Description
This study matches destination brand components with motives and identifies those
components that are most important for the consumer during various stages of the decision process.
This study also aims to classify various functional and symbolic brand components. The findings take
the customers’ point-of-view in identifying those descriptors that affect consumer choice preference and
create destination loyalty.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Destination brand components
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan Ramzi Nekhili Clifford Lewis
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To cite this document:
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan Ramzi Nekhili Clifford Lewis, (2011),"Destination brand components", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 1 pp. 4 - 25
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Steven Pike, (2005),"Tourism destination branding complexity", J ournal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 14 Iss 4 pp. 258-259http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10610420510609267
Ana María Munar, (2011),"Tourist-created content: rethinking destination branding", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 5 Iss 3 pp. 291-305http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181111156989
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan, (2009),"Strategic branding of destinations: a framework", European J ournal of Marketing, Vol. 43 Iss 5/6
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Destination brand components
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan, Ramzi Nekhili and Clifford Lewis
Abstract
Purpose – This study matches destination brand components with motives and identi?es those
components that are most important for the consumer during various stages of the decision process.
This study also aims to classify various functional and symbolic brand components. The ?ndings take
the customers’ point-of-viewin identifying those descriptors that affect consumer choice preference and
create destination loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach – The research is exploratory. Through a detailed literature review,
destination brand components are identi?ed, simpli?ed and then classi?ed as symbolic or functional.
They are also classi?ed by motive. The review is followed by a quantitative study that uses open-ended
questions to ?nd the relationship between destination brand components and the stage of decision
making. This study also presents a conceptual model with taxonomy of brand components.
Findings – Functional brand components seemto play a major role in a consumer’s description of place
brands during the various decision making stages. This ?nding highlights the importance of stressing
functional components in the destination’s branding strategy.
Originality/value – This study is the ?rst of its type and can serve as a platform for future research,
practically helping destinations create more effective communication.
Keywords Brands, Brand awareness, Symbolism
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Importance of brand image
Governments are investing over 12 percent of world investments into tourism-related
industries and infrastructure; receiving revenues of an average of ten percent of the world
GDP (Arnold, 2007; WTTC, 2007). Destination marketing has a tremendous scope to grow.
However, though the industry is growing, its share is declining with respect to the export of
commercial services from32 percent in 2000 to 27 percent in 2006 (WTO, 2007). A symbiotic
relationship between destination marketing organizations (DMOs), local governments and
private sector can have a positive effect on destination growth (Bennett, 1999; Prideaux and
Cooper, 2003). With more destination and place brands emerging, the challenges of
branding are increasing (assuming destinations are service brands, see Moorthi, 2002).
Destination branding is complex because the concept includes elements of product, service
and corporate branding. Destination brands act as an umbrella brand to a multiplicity of
products which may or may not be related and has a diversity of customers (Balakrishnan,
2008; Fan, 2006). Destination branding falls under tourism destination image (TDI) (see
Gallarza et al., 2002 for a background). Brand image is a function of the person interpreting
the image; this makes destination branding harder to study (Meenaghan, 1995). When
differentiation between destinations is low, it is the brand image that creates a perceptual
difference 35-65 percent of the time (Hosany et al., 2007; Palumbo and Herbig, 2000).
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VOL. 5 NO. 1 2011, pp. 4-25, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181111111726
Melodena Stephens
Balakrishnan is based in the
Faculty of Business and
Management, and Ramzi
Nekhili is based in the
Faculty of Finance and
Accounting, both at the
University of Wollongong in
Dubai, Dubai, United Arab
Emirates. Clifford Lewis is
based in the Faculty of
Commerce, University of
Wollongong, Australia.
Received: November 2008
Revised: December 2008
Accepted: March 2009
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A strong correlation exits between favorable image and intention to visit (Leisen, 2001).
Ataman and U
¨
lengin (2003, p. 246) ?nd that consumers ‘‘tend to choose brands whose
perceived images are similar to consumers’ actual, ideal, social, ideal-social and
situational-ideal-social images’’. This statement means perceived image self-congruity
affects brand preferences and hence sales. A strong support for brands to have a
multiplicity of image attributes is indicated. The same study suggests that 90 percent of the
variation in sales (this study involves the Turkish beverage industry) is being caused by the
brand’s image while only 10 percent is due to factors like distribution, advertising, brand
loyalty.
Destinations being more complex can have different results. Destination marketing has four
potential outlets for marketing information (Moutinho, 1987): primary or word of mouth
(WOM); secondary (mass media), tertiary (travel agents, tour operators, exhibitions) and
fourthly (personal experiences). Destination image is a sum of complex messages given by
a variety of stakeholders, through a variety of communication mediums. Incongruent
advertisements for familiar brands have easier brand recall, but harder advertisement recall;
while incongruent advertisements for non-familiar brands have harder brand recall (Lange
and Dahle´ n, 2003).
Country of origin (COO) for products affects brand equity. Positive COO affects brand
loyalty, brand distinctiveness, brand awareness and brand associations (Yasin et al., 2007).
Lee and Ganesh (1999) suggest that when consumers are not familiar with a country, they
rely more on COO information as a re?ection of a destination’s image and countries with a
favorable image receive a more positive country product evaluation from consumers. While
consumers tend to categorize brands by COO, their perceptions are often inaccurate
(Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2008). When customers are unfamiliar with a country, they
tend to be reluctant to trust the product image for consumer goods (Lee and Ganesh, 1999).
By extrapolation, this lack of familiarity will also dissuade travelers from buying a destination
as a product of investment opportunity as the risks of destination investment are higher.
Tourism is used as an example of halo marketing that helps con?rm or modify a target
customer’s self-image and helps match social motivations with the customer’s reference
group (Ross-Wooldridge, 2004). Research indicates that consumers use projective
techniques to identify or associate brand image characteristics (Hussey and Duncombe,
1999). The ?t between corporate (in this case overall destination image) and the service
extension (destination sub-products like hospitality, infrastructure) must be strong otherwise
it affects perception on sub-product quality and overall image of the corporate brand (Pina
et al., 2006). Destination brand associations are multi-dimensional since they differ across
various products and also because there is a dependency on how well known the brand
image is (Low and Lamb, 2000; Kirmani et al., 1999). For destinations to maintain image,
they must monitor sub-products quality.
All these factors can affect customer loyalty. Public relations in?uences customer loyalty
conditional to a positive brand image (Hsieh and Li, 2008). Through a qualitative and
quantitative study, O’Cass and Grace (2004) ?nd service brand associations relate
positively toward the attitudes directed towards a branded service which in turn relates
positively to the intension to use. A study on brand components may lead to additional
insights on customer propensity to visit a destination or purchase of a destination
experience. These insights should allow for a more long-term strategic approach for
success. Preference for quality and greater place attachment leads to higher expenditure
(Alegre and Juaneda, 2006). Hence image of destinations is a key aspect of the branding
strategy.
Destination brand image is an intricate topic and the concept of image needs to be
simpli?ed into key components; these components must be classi?ed into elements of the
destination brand components (DBC) and then these DBCs must be related to what
customer value (see Hankinson, 2005; Leisen, 2001). The nature of the study of destination
brand components is multidisciplinary in nature (Gallarza et al., 2002). Lowand Lamb (2000)
?nd brand associations for various products are different and further are in?uenced by
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brand familiarity. This ?nding suggests that DBCs may change as consumers move up from
various stages of the decision making process as the consumption of destination
sub-products will vary during the entire process. This indicates a gap in literature with
respect to importance of DBCs and the decision making process.
Research objective
Image and perception relate closely to each other (White, 2005). Brand image affects
perception of a destination. Meenaghan (1995) explains that though the image of a
destination sent to the customer is controllable, the image that the target customer receives
or perceives is not. This study focuses on learning what brand components best describe
destination brands and their impact on brand image from a customer point of view. The
research has three sub-objectives. First there is a need to simplify existing knowledge on
DBCs. Second, existing literature in brand components needs to be classi?ed into the
simpli?ed form. Third, the importance of DBCs at each stage in the decision making process
needs to be evaluated in terms of overall brand image. The nature of this study is exploratory,
and its key focus is on DBCs. Through the development of a conceptual framework, the
paper will present a practical platform for destination marketing organizations (DMOs) to
build brand strategies.
First through a detailed literature review, current popular classi?cation of brand components
is identi?ed. Based on the de?nitions of the classi?cations of brand components and their
areas of in?uence, the various components identi?ed are segregated. Second, these DBCs
are related to the Pierce travel experience ladder through the motives behind them. This
relationship is used to formulate a conceptual framework and present taxonomy of DBCs.
The four hypotheses derived from the literature review and conceptual model are tested.
Finally the results are discussed and future research areas are identi?ed.
Literature review
A literature review on DBCs (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; McWilliam and de Chernatony, 1989;
Echtner and Ritchie, 1993; Hankinson, 2005; Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Wood, 2007)
identi?es the following key brand attributes: functional and symbolic or intangible and
tangible attributes. Brand constructs include personality and emotions (Aaker, 1997; de
Chernatony, 1997). Maklan and Knox (1997) ?nd that brands can be measured using
variables like interpersonal relationship, word of mouth, country of origin, names and usage
intensions. The de Chernatony and Riley’s (1997) double vortex model suggests than in
addition to functional and symbolic capabilities; legal identities, heritage and values, and
psycho-social match also affects brand image.
Functional brand components
Two attitudes drive customers when purchasing brands (Cooper, 1989). The ?rst attitude is
utilitarian in nature and involves brand perceptions of bene?ts, physical justi?cations, beliefs
about value for money and availability. This attitude is commonly reinforced by functional
attributes of the brand. Functional DBCs relate to the core function/service of the brand
(Maklan and Knox, 1997) which is associated with immediate practical needs (Bhat and
Reddy, 1998; Wood, 2007), rational assessment of product bene?ts or functional
performance (de Chernatony et al., 2000; Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Wood, 2000).
Functional characteristics are mainly tangible in nature and are often de?ned as being
measurable (Hankinson, 2004). The product can manifest as functional characteristics
(Mowle and Merrilees, 2005) or physical attributes which contribute to the intrinsic
advantages of the product (Orth and Marchi, 2007). Wood (2007) estimates that the
products’ functional performance in?uences the products’ market image by as much as 20
percent.
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Symbolic brand components
Symbolic components represent the other common brand component identi?able in
literature review. Symbolic components are those features and bene?ts that are over and
above the core product (Wood, 2000); and relate to non-product attributes (Keller, 1993).
Symbolic brand components relate strongly to intangible components (Hankinson, 2005;
Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Wood, 2000) which are likely to be more extrinsic in nature to the
product (Keller, 1993). Symbolic DBCs satisfy needs over and above functional
requirements; and manifest as higher order needs like self-expression, self-esteem,
prestige (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Hankinson, 2005; Wood, 2007); emotional values and
feelings (Mowle and Merrilees, 2005); and social approval (Hankinson, 2005; Meenaghan,
1995). Since they are psychological, they cannot be directly observed (Echtner and Ritchie,
1993) and the meaning develops through the individuals’ socialization process (McWilliam
and de Chernatony, 1989).
Experiential brand components
Hankinson (2004, 2005) and de Chernatony and Riley (1997, p. 1076) identify the
experiential components of the brand as the symbolic components that represent higher
order needs. Experiential components may be manifest in how the brand relates to the
customer self-concept, intuitive likes and dislikes, its ability to convey exclusivity (how it
relates to other customers), customer lifestyle, way of life and fashionability (Cooper, 1989;
Solomon, 1983). In the three-tier brand creation model, higher tiers correspond to emotional
and value services which are essentially non-product attributes that are external to core
product function looking at dimensions of the marketing mix, imagery, feelings and
experience (Keller, 1998; Maklan and Knox, 1997). Being a sensory process, experiential
marketing in the context of tourism and hospitality marketing, creates value through
entertainment, educational, estheticism or escapism (Williams, 2006). A 13 country study by
Lindstrom (2005) indicates that 99 percent of brand communication focuses on two of the
key senses – sight and sound, though emotional connections are more effective as it uses
the synergy of all ?ve senses. O’Cass and Grace (2004) suggest that people, word of mouth,
servicescape (ambience) and experiences are important when considering service brands.
Destination brand components: a simpli?ed classi?cation
Two basic underlying dimensions of brands exist: a functional dimension consisting of
tangible or practical attributes or the delivery of key bene?ts; and a symbolic or emotional
dimension consisting of more intangible attributes (Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Sirgy and
Su, 2000). There is an overlap in areas, for example in the case of tangible reminders,
souvenirs/memorabilia may be functional as they are tangible yet may have a symbolic
association (memories) with the brand (Human, 1999; Gordon, 1986; Williams, 2006).
Destinations have an intangible component and intangible products need tangible
references points to help customers evaluate their perceptions of the service offerings
(McDonald et al., 2001). Hankinson (2004) ?nds image attributes like history, heritage and
culture frequently associated with tangibles like buildings and architectural environment.
Symbolic aspects like interactions (between consumer or/and staff) are manifest through
physical aspects like staff uniforms and training (McDonald et al., 2001). Chhabra et al.
(2003) ?nd that authenticity of heritage tourism (functional DBC) depends on perceived
authenticity which is partly controlled by media and to a greater extent by WOM
(symbolic-DBC).
DBCs and motivations
Keller (1993) associates functional bene?ts with Maslow’s motivation. Pearce (1991) extends
this concept of motivation speci?cally to the tourism context. Functional DBCs have an
association with basic motivations like physiological and safety needs, which involve a
desire for problem removal or avoidance (Keller, 1993). Organic images which are
perceptions built over a long period of time and are strongly associated with the brand, are
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actually functional in nature (Hankinson, 2004). Lower-order needs also manifest through
functional destination brand components.
Experiences, which are symbolic, fall under motivations like social needs, esteem, personal
expression/self-actualization (Keller, 1993). Higher-order needs as described earlier
manifest as symbolic components. There is an overlap of motives with functional and
symbolic brand components. The brand components can be identi?ed from a variety of
sources (see articles like Anholt, 2006; Balakrishnan, 2009; Hankinson, 2004). Within each
motive we can look at components as either functional or symbolic.
Physiological motives relate to the destinations intrinsic bene?ts. They are bene?ts that relate
to the core of the destination service that a customer wants to experience like adventure and
culture and destination purpose (de Chernatony and Riley, 1997). Physiological DBCs are
pull factors: tangibles (physical places) or intangibles (rest and relaxation) (Lawet al., 2004).
Attractions act as pull factors for place attachment and development (Gross et al., 2008).
Physiological motives act as offshoots of the intrinsic bene?ts. These motives are destination
descriptors and increasingly relate to the context (Hankinson, 2005). For example: is the
destination suitable for young children, entertainment, enjoyment and recreation
(Hankinson, 2004, 2005). Hankinson (2004) describe them as functional clusters of
attributes associated with a destination’s economic activity, accessibility or even organic
images associated with history, culture and heritage. They can be rules and regulations like
visa restrictions and entry charges which act as barriers for entry and require policies to be
put in place (Trueman et al., 2004). Physiological motives can also be sensory (besides
visual). Associations with blue skies, sunny weather, yellow sand, emerald islands, and
green forests.
Food is a functional DBC as it is a basic requirement (Gross et al., 2008) and can be an
important destination differentiator. Halal food is an important criterion for Muslims, pure
vegetarian food (no egg, ginger, onion, garlic, meat including ?sh) for Jains and kosher food
for Jews. These dietary requirements can become a destination barrier. Tangibles, acquired
through shopping are functional elements and appeal to the visual element even aiding
recall (Hankinson, 2004). As explained before, these shopping items can also be symbolic
components. Interpretations or perceptions of destination become symbolic attributes when
they relate to the senses (pyramids as a representation of Egypt, Petra for Jordan, Statue of
Liberty for New York or as a symbol of freedom). The perception of the personality of a place
(personal interpretation/experience) is symbolic (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005) and affects
customer satisfaction with destination experience.
Motivation factors like safety needs manifest themselves as functional DBCs. They span
attributes like basic accommodation (Hankinson, 2004), accessibility and cost (Hankinson,
2005). Cleanliness and hygiene which are functional in nature, act as security needs for
physical health (Orth and Marchi, 2007; Solomon, 1983). Safety motivations are based in
symbolic perceptions (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). It expresses itself as tolerance of the visible
signs of poverty. Someone who has a prior experience of poverty will not ?nd it too disturbing
but for ?rst-time experiencers, it may spoil the destination experience. Destination
consumers may perceive the presence of police on horseback less threatening than police
in cars or army security personnel standing with guns. These perceptions (barbed wire at
checkpoints, whether guards smile, riots or even the recent Mumbai blast) affect destination
experience.
Social DBCs which are symbolic satisfy the consumers self expression needs (Bhat and
Reddy, 1998) while sending social signals on behalf of their consumer (Meenaghan, 1995).
Relationship needs are the associations customers develop within the place with other
people like celebrities and indigenous population who are considered locals to that
destination (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). Relationship with other tourists and friends are an
example of self-congruence which is also symbolic (Hankinson, 2005). The quality of
friendliness of locals has been found to be a symbolic component that can affect brand
image (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). However Baloglu and Brinberg (1997) perceive it to be
functional. Friendliness of locals may be functional DBCs prior to visit, when it forms part of
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the expectation or is a representative of the place (natives) as it acts as a key motive for
travel. Local’s friendliness becomes symbolic when the customer looks back at the
memories of the experience, and it affects word of mouth (Gross et al., 2008). Keller (1993)
relates this symbolic DBC to the need for social approval but the attribute of friendliness also
has overtones with esteem needs.
Esteem needs are linked to psychological or emotional needs which are symbolic in nature
(Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997). For the travelers it manifests itself through self-congruence
reinforcement by ‘‘being in a happening place’’ (Hankinson, 2005) and exerting self and
personal preferences and values. Ambience tends to be symbolic (Hankinson, 2005). For
the traveler and his social circle, it becomes a conversation topic and reinforces lifestyle
through destination encounter and choice (Gross et al., 2008). The brand gets an aura of
exclusivity, prestige and fashionability (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Mowle and Merrilees, 2005;
Solomon, 1983; Wood, 2007). The halo effect adds to the reputation of the place (Simeon,
2006) and this reinforces the reputation/image of a person who visits that same place.
Self actualization is the ?nal state. Self actualization is symbolic as it links to self congruity
and the personality of a place becoming a re?ection of the traveler (Hankinson, 2004;
Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). Self-actualization focuses on self-discovery and growth (through the
experience), re?ecting also in celebration of special occasions as a symbolic representation
of self-expression (de Chernatony and Riley, 1997; Gross et al., 2008; Mowle and Merrilees,
2005) as the experience creates (lasting) emotions (Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997). Heroes
and heroines are part of the functional attributes inherent with a place (Hankinson, 2005)
however they can have symbolic characteristics especially if linked to self-congruity.
Figure 1 and Table I presents a conceptual model that looks at how travel motives can be
correlated with functional and symbolic DBCs as discussed above. Table I correlates DBCs
with motivations. Motives can be correlated to both functional DBCs and symbolic DBCs,
reinforcing the theory that brands can have a dyadic nature (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Mowle
and Merrilees, 2005). As one moves up the travel ladder in terms of higher order motives,
more symbolic DBCs become relevant.
Figure 1 The brand component – need hierarchy linkage
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DBC and consumer decision-making process
An important but challenging aspect of branding is consistency that is achievable by
‘‘eliminating negative cues . . . that diminishes, contradicts or distracts from the unity of the
theme’’ (Williams, 2006, p. 490).
Brand image is longitudinal and can refer to various orientations of time: past, present and
future (Williams, 2006). Three focus stages occur for this research. Destination brand image
formed during consumption was not chosen because at this stage, the process of
consumption evaluation would be incomplete and true destination image would only be
acquired post-consumption. Destination image is a sumof cumulative experiences and in its
formation process is dif?cult to pinpoint a single consumption opportunity (Chen and
Gursoy, 2001).
Table I Destination brand components (DBC) as a function of Pierce travel ladder
DBC Tangible/visual/functional Intangible/symbolic
Physiological Intrinsic bene?ts: service delivery process,
adjectives, Ingredient/associated brands,
sponsorships, events
Features: adjectives; physical justi?cations, Business
tourism facilities, commercial criteria, events,
activities, shopping, things to do, functionality,
facilities, amenities
Sight: name, logo, trade mark, graphics, symbols,
slogans, colors, servicescape
Other 4 senses: smell, taste, touch, sound
(if distinctive to place for identi?cation)
Tangibles: souvenirs, shopping items, postcards,
pictures, movies, ads – Images; information;
buildings architecture, facilities, places of interest,
scenery
Interpretations and seeding of ?ve senses and
realistic portrayal of expectations
Security/safety Safety: physical, mental, emotional, perceived, and
visual reinforcement
Organic images – familiarity and ability to identify
visual evidence
Convenience: access, facilities and amenities,
infrastructure, communication, currency
Service: government, tourism, information, hospitality
etc
Intrinsic bene?ts: relevance and representation of the
personality of place as per perception (culture,
heritage, ambience)
Features: perception of ability to satisfy intrinsic
needs
Value/expense perceptions
Safety: perception
Convenience: perception
Service: satisfaction
Conform with social values/WOM
Social People as a symbol: leaders, dress, outward local
customs, rituals and ability to adopt. Social
segregation when required and ability to deliver as
per perceptions.
Travelers-Residents Relationship & bond, familiarity,
interaction and empathy. Traveler-Traveler familiarity,
interaction and congruence. Traveler-Social Circle:
conversation topic Image/roles of People associated
with service delivery or destination
Esteem Ingredient/associated brands, sponsorships, events Perception of others’ perception (WOM, public
relations, publicity; international reputation) – how it
adds value to self-esteem
Halo effect association with other ‘‘brands’’, image
perceptions and how this adds value to esteem
Self-actualization Personal visual transformation from experience (self,
gifts and house/habit adoption)
Self-image congruence, personal values,
self-personality; lifestyle, self-expression
Event/occasion association: ambience
Experience that creates an
emotions/mood/association with certain senses
Internalization and familiarity of legends of
heroes/heroine (living, dead and ?ctitious)
Ability to help traveler walk away with personal
growth, discovery and ful?llment
Adapted from Balakrishnan (2009)
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Consumers’ decision-making process of a destination begins with the customers’ ability to
make sense of the vast quantities of information collected prior to consumption and
purchase and (Kotler and Gertner, 2004). By a process of elimination, which is normally
image based; an individual selects a destination they wish or want to visit (Gartner, 1989;
Goodrich, 1978; Leisen, 2001; p. 50). Decision making for consumers become easier when
destinations focus on a distinct set of tangible and functional destination attributes
(Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002; Woodside and Trappey, 2001). Hankinson (2004) ?nds that
functional attributes have a stronger linkage with overall quality and hence destination
attractiveness. This is phase I of the decision making process: creation of a wish list.
H1. Customers distinguish between destinations based on functional DBCs for creating
a wish list prior to consumption.
Studies by Caldwell and Freire (2004); de Chernatony et al. (2000); Jamal and Goode (2001)
and Mowle and Merrilees (2005) ?nd symbolic properties rather than functional qualities are
what the consumer prefers and what gives a destination a greater sustainable competitive
advantage. This preference is important for selection of destinations (prior to consumption)
to create a wish list. Hankinson (2004) ?nds ambience (symbolic DBC) has a strong
in?uence on selection. This is Phase 2: ?nalizing the choice of destinations from the wish list
where destinations are substitutable.
H2. Customers distinguish between destinations in a choice set predominantly on the
basis of symbolic DBC when selecting the ?nal destination to visit.
Past trip experiences affect a tourist’s selection of a destination and this experience has a
direct impact on perceptions of safety (Chen and Gursoy, 2001). Since this is a perception of
safety, it is functional but since it can be in?uenced by other people’s perceptions and
experiences, it overlaps with symbolic DBCs. For customers who enjoy variety (which is a
large segment), satisfaction is a key driver and though they would not revisit, they will
recommend (Castro et al., 2007). This WOM acts like a halo-image and a benchmark for
other destinations. WOMhelps the traveler move up the travel ladder to higher order motives
due to the accumulated information collected, experience and increased expectations.
Recommendations can also act as a surrogate for loyalty and can lead to destination
performance (Reichheld, 2003).
Phase 3 is the next phase in the decision-making process: post consumption experiences.
The study includes three scenarios:
1. Best destination. This is an evaluation of an experience and relates to WOM. Travelers
were asked to rank destinations in their mind and evaluate their best destination using
three attributes.
2. Most consumers rarely revisit leisure destinations as the choice is so large, hence loyalty
is measured through unsolicited positive WOM. The question asked is ‘‘Which
destinations are you willing to recommend?’’
3. This deals with perceptions of the worst location where customers would not want to visit.
This can affect negative word of mouth. This evaluation is an internal process. Loyalty is
based on WOM and is a relationship or bond between a place and a traveler; hence is
symbolic.
H3a. Customers distinguish between destinations (post-consumption) on the basis of
symbolic properties.
H3b. Customers de?ne destination loyalty by using symbolic attributes.
Hankinson (2004) reports functional attributes are most important when differentiating
between destinations (looking at the broader context of countries).
H4. Overall when looking at brand image, functional DBCs outweigh symbolic DBCs in
importance.
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Method
A self-administered questionnaire was used to interview respondents. The questionnaire
had three sections based on the three key decision making stages. Besides demographic
details, the ?rst part of the questionnaire (Phase 1) dealt with DBCs that affect the customers’
wish list. Phase 2 dealt with DBCs that were important for the customer in ?nalizing the
destination from the wish list. Phase 3 dealt with the experience of the customer at a chosen
destination, post-consumption. It looked at three scenarios:
1. factors used to describe the best destination;
2. DBCs important for recommendation; and
3. DBCs important for describing least favorite destination.
Open-ended questions were used to understand the relative importance of DBCs used in
describing the brand image of a destination for Phase 1 and 3. In Phase 2 a ?ve-point Likert
scale was used to identify factors important to the customer. These factors were short-listed
based on existing studies conducted by Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Beerli and Martin
(2004) and Hankinson (2004, 2005). The analyses of the open-ended questions were based
on an approach adopted by Finn et al. (2000) and Ibrahimand Gill (2005). Similar responses
to the open ended questions were grouped together and categorized under common
themes; thus allowing the analysis of those factors. For pre-testing purposes, the
questionnaire was administered to a small group of ten respondents who were later
interviewed for their opinion about the structure and readability of the questionnaire. Based
on their suggestions, a few minor changes in design, content and instructions were
implemented when the study was carried out. The pre-test also indicated that on average,
the respondent would take around ten minutes to complete the various sections of the
questionnaire. This is an important factor as time available to ?ll the questionnaire was short.
Dubai was chosen as the test market. Of its population, 80 percent is expatriates and it is
also a tourist destination (Balakrishnan, 2008). The sample was selected based on a quota
sampling method by which one-third of the sample was obtained by interviewing residents of
the country of study while the remaining two-thirds of the sample represent tourists and other
individuals visiting the country. The respondents were selected by adopting a convenience
sample based on factors such as accessibility, ability to speak English, and willingness to
participate in the research project.
Some challenges occurred in collecting the data. In Dubai, collecting market research
information in public places without permission from authorities is not allowed. To overcome
this limitation, two strategies were used. Residents were contacted based on referrals using
personal networks. Tourists were mainly contacted through institutions such as the
Government of Dubai Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing (DTCM) which
provided the necessary contacts and permissions within hotel groups and tourist attractions.
These contacts included hotel groups such as the Accor group (The Novotel Trade Centre
Hotel and The So?tel City Centre Hotel) as well as tourist attractions such as the Big Bus.
These sites were selected based on judgment so as to best represent the population of
interest (Jankowicz, 2000). This also ensured that we had a signi?cant sample of English
speakers and leisure travelers.
A total of 450 questionnaires were distributed and 300 were returned resulting in a response
rate of 66.67 percent. After eliminating questionnaires whose responses were incomplete or
invalid in regard to the scope of this study, a sample size of 289 respondents were chosen to
represent the target population. Though it is recognized that the sample size is small; the
sample size is comparable to other studies of a similar nature (Castaneda et al., 2007; Chen
and Gursoy, 2001; Law et al., 2004).
Respondents’ characteristics
The target population for this study was pre-speci?ed as individuals who travel for tourism or
other leisure purposes and who pay for their package themselves. Of the satisfactorily
completed questionnaires, 53 percent of the sample was male respondents while 47 percent
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of the sample represented female respondents. In regards to income, 19 percent of the
respondents earned an income of less than 10,000 dollars per annum; 13 percent of the
respondents earned an annual income between the 10,000 to 20,000 dollars; 12 percent of
the respondents earned an annual income between 20,000 to 30,000 dollars; 12 percent of
the respondents fell within the 30,000 to 40,000 dollars annual income range and 31 percent
earned an annual income more than 40,000 dollars. Further, the research project was
conducted across 46 nationalities with the most dominant nationalities being Indians (25
percent of the sample) and the British (representing 13 percent of the total sample). With
regard to family status, 42 percent of the sample was single individuals while 57 percent
represented family individuals with an average of two children. Table II shows the details of
the sample.
Analysis and discussion
The qualitative data were ?rst grouped into common themes based on semantic expression
and variation and then regrouped into sub-sections under functional and symbolic DBCs
(see Tables III-VIII). Functional DBCs have three categories:
Table II Sample demographics characteristics
Factor Total Percentage
Gender
Male 150 51.9
Female 137 47.41
Income range
Less than 10,000 55 19.03
10,000 to 20,000 38 13.15
20,000 to 30,000 36 12.46
30,000 to 40,000 34 11.76
More than 40,000 90 31.14
Nationality
Indian 73 25.26
British 39 13.49
UAE 22 7.61
Filipino 15 5.19
Sri Lankan 12 4.15
Lebanese 11 3.81
Australian, French each 9 3.11
Jordanian, Pakistani each 8 2.77
Canadian 7 2.42
American, Egyptian each 6 2.08
German 5 1.73
South African 4 1.38
Austrian, Danish, Irish, Sudanese, Syrian each 3 1.04
Cameroon, Dutch, Finnish, Indonesian each 2 0.69
Iranian, Kuwaiti, Mauritian, Nigerian, Romanian, Swedish each 2 0.69
Algerian, Armenian, Bangladeshi, Belgian each 1 0.35
Bruneian, Greek, Italian, Japanese, Malaysian, New Zealander each 1 0.35
Norwegian, Singaporean, Yugoslavian, Swiss, Thai, Turk each 1 0.35
Marital status
Single 120 41.52
Family 166 57.44
Number of children (if individual falls into family criteria)
No children 47 28.31
One child 34 20.48
Two children 51 30.72
Three children 24 14.46
Four children 8 4.82
Five children 2 1.2
Average children 1.506
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Table III Responses for functional DBCs: basic physical/infrastructural
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Basic physical/infrastructure needs (DBCF1)
Accessibility (total) 149 8
Accessibility from home country 3 12 17
Accessibility to other destinations 9 3 3
Local accessibility 6 194 10 22 21
Location 2
Animals/wildlife 9 3 0
Architecture/monuments 7 7 1
Availability of travel packages 2
Beautiful sites 26 28 13 3
Natural sites/scenaries/attractions and
environment 75 50 26 6
Historic places/architecture/constructions/
landmarks 23 10 5
Modern architecture and constructions 3 1 0
Places within destination/tourist attractions 69 30 23 11
Religious sites 4 1 0
Media (photographs) 3
Revisit place/attractions 8
Tourist attractions not visited on previous trip 13
Total 237 343 176 114 49
Table V Responses for functional DBCs: experiences (related to product)
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Experiences
Adventure 8 5 3
Entertainment and enjoyment/recreational 39 140 48 32 13
Food 35 175 49 24 25
Children – activities 7 5 1
Shopping 35 140 32 7
Special occasions and events 1 127 3 0
Uniqueness sites/poverty 3 184 6 8 2
Total 128 766 148 75 40
Table IV Responses for functional DBCs: basic product needs
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Basic product needs (DBCF2)
Cleanliness and hygiene 7 9 6 20
Climate 54 179 71 50 27
Commercial and business 13 3 0 2
Accommodation/hotels/resorts 2 211 10 29 2
Cost or economic value 17 192 22 87 13
Holiday and leisure 12 3 1
Quality of telecommunication 145
Rules and regulations 1 6
Special meeds 1
Total 106 727 119 173 70
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1. basic physical/infrastructure needs;
2. basic product needs; and
3. experiences (which overlap with basic product needs).
According to the brand component-need hierarchy linkage, these three categories fall
between physiological, security and safety needs. Destination perceptions and
relationships can be grouped into symbolic DBCs. According to the brand
component-need hierarchy linkage, symbolic DBCs fall between social, esteem and
self-actualization needs. After categorizing the DBCs, quantitative analysis was conducted
by looking at mean responses (see Table VIII). The mean responses for DBCpreferences are
different across the various phases.
Phase 1: Creating a wish list
Overall in phase 1, functional DCBs are more in number (61 percent) than symbolic DBCs.
This supports H1. In creating a wish list, the study ?nds that basic physical/infrastructure
(functional DBCF1, see Table VII) accounts for 26 percent of total DBCs. In this category key
tourist perceptions of the brand are dependent on places to see which form92 percent of the
sub-category. The importance for destination marketing organizations projecting places is
further reinforced by the fact that places to see accounts for 29 percent of the total DBCs
(see Table III).
In the second functional DBC category, basic product, key touchpoint for the brand is
weather which accounts for 51 percent of the DBCF2 category (see Table IV). Overall this
accounts for 7 percent of the total DBCs in terms of importance in Phase 1. In the third
functional DBCcategory, experiences (DBCF3 see Table V), three factors stand out. The ?rst
is entertainment (30 percent of category), food (27 percent of category) and shopping (27
percent of the category). Combined, they account for 12 percent of total DBCs in Phase 1.
Table VI Responses for symbolic DBCs: perceptions and relationships
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Perceptions
Multi-cultural 3 2 0
History/culture 78 158 50 25 7
Personality/perception of place 19 11 2 9
Political issues 4
Popularity of place (noisy/congested) 4 0 2 17
Quality of life/lifestyle (not suitable for tourist) 12 5 1 4
Celebrities 2
Similar to other countries/destinations 6
WOM 15 1 0
Safety 3 218 8 63 27
Relaxation and peace (boring) 13 18 5 6
Positive emotions 11 4 0
Experience knowledge/not been there before 57 9 5
Personal experience 24
Previous experience 7 2 5
Total 217 376 115 129 85
Relationships
Local people 33 125 75 36 42
Other tourists 66
Friendliness of locals (lack of relationships) 190 1
Service/facilities/hospitality 2 6 15 10
Language/communications 5 4 8 21
Relationships (friends/family) 39 30 0
Characteristics of others wanting to go there 14
Total 79 381 115 73 73
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Analysis of the ?rst category of symbolic DBCs, perceptions (DBCS1), the study ?nds history
and culture account for 36 percent of the category, while experience knowledge accounts
for 26 percent (see Table VI). Overall they respectively account for 10 percent and 7 percent
respectively of the cumulative total of DBCs for Phase 1. Newer locations with little past
history need to focus on the experience knowledge. In the symbolic DBC category,
relationships (DBCS2); local people account for 42 percent of the category; and relationship
with family and friends account for 49 percent (see Table VI). Local people and relationships
together account for 10 percent of the total DBCs.
In summation, key DBCs that a leisure tourist perceives as important in the overall context for
creating a wish list are: tourist attractions (28 percent); history culture and experience
knowledge (26 percent); food, shopping and entertainment (12 percent); climate (7 percent)
and local people and relationships (10 percent). Leisure tourists choose a wish list with an
objective to see or experience something. From a DMO point of view it is important to match
the customer pro?le with activity.
Phase 2: Selection of a choice set
In Phase 2, for selection of a choice set, customers rank functional brand components (71
percent) as key drivers of the brand. Symbolic DBCs account for just 29 percent of the total
DBCs (see Table III). The ?ndings do not support H2.
Accessibility (total and local) seems to be a unanimously important DBC (100 percent) for
basic physical/infrastructure needs (see Table III). Overall, accessibility accounts for 13
percent of the total DBCs in this Phase. In the basic product category (see Table IV), the
factors that stand out are: climate (25 percent of the category), accommodation (29
percent), economic value (26 percent) and telecommunications (20 percent). The impact of
each as a percentage of total DBCs in this phase, affecting the choice selection ranges
between 8-6 percent.
In the product-related experiences (see Table V); the factors that seem important are
uniqueness of site (24 percent of this category), food (23 percent), recreation/entertainment
(18 percent); shopping (18 percent) and celebration of events/special occasions (17
percent). These factors each account for 7-5 percent of the total DBCs in Phase 2.
In the symbolic category of perceptions (see Table VI), a clear focus on safety (58 percent of
category) and history/culture in perceptions (42 percent) occurs. Safety has an overall
impact of 8 percent in contribution to total DBCs for this category. History and culture is 6
percent. In the symbolic category of relationships (see Table VI), local people and their
friendliness cannot be ignored as they contribute to 83 percent of the category almost
equally, and overall account for 12 percent of total DBC.
For Phase 2, selection from a choice set, the DBC emphasis from a tourist point of view on
the overall brand is ?rst accessibility (13 percent of total DBCs); accommodation (8 percent);
safety (8 percent); climate (7 percent); uniqueness of site (7 percent); economic value (6
percent); food (6 percent); history and culture (6 percent); local people (6 percent);
friendliness of local people (6 percent); and shopping (5 percent). It is interesting that
hygiene factors are important in this stage and can prevent a place customer from deciding
Table VIII Mean responses
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Functional DBC
Basic physical/infrastructure mean 0.82 1.19 0.61 0.39 0.17
Basic product mean 0.37 2.52 0.41 0.60 0.24
Experience mean 0.44 2.65 0.51 0.26 0.14
Symbolic DBC
Perception mean 0.75 1.30 0.40 0.45 0.29
Relationship mean 0.27 1.32 0.40 0.25 0.26
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to buy a leisure product. Also this category had the most responses; more than three times
the number than any other phase. This is a neglected area and can affect brand perception
of a place. The perception of the people of a place also has a high impact on brand value of a
place. This reinforces the service aspect of a destination brand.
Phase 3: Post-consumption: scenario 1 – best destination
In Phase 3, Scenario 1, which looks at a tourist’s interpretation of their best destination
experience, the study ?nds that functional DBCs account for 66 percent of total DBCs (see
Table VII). We ?nd that a holistic experience across functional and symbolic DBCs is
recorded for the best destination. The functional DBCs that are important for describing best
locations in the physical/infrastructural needs category (see Table III) are sceneries, sites,
and tourist attractions (78 percent). This factor accounts for 20 percent of the total DBCs.
An analysis of DBCs for basic product needs (see Table IV), ?nds that climate is important for
describing best locations (60 percent of the category). Overall this accounts for 10 percent
of total DBCs in this Phase. With DBCs related to product experience (see Table V),
entertainment and food account for 66 percent of DBC descriptors, each having equal
weight. Overall each of their contributions to total DBCs is 7 percent.
Symbolic DBC in the perception category (see Table VI) that travelers highlighted for
describing the brand components of their memories of the best destinations was based on
culture/history (44 percent of category). This accounts for 7 percent of the total DBCs. In the
Symbolic DBC relationships category, local people account for 65 percent of the weight in
this category but overall this accounts for 11 percent of total DBCs in Phase 3 Scenario 1.
The most important factors in Phase 3, Scenario 1 are: tourist attractions (20 percent of
overall DBCs); local people (11 percent); climate (10 percent); entertainment (7 percent);
food (7 percent) and history and culture (7 percent). If tourist attractions and history and
culture are related – they totally account for 27 percent of total DBCs. DMOs must plan their
strategy ensuring places have backgrounds (history) and ensure access and experience for
tourists are rewarding. Climate which is uncontrollable seems to have a 10 percent impact
on the destination brand.
Phase 3: Post-consumption: scenario 2 – recommendation of a place
In Scenario 2 (for recommendations) functional DBCs account for 64 percent of total DBCs
(see Table VII). In the sub-category basic physical/infrastructural DBCs (see Table III), the
two key factors are accessibility (37 percent of category) and tourist attractions (60 percent).
Tourist’s attractions account for 12 percent of overall DBCs while accessibility accounts for 7
percent.
In basic product needs (see Table IV), economic value (50 percent of category) comes to
play highlighting its importance in perceived value and the risk payoff at the stage of actually
taking a decision. In terms of overall importance, economic value accounts for 15 percent of
total DBCs in this category. The other factors are climate (29 percent of category) and
accommodation (17 percent). Climate accounts for 9 percent of total DBCs in this category
and accommodation accounts for 5 percent.
For experiences (see Table V), the sensory factors play a key role in recommendation, they
are entertainment (32 percent of category) and food (33 percent). Entertainment accounts
for 6 percent of total DBCs while food contributes a 4 percent impact. This seems to be the
least important functional component.
In symbolic DBCs, looking at perceptions (see Table VI), safety plays a key role in
perceptions (49 percent of category). This has an overall 11 percent impact on brand.
Customers do consider perceptions of safety when recommending a place. In symbolic
relationship DBCs, local people have a 49 percent impact in the category which translated to
an overall impact of 6 percent in total DBCs for this phase. Overall the key brand
components that affect the destination brand are: economic value (15 percent of total
DBCs); tourist attractions (12 percent); safety (11 percent); climate (9 percent);
accommodation (7 percent); entertainment (6 percent) and local people (6 percent).
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Hygiene factors play an important role here. The importance of these factors are different
from Phase I suggesting that destinations must manage information and brand
communication keeping in mind various stages of the consumer decision making
process. Recommendations are a manifestation of loyalty and for destination loyalty,
DMOs needs to reinforce convenience, value, experience and relationships.
Phase 3: Post-consumption: scenario 2 – least liked destinations
For Scenario 3, least liked destinations, brand perceptions are equally matched between
functional and symbolic DBCs. This category had the least responses. This is the only place
symbolic DBCs match in terms of number of references with functions DBCs. Key functional
descriptors (see Table III) are accessibility (43 percent of category) in infrastructure; climate
(39 percent of category), and cleanliness and hygiene (29 percent of category) in basic
product needs (see Table IV); and food (63 percent of category) in experiences (see
Table V). Accessibility accounts for 9 percent of overall DBCs in this phase; climate accounts
for 8 percent; cleanliness and hygiene for 6 percent and food accounts for 8 percent.
Key symbolic descriptors (see Table VI) are safety (32 percent of category) in perceptions;
local people (58 percent), language (29 percent) in relationships and congestions and
noisiness (20 percent). Overall this translates to safety having an 8 percent overall impact on
DBCs; local people have a 14 percent impact, language a 7 percent impact and congestion
and noisiness (crowds) have a 4 percent overall impact. People with a 14 percent overall
impact in total DBCs affect negative word of mouth, followed by accessibility (9 percent).
Climate, food and safety each have an 8 percent impact of total DBCs. DMOs must realize
service providers of tourism products must be trained as must residents.
H3a states that post-consumption, customers distinguish between destinations on the basis
of symbolic properties. The study ?nds partial support only in scenario 3. Scenario 1 and 2
receives no support. Scenario 3 identi?es possible hygiene factors like convenience in
transportation to tourist places, perceptions of cleanliness and hygiene and availability of
food. DMOs must align customer perceptions of reality with reality for a positive experience.
‘‘Popular’’ may mean a manifestation of a crowd to one tourist, but while one views it
positively, another may think of it negatively as being too noisy. H3b receives little support as
the study ?nds that loyalty follows more frequently in terms of functional attributes rather than
symbolic attributes.
Some other interesting ?ndings are discussed. Relationships (symbolic DBCs) surprisingly
had no difference in responses in creation of a Phase 1, and in Phase 3, Scenario 2 and 3
(positive or negative). This could be because they are highly personal and situation speci?c
indicating that this need is for more emotionally and socially intelligent populations or people
who have travelled up the travel ladder. Perceptions of safety seem to be a recurring
underlying theme – destinations need to reassure leisure travelers about safety by
communicating this attribute both implicitly or explicitly. Customers also want destinations to
have key attractions marked out for them and accessibility to those attractions must be
convenient.
Overall importance of DBC type
Respondents prefer using functional DBCs (67 percent) rather than symbolic (33 percent) to
describe locations. This ?nding con?rms H4 which states: Overall when looking at brand
image, functional DBCs outweigh symbolic DBCs in importance.
Effect of gender and income on DBCs
Analysis was also conducted to test the existence of any relationship between respondent’s
gender and income. The analysis used is a multivariate discriminant analysis and is based
on the Wilk’s Lambda statistical test along with its p-value (see Tables IX-XI). Values of Wilk’s
lambda that are close to 1 indicate that the means of the group are not too different. The
p-values indicates whether the statistical test is signi?cant ( p-values less than 0.10) or not.
There is an absence of effect of income in all the responses in all phases.
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No gender effect occurred for any of the variables in all phases of the study with the
exception in least favorite place in Phase 3 (Scenario 3). Men use more symbolic DBCs to
describe their negative brand perception. Beerli and Martin (2004) found that women tend to
rank destinations more favorably than men; conversely we can assume men tend to rank
themmore negatively. Men also tend to emphasize social and psychological risk dimensions
(Kumf, 1978, see Mitchell, 1998), have greater expectations, higher involvement and hence
greater negative cues (Stendardi et al., 2006).
Discussion
The study con?rms the importance of functional DBCs as Hankinson (2005) ?nds. Function
DBCs are a growing concern as most destination branding is moving towards symbolic
imagery. Images cannot be static. Jacobson and Mizik (2008) state that brands that are able
to adapt to customers changing needs and trends do far better than more static brands. A
study by Gallarza et al. (2002) ?nds the balance between functional and psychological
attributes has not changed over 20 years though they acknowledge that image is not static.
Longitudinal studies may yield more ?ndings.
Some key ?ndings for DMOs are that they must communicate to customers keeping in mind
that different DBCs have different priorities for the customer at various stages of the decision
making process. For creation of a choice set, DMOs could focus on tourist attractions,
history or culture and the experience knowledge (especially if they don’t have strong
historical roots). To help the customer ?nalize a destination, DMOs must focus on providing
information on the brand that reinforces the destination accessibility, economic value,
comfort (accommodation), communication and safety. Reinforcement on heritage, culture
and people are areas that can help consumers take a decision to visit the destination.
Table IX Effects of gender on various phases
Wilks’ Lambda p-value
Phase 1 0.991 0.757
Phase 2 0.984 0.472
Phase 3 Best destination 0.991 0.772
þWOM 0.979 0.305
2WOM 0.762* 0.052*
Note: * Signi?cant at 10 percentage levels so group means are different
Table X Effects of income on various phases
Wilks’ Lambda p-value
Phase 1 0.987 0.434
Phase 2 0.989 0.658
Phase 3 Best destination 0.953 0.794
þWOM 0.979 0.438
2WOM 0.998 0.320
Table XI Phase 3, part 3 (least favorite)
Functional DBC (% gender dispersion) Symbolic (% gender dispersion)
Infrastructure Basic Experience Perceptions Relationship
Male 31 (63) 39 (56) 23 (58) 53 (63) 50 (68)
Female 18 (37) 31 (44) 17 (42) 31 (37) 24 (32)
Total 49 (100) 70 (100) 40 (100) 84 (100) 74 (100)
Note: Male:female ratio: 1.13: 1
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Post-destination experience, this study ?nds that when customers recollected their best
destination experiences, the top of mind recall descriptions are tourist attractions, culture or
heritage, people, food and entertainment. Worst locations were described by DBCs that
looked at hygiene factors like accessibility, cleanliness and hygiene, food, safety, local
people, language and noise. This suggests perceptions play a key role. DMOs must take
care not to build up expectations that cannot be met as it can then lead to negative word of
mouth. Climate seemed to be a constant factor in all phases and scenarios. Places like Goa,
have embraced the climate (sun/fun and monsoon season) and has done so relatively
successfully. For WOM, consumers chose experiences in terms of tourist attraction,
economic value, entertainment, food, local people and safety as DBCs. Food has a
tendency to be a hygiene factor and to become a motivator, DMOs must encourage food
establishments to cater to tourist group’s dietary restrictions. Restaurant classi?cations or
certi?cation can help increase tourist trust.
Future studies can analyze these attributes in detail for case speci?c destinations. There is a
need to conduct an empirical study on the how different DBCs may be correlated in terms of
importance based on type of destination (leisure, business or mixed). DBCs may vary
according to demographic characteristics especially education and exposure to media, and
this constitutes a vast area of potential research. Nevertheless, some limitations could be
seen in this study with a particular concern in the sample size and the fact that the study was
not longitudinal in nature. However, the key results of this study highlight the importance of
DBCs and its mutation based on various stages in the consumer decision making process.
The result will help DMOs plan their destination brand strategy.
By identifying, from the customer point of view, those DBCs with the most values,
destinations would be in a position to create a more customer-centric branding strategy and
further be able to differentiate from competitors focusing on combinations of components
that are unique. For example Okumus et al. (2007) ?nd food/cuisine a great potential place
differentiator. Chhabra et al. (2003) suggest that authenticity is positively correlated to higher
tourist expenditures and repeated staged events that re?ect authentic heritage result in
increase repeat visits. Umet al. (2006) argue that destination perceived attractiveness rather
than satisfaction is an important indicator of revisit intension.
Future studies might attempt to link the type of tourist preferences with motive. Tran and
Ralston (2006) ?nd that adventure tourismrelates to the need for achievement while the need
for af?liation is linked with culture tourism. This type of method may be applicable for service
branding as sectors like hospitality are important contributors to the tourism industry.
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No. 4, pp. 258-9.
Corresponding author
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan can be contacted at: melodenabalakrishnan@
uowdubai.ac.ae
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doc_380186811.pdf
This study matches destination brand components with motives and identifies those
components that are most important for the consumer during various stages of the decision process.
This study also aims to classify various functional and symbolic brand components. The findings take
the customers’ point-of-view in identifying those descriptors that affect consumer choice preference and
create destination loyalty.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Destination brand components
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan Ramzi Nekhili Clifford Lewis
Article information:
To cite this document:
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan Ramzi Nekhili Clifford Lewis, (2011),"Destination brand components", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 1 pp. 4 - 25
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Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
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Research, Vol. 5 Iss 3 pp. 291-305http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181111156989
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan, (2009),"Strategic branding of destinations: a framework", European J ournal of Marketing, Vol. 43 Iss 5/6
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Destination brand components
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan, Ramzi Nekhili and Clifford Lewis
Abstract
Purpose – This study matches destination brand components with motives and identi?es those
components that are most important for the consumer during various stages of the decision process.
This study also aims to classify various functional and symbolic brand components. The ?ndings take
the customers’ point-of-viewin identifying those descriptors that affect consumer choice preference and
create destination loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach – The research is exploratory. Through a detailed literature review,
destination brand components are identi?ed, simpli?ed and then classi?ed as symbolic or functional.
They are also classi?ed by motive. The review is followed by a quantitative study that uses open-ended
questions to ?nd the relationship between destination brand components and the stage of decision
making. This study also presents a conceptual model with taxonomy of brand components.
Findings – Functional brand components seemto play a major role in a consumer’s description of place
brands during the various decision making stages. This ?nding highlights the importance of stressing
functional components in the destination’s branding strategy.
Originality/value – This study is the ?rst of its type and can serve as a platform for future research,
practically helping destinations create more effective communication.
Keywords Brands, Brand awareness, Symbolism
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Importance of brand image
Governments are investing over 12 percent of world investments into tourism-related
industries and infrastructure; receiving revenues of an average of ten percent of the world
GDP (Arnold, 2007; WTTC, 2007). Destination marketing has a tremendous scope to grow.
However, though the industry is growing, its share is declining with respect to the export of
commercial services from32 percent in 2000 to 27 percent in 2006 (WTO, 2007). A symbiotic
relationship between destination marketing organizations (DMOs), local governments and
private sector can have a positive effect on destination growth (Bennett, 1999; Prideaux and
Cooper, 2003). With more destination and place brands emerging, the challenges of
branding are increasing (assuming destinations are service brands, see Moorthi, 2002).
Destination branding is complex because the concept includes elements of product, service
and corporate branding. Destination brands act as an umbrella brand to a multiplicity of
products which may or may not be related and has a diversity of customers (Balakrishnan,
2008; Fan, 2006). Destination branding falls under tourism destination image (TDI) (see
Gallarza et al., 2002 for a background). Brand image is a function of the person interpreting
the image; this makes destination branding harder to study (Meenaghan, 1995). When
differentiation between destinations is low, it is the brand image that creates a perceptual
difference 35-65 percent of the time (Hosany et al., 2007; Palumbo and Herbig, 2000).
PAGE 4
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VOL. 5 NO. 1 2011, pp. 4-25, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181111111726
Melodena Stephens
Balakrishnan is based in the
Faculty of Business and
Management, and Ramzi
Nekhili is based in the
Faculty of Finance and
Accounting, both at the
University of Wollongong in
Dubai, Dubai, United Arab
Emirates. Clifford Lewis is
based in the Faculty of
Commerce, University of
Wollongong, Australia.
Received: November 2008
Revised: December 2008
Accepted: March 2009
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A strong correlation exits between favorable image and intention to visit (Leisen, 2001).
Ataman and U
¨
lengin (2003, p. 246) ?nd that consumers ‘‘tend to choose brands whose
perceived images are similar to consumers’ actual, ideal, social, ideal-social and
situational-ideal-social images’’. This statement means perceived image self-congruity
affects brand preferences and hence sales. A strong support for brands to have a
multiplicity of image attributes is indicated. The same study suggests that 90 percent of the
variation in sales (this study involves the Turkish beverage industry) is being caused by the
brand’s image while only 10 percent is due to factors like distribution, advertising, brand
loyalty.
Destinations being more complex can have different results. Destination marketing has four
potential outlets for marketing information (Moutinho, 1987): primary or word of mouth
(WOM); secondary (mass media), tertiary (travel agents, tour operators, exhibitions) and
fourthly (personal experiences). Destination image is a sum of complex messages given by
a variety of stakeholders, through a variety of communication mediums. Incongruent
advertisements for familiar brands have easier brand recall, but harder advertisement recall;
while incongruent advertisements for non-familiar brands have harder brand recall (Lange
and Dahle´ n, 2003).
Country of origin (COO) for products affects brand equity. Positive COO affects brand
loyalty, brand distinctiveness, brand awareness and brand associations (Yasin et al., 2007).
Lee and Ganesh (1999) suggest that when consumers are not familiar with a country, they
rely more on COO information as a re?ection of a destination’s image and countries with a
favorable image receive a more positive country product evaluation from consumers. While
consumers tend to categorize brands by COO, their perceptions are often inaccurate
(Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2008). When customers are unfamiliar with a country, they
tend to be reluctant to trust the product image for consumer goods (Lee and Ganesh, 1999).
By extrapolation, this lack of familiarity will also dissuade travelers from buying a destination
as a product of investment opportunity as the risks of destination investment are higher.
Tourism is used as an example of halo marketing that helps con?rm or modify a target
customer’s self-image and helps match social motivations with the customer’s reference
group (Ross-Wooldridge, 2004). Research indicates that consumers use projective
techniques to identify or associate brand image characteristics (Hussey and Duncombe,
1999). The ?t between corporate (in this case overall destination image) and the service
extension (destination sub-products like hospitality, infrastructure) must be strong otherwise
it affects perception on sub-product quality and overall image of the corporate brand (Pina
et al., 2006). Destination brand associations are multi-dimensional since they differ across
various products and also because there is a dependency on how well known the brand
image is (Low and Lamb, 2000; Kirmani et al., 1999). For destinations to maintain image,
they must monitor sub-products quality.
All these factors can affect customer loyalty. Public relations in?uences customer loyalty
conditional to a positive brand image (Hsieh and Li, 2008). Through a qualitative and
quantitative study, O’Cass and Grace (2004) ?nd service brand associations relate
positively toward the attitudes directed towards a branded service which in turn relates
positively to the intension to use. A study on brand components may lead to additional
insights on customer propensity to visit a destination or purchase of a destination
experience. These insights should allow for a more long-term strategic approach for
success. Preference for quality and greater place attachment leads to higher expenditure
(Alegre and Juaneda, 2006). Hence image of destinations is a key aspect of the branding
strategy.
Destination brand image is an intricate topic and the concept of image needs to be
simpli?ed into key components; these components must be classi?ed into elements of the
destination brand components (DBC) and then these DBCs must be related to what
customer value (see Hankinson, 2005; Leisen, 2001). The nature of the study of destination
brand components is multidisciplinary in nature (Gallarza et al., 2002). Lowand Lamb (2000)
?nd brand associations for various products are different and further are in?uenced by
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brand familiarity. This ?nding suggests that DBCs may change as consumers move up from
various stages of the decision making process as the consumption of destination
sub-products will vary during the entire process. This indicates a gap in literature with
respect to importance of DBCs and the decision making process.
Research objective
Image and perception relate closely to each other (White, 2005). Brand image affects
perception of a destination. Meenaghan (1995) explains that though the image of a
destination sent to the customer is controllable, the image that the target customer receives
or perceives is not. This study focuses on learning what brand components best describe
destination brands and their impact on brand image from a customer point of view. The
research has three sub-objectives. First there is a need to simplify existing knowledge on
DBCs. Second, existing literature in brand components needs to be classi?ed into the
simpli?ed form. Third, the importance of DBCs at each stage in the decision making process
needs to be evaluated in terms of overall brand image. The nature of this study is exploratory,
and its key focus is on DBCs. Through the development of a conceptual framework, the
paper will present a practical platform for destination marketing organizations (DMOs) to
build brand strategies.
First through a detailed literature review, current popular classi?cation of brand components
is identi?ed. Based on the de?nitions of the classi?cations of brand components and their
areas of in?uence, the various components identi?ed are segregated. Second, these DBCs
are related to the Pierce travel experience ladder through the motives behind them. This
relationship is used to formulate a conceptual framework and present taxonomy of DBCs.
The four hypotheses derived from the literature review and conceptual model are tested.
Finally the results are discussed and future research areas are identi?ed.
Literature review
A literature review on DBCs (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; McWilliam and de Chernatony, 1989;
Echtner and Ritchie, 1993; Hankinson, 2005; Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Wood, 2007)
identi?es the following key brand attributes: functional and symbolic or intangible and
tangible attributes. Brand constructs include personality and emotions (Aaker, 1997; de
Chernatony, 1997). Maklan and Knox (1997) ?nd that brands can be measured using
variables like interpersonal relationship, word of mouth, country of origin, names and usage
intensions. The de Chernatony and Riley’s (1997) double vortex model suggests than in
addition to functional and symbolic capabilities; legal identities, heritage and values, and
psycho-social match also affects brand image.
Functional brand components
Two attitudes drive customers when purchasing brands (Cooper, 1989). The ?rst attitude is
utilitarian in nature and involves brand perceptions of bene?ts, physical justi?cations, beliefs
about value for money and availability. This attitude is commonly reinforced by functional
attributes of the brand. Functional DBCs relate to the core function/service of the brand
(Maklan and Knox, 1997) which is associated with immediate practical needs (Bhat and
Reddy, 1998; Wood, 2007), rational assessment of product bene?ts or functional
performance (de Chernatony et al., 2000; Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Wood, 2000).
Functional characteristics are mainly tangible in nature and are often de?ned as being
measurable (Hankinson, 2004). The product can manifest as functional characteristics
(Mowle and Merrilees, 2005) or physical attributes which contribute to the intrinsic
advantages of the product (Orth and Marchi, 2007). Wood (2007) estimates that the
products’ functional performance in?uences the products’ market image by as much as 20
percent.
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Symbolic brand components
Symbolic components represent the other common brand component identi?able in
literature review. Symbolic components are those features and bene?ts that are over and
above the core product (Wood, 2000); and relate to non-product attributes (Keller, 1993).
Symbolic brand components relate strongly to intangible components (Hankinson, 2005;
Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Wood, 2000) which are likely to be more extrinsic in nature to the
product (Keller, 1993). Symbolic DBCs satisfy needs over and above functional
requirements; and manifest as higher order needs like self-expression, self-esteem,
prestige (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Hankinson, 2005; Wood, 2007); emotional values and
feelings (Mowle and Merrilees, 2005); and social approval (Hankinson, 2005; Meenaghan,
1995). Since they are psychological, they cannot be directly observed (Echtner and Ritchie,
1993) and the meaning develops through the individuals’ socialization process (McWilliam
and de Chernatony, 1989).
Experiential brand components
Hankinson (2004, 2005) and de Chernatony and Riley (1997, p. 1076) identify the
experiential components of the brand as the symbolic components that represent higher
order needs. Experiential components may be manifest in how the brand relates to the
customer self-concept, intuitive likes and dislikes, its ability to convey exclusivity (how it
relates to other customers), customer lifestyle, way of life and fashionability (Cooper, 1989;
Solomon, 1983). In the three-tier brand creation model, higher tiers correspond to emotional
and value services which are essentially non-product attributes that are external to core
product function looking at dimensions of the marketing mix, imagery, feelings and
experience (Keller, 1998; Maklan and Knox, 1997). Being a sensory process, experiential
marketing in the context of tourism and hospitality marketing, creates value through
entertainment, educational, estheticism or escapism (Williams, 2006). A 13 country study by
Lindstrom (2005) indicates that 99 percent of brand communication focuses on two of the
key senses – sight and sound, though emotional connections are more effective as it uses
the synergy of all ?ve senses. O’Cass and Grace (2004) suggest that people, word of mouth,
servicescape (ambience) and experiences are important when considering service brands.
Destination brand components: a simpli?ed classi?cation
Two basic underlying dimensions of brands exist: a functional dimension consisting of
tangible or practical attributes or the delivery of key bene?ts; and a symbolic or emotional
dimension consisting of more intangible attributes (Mowle and Merrilees, 2005; Sirgy and
Su, 2000). There is an overlap in areas, for example in the case of tangible reminders,
souvenirs/memorabilia may be functional as they are tangible yet may have a symbolic
association (memories) with the brand (Human, 1999; Gordon, 1986; Williams, 2006).
Destinations have an intangible component and intangible products need tangible
references points to help customers evaluate their perceptions of the service offerings
(McDonald et al., 2001). Hankinson (2004) ?nds image attributes like history, heritage and
culture frequently associated with tangibles like buildings and architectural environment.
Symbolic aspects like interactions (between consumer or/and staff) are manifest through
physical aspects like staff uniforms and training (McDonald et al., 2001). Chhabra et al.
(2003) ?nd that authenticity of heritage tourism (functional DBC) depends on perceived
authenticity which is partly controlled by media and to a greater extent by WOM
(symbolic-DBC).
DBCs and motivations
Keller (1993) associates functional bene?ts with Maslow’s motivation. Pearce (1991) extends
this concept of motivation speci?cally to the tourism context. Functional DBCs have an
association with basic motivations like physiological and safety needs, which involve a
desire for problem removal or avoidance (Keller, 1993). Organic images which are
perceptions built over a long period of time and are strongly associated with the brand, are
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actually functional in nature (Hankinson, 2004). Lower-order needs also manifest through
functional destination brand components.
Experiences, which are symbolic, fall under motivations like social needs, esteem, personal
expression/self-actualization (Keller, 1993). Higher-order needs as described earlier
manifest as symbolic components. There is an overlap of motives with functional and
symbolic brand components. The brand components can be identi?ed from a variety of
sources (see articles like Anholt, 2006; Balakrishnan, 2009; Hankinson, 2004). Within each
motive we can look at components as either functional or symbolic.
Physiological motives relate to the destinations intrinsic bene?ts. They are bene?ts that relate
to the core of the destination service that a customer wants to experience like adventure and
culture and destination purpose (de Chernatony and Riley, 1997). Physiological DBCs are
pull factors: tangibles (physical places) or intangibles (rest and relaxation) (Lawet al., 2004).
Attractions act as pull factors for place attachment and development (Gross et al., 2008).
Physiological motives act as offshoots of the intrinsic bene?ts. These motives are destination
descriptors and increasingly relate to the context (Hankinson, 2005). For example: is the
destination suitable for young children, entertainment, enjoyment and recreation
(Hankinson, 2004, 2005). Hankinson (2004) describe them as functional clusters of
attributes associated with a destination’s economic activity, accessibility or even organic
images associated with history, culture and heritage. They can be rules and regulations like
visa restrictions and entry charges which act as barriers for entry and require policies to be
put in place (Trueman et al., 2004). Physiological motives can also be sensory (besides
visual). Associations with blue skies, sunny weather, yellow sand, emerald islands, and
green forests.
Food is a functional DBC as it is a basic requirement (Gross et al., 2008) and can be an
important destination differentiator. Halal food is an important criterion for Muslims, pure
vegetarian food (no egg, ginger, onion, garlic, meat including ?sh) for Jains and kosher food
for Jews. These dietary requirements can become a destination barrier. Tangibles, acquired
through shopping are functional elements and appeal to the visual element even aiding
recall (Hankinson, 2004). As explained before, these shopping items can also be symbolic
components. Interpretations or perceptions of destination become symbolic attributes when
they relate to the senses (pyramids as a representation of Egypt, Petra for Jordan, Statue of
Liberty for New York or as a symbol of freedom). The perception of the personality of a place
(personal interpretation/experience) is symbolic (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005) and affects
customer satisfaction with destination experience.
Motivation factors like safety needs manifest themselves as functional DBCs. They span
attributes like basic accommodation (Hankinson, 2004), accessibility and cost (Hankinson,
2005). Cleanliness and hygiene which are functional in nature, act as security needs for
physical health (Orth and Marchi, 2007; Solomon, 1983). Safety motivations are based in
symbolic perceptions (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). It expresses itself as tolerance of the visible
signs of poverty. Someone who has a prior experience of poverty will not ?nd it too disturbing
but for ?rst-time experiencers, it may spoil the destination experience. Destination
consumers may perceive the presence of police on horseback less threatening than police
in cars or army security personnel standing with guns. These perceptions (barbed wire at
checkpoints, whether guards smile, riots or even the recent Mumbai blast) affect destination
experience.
Social DBCs which are symbolic satisfy the consumers self expression needs (Bhat and
Reddy, 1998) while sending social signals on behalf of their consumer (Meenaghan, 1995).
Relationship needs are the associations customers develop within the place with other
people like celebrities and indigenous population who are considered locals to that
destination (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). Relationship with other tourists and friends are an
example of self-congruence which is also symbolic (Hankinson, 2005). The quality of
friendliness of locals has been found to be a symbolic component that can affect brand
image (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). However Baloglu and Brinberg (1997) perceive it to be
functional. Friendliness of locals may be functional DBCs prior to visit, when it forms part of
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the expectation or is a representative of the place (natives) as it acts as a key motive for
travel. Local’s friendliness becomes symbolic when the customer looks back at the
memories of the experience, and it affects word of mouth (Gross et al., 2008). Keller (1993)
relates this symbolic DBC to the need for social approval but the attribute of friendliness also
has overtones with esteem needs.
Esteem needs are linked to psychological or emotional needs which are symbolic in nature
(Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997). For the travelers it manifests itself through self-congruence
reinforcement by ‘‘being in a happening place’’ (Hankinson, 2005) and exerting self and
personal preferences and values. Ambience tends to be symbolic (Hankinson, 2005). For
the traveler and his social circle, it becomes a conversation topic and reinforces lifestyle
through destination encounter and choice (Gross et al., 2008). The brand gets an aura of
exclusivity, prestige and fashionability (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Mowle and Merrilees, 2005;
Solomon, 1983; Wood, 2007). The halo effect adds to the reputation of the place (Simeon,
2006) and this reinforces the reputation/image of a person who visits that same place.
Self actualization is the ?nal state. Self actualization is symbolic as it links to self congruity
and the personality of a place becoming a re?ection of the traveler (Hankinson, 2004;
Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). Self-actualization focuses on self-discovery and growth (through the
experience), re?ecting also in celebration of special occasions as a symbolic representation
of self-expression (de Chernatony and Riley, 1997; Gross et al., 2008; Mowle and Merrilees,
2005) as the experience creates (lasting) emotions (Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997). Heroes
and heroines are part of the functional attributes inherent with a place (Hankinson, 2005)
however they can have symbolic characteristics especially if linked to self-congruity.
Figure 1 and Table I presents a conceptual model that looks at how travel motives can be
correlated with functional and symbolic DBCs as discussed above. Table I correlates DBCs
with motivations. Motives can be correlated to both functional DBCs and symbolic DBCs,
reinforcing the theory that brands can have a dyadic nature (Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Mowle
and Merrilees, 2005). As one moves up the travel ladder in terms of higher order motives,
more symbolic DBCs become relevant.
Figure 1 The brand component – need hierarchy linkage
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DBC and consumer decision-making process
An important but challenging aspect of branding is consistency that is achievable by
‘‘eliminating negative cues . . . that diminishes, contradicts or distracts from the unity of the
theme’’ (Williams, 2006, p. 490).
Brand image is longitudinal and can refer to various orientations of time: past, present and
future (Williams, 2006). Three focus stages occur for this research. Destination brand image
formed during consumption was not chosen because at this stage, the process of
consumption evaluation would be incomplete and true destination image would only be
acquired post-consumption. Destination image is a sumof cumulative experiences and in its
formation process is dif?cult to pinpoint a single consumption opportunity (Chen and
Gursoy, 2001).
Table I Destination brand components (DBC) as a function of Pierce travel ladder
DBC Tangible/visual/functional Intangible/symbolic
Physiological Intrinsic bene?ts: service delivery process,
adjectives, Ingredient/associated brands,
sponsorships, events
Features: adjectives; physical justi?cations, Business
tourism facilities, commercial criteria, events,
activities, shopping, things to do, functionality,
facilities, amenities
Sight: name, logo, trade mark, graphics, symbols,
slogans, colors, servicescape
Other 4 senses: smell, taste, touch, sound
(if distinctive to place for identi?cation)
Tangibles: souvenirs, shopping items, postcards,
pictures, movies, ads – Images; information;
buildings architecture, facilities, places of interest,
scenery
Interpretations and seeding of ?ve senses and
realistic portrayal of expectations
Security/safety Safety: physical, mental, emotional, perceived, and
visual reinforcement
Organic images – familiarity and ability to identify
visual evidence
Convenience: access, facilities and amenities,
infrastructure, communication, currency
Service: government, tourism, information, hospitality
etc
Intrinsic bene?ts: relevance and representation of the
personality of place as per perception (culture,
heritage, ambience)
Features: perception of ability to satisfy intrinsic
needs
Value/expense perceptions
Safety: perception
Convenience: perception
Service: satisfaction
Conform with social values/WOM
Social People as a symbol: leaders, dress, outward local
customs, rituals and ability to adopt. Social
segregation when required and ability to deliver as
per perceptions.
Travelers-Residents Relationship & bond, familiarity,
interaction and empathy. Traveler-Traveler familiarity,
interaction and congruence. Traveler-Social Circle:
conversation topic Image/roles of People associated
with service delivery or destination
Esteem Ingredient/associated brands, sponsorships, events Perception of others’ perception (WOM, public
relations, publicity; international reputation) – how it
adds value to self-esteem
Halo effect association with other ‘‘brands’’, image
perceptions and how this adds value to esteem
Self-actualization Personal visual transformation from experience (self,
gifts and house/habit adoption)
Self-image congruence, personal values,
self-personality; lifestyle, self-expression
Event/occasion association: ambience
Experience that creates an
emotions/mood/association with certain senses
Internalization and familiarity of legends of
heroes/heroine (living, dead and ?ctitious)
Ability to help traveler walk away with personal
growth, discovery and ful?llment
Adapted from Balakrishnan (2009)
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Consumers’ decision-making process of a destination begins with the customers’ ability to
make sense of the vast quantities of information collected prior to consumption and
purchase and (Kotler and Gertner, 2004). By a process of elimination, which is normally
image based; an individual selects a destination they wish or want to visit (Gartner, 1989;
Goodrich, 1978; Leisen, 2001; p. 50). Decision making for consumers become easier when
destinations focus on a distinct set of tangible and functional destination attributes
(Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002; Woodside and Trappey, 2001). Hankinson (2004) ?nds that
functional attributes have a stronger linkage with overall quality and hence destination
attractiveness. This is phase I of the decision making process: creation of a wish list.
H1. Customers distinguish between destinations based on functional DBCs for creating
a wish list prior to consumption.
Studies by Caldwell and Freire (2004); de Chernatony et al. (2000); Jamal and Goode (2001)
and Mowle and Merrilees (2005) ?nd symbolic properties rather than functional qualities are
what the consumer prefers and what gives a destination a greater sustainable competitive
advantage. This preference is important for selection of destinations (prior to consumption)
to create a wish list. Hankinson (2004) ?nds ambience (symbolic DBC) has a strong
in?uence on selection. This is Phase 2: ?nalizing the choice of destinations from the wish list
where destinations are substitutable.
H2. Customers distinguish between destinations in a choice set predominantly on the
basis of symbolic DBC when selecting the ?nal destination to visit.
Past trip experiences affect a tourist’s selection of a destination and this experience has a
direct impact on perceptions of safety (Chen and Gursoy, 2001). Since this is a perception of
safety, it is functional but since it can be in?uenced by other people’s perceptions and
experiences, it overlaps with symbolic DBCs. For customers who enjoy variety (which is a
large segment), satisfaction is a key driver and though they would not revisit, they will
recommend (Castro et al., 2007). This WOM acts like a halo-image and a benchmark for
other destinations. WOMhelps the traveler move up the travel ladder to higher order motives
due to the accumulated information collected, experience and increased expectations.
Recommendations can also act as a surrogate for loyalty and can lead to destination
performance (Reichheld, 2003).
Phase 3 is the next phase in the decision-making process: post consumption experiences.
The study includes three scenarios:
1. Best destination. This is an evaluation of an experience and relates to WOM. Travelers
were asked to rank destinations in their mind and evaluate their best destination using
three attributes.
2. Most consumers rarely revisit leisure destinations as the choice is so large, hence loyalty
is measured through unsolicited positive WOM. The question asked is ‘‘Which
destinations are you willing to recommend?’’
3. This deals with perceptions of the worst location where customers would not want to visit.
This can affect negative word of mouth. This evaluation is an internal process. Loyalty is
based on WOM and is a relationship or bond between a place and a traveler; hence is
symbolic.
H3a. Customers distinguish between destinations (post-consumption) on the basis of
symbolic properties.
H3b. Customers de?ne destination loyalty by using symbolic attributes.
Hankinson (2004) reports functional attributes are most important when differentiating
between destinations (looking at the broader context of countries).
H4. Overall when looking at brand image, functional DBCs outweigh symbolic DBCs in
importance.
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Method
A self-administered questionnaire was used to interview respondents. The questionnaire
had three sections based on the three key decision making stages. Besides demographic
details, the ?rst part of the questionnaire (Phase 1) dealt with DBCs that affect the customers’
wish list. Phase 2 dealt with DBCs that were important for the customer in ?nalizing the
destination from the wish list. Phase 3 dealt with the experience of the customer at a chosen
destination, post-consumption. It looked at three scenarios:
1. factors used to describe the best destination;
2. DBCs important for recommendation; and
3. DBCs important for describing least favorite destination.
Open-ended questions were used to understand the relative importance of DBCs used in
describing the brand image of a destination for Phase 1 and 3. In Phase 2 a ?ve-point Likert
scale was used to identify factors important to the customer. These factors were short-listed
based on existing studies conducted by Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Beerli and Martin
(2004) and Hankinson (2004, 2005). The analyses of the open-ended questions were based
on an approach adopted by Finn et al. (2000) and Ibrahimand Gill (2005). Similar responses
to the open ended questions were grouped together and categorized under common
themes; thus allowing the analysis of those factors. For pre-testing purposes, the
questionnaire was administered to a small group of ten respondents who were later
interviewed for their opinion about the structure and readability of the questionnaire. Based
on their suggestions, a few minor changes in design, content and instructions were
implemented when the study was carried out. The pre-test also indicated that on average,
the respondent would take around ten minutes to complete the various sections of the
questionnaire. This is an important factor as time available to ?ll the questionnaire was short.
Dubai was chosen as the test market. Of its population, 80 percent is expatriates and it is
also a tourist destination (Balakrishnan, 2008). The sample was selected based on a quota
sampling method by which one-third of the sample was obtained by interviewing residents of
the country of study while the remaining two-thirds of the sample represent tourists and other
individuals visiting the country. The respondents were selected by adopting a convenience
sample based on factors such as accessibility, ability to speak English, and willingness to
participate in the research project.
Some challenges occurred in collecting the data. In Dubai, collecting market research
information in public places without permission from authorities is not allowed. To overcome
this limitation, two strategies were used. Residents were contacted based on referrals using
personal networks. Tourists were mainly contacted through institutions such as the
Government of Dubai Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing (DTCM) which
provided the necessary contacts and permissions within hotel groups and tourist attractions.
These contacts included hotel groups such as the Accor group (The Novotel Trade Centre
Hotel and The So?tel City Centre Hotel) as well as tourist attractions such as the Big Bus.
These sites were selected based on judgment so as to best represent the population of
interest (Jankowicz, 2000). This also ensured that we had a signi?cant sample of English
speakers and leisure travelers.
A total of 450 questionnaires were distributed and 300 were returned resulting in a response
rate of 66.67 percent. After eliminating questionnaires whose responses were incomplete or
invalid in regard to the scope of this study, a sample size of 289 respondents were chosen to
represent the target population. Though it is recognized that the sample size is small; the
sample size is comparable to other studies of a similar nature (Castaneda et al., 2007; Chen
and Gursoy, 2001; Law et al., 2004).
Respondents’ characteristics
The target population for this study was pre-speci?ed as individuals who travel for tourism or
other leisure purposes and who pay for their package themselves. Of the satisfactorily
completed questionnaires, 53 percent of the sample was male respondents while 47 percent
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of the sample represented female respondents. In regards to income, 19 percent of the
respondents earned an income of less than 10,000 dollars per annum; 13 percent of the
respondents earned an annual income between the 10,000 to 20,000 dollars; 12 percent of
the respondents earned an annual income between 20,000 to 30,000 dollars; 12 percent of
the respondents fell within the 30,000 to 40,000 dollars annual income range and 31 percent
earned an annual income more than 40,000 dollars. Further, the research project was
conducted across 46 nationalities with the most dominant nationalities being Indians (25
percent of the sample) and the British (representing 13 percent of the total sample). With
regard to family status, 42 percent of the sample was single individuals while 57 percent
represented family individuals with an average of two children. Table II shows the details of
the sample.
Analysis and discussion
The qualitative data were ?rst grouped into common themes based on semantic expression
and variation and then regrouped into sub-sections under functional and symbolic DBCs
(see Tables III-VIII). Functional DBCs have three categories:
Table II Sample demographics characteristics
Factor Total Percentage
Gender
Male 150 51.9
Female 137 47.41
Income range
Less than 10,000 55 19.03
10,000 to 20,000 38 13.15
20,000 to 30,000 36 12.46
30,000 to 40,000 34 11.76
More than 40,000 90 31.14
Nationality
Indian 73 25.26
British 39 13.49
UAE 22 7.61
Filipino 15 5.19
Sri Lankan 12 4.15
Lebanese 11 3.81
Australian, French each 9 3.11
Jordanian, Pakistani each 8 2.77
Canadian 7 2.42
American, Egyptian each 6 2.08
German 5 1.73
South African 4 1.38
Austrian, Danish, Irish, Sudanese, Syrian each 3 1.04
Cameroon, Dutch, Finnish, Indonesian each 2 0.69
Iranian, Kuwaiti, Mauritian, Nigerian, Romanian, Swedish each 2 0.69
Algerian, Armenian, Bangladeshi, Belgian each 1 0.35
Bruneian, Greek, Italian, Japanese, Malaysian, New Zealander each 1 0.35
Norwegian, Singaporean, Yugoslavian, Swiss, Thai, Turk each 1 0.35
Marital status
Single 120 41.52
Family 166 57.44
Number of children (if individual falls into family criteria)
No children 47 28.31
One child 34 20.48
Two children 51 30.72
Three children 24 14.46
Four children 8 4.82
Five children 2 1.2
Average children 1.506
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Table III Responses for functional DBCs: basic physical/infrastructural
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Basic physical/infrastructure needs (DBCF1)
Accessibility (total) 149 8
Accessibility from home country 3 12 17
Accessibility to other destinations 9 3 3
Local accessibility 6 194 10 22 21
Location 2
Animals/wildlife 9 3 0
Architecture/monuments 7 7 1
Availability of travel packages 2
Beautiful sites 26 28 13 3
Natural sites/scenaries/attractions and
environment 75 50 26 6
Historic places/architecture/constructions/
landmarks 23 10 5
Modern architecture and constructions 3 1 0
Places within destination/tourist attractions 69 30 23 11
Religious sites 4 1 0
Media (photographs) 3
Revisit place/attractions 8
Tourist attractions not visited on previous trip 13
Total 237 343 176 114 49
Table V Responses for functional DBCs: experiences (related to product)
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Experiences
Adventure 8 5 3
Entertainment and enjoyment/recreational 39 140 48 32 13
Food 35 175 49 24 25
Children – activities 7 5 1
Shopping 35 140 32 7
Special occasions and events 1 127 3 0
Uniqueness sites/poverty 3 184 6 8 2
Total 128 766 148 75 40
Table IV Responses for functional DBCs: basic product needs
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Basic product needs (DBCF2)
Cleanliness and hygiene 7 9 6 20
Climate 54 179 71 50 27
Commercial and business 13 3 0 2
Accommodation/hotels/resorts 2 211 10 29 2
Cost or economic value 17 192 22 87 13
Holiday and leisure 12 3 1
Quality of telecommunication 145
Rules and regulations 1 6
Special meeds 1
Total 106 727 119 173 70
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1. basic physical/infrastructure needs;
2. basic product needs; and
3. experiences (which overlap with basic product needs).
According to the brand component-need hierarchy linkage, these three categories fall
between physiological, security and safety needs. Destination perceptions and
relationships can be grouped into symbolic DBCs. According to the brand
component-need hierarchy linkage, symbolic DBCs fall between social, esteem and
self-actualization needs. After categorizing the DBCs, quantitative analysis was conducted
by looking at mean responses (see Table VIII). The mean responses for DBCpreferences are
different across the various phases.
Phase 1: Creating a wish list
Overall in phase 1, functional DCBs are more in number (61 percent) than symbolic DBCs.
This supports H1. In creating a wish list, the study ?nds that basic physical/infrastructure
(functional DBCF1, see Table VII) accounts for 26 percent of total DBCs. In this category key
tourist perceptions of the brand are dependent on places to see which form92 percent of the
sub-category. The importance for destination marketing organizations projecting places is
further reinforced by the fact that places to see accounts for 29 percent of the total DBCs
(see Table III).
In the second functional DBC category, basic product, key touchpoint for the brand is
weather which accounts for 51 percent of the DBCF2 category (see Table IV). Overall this
accounts for 7 percent of the total DBCs in terms of importance in Phase 1. In the third
functional DBCcategory, experiences (DBCF3 see Table V), three factors stand out. The ?rst
is entertainment (30 percent of category), food (27 percent of category) and shopping (27
percent of the category). Combined, they account for 12 percent of total DBCs in Phase 1.
Table VI Responses for symbolic DBCs: perceptions and relationships
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Factor Want to visit Choice set Best destination Recommendations Least favorite
Perceptions
Multi-cultural 3 2 0
History/culture 78 158 50 25 7
Personality/perception of place 19 11 2 9
Political issues 4
Popularity of place (noisy/congested) 4 0 2 17
Quality of life/lifestyle (not suitable for tourist) 12 5 1 4
Celebrities 2
Similar to other countries/destinations 6
WOM 15 1 0
Safety 3 218 8 63 27
Relaxation and peace (boring) 13 18 5 6
Positive emotions 11 4 0
Experience knowledge/not been there before 57 9 5
Personal experience 24
Previous experience 7 2 5
Total 217 376 115 129 85
Relationships
Local people 33 125 75 36 42
Other tourists 66
Friendliness of locals (lack of relationships) 190 1
Service/facilities/hospitality 2 6 15 10
Language/communications 5 4 8 21
Relationships (friends/family) 39 30 0
Characteristics of others wanting to go there 14
Total 79 381 115 73 73
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Analysis of the ?rst category of symbolic DBCs, perceptions (DBCS1), the study ?nds history
and culture account for 36 percent of the category, while experience knowledge accounts
for 26 percent (see Table VI). Overall they respectively account for 10 percent and 7 percent
respectively of the cumulative total of DBCs for Phase 1. Newer locations with little past
history need to focus on the experience knowledge. In the symbolic DBC category,
relationships (DBCS2); local people account for 42 percent of the category; and relationship
with family and friends account for 49 percent (see Table VI). Local people and relationships
together account for 10 percent of the total DBCs.
In summation, key DBCs that a leisure tourist perceives as important in the overall context for
creating a wish list are: tourist attractions (28 percent); history culture and experience
knowledge (26 percent); food, shopping and entertainment (12 percent); climate (7 percent)
and local people and relationships (10 percent). Leisure tourists choose a wish list with an
objective to see or experience something. From a DMO point of view it is important to match
the customer pro?le with activity.
Phase 2: Selection of a choice set
In Phase 2, for selection of a choice set, customers rank functional brand components (71
percent) as key drivers of the brand. Symbolic DBCs account for just 29 percent of the total
DBCs (see Table III). The ?ndings do not support H2.
Accessibility (total and local) seems to be a unanimously important DBC (100 percent) for
basic physical/infrastructure needs (see Table III). Overall, accessibility accounts for 13
percent of the total DBCs in this Phase. In the basic product category (see Table IV), the
factors that stand out are: climate (25 percent of the category), accommodation (29
percent), economic value (26 percent) and telecommunications (20 percent). The impact of
each as a percentage of total DBCs in this phase, affecting the choice selection ranges
between 8-6 percent.
In the product-related experiences (see Table V); the factors that seem important are
uniqueness of site (24 percent of this category), food (23 percent), recreation/entertainment
(18 percent); shopping (18 percent) and celebration of events/special occasions (17
percent). These factors each account for 7-5 percent of the total DBCs in Phase 2.
In the symbolic category of perceptions (see Table VI), a clear focus on safety (58 percent of
category) and history/culture in perceptions (42 percent) occurs. Safety has an overall
impact of 8 percent in contribution to total DBCs for this category. History and culture is 6
percent. In the symbolic category of relationships (see Table VI), local people and their
friendliness cannot be ignored as they contribute to 83 percent of the category almost
equally, and overall account for 12 percent of total DBC.
For Phase 2, selection from a choice set, the DBC emphasis from a tourist point of view on
the overall brand is ?rst accessibility (13 percent of total DBCs); accommodation (8 percent);
safety (8 percent); climate (7 percent); uniqueness of site (7 percent); economic value (6
percent); food (6 percent); history and culture (6 percent); local people (6 percent);
friendliness of local people (6 percent); and shopping (5 percent). It is interesting that
hygiene factors are important in this stage and can prevent a place customer from deciding
Table VIII Mean responses
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Functional DBC
Basic physical/infrastructure mean 0.82 1.19 0.61 0.39 0.17
Basic product mean 0.37 2.52 0.41 0.60 0.24
Experience mean 0.44 2.65 0.51 0.26 0.14
Symbolic DBC
Perception mean 0.75 1.30 0.40 0.45 0.29
Relationship mean 0.27 1.32 0.40 0.25 0.26
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to buy a leisure product. Also this category had the most responses; more than three times
the number than any other phase. This is a neglected area and can affect brand perception
of a place. The perception of the people of a place also has a high impact on brand value of a
place. This reinforces the service aspect of a destination brand.
Phase 3: Post-consumption: scenario 1 – best destination
In Phase 3, Scenario 1, which looks at a tourist’s interpretation of their best destination
experience, the study ?nds that functional DBCs account for 66 percent of total DBCs (see
Table VII). We ?nd that a holistic experience across functional and symbolic DBCs is
recorded for the best destination. The functional DBCs that are important for describing best
locations in the physical/infrastructural needs category (see Table III) are sceneries, sites,
and tourist attractions (78 percent). This factor accounts for 20 percent of the total DBCs.
An analysis of DBCs for basic product needs (see Table IV), ?nds that climate is important for
describing best locations (60 percent of the category). Overall this accounts for 10 percent
of total DBCs in this Phase. With DBCs related to product experience (see Table V),
entertainment and food account for 66 percent of DBC descriptors, each having equal
weight. Overall each of their contributions to total DBCs is 7 percent.
Symbolic DBC in the perception category (see Table VI) that travelers highlighted for
describing the brand components of their memories of the best destinations was based on
culture/history (44 percent of category). This accounts for 7 percent of the total DBCs. In the
Symbolic DBC relationships category, local people account for 65 percent of the weight in
this category but overall this accounts for 11 percent of total DBCs in Phase 3 Scenario 1.
The most important factors in Phase 3, Scenario 1 are: tourist attractions (20 percent of
overall DBCs); local people (11 percent); climate (10 percent); entertainment (7 percent);
food (7 percent) and history and culture (7 percent). If tourist attractions and history and
culture are related – they totally account for 27 percent of total DBCs. DMOs must plan their
strategy ensuring places have backgrounds (history) and ensure access and experience for
tourists are rewarding. Climate which is uncontrollable seems to have a 10 percent impact
on the destination brand.
Phase 3: Post-consumption: scenario 2 – recommendation of a place
In Scenario 2 (for recommendations) functional DBCs account for 64 percent of total DBCs
(see Table VII). In the sub-category basic physical/infrastructural DBCs (see Table III), the
two key factors are accessibility (37 percent of category) and tourist attractions (60 percent).
Tourist’s attractions account for 12 percent of overall DBCs while accessibility accounts for 7
percent.
In basic product needs (see Table IV), economic value (50 percent of category) comes to
play highlighting its importance in perceived value and the risk payoff at the stage of actually
taking a decision. In terms of overall importance, economic value accounts for 15 percent of
total DBCs in this category. The other factors are climate (29 percent of category) and
accommodation (17 percent). Climate accounts for 9 percent of total DBCs in this category
and accommodation accounts for 5 percent.
For experiences (see Table V), the sensory factors play a key role in recommendation, they
are entertainment (32 percent of category) and food (33 percent). Entertainment accounts
for 6 percent of total DBCs while food contributes a 4 percent impact. This seems to be the
least important functional component.
In symbolic DBCs, looking at perceptions (see Table VI), safety plays a key role in
perceptions (49 percent of category). This has an overall 11 percent impact on brand.
Customers do consider perceptions of safety when recommending a place. In symbolic
relationship DBCs, local people have a 49 percent impact in the category which translated to
an overall impact of 6 percent in total DBCs for this phase. Overall the key brand
components that affect the destination brand are: economic value (15 percent of total
DBCs); tourist attractions (12 percent); safety (11 percent); climate (9 percent);
accommodation (7 percent); entertainment (6 percent) and local people (6 percent).
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Hygiene factors play an important role here. The importance of these factors are different
from Phase I suggesting that destinations must manage information and brand
communication keeping in mind various stages of the consumer decision making
process. Recommendations are a manifestation of loyalty and for destination loyalty,
DMOs needs to reinforce convenience, value, experience and relationships.
Phase 3: Post-consumption: scenario 2 – least liked destinations
For Scenario 3, least liked destinations, brand perceptions are equally matched between
functional and symbolic DBCs. This category had the least responses. This is the only place
symbolic DBCs match in terms of number of references with functions DBCs. Key functional
descriptors (see Table III) are accessibility (43 percent of category) in infrastructure; climate
(39 percent of category), and cleanliness and hygiene (29 percent of category) in basic
product needs (see Table IV); and food (63 percent of category) in experiences (see
Table V). Accessibility accounts for 9 percent of overall DBCs in this phase; climate accounts
for 8 percent; cleanliness and hygiene for 6 percent and food accounts for 8 percent.
Key symbolic descriptors (see Table VI) are safety (32 percent of category) in perceptions;
local people (58 percent), language (29 percent) in relationships and congestions and
noisiness (20 percent). Overall this translates to safety having an 8 percent overall impact on
DBCs; local people have a 14 percent impact, language a 7 percent impact and congestion
and noisiness (crowds) have a 4 percent overall impact. People with a 14 percent overall
impact in total DBCs affect negative word of mouth, followed by accessibility (9 percent).
Climate, food and safety each have an 8 percent impact of total DBCs. DMOs must realize
service providers of tourism products must be trained as must residents.
H3a states that post-consumption, customers distinguish between destinations on the basis
of symbolic properties. The study ?nds partial support only in scenario 3. Scenario 1 and 2
receives no support. Scenario 3 identi?es possible hygiene factors like convenience in
transportation to tourist places, perceptions of cleanliness and hygiene and availability of
food. DMOs must align customer perceptions of reality with reality for a positive experience.
‘‘Popular’’ may mean a manifestation of a crowd to one tourist, but while one views it
positively, another may think of it negatively as being too noisy. H3b receives little support as
the study ?nds that loyalty follows more frequently in terms of functional attributes rather than
symbolic attributes.
Some other interesting ?ndings are discussed. Relationships (symbolic DBCs) surprisingly
had no difference in responses in creation of a Phase 1, and in Phase 3, Scenario 2 and 3
(positive or negative). This could be because they are highly personal and situation speci?c
indicating that this need is for more emotionally and socially intelligent populations or people
who have travelled up the travel ladder. Perceptions of safety seem to be a recurring
underlying theme – destinations need to reassure leisure travelers about safety by
communicating this attribute both implicitly or explicitly. Customers also want destinations to
have key attractions marked out for them and accessibility to those attractions must be
convenient.
Overall importance of DBC type
Respondents prefer using functional DBCs (67 percent) rather than symbolic (33 percent) to
describe locations. This ?nding con?rms H4 which states: Overall when looking at brand
image, functional DBCs outweigh symbolic DBCs in importance.
Effect of gender and income on DBCs
Analysis was also conducted to test the existence of any relationship between respondent’s
gender and income. The analysis used is a multivariate discriminant analysis and is based
on the Wilk’s Lambda statistical test along with its p-value (see Tables IX-XI). Values of Wilk’s
lambda that are close to 1 indicate that the means of the group are not too different. The
p-values indicates whether the statistical test is signi?cant ( p-values less than 0.10) or not.
There is an absence of effect of income in all the responses in all phases.
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No gender effect occurred for any of the variables in all phases of the study with the
exception in least favorite place in Phase 3 (Scenario 3). Men use more symbolic DBCs to
describe their negative brand perception. Beerli and Martin (2004) found that women tend to
rank destinations more favorably than men; conversely we can assume men tend to rank
themmore negatively. Men also tend to emphasize social and psychological risk dimensions
(Kumf, 1978, see Mitchell, 1998), have greater expectations, higher involvement and hence
greater negative cues (Stendardi et al., 2006).
Discussion
The study con?rms the importance of functional DBCs as Hankinson (2005) ?nds. Function
DBCs are a growing concern as most destination branding is moving towards symbolic
imagery. Images cannot be static. Jacobson and Mizik (2008) state that brands that are able
to adapt to customers changing needs and trends do far better than more static brands. A
study by Gallarza et al. (2002) ?nds the balance between functional and psychological
attributes has not changed over 20 years though they acknowledge that image is not static.
Longitudinal studies may yield more ?ndings.
Some key ?ndings for DMOs are that they must communicate to customers keeping in mind
that different DBCs have different priorities for the customer at various stages of the decision
making process. For creation of a choice set, DMOs could focus on tourist attractions,
history or culture and the experience knowledge (especially if they don’t have strong
historical roots). To help the customer ?nalize a destination, DMOs must focus on providing
information on the brand that reinforces the destination accessibility, economic value,
comfort (accommodation), communication and safety. Reinforcement on heritage, culture
and people are areas that can help consumers take a decision to visit the destination.
Table IX Effects of gender on various phases
Wilks’ Lambda p-value
Phase 1 0.991 0.757
Phase 2 0.984 0.472
Phase 3 Best destination 0.991 0.772
þWOM 0.979 0.305
2WOM 0.762* 0.052*
Note: * Signi?cant at 10 percentage levels so group means are different
Table X Effects of income on various phases
Wilks’ Lambda p-value
Phase 1 0.987 0.434
Phase 2 0.989 0.658
Phase 3 Best destination 0.953 0.794
þWOM 0.979 0.438
2WOM 0.998 0.320
Table XI Phase 3, part 3 (least favorite)
Functional DBC (% gender dispersion) Symbolic (% gender dispersion)
Infrastructure Basic Experience Perceptions Relationship
Male 31 (63) 39 (56) 23 (58) 53 (63) 50 (68)
Female 18 (37) 31 (44) 17 (42) 31 (37) 24 (32)
Total 49 (100) 70 (100) 40 (100) 84 (100) 74 (100)
Note: Male:female ratio: 1.13: 1
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Post-destination experience, this study ?nds that when customers recollected their best
destination experiences, the top of mind recall descriptions are tourist attractions, culture or
heritage, people, food and entertainment. Worst locations were described by DBCs that
looked at hygiene factors like accessibility, cleanliness and hygiene, food, safety, local
people, language and noise. This suggests perceptions play a key role. DMOs must take
care not to build up expectations that cannot be met as it can then lead to negative word of
mouth. Climate seemed to be a constant factor in all phases and scenarios. Places like Goa,
have embraced the climate (sun/fun and monsoon season) and has done so relatively
successfully. For WOM, consumers chose experiences in terms of tourist attraction,
economic value, entertainment, food, local people and safety as DBCs. Food has a
tendency to be a hygiene factor and to become a motivator, DMOs must encourage food
establishments to cater to tourist group’s dietary restrictions. Restaurant classi?cations or
certi?cation can help increase tourist trust.
Future studies can analyze these attributes in detail for case speci?c destinations. There is a
need to conduct an empirical study on the how different DBCs may be correlated in terms of
importance based on type of destination (leisure, business or mixed). DBCs may vary
according to demographic characteristics especially education and exposure to media, and
this constitutes a vast area of potential research. Nevertheless, some limitations could be
seen in this study with a particular concern in the sample size and the fact that the study was
not longitudinal in nature. However, the key results of this study highlight the importance of
DBCs and its mutation based on various stages in the consumer decision making process.
The result will help DMOs plan their destination brand strategy.
By identifying, from the customer point of view, those DBCs with the most values,
destinations would be in a position to create a more customer-centric branding strategy and
further be able to differentiate from competitors focusing on combinations of components
that are unique. For example Okumus et al. (2007) ?nd food/cuisine a great potential place
differentiator. Chhabra et al. (2003) suggest that authenticity is positively correlated to higher
tourist expenditures and repeated staged events that re?ect authentic heritage result in
increase repeat visits. Umet al. (2006) argue that destination perceived attractiveness rather
than satisfaction is an important indicator of revisit intension.
Future studies might attempt to link the type of tourist preferences with motive. Tran and
Ralston (2006) ?nd that adventure tourismrelates to the need for achievement while the need
for af?liation is linked with culture tourism. This type of method may be applicable for service
branding as sectors like hospitality are important contributors to the tourism industry.
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Corresponding author
Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan can be contacted at: melodenabalakrishnan@
uowdubai.ac.ae
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