Developing and enhancing independent learning skills

Description
The purpose of this paper is to examine the use of short video tutorials in a post-graduate
accounting subject, as a means of helping students develop and enhance independent learning skills.

Accounting Research Journal
Developing and enhancing independent learning skills: Using video tutorials as a means
of helping students help themselves
Belinda Luke Kate Hogarth
Article information:
To cite this document:
Belinda Luke Kate Hogarth, (2011),"Developing and enhancing independent learning skills", Accounting
Research J ournal, Vol. 24 Iss 3 pp. 290 - 310
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Developing and enhancing
independent learning skills
Using video tutorials as a means of helping
students help themselves
Belinda Luke and Kate Hogarth
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the use of short video tutorials in a post-graduate
accounting subject, as a means of helping students develop and enhance independent learning skills.
Design/methodology/approach – In total, ?ve short (approximately ?ve to 10 minutes) video
tutorials were introduced in an effort to shift the reliance for learning from the lecturer to the student.
Data onstudents’ usage of online video tutorials, andcomments bystudents inuniversityquestionnaires
were collated over three semesters from 2008 to 2009. Interviews with students were then conducted in
late 2009 to more comprehensively evaluate the use and perceived bene?ts of video tutorials.
Findings – Findings reveal preliminary but positive outcomes in terms of both more ef?cient and
effective teaching and learning.
Research limitations/implications – The shift towards more independent learning through the
use of video tutorials has positive implications for educators, employers, and professional accounting
bodies; each of whom has identi?ed the need for this skill in accounting graduates.
Practical implications – The use of video tutorials has the potential for more rewarding teaching
and more effective learning.
Originality/value – This study is one of the ?rst to examine the use and bene?ts of video tutorials
as a means of developing independent learning skills in accountancy students – addressing a key
concern within the profession.
Keywords Postgraduates, Self managed learning, Tutorials, Video, Independent learning skills
Paper type Case study
1. Introduction
The growing emphasis on education as a business has made the academic environment
increasingly complex (Kirp, 2003). Expectations on staff to publish, teach, and manage
growing class sizes present various challenges (Strickland, 1985). In the context of
teaching, these challenges are often compounded due to the increasing diversity among
students (Biggs, 1999; Brownlee et al., 2009; Guthrie, 2010), in terms of the different
knowledge bases theybringto class (Lucas andMladenovic, 2009), andthe different skills
students individually develop throughout their studies (Zapalska and Dabb, 2002).
Such diversity is commonly re?ected in the range of styles through which students learn,
but also inthe increasedneeds of some students interms of individual assistance required
outside of class time. A review of various university web sites and promotional
documents (Australian National University, 2010; Deakin University, 2010;
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1030-9616.htm
Thanks to both reviewers, as well as Associate Professor Helen Irvine, for their guidance with
this submission.
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Accounting Research Journal
Vol. 24 No. 3, 2011
pp. 290-310
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
1030-9616
DOI 10.1108/10309611111187019
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Monash University, 2010; University of Adelaide, 2010; University of Wollongong, 2010)
indicates the response by universities commonly involves providing more: more time,
support, consultation, lecture recordings, assistance in the form of student centres,
student tutors, and submission of work in process for intermittent feedback prior to the
?nal assessment. While pedagogical underpinnings support each of these practices,
a question which has increasingly emerged is “where do we draw the line?” How can
support be provided without creating a culture of dependency and expectations of
extended (or perhaps extensive) assistance among students? From a pedagogical
viewpoint, what cost does this issue present if students do not develop independent
learning skills?
Universities increasingly emphasise the importance of making graduates “workplace
ready”, and promote independent learning, particularly as students progress through
their studies (Choy et al., 2008). Feedback fromemployers highlights the need to produce
graduates who have the skills expected and required (e.g. self-directed, autonomous
learning). Further, the accountancy profession and industry organisations have
commented on the lack of necessary skills – in particular soft and life skills rather than
technical ones – identi?ed within accounting graduates (Hancock et al., 2009; Howieson,
2003; Kavanagh and Drennan, 2008). Thus, the issue arises as to howacademics can ?nd
a balance which satis?es multiple stakeholders. From a teaching perspective, how do
academics balance teaching and the other roles they have as faculty staff? From a
learning perspective, how can academics support student learning without
inadvertently developing a culture of dependency? From a pedagogical perspective,
howcan academics ?nd a balance between providing assistance to students, whilst also
helping them to become more independent learners?
Consideration of these issues in terms of continued direction versus self-discovery,
and instructor-reliance versus self-reliance, resulted in an investigation of a “less is
more” approach (Dempster, 1993). Speci?cally, in an effort to give less direct support to
students, and make them more responsible for their own learning, short-video tutorials
were introduced into a second-level accounting subject included in the Masters of
Professional Accountancy programme at a Queensland university[1]. Traditionally,
direct support in this subject had been available to students in the form of lectures,
tutorials, and individual (but optional) student consultation sessions. While these
learning resources continued to be provided, in 2008 indirect support in the formof video
tutorials was added, and its use by students was monitored and reviewed. Speci?cally,
this research aimed to examine whether short-video tutorial resources could be used as a
means of shifting reliance for learning from instructor to students, resulting in more
ef?cient and effective teaching and learning.
More ef?cient teaching was considered in terms of introducing and explaining
concepts to students, and having them process these concepts in their own time rather
than turn to staff for repeated explanations. As such, subsequent discussion in class or
during consultation could build and expand on these concepts. More effective learning
was considered in terms of what students and staff valued in order to develop sound
knowledge structures around fundamental accounting concepts (Brown and Atkins,
1988). Effectiveness was initiallyconsideredinterms of students havinga comprehensive
and genuine (rather than surface) understanding of accounting concepts.
However, this notion was subsequently considered in broader terms of both
developing students’ understanding of accounting concepts and developing their
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ability to be more independent (less instructor reliant) in their learning approach –
a life-long learning skill. Thus, the two central objectives of this study were to:
(1) help students develop and enhance independent learning skills; and
(2) enhance both the learning and teaching experience by adopting a more ?exible,
ef?cient, and effective approach to teaching the fundamental principles of
various accounting topics.
An examination of the use and bene?ts of video tutorials over three semesters revealed
gradual but promising results, with implications for various stakeholders. The
following sections of this paper review the literature on independent learning with
reference to different learning styles, and the use of instructional (tutorial) videos as a
means of fostering independent learning skills. The research method follows. Findings
highlight the use and bene?ts of video tutorials as a means of helping students transition
towards more independent learning approaches. Last, the implications and conclusions
drawn from this research are outlined in terms of current and future teaching practice.
2. Literature review
2.1 Independent learners
Much has been written on the importance of independent learning, and the need for
students to develop this skill (Australian Government Department of Employment
Education and Training, 1987; Baird, 1988; Biggs and Tang, 2007; Gow and Kember,
1990; Kirkwood, 2003; Moore, 1973; Percy and Salter, 1976). Independent learning has
been referred to as “an educational system in which the learner is autonomous, and
separated from his teacher by space and time, so that communication is by print,
electronic, or other non-human medium” (Moore, 1973, p. 663). While developments in
technology may have altered the medium for learning (Grasha and Yangarber-Hicks,
2000), the principles of independent learning remain the same (Candy, 1991). Central to
the notion of independent learning is autonomy – learners who are motivated to learn,
take control of, manage, and actively re?ect on their learning (Biggs and Tang, 2007;
Candy, 1991; Percy and Salter, 1976). Further, a key feature of the independent learning
process is the lack of social interaction, which is fundamental to traditional teaching
environments such as lectures and tutorials (Moore, 1973).
The bene?ts of independent learning have been identi?ed as increasing an
individual’s capacity to learn, providing them with a framework with which to analyse
problems (Australian Government Department of Employment Education and
Training, 1987), think critically, and have a deeper understanding of concepts (Percy
and Salter, 1976). Independent learning has been viewed as a foundation for students to
become life-long learners (Koper and Tattersall, 2004). Further, teaching students who
adopt an independent learning style often provides the opportunity for more ef?cient,
effective, and rewarding teaching experiences (Candy, 1991; Moore, 1973). Such rewards
emerge for teachers in the form of fostering life-long learning skills within students,
as they develop independent learning skills; and producing an environment for a more
diverse and challenging discussion of extended business and accounting concepts
(i.e. those beyond the fundamental principles of a topic). Rewards emerge for students in
the form of developing life-long learning skills as they take greater control of their
learning, and experience a sense of achievement and satisfaction fromthis development.
Hence, an approach to education that incorporates independent learning,
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offers bene?ts to lecturers, tertiary education institutions, employers, professional
bodies and organisations, and not least of all, students.
Independent learning can be applied in various contexts, ranging fromwhat students
learn to howthey learn (Moore, 1973). For the purposes of this study, however, learning
in a post-graduate accounting subject involved a structured environment of coursework
covering speci?ed topics. Thus, the concept of independence was applied in terms of
how rather than what students learnt, consistent with the philosophy of life-long
learning (Koper and Tattersall, 2004).
Areviewof teaching experiences inthis subject inprior semesters revealed a growing
dependency by students on individual consultation. This dependency was evident
through records of individual student consultation sessions maintained by teaching
staff each semester, detailing the volume and nature of student queries, together with the
support (time) provided to students. These records highlighted a number of students
each semester as needing repeated and extensive explanations of material and concepts
previously discussed in class. Accordingly, a search was undertaken for tools which
would provide appropriate support to aid students in their learning, but not necessarily
involve direct social interaction with teaching staff. Essentially, the objective was to
shift the responsibility for learning to the student, using tools which would allow
self-paced and self-directed learning (Race, 2005).
Further review of consultation records and discussion among teaching staff
during team teaching meetings each semester also revealed noticeable repetition
in explaining the same or very similar issues to students on an individual basis. For this
reason, a decision was made to create and make available short-video tutorials as a
potentially more ef?cient and effective means of teaching and learning, which placed the
responsibility for learning on the students. Ef?ciency was considered in terms of a
resource which was prepared once by teaching staff, but available for use by all students,
as many times as necessary, over several semesters. This approach was intended to assist
students in understanding fundamental principles of the accounting concepts involved,
such that additional discussion (either within or outside of class) could focus and build on
more advanced or nuanced aspects of these concepts. Effectiveness was considered
initially interms of the availability of the resource to students as manytimes as necessary,
at any time convenient to them. Long-term effectiveness aimed at achieving better
learning outcomes for students, and the development of more independent learning skills.
As noted by Brown and Atkins (1988), effectiveness is often a subjective measure, and
shouldbe consideredinterms of what students andlecturers value as useful to support the
intended learning objectives.
2.2 Examining independent learning styles
While numerous learning styles have been examined extensively in the education
literature (Cassidy, 2004; De Bello, 1990; Hawk and Shah, 2007), emphasis within
research is limited to a relatively small number of those styles (Riding and Cheema,
1991). A number of models have also been presented in the literature, framing different
learning styles. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, for example, identi?es
learning styles as convergers, divergers, assimilators, and accommodators. Honey and
Mumford (1992) classify learning styles in terms of activists, re?ectors, theorists,
and pragmatists. Fleming’s (2001) framework analyses learning styles as visual,
auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic. Myers Briggs’ analysis considers learning
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styles in terms of extroversion versus introversion, sensing versus intuition, thinking
versus feeling, and judging versus perceiving (Myers, 1962). A comparison of the
similarities between models, however, reveals areas of recurring overlap.
Kolb’s (1984) assimilators, for example, have a tendency to watch
(re?ective observation) and think (abstract conceptualisation). Holzman and Klein’s
(1954) leveller-sharpener model distinguishes between learners who tend to assimilate
concepts but oversimplify understandings thereby reducing complexity (levellers),
and those who fail to assimilate concepts and introduce unnecessary complexity
(sharpeners). Riding and Cheema’s (1991) holistic-analytic, verbaliser-imager perspective
examines learning styles in terms of deductive, constrained approaches (analytic) versus
expansive and unconstrained (holistic). How information is represented, is considered in
terms of words and images.
Witkin’s (1962) model of ?eld dependence versus independence considers students’
preferences to learn either in isolation, or through interaction with instructors.
Field-independent learners rely on self-direction, with an internal frame of reference.
In contrast, ?eld-dependent learners need structure and guidance from educators.
Correlations between these concepts have been made with Kagan’s (1965) impulsivity-
re?exivity model, such that re?ective learners are more ?eld dependent, whereas
impulsive learners tend to be more independent (Messer, 1976), indicating an overlap in
the two constructs.
Curry’s (1987) onion model involves layers of instructional preference, social
interaction, information processing style, and cognitive personality style; with the social
interaction layer examining an individual’s preference for independence or contact with
others as part of the learning process. Reichmann and Grasha’s (1974) analysis of
learning styles further considers learners in terms of their social interaction, considering
dependent versus independent, collaborative versus competitive, and participant versus
avoidant behaviour. Similarly, Rayner and Riding’s (1997) model presents a personality,
cognitive, and learning centred framework; with personality encompassing a preference
for group versus individual learning, and cognitive aspects being linked to ?eld
dependency.
Thus, within a range of different frameworks, clear commonalities emerge in terms
of a learning style which tends towards social interaction rather than independence
(Curry, 1987; Reichmann and Grasha, 1974; Witkin, 1962), involves re?exivity based on
guidance (Honey and Mumford, 1992; Kagan, 1965; Kolb, 1984; Rayner and Riding,
1997), and adopts an analytic constrained approach rather than (or before development
of) a more holistic understanding of concepts (Riding and Cheema, 1991). In attempting
to ?nd a balance between assimilating concepts (Kolb, 1984) without either over
simplifying or introducing unnecessary complexity (Holzmann and Klein, 1954), this
style of learning is consistent with behaviour which is dependent on instructor support,
such that a complete understanding is obtained without making the learning process
unnecessarily involved, isolating, time consuming, or complicated. Identifying this
learning style within students is an important ?rst step in a classroom environment.
Understanding how to help students adopt a more independent learning style is an
essential next step, if they are to develop learning skills which will assist them in a
professional work environment and prepare them for life-long learning. Hence, the
motivation for this study was to identify a way in which to assist students in general,
and dependent learners in particular, to develop a more independent approach to
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learning, given that a dependent learning approach is recognised within various
learning styles.
2.3 Video tutorials as a means of making students more independent learners
The use of instructional video as a teaching resource has been promoted by various
researchers (Mayer, 2001, 2009; Moreno and Mayer, 2000; Race, 2005; Zheng, 2009).
Features such as dual modality through combining audio and visual (Fleming, 2001),
and passing control to the student in the form of the timing and pace of their learning,
are two central bene?ts of video instruction. As noted by Race (2005), video has a
valuable role in helping to show learners things that they may not be able to do on their
own. The design of videos, however, requires careful consideration, so that the material
presented is manageable, broken down into appropriate segments (Zheng, 2009), linked
to appropriate learning outcomes (Race, 2005), with a focus on key processes and steps
(Harp and Mayer, 1998).
As noted by Edwards et al. (2009, p. 5), “learning in different contexts may involve
different types of learning”. As such, the format of lectures and tutorials may not engage
all students, and other learning contexts may be more effective for some students in their
learning. It is therefore, necessary to consider different approaches such as video
tutorials, so that students have various avenues available to support their learning and
understand new concepts, in a way which extends to various learning styles.
Students in any learning environment rely on their cognitive process to absorb and
retain information for future use. Hence, it is essential not to overload this cognitive
process. As noted by Clark et al. (2006), studying examples is one type of germane
cognitive load (mental processing through bene?cial instruction) which can lead to
schemadevelopment inlongtermrather thanworkingmemory. Issues canarise, however,
due to differences among learners (e.g. the varying needs of novice versus knowledgeable
learners). With novice learners, more instructions need to be given to allowthe knowledge
structures to be retained in their long-term memory, and thus not overload their
working memory. For more knowledgeable learners, redundant material overloads
their working memory (Kalyuga, 2008). Accordingly, video tutorials were selected as
an additional resource to be made available to students, so that each student could apply
and use this resource as little, or as much, as necessary. Speci?cally, the video tutorials
aimed not to overload the more knowledgeable learners with additional unnecessary
information, but were intended to provide valuable additional resources to those students
seeking further guidance and assistance. Moreover, incorporating combined audio and
visual communication was intended to provide support for students with different
learning styles, without overloading their cognitive processes (Clark et al., 2006).
In the context of this study, supplementary resources in the form of short-video
tutorials were introduced to allow students control over both the resource and their
learning. Traditionally, students in this subject were given a practice question each
week, the answer to which was available as a Microsoft Word ?le posted on the subject
intranet site. Further, this question was occasionally incorporated into the lecture (time
permitting), to walk students through a comprehensive worked example. However,
given students’ need for additional (and repeated) explanation in order to understand the
solutions to a workedexample andthe underlyingconcepts ingeneral, ?ve- to ten-minute
videos were produced by the lecturer which “walked” and “talked” students through
each step of the practice question and answer. These videos were posted on the subject
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intranet site and were available for students to access at any time, and as many times as
necessary.
By providing an additional media resource for practice-based questions, the aim of
this study was to facilitate a gradual shift in students’ learning style, developing a
more independent approach to learning. The bene?ts of incorporating such a resource
into a subject are twofold. First, as an additional but remote resource (i.e. one without
direct personal interaction – Curry, 1987; Rayner and Riding, 1997; Reichmann and
Grasha, 1974) it allows for a different approach to learning, such that students not only
have control over how they learn, but also develop independent (self-reliant) learning
skills. Second, the multimedia nature of the resource extends to a range of different
learning styles. It accommodates analytic and holistic perspectives (Riding and
Cheema, 1991), and facilitates assimilation with an appropriate understanding of the
complexity involved (Holzmann and Klein, 1954).
While this study potentially offers bene?ts to a range of stakeholders, self-interest as
a motivation should also be acknowledged. From an educator’s perspective, video
tutorials potentially allow more ef?cient and effective teaching, resulting in a more
rewarding and balanced role within academic life. Teaching tax-effect accounting
and consolidation to any audience can be challenging. Teaching these topics to
non-accounting graduates (a growing market), many of whom are non-native English
speakers, poses extra challenges. While individual student consultation sessions are an
important avenue to support student learning, there was concern regarding the
increasing reliance by students on this resource. Numerous students wanted individual
attention and explanations on a regular (e.g. weekly) basis, often for prolonged periods
(30 minutes to one hour per consultationsession). Yet, most of these students also wanted
the same or very similar questions answered. Ultimately, however, what students really
wanted was social interaction (Curry, 1987) and personal communication – someone to
walk and talk them through the relevant issues, particularly in relation to worked
problems and tutorial questions, such that the nature of concepts was understood
without exaggerating or oversimplifying the associated complexities (Holzmann and
Klein, 1954). From a teaching perspective, it is dif?cult to justify turning students away
if they have well-prepared questions and are motivated to learn. Yet from a learning
perspective, it was important to effectively manage and help students to develop a more
independent approach to their learning. Thus, in an effort to achieve a better balance
between ef?cient and effective teaching and learning, video tutorials were introduced
into the post-graduate accounting subject.
3. Research method
This study involved a case study approach, comparing and contrasting student
behaviour in semesters when video tutorials were not, and later were, available to
students (Yin, 2003). For the purposes of promoting change among students, video
tutorials were introduced in 2008, with subsequent evaluation (Guba and Lincoln, 1989)
and monitoring of student behaviour and outcomes from 2008 to 2009. Speci?cally,
this study examined ef?ciency and effectiveness of teaching and learning for staff and
students. The implications for staff were considered in terms of the volume and nature
of student queries raised by students inindividual student consultations, bothbefore and
after the introduction of video tutorials. The implications for students were considered in
terms of the use of video tutorials by students, the perceived bene?ts, changes (if any)
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in behaviour to develop their learning without repeatedly relying on (i.e. more
independent of) extensive individual consultations to review concepts previously
discussed in class, and students’ learning outcomes (e.g. student grades and their level of
understanding in terms of analytic versus holistic). Table I summarises these issues,
together with the associated outcomes in terms of ef?ciency and effectiveness.
In 2008, a total of ?ve video tutorials were prepared by the lecturer for ?ve
separate topics (one per week), including tax-effect accounting and consolidation. While
four videos were initially prepared, students requested a ?fth video for advanced
consolidation issues. Consistent with Shank (2007), videos were designed to be a
reference point, involving a comprehensive worked example highlighting key steps and
underlying theoretical principles, which students could access in their own time and at
their own pace. Speci?cally, video tutorials involved using the Microsoft Word ?le of the
solution (already available to students), which highlighted (through audio and visual
prompts) key concepts, calculations, and the associated theoretical underpinnings, as
the solution was presented and discussed. Further, the videos presented the related
question, so that students could see how the information provided should be processed
and interpreted (Ellington and Harding, 2008).
The software used to produce the videos was Camtasia Studio; a screen capture
programme which allows audio recording and a range of production functions, so that
?les can be produced in various formats (e.g. mp4, wmv, swf). The time involved in
producing a ?ve minute video ranged from ten minutes to several hours, depending on
the technology and the user’s expertise. The software includes a range of features from
zoom to call outs (additional pop-up text boxes), inserts, and other interactive features.
However, consistent with Kalyuga (2008), the videos were presented as relatively simple
clips of an explanation to a worked example, with text within the question and solution
being highlighted as it was discussed. Basic functionality available to students viewing
the videos included play, pause, and repeat.
Usage of each video by students was tracked over three semesters (between 2008 and
2009), with basic quantitative analysis undertaken. Feedback on video tutorials received
from students on an unstructured basis through the university’s student feedback
process at the end of each semester was also reviewed over the three semesters
Outcome Evaluation
Staff perspective
Time allocated to individual student
consultations
Ef?ciency Time required
Volume and nature of student queries Ef?ciency and
effectiveness
Number and (repetitive) nature of
student queries
Student perspective
Use of video tutorials Ef?ciency and
effectiveness
Number of times used (as well as use
outside of normal business hours),
learning outcomes, student feedback
Perceived bene?ts Effectiveness Valued by students and staff
Change, if any, in student behaviour (i.e.
developing independent learning skills)
Effectiveness Number and nature of student queries,
student behaviour
Learning outcomes (analytic versus holistic
understanding)
Effectiveness Student grades, change in behaviour,
nature of queries, and knowledge
Table I.
Ef?ciency and
effectiveness in teaching
and learning: staff and
student perspectives
Independent
learning skills
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for comments speci?c to video tutorials. Reliance upon individual consultation by
students was monitored over the relevant semesters, by teaching staff who maintained
records of individual student consultation sessions. Last, interviews were conducted
with individual students fromSemesters 1 and 2 2009, to more comprehensively explore
the use and perceived bene?ts of video tutorials.
In November 2009, individual interviews were conducted (after obtaining ethical
approval for the research) with eight students (four students from Semester 1 and four
from Semester 2 – representing approximately of 7 per cent the 120 students
undertaking the subject that year), to get more comprehensive and detailed feedback
on the use and perceived bene?ts of video tutorials. This process was particularly
insightful as students interviewed from Semester 1 had only video tutorials available
in terms of multimedia resources, while students from Semester 2 had both video
tutorials and lecture recordings available (posted on the intranet site), so that they were
able to compare and comment on the similar yet differently designed resources.
Interviews were deliberately conducted towards the end of semester, as students
were in the process of reviewing subject material and preparing for ?nal exams. The
interviews were semi-structured in nature, guided by a list of questions relating to four
broad categories:
(1) how the students learn, and what resources they value most;
(2) the use of audio and video resources;
(3) the design, potential bene?ts, and perceived effectiveness of the video tutorials;
and
(4) what other resources students view as helpful to their learning.
Thus, the purpose of the interviews was to elicit information on students’ individual
views and experiences with respect to the video tutorials and their learning approaches
in general.
Participants were deliberately selected to represent a range of different pro?les.
While the individual participants have not been identi?ed, a summary of the various
student pro?les is detailed in Table II.
Essentially, it was intended that students with a range of grades (based on
their academic result for the subject), needs (in terms of personal assistance required
throughout the semester, based on records of individual student consultation sessions),
background, and age, be included in the study to capture the diversity of the
relevant student cohort. Further, the collective pro?le of the students interviewed
was representative of the student cohort’s pro?le for the relevant semesters. Students
studying this subject were predominantly international, school leavers/continuing
students, with slightly more males than females, many requiring high levels of
individual assistance, with a distribution of grades for the subject centred around credits
and distinctions. Interviewees shown in Table II are consistent with this pro?le, with
seven of the eight interviewees being international, six being school leavers/continuing
students, and ?ve being male. In particular, Table II indicates that while these students
are capable of learning and motivated to work for high grades, many require signi?cant
support to achieve this outcome.
Individual interviews were conducted by the lecturer, and took approximately
20-30 minutes each. Discussions were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analysed both
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manuallyandwith the use of NVivo. While it was consideredthat students as actors may
be reluctant to give honest and open feedback if interviewed by the lecturer (Myers and
Newman, 2007), the relationship developed with students over the semester was based
on openness, honesty, and professionalism. Accordingly, this relationship was viewed
as a valuable platform from which to collect the rich data (Denzin, 1970) and thick
description (Geertz, 1973, p. 3) re?ected in students’ views (Patton, 1990). Further, at the
time of the interviews in November 2009, there was no formal lecturer-student
relationship with students fromSemester 1, 2009, decreasing the likelihood of biased or
in?uenced responses. Findings from these methods of investigations provided some
interesting insights into the use and bene?ts of video tutorials, and are considered in the
following section.
4. Findings
As noted above, the use and impact of the video tutorials was monitored through
various means, including statistical tracking of video access (online), review of student
comments through the university student feedback process, monitoring individual
student consultation requests each semester, and in-depth interviews with students.
Findings in each of these areas are considered under the relevant headings below.
4.1 Tracking of video access
A review of the use of video tutorials over three semesters was tracked electronically
through the subject intranet site. Statistics revealed that an average of 84 per cent of the
students enrolled in the subject accessed the video tutorials each semester. Further,
of those students who did access the video tutorials, many did so on multiple occasions.
Access per video tutorial ranged from zero to 14 times per student, with an average
access rate of 2.5 times per student. Table III presents summary data on the use of the
video tutorials.
Interestingly, an examination of the day and time of video access by students
reveals 33 per cent of all access occurred between 7 p.m. and 8 a.m., and 22 per cent
Student
International/
domestic Age
Level of assistance required outside
of class time Grade
A International School leaver/
continuing student
High Distinction
B Domestic Mature age Low Distinction
C International Mature age Low Credit
D International School leaver/
continuing student
Low Credit
E International School leaver/
continuing student
High High
distinction
F International School leaver/
continuing student
High Credit
G International School leaver/
continuing student
High Fail
H International School leaver/
continuing student
Medium Pass
Table II.
Summary pro?le of
students interviewed
Independent
learning skills
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of access occurred on weekends. While it is not surprising perhaps, that students study
during these times, it is worth noting that this timeframe is also when teaching staff
would not generally be available. Hence, the availability of a multimedia resource at
this time which “talks” students through issues, without involving direct social
interaction is a valuable medium for both students and lecturers. This was reinforced
by interview comments (considered in Section 4.4) which indicated students’ need for
social interaction was satis?ed through the medium of video tutorials, but effectively
helped students to develop a more independent approach to learning. Further, students
perceived an increase in the availability of resources, due to frequent access of these
resources on weekends and outside of normal work hours (considered further below).
4.2 Written student feedback
Comments from students as part of the university’s student feedback process indicated
that they valued and appreciated the video tutorials:
This lecturer is very helpful and teaches students with passion. She even made tutorial videos
to make us understand (Student 1, 2008)[2].
The lecturer will spend the time to ensure we know the subject. Good updates on [the intranet
site] with recorded chats to assist learning (Student 2, 2009).
It’s very helpful to know that whenever I have a problem there is a resource available to help
me (Student 3, 2009).
These comments were positive in several respects. For staff, it was rewarding to know
that students felt the video tutorials were helpful. For students, it was also rewarding
in terms of perceived increased availability of resources and support at a time which
was convenient for them. Further, these comments were useful in terms of knowing
students referred to video tutorials to gain an understanding of a topic, beginning a
gradual shift towards independent learning, rather than repeatedly turning to teaching
staff for help with the same or similar questions.
4.3 Individual student consultation requests
From a time management perspective, requests for individual consultation diminished
considerably. While every student cohort is different, and often it is a small number of
students who require a disproportionate amount of time and assistance, the need for
direct personal assistance began to decrease, and a reliance on self-directed learning
resources such as video tutorials increased. This is evidenced through the increased
use of video tutorials, particularly from video tutorial 1 to 2, and 4 to 5 (Table III). It is
also reinforced in the nature of students’ e-mails, which also began to change:
Video tutorial (VT) VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 Average
Frequency of use 1.8 2.4 2.2 2.2 3.7 2.46
Range 0-10 0-11 0-12 0-10 0-14 0-11
Students accessing video (%) 75 77 82 86 98 84
Student access before 8 a.m. (%) 5 10 9 10 9 10
Student access after 7 p.m. (%) 22 22 31 18 20 23
Student access on weekends (%) 14 25 25 28 18 22
Table III.
Use of video tutorials
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Hi, I have looked at the video several times regarding question x, but still have queries.
Can I please come and see you (Student 4, 2009).
Hi, sorry. Please ignore my last e-mail. I should have looked at the video before I sent it.
I understand the logic behind the calculation now. Thanks (Student 5, 2009).
Thus, while it was made clear to the students that video tutorials were an additional
resource, and that individual consultation would continue to be available, there was a
gradual shift in the awareness and responsibility assumed by students, before using
personal consultation sessions as a means to resolve their questions or address concepts
previously discussed in class. Further, the nature of queries during consultation began
to change, as students began to focus on more nuanced concepts, extending beyond
fundamental principles.
4.4 In-depth interviews
Analysis of interview data also revealed similar results in terms of the use and bene?ts
of video tutorials. Table IV summarises some of the key ?ndings from the more
structured discussions on this learning tool.
In particular, while each of the students interviewed felt the video tutorials were
useful and effective in helping them learn, students used the videos in slightly different
ways. “Learning gaps” (?ve students) and remedial learning (two students) were the
most common uses of the videos, with only one student using the videos as a starting
point for learning:
You can try to start a question, but de?nitely you will get stuck, so you can go and look at the
video. It’s ef?cient, and safer doing it this way – you can make sure you understand correctly
(Student C, 2009).
For the more complex questions, it’s easier waiting until you get the answers, and then
?guring out how to do it. I rarely did the whole tutorial myself without looking at the
answers. Working backwards; it’s more ef?cient (Student B, 2009).
Yet, despite the range of uses identi?ed, all eight students felt the videos usefully served
their individual purpose. Speci?cally, students referred to the bene?ts of being shown
how to interpret the question and where their attention should be focused. Drawing on
key issues relevant to the question, highlighting and emphasising basic processes,
and understanding how individual processes contributed to a more complete and
complex concept, were each identi?ed as valuable bene?ts of the video tutorials:
Issues Response
Number of students interviewed who used video tutorials 8
Number of students who viewed video tutorials as effective for their learning 8
Number of students who used video tutorials as
A starting point for their learning 1
Learning “gaps” 5
Remedial learning 2
Number of students who had video tutorials available to them in other subjects 0
Number of students who felt video tutorials would be useful in other subjects 8
Table IV.
Initial insights on the use
and bene?ts of video
tutorials
Independent
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In the textbook [or a tutorial question] I can’t differentiate which parts are most important,
but when you see the question being analysed on video, you start to understand what details
are important and what isn’t (Student F, 2009).
Understanding a new topic can be overwhelming, but practicing with these videos removes
that. I need to understand how to apply the theory – actually the theory and the practice are
related and the video tutorials help you see that (Student C, 2009).
It’s the practical element which you want to see as a process, which is what the videos show
(Student B, 2009).
Further, all eight students considered video tutorials served a distinctly different role
(with an emphasis on linking concepts and processes) compared to lecture recordings
(introducing and discussing key principles), despite the similar mediums. Regarding
the role of the video tutorials, however, one student considered the video tutorial as a
means of lecturers emphasising key principles and processes to students based on
prior student concerns, whereas the student preferred to see teaching staff directly and
have their own individual questions answered in person:
The videos are useful. But to be honest, I prefer to look at the Word ?le of the solution rather
than the video, and if I have questions I will go to you rather than sit in front of the computer.
Then I can ask the questions I want to know again and again and again (Student G, 2009).
This comment raises a number of important issues. From a lecturer perspective,
it is likely some students will always prefer direct personal interaction and assistance to
resolve questions within their own learning. Thus, despite the ef?ciency and
effectiveness rationale for incorporating video tutorials in the subject, videos are
unlikely to fully replace the need for ongoing consultations. However, the direct ongoing
support expected byand provided to this student was later considered a potential barrier
to the student developing more independent learning skills (Associate Professor in
Education, B. Delahaye, personal communication, 20 November 2008). The outcome for
this student was such that he subsequently failed the subject[3]. Further, the outcome
froma teaching perspective was questioning whether staff or the institution of academia
had “failed” the student by providing ongoing direct support, rather than trying to take
more deliberate steps to facilitate independent learning skills within the student.
With respect to the quality and structure of the video tutorials, students valued
simplicity and clarity rather than quality or functionality. Further, some students
indicated long (or more comprehensive) questions were more highly valued, since these
questions were more likely to address a broader range of issues:
The longer the better – more comprehensive. Having a complete answer is more important
(Student E, 2009).
It’s more rewarding and enlightening to see a long question which shows the big picture for a
topic [. . .] much more understandable (Student C, 2009).
In terms of students’ learning, the presentation and basic functionality of the videos
(play, pause, etc.) was considered suf?cient. Videos were consistently assessed by
students as easy to understand, with appropriate explanation to comprehend both
the solution and the underlying principles. As discussion broached the issue of video
tutorials explaining concepts students may have already understood (e.g. “part a” of a
question), students commented that they would either fast-forward to the relevant
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section for their query, or listen to the explanation of part a on the basis that “you can
always learn something new, even when you think you understand a topic” (Student F,
2009), indicating the potential for a more comprehensive learning outcome:
I went into each one two or three times, so you are going to hear the same thing a few times,
but that’s ?ne, because it’s important – you want to make sure you understand it. I didn’t fast
forward anything [. . .] I preferred to hear it again (Student B, 2009).
Last, with respect to the application of video tutorials in other subjects, each of the
students interviewed thought video tutorials would be useful for their learning:
It’s a great tool, because sometimes you are sittingin either a lecture or a tutorial thinking“ohmy
god”. There’s only so much you can take in during class. It’s easy to get blown away sometimes.
The bene?t of the videos is just seeingandunderstandingwhat youactuallyneedtodo. It’s really
hearing you talk about it so people can understand “oh, that’s what you mean” (Student B, 2009).
It’s good to be able to go back and rewind if I want to hear something again (Student E, 2009).
Everyone learns differently, but it’s nice to hear the lecturer’s explanation as you know that’s
how you have to understand the calculation, without having to go and ask them personally
every time you have a question (Student C, 2009).
Thus, the role of video tutorials in the context of this subject seems to have addressed
the intended objective of helping students transition towards more independent
learning, while also providing a more ef?cient and effective approach to teaching and
learning. There are however, a number of issues and implications which arise, some of
which are considered below.
5. Discussion: re?ections on video tutorials
Basedonthe ?ndings presentedabove, it canbe seenthat video tutorials provide a number
of bene?ts, facilitating a shift towards more independent learning approaches. Such
bene?ts include more reliance on self-interaction (Curry, 1987; Reichmann and Grasha,
1974), linking analytic and holistic understandings (Riding and Cheema, 1991), and
assimilating information with an appropriate understanding of the associated complexity
(Holzmann and Klein, 1954). These bene?ts are summarised in Table V.
Returning to the literature, these principles have been considered previously in the
context of various learning styles, each of which identi?es dependent learning in some
form (e.g. Witkin’s (1962) ?eld dependent learners, Kagan’s (1965) re?exive learners,
Curry’s (1987) social interaction layer within learners). While ?ndings provide some
insights into the use and bene?ts of video tutorials, there are still several issues to be
considered with respect to implications for student attendance, exam results, and
teaching and learning outcomes. Each of these issues is considered brie?y below.
With respect to class attendance, there was no noticeable change in attendance due to
the availability of video tutorials. This is perhaps not surprising, given the videos
addressed only one worked example each week, representing a small part of the material
covered in class. Similarly, with respect to examresults, there was no noticeable change
identi?ed in students’ grades before and after the introduction of video tutorials.
While an increase in class grades would support the effectiveness of video tutorials from
a learning perspective, each student cohort is different in terms of their knowledge,
skills, and commitment. Further, researchers such as Jackling (2005) have noted
that measures other than academic performance may be more appropriate in assessing
Independent
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Table V.
Examining the bene?ts
of video tutorials
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learning outcomes, particularly long-term learning outcomes. Brown and Atkins (1988)
consider effectiveness in terms of what knowledge students and lecturers value.
Interestingly, however, two of the eight students interviewed said their result in this
subject was a personal best for them, and both students attributed this in part to the
resources (including video tutorials) available:
I got a 6 [distinction] for this subject so I was ecstatic. But I think de?nitely the tools I had access
to helped me to get that grade, without a doubt. I went to uni 15 years ago for my undergrad
degree and there was nothing like this. You didn’t get the answers online, let alone the
support of video examples. It’s a big change, and it does make it a lot easier. So it’s up to you in a
way. The answers are there – it’s just up to you whether you take the time to learn
(Student B, 2009).
I got the highest mark ever for me in this class. I am not con?dent in the classroom, but I used
all the resources available. It’s very comfortable for me to know that when I have a problem
there is a video resource available to help me, something I can refer to. I often use you-tube if
I am unclear about something in stats or cost accounting (Student C, 2009).
Thus, the learning process seems to be viewed as rewarding for a generation which is
increasingly familiar with video as a common learning resource (Kennedy et al., 2006;
Weiler, 2004).
6. Implications and conclusions
Based on the above a number of issues arise with respect the nature of video tutorials,
the role of videos in the future, and the longer-term implications for students’ learning.
These issues are considered below.
One of the key issues which emerges is the nature of video tutorials and whether
they are different to other online resources such as lecture recordings. While the
students interviewed acknowledged both video tutorials and lecture recordings were
bene?cial, they consistently noted the different role served by each. Despite the similar
form of these multimedia resources, students highlighted the bene?ts of video tutorials
as practical instruction tools to undertake and understand a process, and expressed a
level of familiarity with this form of learning. As part of generation Y, students are
increasingly familiar with online instructional resources (Kennedy et al., 2006),
as evidenced by Student C (2009) “often us[ing] you-tube” to clarify concepts discussed
in class. Thus, through the introduction of short-video tutorials, academic content can
be taken to students’ learning territory, enhancing their learning experience, and
fostering a shift towards more independent learning approaches.
Are video tutorials the way of the future? Based on the ?ndings fromthis study, video
tutorials are a tool which will continue to be used in this and similar accounting subjects
in which the authors teach, as a means of helping students to develop more independent
learning approaches. It is also a tool which has generated interest fromother academics
at recent presentations (AFAANZ Conference, 2010). Despite the lack of change in
student grades, ?ndings suggest this is an important way in which students tend to
learn. The basic statistics from this study show video tutorials are a resource used
widely and valued by students, and one that they re-use close to exam times. Lecture
recordings are now expected for most classes (by both the university and the students).
Video tutorials further support this formof learning resource. During the interviews, one
student suggested tutorial recordings (i.e. a recording of the full tutorial) would
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be another helpful resource. While this is not current practice, it will be interesting to see
what changes lay ahead, given the customer role students often assume and the
customer service orientation universities increasingly seem to adopt (Kirp, 2003;
Wells et al., 2008).
Do tools such as video tutorials create a misplaced con?dence within students if
videos are not available to help them solve issues in the future? Arguably, through the
use of videos now, students are building and expanding knowledge structures in their
long-term memory (as opposed to their more limited working memory), such that they
will have the knowledge to address problems in “the real world”. This study has shown
that video tutorials are a resource used repeatedly and appreciated bystudents, whichdo
impact positively on time management, and make both the learning and teaching more
rewarding. In particular, ?ndings suggest this resource may be used to facilitate a more
holistic understanding of concepts, rather than supporting a solely analytic approach in
which students often invest limited time (and achieve limited understanding).
While a number of bene?ts have been identi?ed within this study, limitations should
also be acknowledged. Given the case study design of the research within a classroom
environment over several semesters, the individual students varied between semesters.
As such, this research was based on patterns of behaviour identi?ed over time, rather
than pre- and post-testing of individuals and classes to consider individual differences in
learning abilities, styles, and independent learning skills. Although the aimof the study
was to develop more independent learning skills within students, arguably some
students may have already developed these skills. Hence, the study focused in general
terms, on changes in students who had not developed these skills (based on behaviour
patterns changingfromlecturer reliant to self-reliant), rather than the student cohort as a
whole. Notwithstanding this, video tutorials provided an additional tool for independent
learners, and the interview comments from students with relatively low needs (in terms
of additional assistance and direction), provide interesting insights into those students’
perceptions of this tool. Last, while a case study approach facilitates rich insights,
a larger quantitative study would be useful to explore these issues further.
This study has provided valuable preliminary insights into the use and bene?ts of
video tutorials as a means of developing independent learning skills in students. This
development addresses an ongoing need within both structured (academia) and less
structured (professional) learning environments, promoting life-long learning. However, a
number of issues deserve further consideration. First, while the video tutorials in this
study provided a range of bene?ts, it is not conclusive whether those bene?ts extend to or
encompass better learning outcomes in the formof student grades. Further, the long-term
learning bene?ts or outcomes have not yet been determined. While ?ndings from this
initial examination are not conclusive, results indicate that investigation of video tutorials
is worthpursuing. This contributionis particularlyimportant for bothpractice andtheory,
given the need for independent learning skills identi?ed within accounting graduates, and
the range of learning styles which acknowledge dependent learners in some form. Further
examination of these issues represents fruitful areas for future research.
Notes
1. This programme is designed for non-accounting graduates wanting an accounting
quali?cation, and satis?es the entry requirements for admission to undertake professional
accountancy exams.
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2. Comments via the university’s student feedback process are made on an anonymous
basis. Student identities have also not been disclosed for e-mail correspondence detailed in
Section 4.3.
3. While the outcome of this student’s performance was a fail grade, it is acknowledged that a
range of factors generally contribute to students’ academic performance (Koh and Koh,
1999). A lack of learning skills such as independent learning skills, or a surface approach to
learning (Booth et al., 1999) are, however, considered potential factors.
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Corresponding author
Belinda Luke can be contacted at: [email protected]
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This article has been cited by:
1. Adapa Sujana. 2015. Three-step approach for developing integrated work-ready assessment tools to foster
students learning and satisfaction. Educational Research and Reviews 10, 1347-1353. [CrossRef]
2. Marko Urh, Eva Jereb. 2014. Learning Habits in Higher Education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences 116, 350-355. [CrossRef]
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