regulation in the Accoun-
tancy Sector, S/L/64,17 December 1998. See Appendix.
26
WTO Press Release, WTO adopts disciplines on domestic
regulation for the accountancy sector, PRESS/118, 14 Decem-
ber 1998.
27
WTO, Working Party on Domestic Regulation. Report on
the Meeting Held on 17 May 1999, S/WPDR/M/1 14 June 1999.
28
USTR, The United States of America––Initial O?er, 31
March 2003, p. 33; hereinafter cited as USTR, 2003. Available
at www.ustr.gov/sectors/services/2003-03-31-consolidated_o?er.
pdf.
308 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and World
Trade Organization (WTO)––have played in the
creation of global markets. Global ?nancial mar-
kets did not materialize in response to technolog-
ical imperatives; they are the product of political
agency and intent. Historically, the degree of
?nancial liberalization has oscillated in response to
political pressures. The golden age of liberalism, a
period of relatively open global markets at the end
of the 19th century, ended after the Great
Depression of the 1930s (Polanyi, 1944). In the
post-World War II period, nation states instituted
Keynesian economic policies and political controls
over the international movement of ?nancial cap-
ital (Schor, 1992). In the 1980s and 1990s, these
capital controls were dismantled, ushering in the
current neoliberal period where once again capital
is free to roam the world relatively unconstrained
by national controls (Kapstein, 1994). This new
phase of economic globalization is the product of
the intentional policies of the United States to
foster the development of global markets for
investment and ?nance by promoting a neoliberal
economic agenda worldwide. This US agenda,
known as the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ called not
only for free trade and elimination of capital
controls, but also for economic restructuring,
deregulation and privatization of state-owned
industries. IMF-imposed structural adjustment
programs were employed to persuade reluctant
nations to abandon social priorities in favor of
open borders and investor-friendly economies
(Stiglitz, 2002). Global ?nancial markets, in other
words, are not the product of impersonal or
immutable market forces; to the contrary, con-
temporary forms of economic globalization have
been politically constructed and implemented by
the strong arm of a hegemonic nation state.
By focusing on the WTO’s role in opening
global markets, we begin to see agency and intent
in the process of economic globalization. The
WTO’s administrative apparatus and dispute res-
olution power makes the trade organization a
signi?cant institutional actor in its own right;
however, the WTO does not act autonomously.
The trade organization’s agenda and actions are
heavily in?uenced by the interests of major nation
states, such as the United States and members of
the European Union, and transnational ?rms with
operational bases within their borders. The domi-
nant role of the major powers within the WTO,
IMF, and World Bank is well documented (Sti-
glitz, 2002); multinational ?rms and corporate
lobbies, in turn, exercise in?uence over the inter-
national trade agendas of their respective nations.
As several scholars (Hirst & Thompson, 1996;
Wood, 1995) have observed, transnational corpo-
rations are not ‘‘free ?oating agents’’; to the con-
trary, they maintain strong links with their
countries of origin (Cooper et al., 1998), and have
the ‘‘potential to mobilize their national govern-
ments to in?uence the rules of the game at the
global level to their own advantage’’ (Caramanis,
2002, p. 403).
The GATS services negotiations are no excep-
tion. The United States and European Union have
played prominent roles in the services negotia-
tions, and their negotiating positions have been,
and continue to be, in?uenced by corporate trade
lobbies (Roberts, 2000). In the services sector, the
major international trade lobbies include the
International Financial Services, London (IFSL)
and its LOTIS Committee in the United Kingdom,
the European Services Forum (ESF), and the US
Coalition of Service Industries (USCSI).
29
These
private sector interest groups were organized to
promote free trade in services, formulate common
positions and advise governments on the GATS
negotiations. Their membership includes promi-
nent multinational corporations such as Citigroup,
Barclay’s, Cigna, UBS (?nancial services), BT,
AT&T, MCI (telecommunications services),
Fedex, DHL, UPS (postal services), Hallibuton
(energy services), and Deloitte & Touche, Ernst &
Young, KMPG, and PriceWaterhouseCoopers
(professional services).
30
The Liberalization of Trade in Services
(LOTIS) Committee, a committee of International
Financial Services, London (IFSL), was created in
29
Others include the Japan Services Network and the Global
Services Network (Roberts, 2000).
30
Membership lists are available at the following web sites:
LOTIS (www.lotis.org), European Services Network
(www.esf.be) and, US Coalition of Service Industries (www.
usci.org).
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 309
the early 1980s to represent the interests of City of
London ?nancial and professional services ?rms in
the initial round of GATS negotiations. The
LOTIS Committee is recognized by the British
Government as the voice of UK ?nancial services
industry on WTO matters, and has informal links
with the European Commission, the OECD, and
the WTO.
31
The European Services Forum was
created in 1999 to represent Europe’s major ser-
vices ?rms and advised the European Commission
on trade matters. Representatives of the Com-
mission’s Trade Directorate regularly attend
meetings of the groups Policy Committee to dis-
cuss emerging developments in the GATS negoti-
ations. Prior to 1999, the European Tradeable
Services Network advised the European Commis-
sion during the Urguary Round of trade negotia-
tions. The US Coalition of Service Industries was
formed in 1982 to promote free trade in services; it
played a role in the initial GATS negotiations and
continues to lobby the US government on matters
of trade policy.
The international accounting industry,
32
com-
posed of the major international ?rms and indus-
try associations, located in the United States and
in Europe, participates in these in?uential corpo-
rate trade lobbies. Deloitte & Touche, Ernst &
Young, KPMG, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, and
the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England
and Wales (ICAEW) are members of the IFSL.
33
Ernst & Young, KPMG, PriceWaterhouseCoop-
ers, and the Federation des Experts Comptables
Europeens (FEE) participate in the Europeans
Services Forum.
34
PriceWaterhouseCoopers is a
member of the US Coalition of Service Indus-
tries.
35
Deloitte and Touche, and PriceWater-
houseCoopers also serve in an o?cial capacity as
advisors to the O?ce of the US Trade Represen-
tatives through seats on the Industry Sector
Advisor Committee on Services (ISAC 13).
36
Prior to its collapse, Arthur Andersen played an
in?uential role in the GATS process though its
membership on the LOTIS Committee, the Euro-
pean Services Network, the Coalition of Service
Industries, and ISAC 13.
The transatlantic accounting industry has
been involved in the WTO trade negotiations
since the Uruguay Round was launched in 1986
(Hegarty, 1991). In 1990, the FEE, representing
the accounting industry in Europe, proposed
attaching an annex to the GATS to address
issues speci?cally relevant to expanding trade in
accountancy services. The US government subse-
quently submitted two proposals for an accoun-
tancy annex that included many of the ideas put
forward by the FEE and the US accounting
industry, including requests for (1) procedures and
guidelines to promote mutual recognition
37
of
professional quali?cations, (2) recognition of the
role of the International Accounting Standards
Committee (IASC)
38
in developing international
31
Descriptions the LOTIS Committee, ESN, and USCSI are
taken from an article by LOTIS Chairman, Roberts (2000), and
from the organizations’ web sites.
32
The core o?ces of the international ?rms and the most
powerful accountancy associations (AICPA, FEE, ICAEW)
reside in the US and in Europe. Thus, when we speak of the
international accounting industry, we are not speaking of a
genuinely ‘‘international industry’’, but rather of a transatlantic
based industry with centers of power predominately in the US
and Europe, especially the United Kingdom.
33
www.lotis.org/about/directory.cfm.
34
www.esf.be/002/001.html.
35
www.uscsi.org/members/current.htm.
36
www.ita.doc.gov/td/icp/isac.html.
37
GATS Article VII stipulates that WTO Members ‘‘may
recognize the education or experience obtained, requirements
met, or licenses or certi?cations granted in a particular
country’’ for purposes of ful?lling ‘‘standards for criteria for
the authorization, licensing or certi?cation of service suppliers’’.
Such recognition can be based on agreements between countries
(mutual recognition) or granted autonomously. However,
‘‘Members shall not accord recognition in a manner which
would constitute a means of discrimination between countries
in the application of its standards or criteria for the authori-
zation, licensing or certi?cation of services suppliers, or a
disguised restriction on trade in services’’. Article VII(5) further
states that ‘‘wherever appropriate, recognition should be based
on multilaterally agreed criteria’’, and Members are encouraged
to ‘‘work in cooperation with relevant intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations toward the establishment and
adoption of common international standards and criteria for
recognition and common international standards for the
practice of relevant services trades and professions.
38
Now the International Accounting Standards Board
(IASB).
310 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
?nancial reporting standards, and (3) recognition
of the International Federation of Accountants’
(IFAC) role in developing international standards
and guidelines on auditing, ethics and education
(Hegarty, 1991, 1993).
In 1990, Hegarty, then Secretary General of the
FEE, sought endorsements from the International
Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) and the
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC)
of a resolution encouraging trade ministers and
negotiators to include in the WTO trade agree-
ment ‘‘a speci?c commitment to advance the
development and use of International Accounting
Standards in the presentation of published ?nan-
cial statements’’. IASC endorsed this resolution
and a subsequent resolution in 1992 supporting the
proposed annex on profession accounting ser-
vices.
39
In May of 1993, the major industry associations
in the United States and Europe (the AICPA and
FEE) organized a meeting in Geneva to discuss the
GATS negotiations with representatives of the
IFAC, IASC, and negotiators from the European
Communities (EC) and 17 non-EC countries. At
this meeting, negotiators told the industry that a
special annex on accountancy services was not
feasible, but their objectives could be met through
other means (Hegarty, 1993). Those means became
apparent when the WTO subsequently issued a key
Decision on Professional Services (Hegarty, 1994;
Trolliet & Hegarty, 2002). The WTO Council for
Trade in Services adopted the Decision in March
of 1995 in order to ensure continuation of work on
liberalization of professional services. It mandated
the creation of a Working Party on Professional
Services (WPPS), and charged it with the tasks of
developing guidelines for mutual recognition
agreements and encouraging cooperation toward
international standard setting. Most importantly,
the WPPS was given a mandate to develop Disci-
plines on domestic regulation speci?cally for the
accountancy sector.
40
The choice of the accountancy sector as the ?rst
service sector to be disciplined under the GATS’
controversial provision on domestic regulation
(Article VI:4) was not accidental. It re?ects the
involvement of major transatlantic accounting
?rms and industry lobbies in the GATS process
from its inception. The accounting industry re-
mained an active participant throughout deliber-
ations on the Disciplines ; for example, the IFAC
appointed a special GATS Task Force to monitor
the work of the WTO Working Party on Profes-
sional Services, comment on its proposals, and
advance the industry’s views in the process of
writing the disciplines (de Bruijn, 1998). A
spokesperson for Arthur Andersen, has also
acknowledged that Anderson was part of an
international accounting group that helped draft
the accountancy disciplines.
41
Progress toward developing disciplines on
accountancy encountered some resistance from
national regulators, and WTO Members who
feared that large ?rms in the United States, United
Kingdom and Australia would dominate a global
accounting market. Those fears were not limited to
developing countries; within Europe, France and
Italy were concerned that foreign owned ?rms
would swallow up large numbers of small part-
nerships and sole proprietors (WTO’s ‘weak tea’,
1998). The transnational accounting industry has
met resistance and has often been frustrated by the
slow pace of progress within the WTO; nonethe-
less, it has not abandoned initiatives to employ the
GATS’ legal framework and the WTO’s signi?cant
enforcement powers to create a global market for
its services. In the GATS 2000 Round, for exam-
ple, the LOTIS Committee targeted domestic reg-
ulation, mobility of labor, and mutual recognition
as its three priorities for action in the accountancy
sector.
42
39
Correspondence with David Cairns, former IASC mem-
ber, dated 11/7/2003.
40
WTO, Decision on Professional Services, adopted by the
Council for Trade in Services on 1 March 1995, S/L/3, 4 April
1995.
41
‘‘WTO Pact Would Set Global Accounting Rules’’ by
Anthony DePalma, New York Times, March 1, 2002, p. W1.
42
International Financial Services, London, Accounting
Services Update: City Business Series, October, 2003, available
at www.ifsl.org.uk/uploads/CBS_Accountancy_Brief_2003.pdf;
hereinafter cited as IFAL, 2003.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 311
Implications for domestic regulation
While the transnational accounting industry has
been in?uential in the WTO process, consumers of
?nancial information, individual practitioners,
small and medium sized accountancy ?rms, aca-
demicians, and regulators in many countries are
only dimly aware of the extent to which the WTO’s
agenda impinges on decisions governing profes-
sional practice that have traditionally been the
prerogative of domestic policy makers. GATS’
reach is extensive. It applies to all ‘‘measures taken
by central, regional or local governments and
authorities, and non-governmental bodies in the
exercise of powers delegated by central regional or
local governments or authorities’’.
43
‘‘Measures’’
have been de?ned broadly by the agreement to
include laws, regulations, rules, procedures, deci-
sions and administrative actions.
44
It is not
uncommon in accounting for states to delegate
power to professional associations or independent
standards settings bodies, such as the Financial
Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and the
American Institute of Certi?ed Public Accoun-
tants (AICPA) in the United States. These orga-
nizations, and their counterparts in other nations,
are not exempt from the GATS. Professional
licensing and quali?cation requirements and tech-
nical standards are a?ected irrespective of whether
they are issued by national or sub-national gov-
ernments, by professional associations holding
delegated authority, or by quasi-governmental
accountancy bodies.
The list of domestic regulations that industry
and trade o?cials view as barriers to trade in
accounting and auditing services is, likewise,
extensive. Some examples include:
45
• Citizenship or residency requirements for pro-
fessional licensure.
• Restrictions on ownership and form of business
organization (e.g. laws that limit ownership of
accounting ?rms to licensed accountants, or
prohibit corporate forms of accounting prac-
tice).
• Local hiring requirements or local equity
requirements.
• Immigration laws restricting the mobility of
personnel.
• Scope of practice limitations.
• National standards that diverge from interna-
tional standards.
Elimination of these regulatory trade barriers
would bene?t major transatlantic accounting ?rms
that export services, and facilitate their ability to
expand and consolidate their global operations
through direct foreign investment and acquisition
of local ?rms. But, the bene?ts of deregulation are
not necessarily shared equally by developing na-
tions, or across social and occupational groups
within exporting nations.
Removal of regulatory constraints on trade in
accountancy services disproportionately bene?ts
commercial interests in countries, like the United
States, European Union, and Australia, that have
highly developed accounting sectors which are
capable of expanding globally and exporting
accounting and auditing services.
46
In their his-
torical study of center-periphery interaction be-
tween the ICAEW and the accounting associations
in former British colonies, Chau and Poullaos
(2002) show that local accounting associations
resisted British domination of accountancy by
leveraging the power of local states to protect
indigenous accounting industries. Similarly, today,
nations on the periphery employ measures such as
local hiring requirements, local equity require-
ments, taxes on repatriation of pro?ts, and citi-
zenship or residency requirements to support
development strategies. Local hiring requirements,
for example, foster the development of local pro-
fessional expertise and the requisite professional
infrastructure for emerging economies. Without
some means to protect and foster the growth of
43
GATS Article I:3(a).
44
GATS, Article XXVIII(a).
45
See Hegarty (1997) and Trolliet and Hegarty (2002, p. 10).
46
In the United Kingdom, exports of accounting services
increased nearly fourfold from £178 m in 1996 to £701 million
in 2002 after rising slowly in the ?rst half of the 1990s; net
exports rose from £50 to £461 during the same time period
(IFAL, 2003).
312 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
domestic accounting sectors, smaller nations could
?nd their accounting sectors dominated by US and
European accounting ?rms that, as Cooper et al.
(1998) note, may be more concerned with servicing
their multinational clients than with developing
local economies.
The elimination of regulatory obstacles to trade
in accounting and auditing services has deregula-
tory e?ects that could also impair audit quality
and the integrity of ?nancial reporting in both
developing and developed nations. Some of the
trade barriers, targeted by industry and trade
ministries, such as citizenship requirements for
accounting licensure, blatantly discriminate
against foreign accountants. Others such, resi-
dency requirements, while discriminatory, also
serve to protect consumers from malpractice by
making disciplinary control more practicable and
by facilitating the ability to of injured parties to
sue for negligence (Canadian Bar Association,
2000, p. 11). Restrictions on forms of ownership,
form of business organization, and scope of
practice, likewise, serve prudential purposes. Prior
to deregulation in the 1990s, the United States and
United Kingdom prohibited corporate forms of
organization that limited accountants’ profes-
sional liability for malpractice. In the wake of the
Enron scandal, the United States enacted scope of
practice limitations to restrict auditing ?rms from
engaging in consulting services that breached
auditing independence.
47
While these types of
domestic regulations constitute barriers to trade if
their e?ect is to restrict market access to foreign
accounting ?rms that operate as multi-practice,
limited liability corporations, they are also e?ec-
tive ways to regulate auditing practice and stem
abuses in ?nancial reporting.
Many of the perceived regulatory barriers to
trade in accounting and auditing services listed
above touch upon delicate domestic policy issues.
Mobility of professional workers involves sensitive
immigration issues that have implications for labor
markets in both developed and developing na-
tions, and the decision to adopt international
accounting and auditing standards has implica-
tions for the integrity of ?nancial reporting. While
various constituencies disagree over how these is-
sues should be resolved, there is a general pre-
sumption that they are matters of domestic public
policy. International trade agreements, such as the
GATS moves decision-making on these questions
out of sphere of domestic policy and into the
exclusionary arena of international trade negotia-
tions.
Notwithstanding a plethora of unexamined
policy implications, the GATS has set in place a
negotiating framework and disciplinary rules for
reducing or eliminating domestic laws and regu-
lations that industry and trade ministries perceived
as trade-restrictive. If WTO Members agree to
undertake market access and/or national treat-
ment commitments in the accountancy sector, they
may not maintain or adopt domestic regulations
that are incompatible with those commitments.
48
Market access commitments in Mode 4 (move-
ment of natural persons), for example, are
incompatible with restrictive immigration laws.
Residency and citizenship requirements violate
national treatment commitments, which guarantee
foreign service suppliers treatment that is ‘‘no less
favorable’’ than that accorded to domestic service
suppliers.
49
Local equity requirements and pro-
hibitions of corporate forms of ownership violate
GATS’ market access commitments, which stipu-
late that nations may not limit ‘‘the participation
of foreign capital in terms of maximum percentage
limits on foreign shareholding’’ or maintain
‘‘measures which restrict or require speci?c types
of legal entity or joint venture through which a
service supplier may supply a service’’.
50
47
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.
48
As noted previously, WTO Members may schedule
limitations on their market access and national treatments
commitments at the time those commitments are undertaken in
order to preserve their right to maintain or adopt non-
compatible domestic regulations. Scheduled limitations can be
removed in the course of future negotiation to allow progres-
sively higher levels of liberalization, but schedules may not be
altered to modify or withdraw market access and national
treatment commitments with impunity.
49
GATS Article XVII. Treatment is ‘‘considered to be less
favourable if it modi?es the conditions of competition in favour
of services or service suppliers of the Member compared to like
services or service suppliers of any other Member’’.
50
GATS Article XVI, Paragraph 2(e) and 2(f).
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 313
The GATS’ implications for domestic regula-
tion are often underestimated because of a com-
mon misunderstanding that the GATS will only
a?ect domestic laws and regulations that discrim-
inate against foreign ?rms. In fact, the services
agreement does more than curb discriminatory
laws such as citizenship and residency require-
ments; it also a?ects non-discriminatory domestic
regulations (i.e. rules that apply equally to foreign
and domestic ?rms). It does so in two ways. First,
under the GATS market access provisions, non-
discriminatory domestic laws can be construed as
de facto discrimination if they inadvertently pre-
clude foreign ?rms from competing in domestic
markets.
51
Secondly, the GATS disciplines on
domestic regulation apply to non-discriminatory
domestic regulations. For instance, sub-national
regulation of professional accounting (e.g. state-
level regulation in the United States) has been
construed as a barrier to trade because the need to
comply with licensing regimes in multiple sub-na-
tional jurisdictions make it di?cult for foreign
?rms to enter the national market.
52
Scope of
practice limitations and restrictions on corporate
forms of ownership, likewise, are potentially
GATS illegal––even when applied equally to for-
eign and domestic ?rms––since the e?ect of such
laws is to exclude foreign accounting ?rms that
operate as multi-practice, limited liability corpo-
rations. Some analysts have even interpreted bans
on advertising as discriminatory on the grounds
that they disadvantage foreign ?rms that are new
to the market and reliant on advertisement to
establish their business presence (White, 1999, p.
22). Because the GATS can jeopardize an array of
non-discriminatory domestic regulations, the
agreement does more than merely create a level
playing ?eld for foreign competitors in domestic
markets; it potentially curtails the ability of gov-
ernments’ to e?ectively govern the practice of
accounting within their own borders.
The accountancy disciplines
An analysis of the Disciplines on Domestic
Regulation in the Accountancy Sector illustrates the
extent to which the GATS impinges on the
authority of local and nationally based govern-
ments and non-governmental professional bodies
to govern accounting and auditing practice. Fig. 3
summarizes the policy questions that the WTO
Working Party of Professional Services (WPPS)
addressed in the course of its deliberations on the
accounting disciplines.
53
As these questions illus-
trate, the WTO agenda encroaches on a wide range
of policy matters from issues that de?ne the pro-
fessional knowledge base (such as educational
quali?cations and the content professional exam-
inations) to decisions about who can own
accounting ?rms, and what services accounting
?rms can o?er. The accounting profession as a
whole is largely unaware that these questions,
which are traditionally regarded as domestic policy
issues, have been discussed and, in some cases
decided, in closed meetings of WTO committees
and without broad consultation with the various
constituencies that are a?ected.
The Disciplines on Domestic Regulation in the
Accountancy Sector (included in the Appendix)
51
For example, the Glass Steagall Act, a landmark US
banking law enacted in the post-depression era to protect the
safety and integrity of the banking system, was challenged in
initial GATS negotiations as a trade barrier. Although the law,
which prevented the merger of commercial banks, investment
banks and insurance companies, applied equally to domestic
and foreign banks, it had the e?ect of barring major foreign
transnational banks from entering the US market since they
operated under forms that combined commercial and investing
banking services. The US responded by making a formal
commitment under the GATS to work toward repeal of the
Glass Steagall Act. WTO, United States of America Schedule of
Speci?c Commitments Supplement 3, Additional Commitments
Paper II, WTO, GATS/SC/90/Suppl.3. The Glass Steagall Act
was subsequently repealed by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of
1999. In the current GATS 2000 negotiations, the US is o?ering
to bind itself to the liberalization of the banking sector achieved
by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (USTR, 2003, p. 63).
52
In the course of WTO deliberations on accountancy, the
need ‘‘to obtain/renew the same license in every regional
government’’ was identi?ed as a barrier to trade. Restricted
document: WTO, Working Party on Domestic Regulation,
‘‘Examples of Measures to Addressed by Disciplines Under
GATS Article VI:4, Restricted document, JOB(01)/62, May 10,
2001’’.
53
WTO, Working Party on Professional Services, Elements
to be Addressed in Developing Disciplines for Professional
Services: Accountancy Sector, S/WPPS/W/15, 20 June 1997.
314 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
were adopted by the WTO’s Council on Trade in
Services in December 1998, but will not become
e?ective until the conclusion of the GATS 2000
negotiating round.
54
Although the accounting
industry was instrumental in the WTO’s decision
to select accounting as the ?rst service sector to
discipline and involved in drafting the disciplines,
the industry is less than satis?ed with progress to
date. The International Federation of Accountants
(IFAC) welcomed the adoption of the Disciplines,
but complained that they did not go far enough
toward achieving a free market in accounting
services (IFAC welcomes WTO’s rules for
accountancy sector, 1999). Trolliet and Hegarty
(2002, p. 8), similarly, argue that the accountancy
disciplines are ‘‘a nicely balanced political com-
promise with limited legal clout which does not
really challenge the regulation of the sector in most
respects’’. Other commentators argue that the
Disciplines merely insist that licensing require-
ments and exam standards be legitimate and
transparent.
55
While the Disciplines are not as far-reaching as
the transnational accounting industry would like,
the signi?cance of the accounting disciplines
should not be underestimated for several reasons.
First, although the industry is dissatis?ed with the
Disciplines, as currently written, they are subject to
change. The decision by the WTO Council for
Trade in Services to adopt the accountancy disci-
plines authorized the Working Party on Profes-
sional Services (WPPS)
56
to continue work to:
develop general disciplines for professional
services, while retaining the possibility to de-
On Qualification Requirements:
• Should regulators in all countries be required to follow the education standards for
accounting developed by international accounting bodies?
• How should regulators determine equivalence or comparability of education and
experience obtained in another jurisdiction?
• Can applications be granted at least partial credit for past education and
experience obtained in another jurisdiction?
• How can regulatory authorities ensure that examinations will be fair and not
overly burdensome?
On Licensing Requirements
• Who should determine the activities requiring licensing?
• Is it overly burdensome or restrictive to limit the activities or combinations of
services that can be performed by companies?
• Are ethical codes, bonding requirements, residency requirements, requirements
for membership in particular professional organizations, and mandatory audits by
government agencies overly burdensome or restrictive measures?
• Should regulators be required to explain why the existing regulations are
considered to be less burdensome than and more effective than alternative
measures?
On Form of Business Organization:
• Are restrictions on ownership by unlicensed individuals or those not locally
licensed more burdensome than necessary?
• Are prohibitions on corporate practice more burdensome than necessary?
• Are prohibitions on the use of international firm names, and requirements to form
partnerships with local individuals more burdensome than necessary?
Fig. 3. Policy questions raised in WTO deliberations on the accountancy. Source: Adapted from WTO, Working Party on Professional
Services, Elements to be Addressed in Developing Disciplines for Professional Services: Accountancy Sector, S/WPPS/W/15 dated
20 June 1997.
54
WTO, Council on Trade in Services, Decision on Disci-
plines Relating to the Accountancy Sector, S/L/63, 15 Decem-
ber 1998.
55
Joshua Ronen quoted in WTO Pact Would Set Global
Accounting Rules (by Anthony DePalma), New York Times,
March 1, 2002, p. W1.
56
The Working Party on Professional Services (WPPS) was
replaced in 1999 by the Working Party on Domestic Regula-
tion.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 315
velop or revise sectoral disciplines, including
accountancy (emphasis added).
57
The United States
58
and Australia
59
have al-
ready put forth proposals that would strengthen
the disciplines in a number of respects.
60
Fur-
thermore, crucial question of how the accountancy
disciplines will be incorporated into the GATS
remains to be decided in the course of ongoing
negotiations.
61
Negotiators will decide whether
the accountancy disciplines will be applied (top
down) to all Members as a general obligation,
applied only to Members who have made com-
mitments in accountancy, or adopted voluntarily
by Members in whole or in part. The decision on
how the accountancy disciplines will be imple-
mented will set precedent for future GATS Article
VI:4 disciplines in other sectors.
Second, the transparency provisions of the
Disciplines are not neutral. Although the term
transparency, like harmonization, appears innoc-
uous, rules on transparency could have a detri-
mental impact on the domestic governance. The
transparency provisions do more than require that
domestic regulations be publicly available; they
also require that rulemaking processes be open. In
this respect, transparency has as much to do with
political access, as it does with access to informa-
tion. The Disciplines (paragraph III:6) state,
‘‘when introducing new measures which signi?-
cantly a?ect trade in accountancy services, (WTO)
Members shall endeavor to provide opportunity
for comment and give consideration to such
comments before adoption’’. The United States
proposed striking the word ‘‘endeavor to’’, which
would make prior consultation an absolute
requirement for all signi?cant new regulations,
rules, procedures or administrative actions a?ect-
ing trade in accounting services.
62
While trans-
parency requirements for prior consultation
ostensibly apply to non-governmental consumer
organizations as well as international commercial
interests, disproportionate lobbying resources give
advantage to commercial interests. In an interna-
tional context, political transparency requirements
have the e?ect of giving major transnational
accounting ?rms and their state sponsors access to
decision-making processes and a voice in the
shaping of domestic regulation of smaller nations.
Caramanis’ (2002) research suggests that eco-
nomically powerful WTO Members, such as the
United States, are not hesitant to intervene in the
domestic legislation of other Members on behalf of
US-based international accountancy ?rms; trans-
parency requirements will facilitate their ability to
do so.
Finally, and most importantly, the Disciplines
(paragraph II:2) include a controversial ‘‘necessity
57
WTO, S/L/63, 15 December 1998.
58
WTO, S/CSS/W/20, 18 December 2000.
59
WTO, Council for Trade in Services Special Session,
‘‘Communication from Australia’’: Negotiating Proposal for
Accountancy Services, S/CSS/W/62, 28 March 2001.
60
As currently written, the Disciplines do not apply to
‘‘measures subject to scheduling under Articles XVI and XVII
of the GATS’’. The US and Australian proposals would
eliminate this language and blur an important legal distinction
between measures that are governed by Article VI (Disciplines),
and those subject to scheduling under Articles XVI and XVII
(Market Access and National Treatment). The US proposal
would also strengthen the wording of the Disciplines by
replacing clauses such as ‘‘Members shall endeavor to’’ with
imperatives such as ‘‘Members shall’’ (WTO, S/CSS/W/20, 18
December 2000). The USTR maintains that it is no longer
pursuing its proposal (interview with Bernard Archer, USTR,
April 4, 2003). The status of the Australian proposal is
unknown.
61
To date, the accountancy disciplines have only been
adopted by decision of the Council for Trade in Service, and
consequently do not have the same legal standing as the GATS
(Trolliet & Hegarty, 2002). Under the authority of GATS
Article VI:4, the accountancy disciplines could be implemented
as a general obligation and applied (top down) to all WTO
Members. In the GATS 2000 Round, however, the US
proposed that WTO Members undertake additional commit-
ments in accountancy by endorsing the disciplines as a reference
paper (WTO, S/CSS/W/20, 18 December 2000). Trolliet and
Hegarty (2002, p. 11) state that this way of incorporating the
Disciplines into the GATS ‘‘leaves it up to each individual
Member to integrate the regulatory principles, as a whole or
partially, into its schedule of speci?c commitments’’. In their
view, ‘‘(t)his would have the additional disadvantage, from a
systemic point of view, of abandoning any chance of adopting
the Disciplines as a set of regulatory principles integrated into
the GATS general obligations’’. The questions of how the
accountancy disciplines will be incorporated into the GATS,
and to whom they will apply will be worked out in the course of
negotiations (interview with Bernard Archer, USTR, April 4,
2003).
62
WTO, S/CSS/W/20, 18 December 2000.
316 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
test’’ that is designed to ensure that licensing
requirements and procedures, quali?cation
requirements and procedures, and technical stan-
dards:
are not prepared, adopted or applied with a
view to or with the e?ect of creating unneces-
sary barriers to trade in accounting services.
For this purpose, Members shall ensure that
such measures are not more trade-restrictive
than necessary to ful?l a legitimate objective
(emphasis added).
Because the Disciplines on Domestic Regulation
in the Accounting Sector represents the ?rst at-
tempt by the WTO to exercise its authority, under
GATS Article VI:4, to subject domestic regulations
governing services to a necessity test, the accoun-
tancy disciplines have been controversial outside
the ?eld of accountancy.
The Trans Atlantic Consumer Dialogue
(TACD), a forum which represents 65 consumer
groups in Europe and the United States, and is
recognized by the United States and European
Union as representing the consumer voice in
transatlantic policy matters, opposes the imposi-
tion of ‘‘necessity tests’’ under the GATS rules.
63
The issue has proven so controversial that US
trade representatives assured the TACD that they
will be cautious about extending necessity testing
to new WTO disciplines.
64
Nonetheless, the
‘‘necessity test’’ remains a feature of the accoun-
tancy disciplines, over TACD objection, and the
United States has indicated its willingness to ex-
tend the accountancy disciplines to engineering
and architecture during the current negotiating
round.
65
If the accountancy disciplines survive the
GATS 2000 Round with the necessity test intact,
which appears imminent, an important WTO
precedent will be set for necessity testing in other
service sectors.
The accountancy disciplines have also drawn
controversy within other professional ?elds. The
Canadian Bar Association (CBA), in a review of
the applicability of the accountancy disciplines to
the legal profession, raised concerns about several
provisions, including the necessity test. Referring
to the use of necessity tests in other WTO treaties,
the CBA (2002, pp. 9–10) writes:
WTO dispute resolution panels under the
General Agreement on Tari?s and Trade
(GATT) have articulated a very high stan-
dard for the word ‘‘necessity’’ under Article
XX of the GATT. A party must established
there ‘‘were no alternative measures consis-
tent with the General Agreement or less
inconsistent with it’’ that could reasonably
be expected to have attained the relevant
objective. In the dozen or so cases which
have been decided under Article XX, a mem-
ber state’s measure has never been upheld on
the grounds of ‘‘necessity’’. Further, the bur-
den of establishing necessity falls upon the
party imposing the restriction. . .
In light of the severe test imposed by the word
‘‘necessity’’, the requirements in Article I (of
the accountancy disciplines) that regulatory
measures not be more trade-restrictive than
necessary to ful?l a legitimate objectives
raises di?culty. Our view is that the legal pro-
fession should not have to prove the ‘‘neces-
sity’’ of rules which it is convinced are
required to preserve its integrity and protect
the public.
The necessity test raises questions that go to the
heart of local sovereignty and democratic rights.
Who should determine what constitutes a ‘‘legiti-
mate purpose’’ of domestic law? Who should
decide and what criteria should be used to deter-
mine whether a law or regulation is ‘‘more trade-
restrictive than necessary’’? In the case of the
accountancy disciplines, the WTO, acting again in
63
Trans Atlantic Consumer Dialogue Recommendations on
Trade in Services, Document No. Trade-11-01, May 2001,
available at www.tacd.org/cgi-bin/db.cgi?page ¼view&con?g ¼
admin/docs.cfg & id¼93.
64
The US government told TACD in December 2001 that
new disciplines under Article VI.4 may not be necessary. The
TACD has asked the US to make its position consistent and
oppose a necessity test for accountancy. Trans Atlantic
Consumer Dialogue, TACD 2002 Report Card, October 2003,
available at www.tacd.org/db_?les/?les/?les-244-?letag.doc.
65
USTR, 2003.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 317
a closed forum, took upon itself the task of
de?ning the legitimate purposes of domestic
accounting regulation. The WTO Working Party
on Professional Services (WPPS) de?ned the
legitimate objectives of accountancy law and
inscribed their de?nition into the text of the
accountancy disciplines.
66
In the course of delib-
erations, the WPPS rejected a proposal by some
delegations to include the ‘‘public interest’’ as a
legitimate objective of regulation. Other Members
considered the term ‘‘public interest’’ too
broad and di?cult to de?ne precisely, and advo-
cated for the narrower objective of ‘‘consumer
protection’’.
67
In the end, Working Party struck
a compromise and ‘‘consumer protection (includ-
ing users of accounting services and the public
generally)’’ was included in the list of legitimate
objectives. Since the Disciplines are a legal
text, slight variations in language may prove
signi?cant in future legal disputes.
68
Nonetheless,
irrespective of whether the language proves broad
enough to protect social objectives, the normative
question remains as to whether the authority to
de?ne the legitimate purposes of accounting
and auditing regulation, or domestic law in gen-
eral, should rest in the hands of trade o?cials who
act in closed forums and without public represen-
tation.
The ‘‘necessity test’’ also raises the sensitive
question of who will decide whether a law or reg-
ulation is ‘‘more trade-restrictive than necessary’’?
And, what criteria will be used? The answer to the
?rst question is clear. The prerogative to decide
whether domestic laws violate the provisions of the
GATS rests with the WTO. After the Disciplines
become e?ective at the conclusion of the current
negotiating round, if a WTO Member formally
challenges another Member’s accountancy laws on
the grounds of necessity, the dispute will be han-
dled under the WTO rules and procedures gov-
erning dispute settlement.
69
Under these rules, if a
dispute cannot be settled thorough consultation, it
is referred to WTO’s powerful dispute settlement
bodies. These bodies constitute a supranational
judiciary that interpret the meaning of trade
agreements and adjudicate disputes among trading
partners; they are composed of persons appointed
by the WTO whose deliberations are closed and
whose decisions are binding with no appeal out-
side the WTO (Wallach & Sforza, 1999). Once the
accountancy disciplines become e?ective, if these
bodies rule that a WTO Member’s accountancy
licensing, quali?cations or technical standards are
unnecessarily trade-restrictive, the o?ending
country would be forced to either modify its
accountancy laws, or face trade sanctions.
The question of what criteria the WTO will use
to determine whether domestic laws and regula-
tions are ‘‘more trade-restrictive than necessary’’ is
less clear. In the course of GATS deliberations,
two criteria have been suggested: (1) international
standards, and (2) the doctrine of proportionality.
Each is problematic.
International standards: The accountancy Dis-
ciplines (paragraph VIII:26) stipulate that inter-
national standards shall be taken into accounting
in determining necessity:
In determining whether a measure is in
conformity with the obligations under para-
graph 2 (i.e. the necessity test), account shall
be taken of internationally recognized stan-
dards of relevant international organizations
applied by that Member.
Although the Disciplines do not de?ne
accounting standards or name the organizations
responsible for standard setting, the deliberations
of the WTO Working Party on Professional Ser-
66
Article II(2) of the Disciplines state: ‘‘Legitimate objec-
tives of accounting are, inter alia, the protection of consumers
(which includes all users of accounting services and the public
generally), the quality of the service, professional competence,
and the integrity of the profession’’. WTO Document S/L/64, 17
December 1998. See Appendix.
67
Restricted document: WTO, Working Party on Domestic
Regulation, Application of the Necessity Test: Issues for
Consideration, Informal Note by the Secretariat, Job No.
5929, 19 March 2001, paragraph 16–20.
68
The Canadian Bar Association (2000, p. 10) expressed
concern that that ‘‘legitimate objectives’’ can be interpreted
broadly or narrowly by a dispute panel.
69
GATS Article XXIII provides for recourse to the DSU,
which is the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Govern-
ing Settlement of Disputes, Annex 2 of the Agreement
Establishing the World Trade Organization.
318 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
vices (WPPS) makes the intent of the provision
clear. The WPPS interpreted technical standards
broadly to encompass all types of accounting
standards––including auditing standards as well as
?nancial reporting standards. According to the
Working Party:
There is no de?nition of technical standards in
the GATS but the work carried out in the
accountancy sector would suggest that stan-
dards in the area of trade in services apply
not only to the technical characteristic of the
service itself (e.g. specifying methods of ?nan-
cial reporting) but also to the rules according
to which the services must be performed (e.g.
de?ning the way a competent auditor should
perform an audit including the type of checks
he must perform, the way the work should be
documented and so on).
70
The WTO’s broad interpretation of accounting
standards also includes educational requirements,
professional quali?cation standards and ethical
standards. The WPPS writes:
Ongoing work by the accounting profession
in the area of international quali?cations
and educational guidelines could have impli-
cations for the work on quali?cation require-
ments. IFAC is involved in the preparation
of ethical standards as well as international
educational guidelines which cover contin-
uing professional education; education and
training requirements for accounting techni-
cians; pre-quali?cation education, test of
professional competence and practical expe-
rience of professional accountants; and pro-
fessional ethics. Members might wish to
consider whether these guidelines could be
used as international standards for the pur-
poses of assessing whether and to what ex-
tent quali?cation requirements might be
considered to be unnecessary obstacles to
trade in terms of Article VI:4.
71
The WTO Working Party on Professional Ser-
vices recognized the International Federation of
Accountants (IFAC), which sets international
auditing, educational and ethics standards, and the
International Accounting Standards Committee
(IASC), which sets ?nancial reporting standards,
as the standard setters for the accountancy sector.
According to the WPPS:
As membership of both IFAC and IASC is
open to the relevant bodies of at least all
Members of the WTO (though not all of
them have joined yet), as both bodies issue
international standards of relevance to inter-
national trade in accountancy services, and
as IFAC has as its members bodies playing
a regulatory role in their respective countries,
given the traditional importance of self-regu-
lation in most countries, IFAC and IASC are
for the accountancy sector the bodies to
which the GATS refers.
72
The WTO Singapore Ministerial Declaration
also o?cially recognized IASC (now the Interna-
tional Accounting Standards Board), the Interna-
tional Organization of Securities Commissioners
(IOSCO), and the International Federation of
Accountants (IFAC) and encouraged them to
complete international standards for accoun-
tancy.
73
In its deliberations on the accountancy disci-
plines, the WPPS considered using the WTO
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)
as a model for incorporating international stan-
dards into the GATS.
74
The TBT Agreement
contains language that requires the use of inter-
national standards, and establishes a presumption
70
WTO, Working Party on Professional Services, The
Relevance of the Disciplines of the Agreement on Technical
Barriers to Trade (TBT) and on Import Licensing Procedures to
Article VI.4 of the General Agreement on Trade in Services, S/
WPPS/W/9, 11 September 1996, para. 18.
71
WTO, S/WPPS/W/9, 11 September 1996, para. 25.
72
WTO, Working Party on Professional Services, The
Accountancy Sector: Note by the Secretariat, S/WPPS/W/227,
June 1995, para. 116.
73
WTO, Singapore Ministerial Declaration, adopted on 13
December 1996.
74
See WTO, S/WPPS/W/9, 11 September 1996.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 319
that national regulations that are in conformity
with international standards do not create unnec-
essary barriers to trade.
75
Because of objections
by some national regulators, the WPPS rejected
the proposal to transpose the TBT model to the
accountancy disciplines (Trolliet & Hegarty,
2002, p. 5). Instead, the Disciplines contain com-
promise language that allows WTO dispute panels
to ‘‘take account’’ of international standards in
determining necessity, but does not mandate use of
international standards or contain a presumptive
clause.
While the Disciplines do not go as far as the
Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement to require
harmonization
76
of ?nancial reporting, auditing
and other accounting standards, the reference to
international standards is non-trivial. The lan-
guage, which creates grounds for WTO dispute
panels to take account of international accounting
standards in determining necessity, may prove
signi?cant as the powers of the Disciplines are
constituted in the course of future negotiations
and by the decisions of dispute resolution panels.
Developments outside the WTO will also play a
role in this process. If consensus is reached on the
adoption of international accounting standards
outside the WTO framework, it will become more
likely that WTO judicial bodies will recognize
international standards in determining necessity,
and that national regulators’ objection to the TBT
model, which mandates use of international stan-
dards, will lessen.
The use of international accounting standards
as criteria for determining whether regulations are
unnecessarily trade-restrictive radically changes
the meaning and function of international stan-
dards. In conventional understanding, standards
are usually considered benchmarks that establish a
minimum ?oor on acceptable practice; necessity
testing reverses this meaning. In the context of a
necessity test, international standards become cri-
teria for determining whether domestic rules are
unnecessarily trade-restrictive. WTO Members
whose domestic standards are more rigorous than
international standards could have di?culty
defending domestic laws against the charge that
they unduly burdensome to trade. This means that
international standards e?ectively set a ceiling,
rather than a ?oor, on acceptable practice. Instead
of promoting upward harmonization, the GATS
necessity tests allows WTO dispute settlement
bodies to use international ?nancial reporting,
auditing, educational, professional quali?cation
and ethical standards to set an upper limit that
prohibits countries from adopting more rigorous
standards. In this way, the GATS anchors the
decision to adopt international accounting stan-
dards into a legally binding commitment that may
not be reversed with impunity if domestic policy
makers subsequently determine that more rigorous
auditing standards, stricter licensing or quali?ca-
tion standards, or more exacting ?nancial report-
ing standards are needed to govern the accounting
industry.
Proportionality and availability of less trade-
restrictive alternatives: The European Union
introduced the concept of proportionality into the
WTO discussions as a criterion for assessing the
necessity of domestic regulations subject to disci-
plines under Article VI:4. Proportionality involves
a subjective cost–bene?t analysis in which the costs
of a regulatory trade barrier are assessed in pro-
portion to the regulatory objectives pursued. In a
communique to the WTO Working Party on
Domestic Regulation, the European Union
explains the meaning of proportionality as follows:
A measure should be considered not more
trade-restrictive/not more burdensome than
necessary if it is not disproportionate to the
objective pursued. This means that the de-
gree of trade-restrictiveness meeting the
requirements of necessity will depend upon
75
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, Annex 1A of
the Uruguay Round Final Act, Articles 2.4 and 2.5.
76
Harmonization is the name given to the e?ort to replace
the variety of standards and other regulatory policies adopted
by nations in favor of uniform global standards. Consumer
groups have argued that the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) and WTO trade agreements, such as
the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), and the
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures (SPS), encourage international harmonization of
technical and food standards in ways that threaten to lower
public health and environmental standards (Public Citizen,
2000).
320 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
and be assessed against, the speci?c objec-
tive pursued.
77
Although proportionality has been used in EU
jurisprudence, its applications to international law
would broaden the discretionary powers of WTO
dispute resolution bodies. Legal scholars (Kennett,
Neumann, & T€ urk, 2003) have questioned whether
WTO judicial bodies should be vested with the
authority to balance economic factors (trade ben-
e?ts) against non-economic factors (objectives of
domestic laws). Since these ‘‘balancing decisions’’
have traditionally been the prerogative of domestic
legislators and courts, the use of the proportion-
ality principle in determining necessity expands
WTO authority at the expense of domestic deci-
sion-making (Kennett et al., 2003).
Moreover, ‘‘necessity’’ has been interpreted to
mean that domestic laws and regulations cannot
be justi?ed if the same regulatory objectives can be
met through less trade-restrictive measures.
78
In
their calls for ‘‘regulatory reform’’, service indus-
try trade lobbies routinely equate the notion of
‘‘pro-competitive’’ regulation with regulation that
is ‘‘least trade-restrictive’’ and ‘‘least-burdensome’’
to business. As Gould (2002) demonstrates this
deregulatory agenda is ?ltering into the WTO
negotiations on domestic regulation through
necessity testing. Trolliet and Hegarty (2002, p. 14)
also note that EU jurisprudence on proportional-
ity favors use of the least trade-restrictive mea-
sures.
The most interesting aspects of the EU juris-
prudence on proportionality from the point
of view of regulatory reform are the way it
addresses the cumulative e?ect of regulations
in the home and host Member State as well
as the host Member State alone, and the
obligation to let less demanding provisions
capable of achieving the same result prevail.
A requirement can be justi?ed only if no al-
ready existing provisions, in either the home
or the host Member State, can achieve the
same objective. Contrary to the text of the
GATS or the Disciplines [on accounting],
which remain silent in this regard, the [Euro-
pean] Court imposes that the least demand-
ing measure always be favoured.
Under this interpretation of necessity, accoun-
tancy laws can be justi?ed only if no less trade-
restrictive alternative is available. This means, for
example, that the provisions of the US Sarbanes-
Oxley Act of 2002 could be vulnerable under a
necessity test––since it could be argued that mea-
sures, which are ‘‘less trade-restrictive’’, are avail-
able and used in other WTO Member states to
regulate the accounting industry (Gould, 2002).
For example, it could be argued that international
peer review is less trade-restrictive means of
supervising auditing ?rms than mandatory gov-
ernment audits, or that disclosure of consulting
fees is a less trade-restrictive means of preventing
con?ict of interest abuses than scope of practice
limitations.
The necessity test in the Disciplines on Domestic
Regulation of Accountancy provides a subtle but
powerful institutional mechanism to prevent gov-
ernments from interfering with international trade
in accounting services. Its role is best understood
within the context of a strategy for market inte-
gration that Hegarty (1997) calls ‘‘regulatory
contracting-out’’. This strategy involves leaving
regulatory authority in the hands of local states,
while at the same time imposing external legal and
institutional constraints to ensure that local rules
do not have a distorting e?ect on trade. Rather
than relinquishing authority to a supranational
regulators, states regulators and local accounting
bodies nominally continue to regulate accoun-
tancy, but the manner in which they do so even if
non-discriminatory can be held up to external
scrutiny if it has any distorting e?ects on trade
(Hegarty, 1997). Although Hegarty (1997) was
describing the evolution of European market
integration, this strategy has also become the
model for global market integration. The WTO,
GATS and the accountancy disciplines promise to
77
WTO, Working Party on Domestic Regulation,
‘‘Communication from the European Communities and Their
Member States––Domestic Regulation, Necessity and Trans-
parency’’, S/WPDR/W/14, 1 May 2001, para. 17.
78
See Kennett et al. (2003) for a review of WTO jurispru-
dence on necessity testing and proportionality.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 321
provide the requisite external scrutiny to insure
that domestic regulations governing accountancy
do not restrict international trade in accounting
and auditing services. State and local governments
and accountancy bodies will retain the right to
regulate, but only to the extent that the regulations
they adopt are compatible with the GATS. This
means that domestic regulators lose a signi?cant
degree of ?exibility and discretion; their choices
are limited to rules that are non-trade-restrictive,
or in the worst case to the least trade-restrictive
measure available to achieve any given policy
objective.
Theoretical implications
The accounting industry, represented by the
major transnational ?rms and industry lobbies in
the United States and Europe, have played an
in?uential role in the GATS negotiations and the
WTO work program to implement the disciplines
on domestic regulation. In the process, a negoti-
ating framework and disciplinary rules have been
put in place that promise over time to dismantle
regulatory barriers to trade in services in ways that
will trump national laws and limit the autonomy
of local and national regulators as the GATS
evolves through successive rounds of future
negotiations. From the perspective of a market
model of globalization, harmonization of stan-
dards and constrains on domestic regulation are
seen as a necessary response to the internationali-
zation of markets. An institutional perspective,
however, opens the question of whether the inter-
ests and objectives of the agents who are con-
structing global markets through the politics of
harmonization are compatible with broader soci-
etal interests. In particular, as the ?rst sector to be
disciplined under GATS’ controversial Article
VI:4, the implementation of a necessity test in the
accountancy Disciplines raises the broader political
issue of whether treaty-based constraints on
domestic regulation threatens to undermine dem-
ocratic decision-making processes and the pros-
pects for achieving democratic forms of economic
governance.
Discussions of politics in the context of glob-
alization (Hardt & Negri, 2000) are often inap-
propriately framed as involving choices between
competing dualities: nationalism versus interna-
tionalism, national sovereignty versus global citi-
zenship, nation states versus cosmopolitan
democracy, unilateralism versus multilaterialism,
and the state versus civil society. As a practical
matter, social movements aimed at democratizing
the process of globalization often combine na-
tional and international-based strategies. Concern
about the threat that international trade agree-
ments pose to domestic regulations is not rooted in
a regressive nationalism or preference for nation-
ally based political forms. Rather, it is based on
the pragmatic understanding that global economic
integration has not been accompanied by compa-
rable political integration. In the absence of
political integration, social and political rights re-
main vested in local and national polities. At the
same time, international trade agreements, like the
GATS, are stripping local polities and national
parliaments of their role in regulating capital and
governing the economy. Economic governance is
being internationalized, while political and social
rights remain localized. This decoupling of eco-
nomic and political governance, which Streeck
(1996) refers to as ‘‘fragmented sovereignty’’,
poses a threat not only to the domestic regulation,
but to potential for achieving democratic forms of
economic governance.
These developments have signi?cance for
scholars who are attempting to understand how
globalization will transform professional services
and labor markets in developing economies. In the
1970s, Johnson (1973) challenged the ethnocentric
manner in which the sociology of professions had
previously ignored the experience of third world
nations. His research shows that the historical
development of professions in the third world
di?ered fundamentally from that of the industri-
alized world. Rather than developing as autono-
mous, self-governing guilds, professional labor in
colonial and post-colonial societies has been, and
continues to be, subject to forms of social and
occupational control from metropolitan centers,
including that exercised by major British accoun-
tancy associations and more recently the US
322 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
accountancy industry. Extending Johnson (1973),
a stream of accounting literature (Annisette, 2000;
Caramanis, 1999, 2002; Chau & Poullaos, 1998,
2002) has traced patterns of unequal exchange
resulting from Anglo-American in?uence over
professional accountancy, as well as forms of
resistance by indigenous occupational groups in
countries such as South Africa, Trinidad and
Tobago, and Greece.
The transatlantic accounting industry’s attempt
to employ international trade agreements to create
a global market for their services can be read, in
part, as a new chapter in a long history of Anglo-
American control over professional accountancy.
Gowan (2003, p. 23) argues that the WTO’s
evolving legal and institutional arrangements rep-
resent an attempt to consolidate a ‘‘new form of
Atlantic/OECD hegemony over the populations
and states of the world’’ by constructing treaty-
based regimes that trump municipal laws and lock
in neoliberal reforms (deregulation and privatiza-
tion) in ways that cannot be overturned by par-
liamentary majorities.
79
This study has analyzed
in some detail the legal and institutional arrange-
ments that are being set in place by the GATS and
shown how they can trump domestic laws to the
disadvantage of developing nations by pre-empt-
ing laws designed to protect indigenous accounting
industries, and by instituting transparency rules
the give transnational accounting ?rms access to
and a voice in the rulemaking deliberations of
smaller nations. Caramanis (2002) has docu-
mented a concrete instance of this form of hege-
mony in his study of the international pressures
that were exerted to prevent the Greek government
from re-establishing a state monopoly over
accounting services after the market was liberal-
ized in 1992. As GATS is implemented and ex-
tended in successive negotiating rounds, further
case study research is needed to show how inter-
national trade agreements will a?ect local
accounting practices and institutions, and to
examine whether and how WTO Members from
nations outside the metropolitan center, such as
India, Brazil and China, will seek to resist, co-opt,
or accommodate transatlantic hegemony.
While such research promises to be fruitful, the
?ndings of this study caution against interpreting
the WTO agenda simply in geopolitical terms as an
attempt by the developed nations of the north to
dominate less developed nations of the south. To
do so would neglect the important ways in which
evolving international trade agreements a?ect
politics and class relations in the United States,
Europe and other metropolitan centers. Interna-
tional trade agreements apply to populations of
the north well as the south; treaty-based regimes
that constrain the ability of parliamentary major-
ities to institute social programs, regulate trans-
national capital, and e?ectively govern the
economies in which they live have dangerous
consequences for democracy in rich as well as poor
nations. Moreover, while transnational corpora-
tions pro?t, workers in developed countries su?er
the repercussions of global economic integration
as manufacturing jobs, and more recently white-
collar service jobs, are moved o?shore. These
trends remind us that economic hegemony is class-
based phenomenon that cannot be adequately ex-
plained solely in terms of geopolitical power and
the geopolitics of nation states.
The ?ndings of this case study are also relevant
to the sociological literature on the formation of
professional labor markets in developed nations.
The sociology of the professions long ago aban-
doned functionalist accounts of the rise of pro-
fessions. Research in the ?eld (Abbott, 1988;
Armstrong, 1985; Covaleski, Dirsmith, & Ritten-
berg, 2003; Larson, 1977; Starr, 1982) has shown
that occupational groups in industrialized nations
constitute themselves as professions by leveraging
state power to gain monopolies, by developing
cultural authority, and by engaging in inter and
intra-professional jurisdictional battles to consoli-
date and extend their professional status, symbolic
capital, and monopoly rights. Globalization pro-
vides no grounds for reversion to a functionalist
model that suggests the accounting industry is
merely adapting to exogenous market changes in
order to better serve multinational clients. To the
contrary, as this study has shown, the accounting
industry, represented by the major transatlantic
79
See Gowan (2003) for a discussion of the competing
interests of the United States and European Union in this
process.
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 323
?rms and industry lobbies, is actively attempting
to leverage the supranational authority of the
WTO to consolidate and extend its jurisdiction
within a global market for accounting services.
While parallels can be drawn between the
accounting industry’s role in the GATS process
and earlier attempts to carve out professional
monopolies in national markets, this analysis of
the WTO services agreements supports Dezalay’s
(1995) contention that the internationalization of
the market for professional expertise should not be
interpreted as merely a jurisdictional ‘‘turf battle’’,
but rather as a major political confrontation, or a
‘‘class war’’, within the ranks of the professions.
As Dezalay (1995, p. 336) notes:
What is at stake is a rede?nition, on an inter-
national scale, of a whole series of pecking
orders established––and more or less stabi-
lized––on a national basis. It is therefore
not only the small minority of applicants
for entry into this future transnational elite
who feel concerned by such a stake, but also
all of their fellows or colleagues whose sym-
bolic capital risks ?nding itself brutally deva-
lued or revalued on the new international
market of professional quali?cations in the
process of being constituted.
The international accounting ?rms and indus-
try lobbies, that are shaping WTO rules, represent
an elite segment within the accounting profes-
sion––a segment whose interests align more clo-
sely with those of transnational capital and other
multinational corporations than with small,
nationally based accounting ?rms or the
accounting workforce in general. Tinker (2002)
has shown that international accounting ?rms
constitute an elite faction within the US
accounting workforce. His ?ndings indicate that
only 28% of all US accountants are quali?ed as
CPAs; and, of these, nearly 80% are employed
outside the Big Five accounting ?rms. Elite
partners in these ?rms represent only 2.11% of all
CPA’s, and only a small fraction (0.58%) of the
total accounting workforce in the United States.
Similar patterns are likely to be found in other
industrialized countries.
International trade negotiations are dismantling
barriers to trade in professional services and
transforming the structure of the accounting
industry in ways that bene?t a small, elite segment
of the accounting profession. Historically, licenses
to perform statutory audits have been granted only
to locally established entities that are either owned
or controlled by locally accredited professionals,
and most countries have proscribed corporate
forms of practice. In industrialized nations, these
rules nurtured the growth of a cottage industry of
small partnerships and sole proprietorships, and
the organization of professions as autonomous,
self-governing guilds. As these national regulations
are dismantled, small and medium sized account-
ing practices become vulnerable to consolidation
by large professional service conglomerates, and
independent practitioners risk being swept into the
corporate workforce.
International trade agreements promise to rad-
ically restructure the market for accounting labor.
Harmonized licensing and quali?cation standards
in conjunction with GATS commitments to allow
movement of natural persons (Mode 4) in service
markets will open national borders to allow li-
censed accountants to move freely from one
country to another. This means not only that
transatlantic based international accounting ?rms
will be able to more easily move senior personnel
around the world, but also that they will be able to
bring accountants from lower wage labor markets
into the United States and Europe to perform
temporary work assignments (Roberts, 2000).
GATS commitments to cross-border trade (Mode
1), in combination with mutual recognition
agreements, will also make it possible to ‘‘o?-
shore’’ professional work––i.e. to electronically
transmit work to accountants located lower wage
markets. For instance, negotiations have taken
place between Italy and India to enable Indian
professionals to acquire the Italian certi?cation
necessary to allow them to carry out in India on
behalf of Italian clients, using communication
technology, certain activities regulated in Italy
(Trolliet & Hegarty, 2002, p. 11). O?shoring is not
the o?spring of advances in communications
technology alone; it requires concomitant changes
in domestic regulations to become politically fea-
324 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
sible. The WTO service negotiations are facilitat-
ing this process, and may eventually create a single
global market for accounting labor, as well as an
integrated market for accounting services.
The GATS will not force these changes full
blown onto the scene when the current round of
negotiations is complete. The transformation is a
more complex and gradual process involving for-
ces beyond the WTO. Indeed, many of the trends
identi?ed above are already visible. Hanlon (1994,
1999) has studied international mobility among
Irish accountants; Trolliet and Hegarty (2002, p.
11) cite evidence of o?shoring;
80
and, Tinker
(2002) shows that ?nancial service conglomerates
such as American Express, TBS, Century Business
Services, Merrill Lynch and other consolidators
are already swallowing up small and medium sized
accounting partnerships in the United States.
International agreements are not the sole cause of
these changes; their role is a subtle, but nonethe-
less important, one of institutionalizing change.
GATS commitments will permanently lock in
whatever market liberalization is achieved either in
the course of WTO negotiations, or in private
arrangements between accountancy bodies, assur-
ing international ?nancial service conglomerates a
permanent place in domestic markets. Ongoing
rounds of service negotiations will provide a forum
for whittling away remaining barriers to trade in
services and the mobility of professional labor.
Disciplines on domestic regulation and necessity
testing will, if allowed, limit the power of local and
national polities to regulate the conduct of busi-
ness; and thereby, protect transnational capital
from the regulatory risk that parliamentary
democracies will overturn neoliberal reforms. All
of this is being directed not by the invisible hand of
global markets, but by the very visible hand of
international institution, nation states and trans-
national service industries under the auspices of
the WTO.
The institutional model of globalization adop-
ted in this study can be developed and extended
through further research. Although this study has
emphasized corporate agency, it also recognizes
the role of hegemonic states and treaty-based legal
regimes in the construction of global markets.
Further research is needed to study the role of
other institutions (such as the OECD and World
Bank) and to explore how tensions within and
between states, transnational services industries,
and international regulatory institutions a?ect
these processes. In the case of accountancy, further
analyses of the micro-politics underlying the
GATS negotiations is needed to determine whether
the outcomes were in?uenced by internal con?icts
within the accounting industry, and/or di?erences
in the strategies for global expansion pursed by the
international ?rms. Finally, additional research is
needed to determine how the Enron/Andersen
scandal, which has exposed the failure of industry
self-regulation in the United States, will impact
international regulation of accountancy and the
GATS agenda.
While institutional analyses of the GATS
negotiations can improve our understanding the
micro-politics underlying the construction of glo-
bal markets, the institutional model also needs to
be developed from macro-political perspectives.
As Dezalay (1995) argues the sociology of pro-
fessions’ (Abbott, 1988) emphasis on jurisdictional
‘‘turf battles’’ fails to appreciate the extent to
which contemporary trends are embedded in
politically saturated, macro-historical processes.
Although the accountancy industry led other
professions in the GATS negotiations, its actions
were underpinned by broader political and eco-
nomic struggles. The political construction of
global markets for professional services is a
derivative of the class-based, macro-political con-
frontations that have reshaped the global economy
over the course of the past 25 years in accord with
the Washington Consensus and its agenda of free
trade, deregulation and privatization.
The actions and agenda of the transna-
tional accounting industry mimics those of other
80
As further evidence of o?shoring, the Associated Press
(February 22, 2004) reports a trend in the US toward o?shoring
tax preparation work. According the press report, Ernst and
Young already sends some of its US tax returns work abroad.
KMPG said that its executives were ‘‘continuing to explore’’
whether to use o?shore accountants for preparation of US
returns; PriceWaterhouseCoopers and H&R Block told report-
ers that they had no immediate outsourcing plans. (Tax Tactics:
Foreign accountants do US tax returns, Business with CNBC, at
www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4346068.)
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 325
transnational services industries that are promot-
ing a deregulatory agenda that calls for ‘‘pro-
competitive’’ regulation, ‘‘regulatory reform’’,
‘‘least trade-restrictive’’ and ‘‘least-burdensome’’
regulation. These concepts, along with calls for
transparency and harmonization, are not merely
ideological constructs; they are concrete political
objectives that are being given life and institutional
form as they are brought to the negotiating table
and worked into the details of international trade
agreements via mechanisms such as ‘‘scheduled
commitments’’, ‘‘disciplines’’ and ‘‘necessity tests’’.
The potential rami?cations of international trade
agreements for the ability of citizens, workers, and
polities to govern the conduct of business are lar-
gely unappreciated outside narrow trade circles. It
is hoped that this case study of the accountancy
sector will encourage further academic research
on emerging free trade agreements in order to
advance our understanding of the institutional
processes underlying globalization, and provide a
basis for informed policy making and political
action.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank David Cooper, Ellen
Gould, John Hegarty, and Anthony Hopwood for
their thoughtful comments, suggestions, and help
with the development of this paper.
Appendix
Disciplines on domestic regulation in the
accountancy sector
Adopted by the Council for Trade in Services on
14 December 1998
I. Objectives
1. Having regard to the Ministerial Decision on
Professional Services, Members have agreed to the
following disciplines elaborating upon the provi-
sions of the GATS relating to domestic regulation
of the sector. The purpose of these disciplines is to
facilitate trade in accountancy services by ensuring
that domestic regulations a?ecting trade in accoun-
tancy services meet the requirements of Article
VI:4 of the GATS. The disciplines therefore do not
address measures subject to scheduling under Arti-
cles XVI and XVII of the GATS, which restrict
access to the domestic market or limit the applica-
tion of national treatment to foreign suppliers. Such
measures are addressed in the GATS through the
negotiation and scheduling of speci?c commitments.
II. General provisions
2. Members shall ensure that measures not
subject to scheduling under Articles XVI or XVII
of the GATS,
81
relating to licensing requirements
and procedures, technical standards and quali?-
cation requirements and procedures are not pre-
pared, adopted or applied with a view to or with
the e?ect of creating unnecessary barriers to trade
in accountancy services. For this purpose, Mem-
bers shall ensure that such measures are not more
trade-restrictive than necessary to ful?l a legiti-
mate objective. Legitimate objectives are, inter
alia, the protection of consumers (which includes
all users of accounting services and the public
generally), the quality of the service, professional
competence, and the integrity of the profession.
III. Transparency
3. Members shall make publicly available,
including through the enquiry and contact points
established under Articles III and IV of the GATS,
the names and addresses of competent authorities
(i.e. governmental or non-governmental entities
responsible for the licensing of professionals or
?rms, or accounting regulations).
WORLD TRADE WORLD TRADE
ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION
S/L/64
17 December 1998
(98-5140)
Trade in Services.
81
The text of GATS Articles XVI and XVII is reproduced in
an appendix to this document.
326 P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330
4. Members shall make publicly available, or
shall ensure that their competent authorities make
publicly available, including through the enquiry
and contact points:
(a) where applicable, information describing the
activities and professional titles which are reg-
ulated or which must comply with speci?c
technical standards;
(b) requirements and procedures to obtain, renew
or retain any licences or professional quali?-
cations and the competent authorities’ moni-
toring arrangements for ensuring compliance;
(c) information on technical standards; and
(d) upon request, con?rmation that a particular
professional or ?rm is licensed to practise
within their jurisdiction.
5. Members shall inform another Member,
upon request, of the rationale behind domestic
regulatory measures in the accountancy sector, in
relation to legitimate objectives as referred to in
paragraph 2.
6. When introducing measures which signi?-
cantly a?ect trade in accountancy services, Mem-
bers shall endeavour to provide opportunity for
comment, and give consideration to such com-
ments, before adoption.
7. Details of procedures for the review of
administrative decisions, as provided for by Article
VI:2 of the GATS, shall be made public, including
the prescribed time-limits, if any, for requesting
such a review.
IV. Licensing requirements
8. Licensing requirements (i.e. the substantive
requirements, other than quali?cation require-
ments, to be satis?ed in order to obtain or renew
an authorization to practice) shall be pre-estab-
lished, publicly available and objective.
9. Where residency requirements not subject to
scheduling under Article XVII of the GATS exist,
Members shall consider whether less trade
restrictive means could be employed to achieve
the purposes for which these requirements were
set, taking into account costs and local condi-
tions.
10. Where membership of a professional orga-
nization is required, in order to ful?l a legitimate
objective in accordance with paragraph 2, Mem-
bers shall ensure that the terms for membership
are reasonable, and do not include conditions or
pre-conditions unrelated to the ful?lment of such
an objective. Where membership of a professional
organization is required as a prior condition for
application for a licence (i.e. an authorization to
practice), the period of membership imposed be-
fore the application may be submitted shall be
kept to a minimum.
11. Members shall ensure that the use of ?rm
names is not restricted, save in ful?lment of a
legitimate objective.
12. Members shall ensure that requirements
regarding professional indemnity insurance for
foreign applicants take into account any existing
insurance coverage, in so far as it covers activities
in its territory or the relevant jurisdiction in its
territory and is consistent with the legislation of
the host Member.
13. Fees charged by the competent authorities
shall re?ect the administrative costs involved, and
shall not represent an impediment in themselves to
practising the relevant activity. This shall not
preclude the recovery of any additional costs of
veri?cation of information, processing and exam-
inations. A concessional fee for applicants from
developing countries may be considered.
V. Licensing procedures
14. Licensing procedures (i.e. the procedures to
be followed for the submission and processing of
an application for an authorization to practise)
shall be pre-established, publicly available and
objective, and shall not in themselves constitute a
restriction on the supply of the service.
15. Application procedures and the related
documentation shall be not more burdensome than
necessary to ensure that applicants ful?l quali?ca-
tion and licensing requirements. For example,
competent authorities shall not require more doc-
uments than are strictly necessary for the purpose
of licensing, and shall not impose unreason-
able requirements regarding the format of docu-
mentation. Where minor errors are made in the
P.J. Arnold / Accounting, Organizations and Society 30 (2005) 299–330 327
completion of applications, applicants shall be gi-
ven the opportunity to correct them. The estab-
lishment of the authenticity of documents shall be
sought through the least burdensome procedure
and, wherever possible, authenticated copies
should be accepted in place of original documents.
16. Members shall ensure that the receipt of an
application is acknowledged promptly by the
competent authority, and that applicants are in-
formed without undue delay in cases where the
application is incomplete. The competent author-
ity shall inform the applicant of the decision con-
cerning the completed application within a
reasonable time after receipt, in principle within
six months, separate from any periods in respect of
quali?cation procedures referred to below.
17. On request, an unsuccessful applicant shall
be informed of the reasons for rejection of the
application. An applicant shall be permitted,
within reasonable limits, to resubmit applications
for licensing.
18. A licence, once granted, shall enter into ef-
fect immediately, in accordance with the terms and
conditions speci?ed therein.
VI. Quali?cation requirements
19. A Member shall ensure that its competent
authorities take account of quali?cations acquired
in the territory of another Member, on the basis of
equivalency of education, experience and/or
examination requirements.
20. The scope of examinations and of any other
quali?cation requirements shall be limited to sub-
jects relevant to the activities for which authori-
zation is sought. Quali?cation requirements may
include education, examinations, practical train-
ing, experience and language skills.
21. Members note the role which mutual rec-
ognition agreements can play in facilitating the
process of veri?cation of quali?cations and/or in
establishing equivalency of education.
VII. Quali?cation procedures
22. Veri?cation of an applicant’s quali?cations
acquired in the territory of another Member shall
take place within a reasonable time-frame, in
principle within six months and, where applicants’
quali?cations fall short of requirements, shall re-
sult in a decision which identi?es additional qual-
i?cations, if any, to be acquired by the applicant.
23. Examinations shall be scheduled at reason-
ably frequent intervals, in principle at least once a
year, and shall be open for all eligible applicants,
including foreign and foreign-quali?ed applicants.
Applicants shall be allowed a reasonable period
for the submission of applications. Fees charged
by the competent authorities shall re?ect the
administrative costs involved, and shall not rep-
resent an impediment in themselves to practising
the relevant activity. This shall not preclude the
recovery of any additional costs of veri?cation of
information, processing and examinations. A
concessional fee for applicants from developing
countries may be considered.
24. Residency requirements not subject to
scheduling under Article XVII of the GATS shall
not be required for sitting examinations.
VIII. Technical standards
25. Members shall ensure that measures relating
to technical standards are prepared, adopted and
applied only to ful?l legitimate objectives.
26. In determining whether a measure is in
conformity with the obligations under paragraph
2, account shall be taken of internationally rec-
ognized standards of relevant international orga-
nizations
82
applied by that Member.
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