Description
The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of the creative city, the factors
conditioning creativity in cities and how they stimulate urban innovation and local development.
Furthermore, by way of examples, the paper aims to illustrate two emblematic case studies and the main
elements which were considered for the sustainable urban regeneration
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Cultural tourism and creative regeneration: two case studies
Marichela Sepe Giovanni Di Trapani
Article information:
To cite this document:
Marichela Sepe Giovanni Di Trapani, (2010),"Cultural tourism and creative regeneration: two case studies", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 214 - 227
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Cultural tourism and creative regeneration:
two case studies
Marichela Sepe and Giovanni Di Trapani
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of the creative city, the factors
conditioning creativity in cities and how they stimulate urban innovation and local development.
Furthermore, by way of examples, the paper aims to illustrate two emblematic case studies and the main
elements which were considered for the sustainable urban regeneration.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper gives both a theoretical contribution on the relationship
between the creative regeneration and cultural tourism, and empirically illustrates two cases for
comparative study. The case studies are explained taking care to present information and ?gures of
interest for the purposes of the work, with useful data to implement project descriptions and draw
appropriate conclusions.
Findings – The research found that, in order to achieve the long-term success of urban and cultural
regeneration, the involvement and integration of the local community at all levels throughout the process,
and the need to enhance and consolidate place identity, all in respect of economic, social and
environmental sustainability, are critical factors.
Originality/value – The theoretical and empirical contribution of the paper is organized so as to
emphasize the interdisciplinary relationships between some aspects of creative projects that are
considered of particular importance to boost cultural tourism such as: place identity, sustainable
development, urban regeneration and involvement of the population.
Keywords Economic development, Regeneration, Urban areas, Tourism, Cultural synergy
Paper type Case study
Introduction
Creative cities are currently working on how to improve the interaction between regeneration
building, economic development and social renewal in order to achieve a more
comprehensive development of the city (Carta, 2004; Florida, 2005). In recent decades,
the role of culture has become a major and often driving factor for the process of urban
regeneration. The focus on culture as a factor in regional transformation has been
particularly extensive in response not only to competitiveness among cities but also to
sustainability requirements in the cultural sector (Sepe, 2004). Culture in its broadest sense
assumes a decisive role in constructing a system of interventions, where employment,
tourism, and social and sustainable development become the product of the integration of
places, people, economies and traditions (Scott, 2000). Indeed, there are ever more types of
visitors and relative demands, and cities need to provide for new types of cultural uses,
suitable for tourists as well as citizens and visitors in general.
Existing creative cities revolve around the design, promotion and activation of urban areas
established due to their particular local characteristics. Such areas become creative
clusters as a result of economic and structural innovations, related to the realization of
innovator projects achieved with the help of local development strategies based on the
economies of excellence, culture and territorial quality. Two main types of clusters exist
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VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010, pp. 214-227, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011067600
Marichela Sepe and
Giovanni Di Trapani are
both researchers at the
Institute for Service Industry
Research - National
Research Council, Napoli,
Italy.
Received December 2009
Revised January 2010
Accepted March 2010
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within the creative city. The ?rst are cultural clusters, created around activities such as ?ne
arts, music, cinema, architecture and design, and whose start-up is encouraged and
planned by local administration. The second is the cluster of events, whose development
originates in the organization of great events or different kinds of recreational and cultural
manifestations (Carta, 2007; Maitland, 2009; Mommaas, 2004).
Starting from such premises, this paper aims to investigate the concept of the creative city,
what factors condition creativity in cities, and how they stimulate sustainable urban
innovation. Two examples of creative clusters – the former in Bilbao and the latter in
Zaragoza – are illustrated (Sepe and Di Trapani, 2009). These case studies are related to the
regeneration of urban waterfronts. Such places are able to absorb tangible and intangible
energies from the water, combine them with the urban context and transform them into local
resources of value to residents and visitors alike. In this regards, it is important not to place
too much stress on tourist development where the term‘‘cultural‘‘ is an instrument rather than
a quality: for sustainable development, a real engine of change, the ‘‘cultural’’ element must
offer quality to tourism, not vice versa. The more value is given to the local cultural
peculiarities – such as cultural heritage and place identity – the more the operation of urban
regeneration may be embedded within the local fabric and be attractive for residents and
cultural tourists (Evans, 2001; Richards, 1996; Unesco, 2006).
Creative city and place identity
Creative cities are able to generate economies of innovation, culture, research and artistic
production, and hence strengthen their own identity capital. This capability is a question not
only of boosting existing culture-based economies but also producing neweconomies out of
cultural capital, understood as an essential element of both tangible and intangible place
identity – and creating a system together with other urban capital (Carta, 2007). Indeed, the
changes in the contemporary city have contributed to an increasing urban identity crisis,
transforming European cities into complex heterogeneous societies. Recognising the value
of place identity as a fundamental component in implementing urban change serves as a
reference point both in terms of society’s wishes and in safeguarding and constructing the
sustainable urban image (Carter et al., 1993; Castells, 1997; Hague and Jenkins, 2005; Neil,
2004; Sepe, 2007). Built heritage narratives facilitate the creation and enhancement of
national identities by ‘‘denoting particular places as centers of collective cultural
consciousness’’ (Graham, 1998, p. 40). Cities have to ?nd out how to reduce the risks
inherent in the tendency of contemporary urban societies to fall back on their heritage and
roots as they face up to an identity crisis. In this respect, innovation in urban space design
represents an opportunity to construct an identity of places and give international scope to
the urban form of European cities (Gospodini, 2004; Massey and Jess, 1995).
Florida (2002) observes the relationship between the transformations in the capitalist mode
of production – in particular those occurring at the urban scale including the clusters of
high-tech ?rms, the dissemination of leisure activities and the urban economic networks –
and the changes in identities of the actors involved in such transformations. Florida argues
that the more cities are able to attract the creative class of workers and managers in the
various sectors of the economy such as art, design, fashion and advanced technologies, the
greater are the chances that those cities can successfully face up to the challenges of
competition among cities imposed by globalization (Landry, 2000). However, creativity is
typically present not only in the entrepreneurial spirit but also in the dissemination of
behavior favorable to cultural exchange as well as enhancement of lifestyle diversity. The city
may be viewed as an organism: all elements are inextricably interwoven and planning is
based on how people feel the city from an emotional and psychological point of view. Its
guiding principle is placemaking rather than urban development (Landry, 2008). In this way,
the creative city recognizes the complexity and addresses the spatial, physical and land use
conditions which help people to think and act with imagination and live the city as a
satisfying experience. The creation of an urban environment which encourages the
setting-up of innovative activities requires, at the local level, the construction of a specialized
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production system and the establishment of an urban environment which can support the
testing of consensual practice of regional government (Scott, 2006).
The creative city is moving from a city where the creative class attracts new economies to
cities where the creative class generates new economies, producing new identities and new
geographies based on culture, arts, knowledge, communication and cooperation. The
objective is to nourish creativity within the city, and produce a creative class from inside
rather than attract one fromoutside. This framework includes the creative milieu, intended as
a place, which may correspond to the whole city or to a part thereof, and which contains the
characteristics necessary for generating a ?ow of creative ideas and innovations. It is
possible to de?ne the milieu as a local system, where its players can operate in open
contexts and are capable of global experiences, and where, in turn, spatial interactions
create new ideas, products and services, and thus contribute to the regeneration of the city.
In the creative milieu, clusters and districts capable of strengthening the cultural urban
structure can be developed (Carta, 2007; Florida, 2005).
Cultural resource sustainability
Nowadays there are ever more types of visitors: no longer only typical tourists, but also
professionals, congress tourists, and so on, who go to a place on business or for other
reasons and then want to visit the city. Visitor demands are many and varied, and the task of
the city is to create an environment designed for low-impact consumption of culture and
place identity. The city has to provide new types of cultural uses - meant in the broadest
sense - where the wishes of residents, visitors and tourists will coincide in some points
(Sepe, 2010).
Indeed, the formation of an international creative district must be accompanied by lines of
action to make the factors of development, enabled by the cluster, consistent with the
identity and sustainable growth of the city (Nijkamp and Perrels, 1994). Creative resources
are usually more sustainable than physical ones: monuments and museums are often
subjected to degradation, while creative resources are constantly renewable. Furthermore,
creativity is more mobile, because it does not depend on the concentration of cultural
resources and can be produced anywhere (Richards and Wilson, 2006). Furthermore, the
development of a creative district has to be considered alongside sustainable development
intended in the economic, social and environmental sense (Ferilli and Pedrini, 2007),
conditions which are equally important and interdependent for the sustainability of cultural
resources.
The economic sustainability of culture as a resource depends on a complex system of
balances and social actors which may become decoupled as a result of an overly
instrumental attitude toward the economic potential of culture (Comunian and Sacco, 2006;
Zukin, 1995). Although culture and cultural institutions have bene?ted fromthe recognition of
its social and economic value, when public policies primarily focus on the potential of
developing culture, the result is a gradual loss of attention toward intrinsic motivation of the
production and consumption of culture: particular emphasis is laid on its economic bene?ts.
As Comunian and Sacco (2006, p. 15) argue, the risk of this type of operation is to conclude
that ‘‘all that is creative is good’’, relegating to second place the quality of projects and
initiatives.
Thus economic sustainability can be de?ned as ‘‘the ability to generate income, pro?ts and
work within a system of equal opportunities for all the elements of society, inside a model
which enhances and increases land resources, and furthermore does not produce a
collapse of the same in quantity or quality’’ (Ferilli and Pedrini, 2007, p. 5). The
characteristics of territory, seen as a complex system where tangible and intangible cultural
resources become elements of a chain of added value, assume a key role in developing the
local system. In this way the district, starting from the elements of territory and their
enhancement and promotion, becomes economically sustainable in the long term.
Social sustainability is the ability to guarantee the same opportunities of growth and welfare
conditions in society. Setting up a development model based on enhancing culture fosters
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social regeneration in the area, generating in people a perception of belonging, an increase
in the social capital, the change in place image, and an increase in the level of education.
Cultural production and use perform the functions of generating and disseminating creative
thinking. Furthermore, this use provides tools for the growth of individual opportunities by
creating a process for socially sustainable development.
Finally, with respect to environmental sustainability, the area should be understood in its
various historical and cultural values, and in its tangible and intangible capital. Territory is
characterized by both types of capital, and its identity cannot be considered separately from
them. However, even if the consequences of resource depletion on the nature of territory are
known, depletion of intangible capital is less evident, albeit just as important. Therefore, a
close relationship between production systems and central areas becomes necessary, so
that companies interact in processes that generate value for the territory.
Creativity in urban regeneration
The experiences of creative cities can lead to the promotion of areas in cities which base
their competitiveness on local peculiarities related to the value of the ‘‘city brand’’ (Anholt,
2007), and also highlight the possibility of steering the evolution of urban systems in the city.
These areas become creative clusters as a result of innovative economic and structural
initiatives, implemented within appropriate local development strategies based on territorial
quality and excellence. The advantages of a concentration of creative clusters lie in the
presence of relationships and strong ties (social capital) between the actors and the rapid
dissemination of information and knowledge. Also, such clusters ?nd an inexhaustible
source of development in the sensitivity of local authorities which, through processes of
governance, target the full development and renewal of the metropolitan context. The main
elements of these clusters are regional speci?city and their strict correlation with the heritage
of knowledge as well as new plans and initiatives due to innovative projects. Therefore,
crucial for the identi?cation of creative clusters are the different policies and visions able to
regulate and in?uence the decisions of local economic actors. In areas where the erosion of
identity and the result of massive globalization has not prevailed, cultural resources are
transformed into opportunities for business (Bagwell, 2008; Caroli, 2004).
Two main types of clusters may be recognized within the creative city: cultural clusters and
event clusters (Carta, 2007). The competitive advantage of the cultural cluster is the use of
new technologies and the creation of districts in which to allocate and develop regional
excellence. Cultural clusters are created around activities such as ?ne arts, music, cinema,
architecture and design, which are encouraged and planned by the local administration.
The intangible resources and skills of the actors depend on the local authorities that through
local planning aim to restore the whole region. Examples of cultural districts include: the
Ciudad of Valencia, the Guggenheim of Bilbao, and Liverpool’s Albert Docks and Tate.
Public support for the cultural cluster serves in the start-up phase to give credibility to the
project, and allows visibility at the international level. Area policies are devoted to creating
the social and economic conditions to develop an urban environment that attracts culturally
interested actors.
The second cluster type is that of events which is fuelled by the interconnections of
innovative resources in cities. This cluster intercepts new cultural ?ows and leads to new
cultural infrastructures being built. Its origins lie in the organization of great events or
different kinds of recreational and cultural activities which are bound together by the
importance that the city gains in connection to these events. The cluster of events includes
Expos, the Venice Biennale, the European Capital of Culture and the Olympic Games. The
manufacturing and services ‘‘machine’’ which is built around the event is active throughout
the year, while the event has a limited duration. To ensure a cluster of urban creativity, a
system of governance needs to be created to support the network of players who must
cooperate so as to generate newresources and enhance those already existing. This system
also contributes to embedding the results in the area. The risk of losing the positive
long-term effect of such operations at the conclusion of the event is thereby avoided. Thus
the function of the cluster should serve to transform the intangible energies connected to
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culture, art and leisure, into ?nancial, productive and social resources both for the host city
and the surrounding area, which in turn are capable of transforming them into structural
resources. The overlap of the cultural cluster with the events cluster (Caves, 2000) is due to
the convergence of information processes and new technology. Thus the clusters have
expanded opportunities, boosting area development and hence stimulating the economy of
cities.
By way of example, two emblematic case studies of creative clusters are illustrated, namely
Bilbao in relation to cultural clusters, and Zaragoza contextualized in the cluster of events.
These cities have used waterfront renewal as an opportunity for urban regeneration as well
as social, cultural, touristic and economic revitalization.
Substantial urban revitalization is now under way involving sea shores or river banks - mainly
for business use - after they have fallen into disuse. Waterfront redevelopment and
enhancement is increasingly becoming a starting point for implementing complex urban
redevelopment strategies which involve not only the waterfront but also the whole urban
area. These places are to take on new cultural features: large-scale projects involving
mega-events and/or the creation of new museums, theatres or multifunctional centers,
capable of attracting new businesses and cultural tourism (Guala, 2002; Roche, 2000;
Smith, 2007).
The case studies which are illustrated below are both located in Spain: the Bilbao project
mainly focuses on the regeneration of the Abandoibarra area along the Nervio´ n river, and
that of Zaragoza starts fromthe regeneration of a bend of the Ebro river and then involves the
city center. These projects were chosen because they are based on the attention to place
identity, strong involvement of the population and sustainability of the interventions, which
should be considered key elements for urban and cultural regeneration for both citizens and
visitors.
Abandoibarra regeneration in Bilbao
The Guggenheim Museum was the starting point of the urban regeneration which has
transformed the industrial area of Abandoibarra, allowing the cultural renaissance of Bilbao.
Built along the Nervio´ n river, Bilbao is a city of about 900,000 inhabitants and the capital of
the Northern Province of Biscay, whose industrial past has strongly characterized the urban
aspect of this city and its citizens. With the urban transformation of this city a signi?cant
cultural and political change involving all elements of the local community occurred. The
local inhabitants were initially opposed to the initiative because the community was still
attached to the model of the industrial city and did not believe in the enormous potential of
the regeneration program. The Guggenheim Foundation asked the Bilbao municipality to
create a unique work of architecture, capable of becoming the symbol of the city. Among the
proposals drawn up by international star architects, that of Frank O. Gehry was accepted
(Figure 1). The decision to build the new museum was part of a wider project to regenerate
the banks of the Nervio´ n river in order to launch economic transformation to tackle the crisis
that was occurring in the Basque Country and Bilbao in the 1970s and 1980s (Bilbao Ria
2000, 2007; Guala, 2002).
The aim was to transform the former area of Abandoibarra into the new center of Bilbao,
giving an image of innovation, in accordance with its identity, and international
competitiveness. The planning tool was the General Urban Plan to regenerate Bilbao,
approved in 1994, which proposed the replacement of the industrial function of
Abandoibarra with the mixed function, combining tertiary and residential uses, and the
creation of a multifunctional area.
Ce´ sar Pelli drew up the Guidelines for Planning for the Recovery of Abandoibarra following
an international ideas competition held in 1992. Pelli’s plan aims to improve the accessibility
of the city, the internal mobility and the urban and environmental quality, and, at the same
time, implement a social plan for the community, through interventions that focus on training,
higher education and local identity, and with culture as an element of Bilbao’s revitalization
and repositioning. This idea was realized by creating an area which includes space for
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of?ces, public spaces, commercial buildings, a convention center, tourist infrastructures
and university services, by developing residential areas and by improving the river’s
infrastructures. To achieve this broad program of actions, in 1992 the Bilbao R? ´a 2000
company was founded. Bilbao R? ´a has the strategic function to reach an agreement between
the various institutions participating in the plan.
Bilbao R? ´a also served the economic function of selling urbanized areas to private investors,
reinvesting the pro?ts in new businesses. The presence of projects entrusted to
stararchitects allowed an attractive area to be established, drawing in new capital and
encouraging investments. Finally, this structure has a function in terms of management
coordination, achieving new forms of urban governance by creating institutions for the
coordination, management, planning and implementation of the project.
The partners in this operation were the Spanish Government, the Basque Government, the
Government of the Province of Biscay, and the Municipality of Bilbao, as well as some public
companies (such as RENFE and the port authorities) and Bilbao Metropoli 30. The operation
resulted in the closure of the shipyards of Euskalduna, with the transfer of port activities to
the outer mouth of the river, the construction of new rail infrastructure able to link the two
shores of the river and improve subway mobility and interior access, and the enlargement
and modernization of the airport.
Santiago Calatrava designed the new airport and a new bridge over the Nervio´ n. New
facilities for conferences, sports and leisure by architects such as Robert Stern, Ricardo
Legorreta, Soriano y Palacios and Isozaki were built. Norman Foster was called to design
and build the metro, with the exits at street level, and the transport system to the sea front.
Thus the access to other Basque tourist destinations was improved, while walking and
cycling trails were built and the historic center was restored.
The Plan for the Recovery of Abandoibarra was still not complete at the time of writing. The
main economic force behind this regeneration is the GuggenheimMuseumwhich is growing
Figure 1 Bilbao, Guggenheim museum
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year by year (Plaza, 2007). Between 2002 and 2007 the number of visitors to the
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao increased by about 151,000, amounting to an average
period growth of 17.77 percent (Figure 2).
Peaks of year-on-year growth were recorded in 2004 and 2006. With respect to the previous
year, these two years showed an increase in visitors of 4.62 percent and 6.19 percent
respectively. Comparing the number of travelers to the city of Bilbao with that of the Province
of Vizcaya and the Basque region, a substantial increase can be observed in all three areas
during the years 2002-2007 (Figure 3): the highest percentage change is for the city of
Bilbao (55.65 percent), while the province and region experienced small - albeit signi?cant –
increases (respectively 9.9 percent and 4.53 percent). These data indicate the higher
Figure 3 Number of visitors to Basque Country - Vizcaya-Bilbao
Figure 2 Visitors to the Guggenheim Museum of Bilbao
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attraction capacity of Bilbao, where tourist ?ows increased by more than 200,000, recording
during the years in question a continuous increase in the number of visitors. The years 2002,
2003 and 2006 in particular show increasing peaks, with growth of 15.66 percent, 20.22
percent and 13.42 percent respectively.
Furthermore, the Guggenheim is now 78 percent self-funded and generates about 185
million Euros to the Basque Country’s GDP. The tourism industry has switched from business
tourism - operating throughout the year except for the summer - to cultural tourism, between
July and October. Indeed, since 1997 - when the museum opened - Bilbao has become an
international city, with the number of foreign visitors increasing by 63 percent (Lo´ pez, 2006).
The success of the operation is linked to effective public-private partnership, a major
investment in human resources, and development of centers for cultural performances,
exhibitions and other creative activities that constitute neighborhood bonding (Carta, 2007).
In different periods of the year, and in particular during August, the whole population is
involved in cultural festivals and events, based on a mix of local traditions and international
events. These attract large numbers of tourists and each event is discussed among the
stakeholders in the very broadest sense (i.e. among the people at large), contributing to the
embedding of the creative regeneration on the territory.
The Milla Digital project in Zaragoza
Zaragoza’s Milla Digital is a creative project, in the context of the cluster of events, which
mixes urban design, new cultural facilities and new media technologies with the aim of
creating or boosting a successful innovation ecosystem. The general aim of Milla Digital is to
build an innovative environment to become part of the city’s identity. This environment, which
consists of new digitally-mediated places, will provide a new generation of public facilities
able to develop a sustainable network of innovation and creativity. Zaragoza has about
700,000 inhabitants and is the capital of the Arago´ n region with a cultural heritage that
includes an old tradition of architecture and urban public spaces. The city has a growing
industrial base and very good socio-economic indicators within the Spanish average.
Milla Digital is converting the area between the old El Portillo station and the new Delicias
station of Zaragoza into an area of technology parks and development (Ayuntamiento de
Zaragoza, 2008). The City Council has collaborated on this project with: a research team
from MIT; the University of Zaragoza; a group of experts including W. Mitchell, P. Hall,
M. Castells, S. Sassen, D. Frenchman and M. Joroff; companies like Siemens, Samsung and
Telefonica. The project’s goals aim to achieve strategic urban and economic development:
‘‘create a global identity for Zaragoza; assert the city as a regional center for technological
innovation; build local skills in the use and development of information technology; activate
urban spaces that are currently underutilized; and express the evolving history and culture
of Zaragoza’’ (MIT School of Architecture and Planning, 2006, p. 10). In accordance with
these goals, the speci?c actions are as follows: to create new public spaces which knit the
old divided sections of the city; attract newvisitors and enhance the daily life of the people in
the residential neighborhoods; engage and educate the local citizenry in the use of
information technology; make the city a central location for technology industries and the
production of culture; continue the innovations in water use after the Expo; use the newest
technological accomplishments; and ‘‘make Zaragoza synonymous with information
technology and the twenty-?rst century economy around the globe’’ (MIT School of
Architecture and Planning, 2006, p. 10).
The starting points of the Milla project are the extension of the high-speed train (AVE)
network and other projects which include the 2008 Zaragoza Expo and the vast logistic
platform of PlaZa. In particular, the Expo covers an area of 25 hectares near the Ebro river, in
an area which falls within the Water Metropolitan Park.
The design themes of the Milla Digital project are based on two kinds of approaches: the
‘‘open source approach’’ and the physical one. The former refers to environments that
interact with their users and change to provide for different activities with the aim of both
favoring involvement and interaction among citizens and helping them to reveal past and
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present narratives about the city. The ?nal aim is to create a sense of belonging between
citizens and their public realm and facilitate a positive approach to new technologies. The
latter is related to the physical features which represent historical and identity elements of
Zaragoza. These include: water, the bridges - old and new - the towers, the walls, and the
layers - meant as the different inhabitants of Zaragoza who have lived out their memory over
the centuries through a continuity of culture – which will all be used as a tool to create sets of
activities, buildings and digital media for different groups (MIT School of Architecture and
Planning, 2006). The people-scale urban spaces, the mixes of activities and the pedestrian
connections, which are characteristics peculiar to Zaragoza, represent the model of a
traditional city to both conserve and transform by the project in contemporary fashion.
Three levels of design – physical, socio-cultural, and digital-connectivity – have been
identi?ed to achieve all those objectives (Pradas and Arnal, 2008).
At the physical level, 20 per cent of the area will be devoted to the digital economy and
creative sector companies that are able to develop a dynamic environment seven days a
week. The new AVE neighborhood which is envisaged under the General Urban Planning
Scheme of Zaragoza covers an area of 1,000,000m
2
allocated to green areas, facilities,
housing and other uses, including commercial, tertiary and hotels. With regard to the project
for the old station El Portillo, the 93,000 m
2
area is destined for green areas and facilities, new
homes and an of?ce block. Furthermore, the space between the two areas will be used for
the tertiary sector with the creation of a large number of new jobs. As for the socio-cultural
level, the project provides for the Milla Digital Campus, a campus for urban innovation which
aims to attract a mix of creative people.
The focus points of the Campus are the Art and Technology Center - a space for research,
education, exhibition and design - and the Milla Digital Museum, a museum which
comprises several functions, including a mediatheque, an exhibition space on current digital
developments in Zaragoza and a showroom space for companies.
Finally, the project includes a digital-connectivity level, which was developed by experts
fromMITand its Media Lab. The objective of this study is to design a city which incorporates
both the ‘‘hardware’’ and ‘‘software’’ – in other words, ‘‘social participation, creativity and the
need for a social ‘open source’ approach’’ - of the digital city (Pradas and Arnal, 2008, p. 28).
The idea is to develop a newgeneration of digital media for sustainable public spaces aimed
at allowing people to use, participate in and interact with the city and its citizens. The object
is to broaden public involvement by creating user-friendly places.
At the same time, this digital apparatus has to boost the attractiveness of Zaragoza to many
‘‘creative’’ groups. The proposals for these new places include: the use of water for de?ning
spaces and interactive facades, as in the case of the 2008 Expo Digital Water Pavilion
(Figure 4); the creation of paving where pedestrians can leave their footprints and responses
to other footprints (a sustainable form of graf?ti); the use of ultra-bright LED with a wi-?
connection and powered by photovoltaic energy, to mark areas and create safe places; the
creation of bus shelters, whose design will adapt to the local weather, geographical location,
traf?c conditions and offer connectivity for cell phones and laptops; and the creation of
screens on awnings to display images and video.
The Milla Digital project is in its early stages. The number of visitors fromSpain and abroad to
the city of Zaragoza grew over the years between 2002 and 2008 more than 621,000 (34.24
percent) according to data provided by INE (n.d.) (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica). Visitors
from abroad (40.82 percent) increased more sharply than those from Spain (33 percent)
(Figure 5).
With respect to the region of Aragon, tourists resident in Spain during the years in question
increased for the province of Zaragoza by 31.55 percent (259.18) compared with a 34.83
percent increase (251.86) in the region’s other two provinces - Huesca and Teruel. However,
foreign tourists to the province of Zaragoza were more numerous: between 2002 and 2008,
there was a 57 percent increase (90.83); as regards the other two provinces the variation
was less marked (17.32 percent) with an increase of 19,000 visitors (Figure 6).
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Figure 4 The 2008 Expo Digital Water Pavilion
Figure 5 Number of travelers - resident in Spain and resident abroad
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In the province of Aragon, the Zaragoza area is that which absorbs the largest number of
tourists (Figure 7). In particular, more than half (54.52 percent) the visitors in 2008, chose this
city instead of the city of Huesca and Teruel situated in the same province.
Presumably, the above increase is mainly due to the Expo and the 5,000 related events -
many of which involved citizens in the organization - although data concerning information
requested from the Zaragoza Tourist Of?ce - taken from the Informe anual (Zaragoza
turismo, 2008) - show that the main questions were about historical monuments in Zaragoza
(37 percent), followed by questions about the Expo (20 percent).
In any case, there were about 5.5 million visitors to the Expo and it created about 16,000
jobs. Now the aim is to create, through the Milla Digital project and the construction of the
digital PlaZa, 12,000 jobs and establish 300 creative businesses (Segantini, 2008).
Conclusion
This paper illustrated the concept of the creative city in which an important role is played by
place identity, cultural sustainability and involvement of the population. Traditional urban
renewal policies, mainly based on combating social exclusion and physically building, are
changing: there is the increasing realisation that cities are not just buildings and material
structures, but also persons, networks and intangible elements, such as memory, history,
social relationships, emotional experiences and cultural identities.
In this regard, we illustrated two emblematic case studies of creative clusters - both related
to urban waterfront regenerations - devoted to city residents, as well as cultural tourists and
other visitors, namely the Guggenheim museum of Bilbao and the Milla Digital project in
Zaragoza. As regards the success of cultural tourism in particular, some further
considerations can be made.
In the case of the Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, in the framework of cultural clusters, the
success of this project in terms of socio-economic and cultural impact is supported by
various kinds of data. Now, the efforts to complete the Abandoibarra area should be devoted
to producing a brand which does not become just a cultural icon. In accordance with the
mainstream literature on these themes, the creation of the brand has to be increasingly
Figure 6 Number of travelers - resident in Spain and resident abroad - to the Arago´ n region
divided by province
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linked to integrated strategies which concern all aspects of the city and at all levels. In other
words, culture based on mega-structures inserted within a town leads to a revitalization of
the city in terms of employment and cultural participation. However, interventions only
created on urban development with a vision overly tied to the physical and material aspects -
neglecting the social sustainability and the construction of infrastructure based on intangible
culture - produce repeatable places, prey to globalization. Interventions of art and culture
allow local identities to be supported and elements of distinctiveness to be built in place.
In the case of the Milla Digital project in Zaragoza - in the framework of the clusters of events
- the urban transformation offered by Expo 2008 has represented for Zaragoza the driving
force for planning and producing a new social, cultural and economic change for the city’s
image.
To avoid the risk of the direct bene?t of the Expo upon Zaragoza being lost at the conclusion
of the event, the Expo pavilions are being turned into a business park included in the Water
Metropolitan Park. The Exhibition allowed the crystallization of the cultural and technological
district as well as the launch of a comprehensive process of creative regeneration of the city
for residents and visitors. Although this process is only in its initial phase, data concerning
the socio-economic impact of the Expo are encouraging.
In both cases, it is necessary during the period of project completion to ensure that public
policies do not only focus on the potential of developing culture. To achieve the long-term
success of urban and cultural regeneration it is important to attain throughout the process
the involvement and integration of the local community at all levels, and enhance and
consolidate place identity, all in respect of economic, social and environmental
sustainability.
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doc_473639456.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of the creative city, the factors
conditioning creativity in cities and how they stimulate urban innovation and local development.
Furthermore, by way of examples, the paper aims to illustrate two emblematic case studies and the main
elements which were considered for the sustainable urban regeneration
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Cultural tourism and creative regeneration: two case studies
Marichela Sepe Giovanni Di Trapani
Article information:
To cite this document:
Marichela Sepe Giovanni Di Trapani, (2010),"Cultural tourism and creative regeneration: two case studies", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 Iss 3 pp. 214 - 227
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Cultural tourism and creative regeneration:
two case studies
Marichela Sepe and Giovanni Di Trapani
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of the creative city, the factors
conditioning creativity in cities and how they stimulate urban innovation and local development.
Furthermore, by way of examples, the paper aims to illustrate two emblematic case studies and the main
elements which were considered for the sustainable urban regeneration.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper gives both a theoretical contribution on the relationship
between the creative regeneration and cultural tourism, and empirically illustrates two cases for
comparative study. The case studies are explained taking care to present information and ?gures of
interest for the purposes of the work, with useful data to implement project descriptions and draw
appropriate conclusions.
Findings – The research found that, in order to achieve the long-term success of urban and cultural
regeneration, the involvement and integration of the local community at all levels throughout the process,
and the need to enhance and consolidate place identity, all in respect of economic, social and
environmental sustainability, are critical factors.
Originality/value – The theoretical and empirical contribution of the paper is organized so as to
emphasize the interdisciplinary relationships between some aspects of creative projects that are
considered of particular importance to boost cultural tourism such as: place identity, sustainable
development, urban regeneration and involvement of the population.
Keywords Economic development, Regeneration, Urban areas, Tourism, Cultural synergy
Paper type Case study
Introduction
Creative cities are currently working on how to improve the interaction between regeneration
building, economic development and social renewal in order to achieve a more
comprehensive development of the city (Carta, 2004; Florida, 2005). In recent decades,
the role of culture has become a major and often driving factor for the process of urban
regeneration. The focus on culture as a factor in regional transformation has been
particularly extensive in response not only to competitiveness among cities but also to
sustainability requirements in the cultural sector (Sepe, 2004). Culture in its broadest sense
assumes a decisive role in constructing a system of interventions, where employment,
tourism, and social and sustainable development become the product of the integration of
places, people, economies and traditions (Scott, 2000). Indeed, there are ever more types of
visitors and relative demands, and cities need to provide for new types of cultural uses,
suitable for tourists as well as citizens and visitors in general.
Existing creative cities revolve around the design, promotion and activation of urban areas
established due to their particular local characteristics. Such areas become creative
clusters as a result of economic and structural innovations, related to the realization of
innovator projects achieved with the help of local development strategies based on the
economies of excellence, culture and territorial quality. Two main types of clusters exist
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VOL. 4 NO. 3 2010, pp. 214-227, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181011067600
Marichela Sepe and
Giovanni Di Trapani are
both researchers at the
Institute for Service Industry
Research - National
Research Council, Napoli,
Italy.
Received December 2009
Revised January 2010
Accepted March 2010
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within the creative city. The ?rst are cultural clusters, created around activities such as ?ne
arts, music, cinema, architecture and design, and whose start-up is encouraged and
planned by local administration. The second is the cluster of events, whose development
originates in the organization of great events or different kinds of recreational and cultural
manifestations (Carta, 2007; Maitland, 2009; Mommaas, 2004).
Starting from such premises, this paper aims to investigate the concept of the creative city,
what factors condition creativity in cities, and how they stimulate sustainable urban
innovation. Two examples of creative clusters – the former in Bilbao and the latter in
Zaragoza – are illustrated (Sepe and Di Trapani, 2009). These case studies are related to the
regeneration of urban waterfronts. Such places are able to absorb tangible and intangible
energies from the water, combine them with the urban context and transform them into local
resources of value to residents and visitors alike. In this regards, it is important not to place
too much stress on tourist development where the term‘‘cultural‘‘ is an instrument rather than
a quality: for sustainable development, a real engine of change, the ‘‘cultural’’ element must
offer quality to tourism, not vice versa. The more value is given to the local cultural
peculiarities – such as cultural heritage and place identity – the more the operation of urban
regeneration may be embedded within the local fabric and be attractive for residents and
cultural tourists (Evans, 2001; Richards, 1996; Unesco, 2006).
Creative city and place identity
Creative cities are able to generate economies of innovation, culture, research and artistic
production, and hence strengthen their own identity capital. This capability is a question not
only of boosting existing culture-based economies but also producing neweconomies out of
cultural capital, understood as an essential element of both tangible and intangible place
identity – and creating a system together with other urban capital (Carta, 2007). Indeed, the
changes in the contemporary city have contributed to an increasing urban identity crisis,
transforming European cities into complex heterogeneous societies. Recognising the value
of place identity as a fundamental component in implementing urban change serves as a
reference point both in terms of society’s wishes and in safeguarding and constructing the
sustainable urban image (Carter et al., 1993; Castells, 1997; Hague and Jenkins, 2005; Neil,
2004; Sepe, 2007). Built heritage narratives facilitate the creation and enhancement of
national identities by ‘‘denoting particular places as centers of collective cultural
consciousness’’ (Graham, 1998, p. 40). Cities have to ?nd out how to reduce the risks
inherent in the tendency of contemporary urban societies to fall back on their heritage and
roots as they face up to an identity crisis. In this respect, innovation in urban space design
represents an opportunity to construct an identity of places and give international scope to
the urban form of European cities (Gospodini, 2004; Massey and Jess, 1995).
Florida (2002) observes the relationship between the transformations in the capitalist mode
of production – in particular those occurring at the urban scale including the clusters of
high-tech ?rms, the dissemination of leisure activities and the urban economic networks –
and the changes in identities of the actors involved in such transformations. Florida argues
that the more cities are able to attract the creative class of workers and managers in the
various sectors of the economy such as art, design, fashion and advanced technologies, the
greater are the chances that those cities can successfully face up to the challenges of
competition among cities imposed by globalization (Landry, 2000). However, creativity is
typically present not only in the entrepreneurial spirit but also in the dissemination of
behavior favorable to cultural exchange as well as enhancement of lifestyle diversity. The city
may be viewed as an organism: all elements are inextricably interwoven and planning is
based on how people feel the city from an emotional and psychological point of view. Its
guiding principle is placemaking rather than urban development (Landry, 2008). In this way,
the creative city recognizes the complexity and addresses the spatial, physical and land use
conditions which help people to think and act with imagination and live the city as a
satisfying experience. The creation of an urban environment which encourages the
setting-up of innovative activities requires, at the local level, the construction of a specialized
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production system and the establishment of an urban environment which can support the
testing of consensual practice of regional government (Scott, 2006).
The creative city is moving from a city where the creative class attracts new economies to
cities where the creative class generates new economies, producing new identities and new
geographies based on culture, arts, knowledge, communication and cooperation. The
objective is to nourish creativity within the city, and produce a creative class from inside
rather than attract one fromoutside. This framework includes the creative milieu, intended as
a place, which may correspond to the whole city or to a part thereof, and which contains the
characteristics necessary for generating a ?ow of creative ideas and innovations. It is
possible to de?ne the milieu as a local system, where its players can operate in open
contexts and are capable of global experiences, and where, in turn, spatial interactions
create new ideas, products and services, and thus contribute to the regeneration of the city.
In the creative milieu, clusters and districts capable of strengthening the cultural urban
structure can be developed (Carta, 2007; Florida, 2005).
Cultural resource sustainability
Nowadays there are ever more types of visitors: no longer only typical tourists, but also
professionals, congress tourists, and so on, who go to a place on business or for other
reasons and then want to visit the city. Visitor demands are many and varied, and the task of
the city is to create an environment designed for low-impact consumption of culture and
place identity. The city has to provide new types of cultural uses - meant in the broadest
sense - where the wishes of residents, visitors and tourists will coincide in some points
(Sepe, 2010).
Indeed, the formation of an international creative district must be accompanied by lines of
action to make the factors of development, enabled by the cluster, consistent with the
identity and sustainable growth of the city (Nijkamp and Perrels, 1994). Creative resources
are usually more sustainable than physical ones: monuments and museums are often
subjected to degradation, while creative resources are constantly renewable. Furthermore,
creativity is more mobile, because it does not depend on the concentration of cultural
resources and can be produced anywhere (Richards and Wilson, 2006). Furthermore, the
development of a creative district has to be considered alongside sustainable development
intended in the economic, social and environmental sense (Ferilli and Pedrini, 2007),
conditions which are equally important and interdependent for the sustainability of cultural
resources.
The economic sustainability of culture as a resource depends on a complex system of
balances and social actors which may become decoupled as a result of an overly
instrumental attitude toward the economic potential of culture (Comunian and Sacco, 2006;
Zukin, 1995). Although culture and cultural institutions have bene?ted fromthe recognition of
its social and economic value, when public policies primarily focus on the potential of
developing culture, the result is a gradual loss of attention toward intrinsic motivation of the
production and consumption of culture: particular emphasis is laid on its economic bene?ts.
As Comunian and Sacco (2006, p. 15) argue, the risk of this type of operation is to conclude
that ‘‘all that is creative is good’’, relegating to second place the quality of projects and
initiatives.
Thus economic sustainability can be de?ned as ‘‘the ability to generate income, pro?ts and
work within a system of equal opportunities for all the elements of society, inside a model
which enhances and increases land resources, and furthermore does not produce a
collapse of the same in quantity or quality’’ (Ferilli and Pedrini, 2007, p. 5). The
characteristics of territory, seen as a complex system where tangible and intangible cultural
resources become elements of a chain of added value, assume a key role in developing the
local system. In this way the district, starting from the elements of territory and their
enhancement and promotion, becomes economically sustainable in the long term.
Social sustainability is the ability to guarantee the same opportunities of growth and welfare
conditions in society. Setting up a development model based on enhancing culture fosters
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social regeneration in the area, generating in people a perception of belonging, an increase
in the social capital, the change in place image, and an increase in the level of education.
Cultural production and use perform the functions of generating and disseminating creative
thinking. Furthermore, this use provides tools for the growth of individual opportunities by
creating a process for socially sustainable development.
Finally, with respect to environmental sustainability, the area should be understood in its
various historical and cultural values, and in its tangible and intangible capital. Territory is
characterized by both types of capital, and its identity cannot be considered separately from
them. However, even if the consequences of resource depletion on the nature of territory are
known, depletion of intangible capital is less evident, albeit just as important. Therefore, a
close relationship between production systems and central areas becomes necessary, so
that companies interact in processes that generate value for the territory.
Creativity in urban regeneration
The experiences of creative cities can lead to the promotion of areas in cities which base
their competitiveness on local peculiarities related to the value of the ‘‘city brand’’ (Anholt,
2007), and also highlight the possibility of steering the evolution of urban systems in the city.
These areas become creative clusters as a result of innovative economic and structural
initiatives, implemented within appropriate local development strategies based on territorial
quality and excellence. The advantages of a concentration of creative clusters lie in the
presence of relationships and strong ties (social capital) between the actors and the rapid
dissemination of information and knowledge. Also, such clusters ?nd an inexhaustible
source of development in the sensitivity of local authorities which, through processes of
governance, target the full development and renewal of the metropolitan context. The main
elements of these clusters are regional speci?city and their strict correlation with the heritage
of knowledge as well as new plans and initiatives due to innovative projects. Therefore,
crucial for the identi?cation of creative clusters are the different policies and visions able to
regulate and in?uence the decisions of local economic actors. In areas where the erosion of
identity and the result of massive globalization has not prevailed, cultural resources are
transformed into opportunities for business (Bagwell, 2008; Caroli, 2004).
Two main types of clusters may be recognized within the creative city: cultural clusters and
event clusters (Carta, 2007). The competitive advantage of the cultural cluster is the use of
new technologies and the creation of districts in which to allocate and develop regional
excellence. Cultural clusters are created around activities such as ?ne arts, music, cinema,
architecture and design, which are encouraged and planned by the local administration.
The intangible resources and skills of the actors depend on the local authorities that through
local planning aim to restore the whole region. Examples of cultural districts include: the
Ciudad of Valencia, the Guggenheim of Bilbao, and Liverpool’s Albert Docks and Tate.
Public support for the cultural cluster serves in the start-up phase to give credibility to the
project, and allows visibility at the international level. Area policies are devoted to creating
the social and economic conditions to develop an urban environment that attracts culturally
interested actors.
The second cluster type is that of events which is fuelled by the interconnections of
innovative resources in cities. This cluster intercepts new cultural ?ows and leads to new
cultural infrastructures being built. Its origins lie in the organization of great events or
different kinds of recreational and cultural activities which are bound together by the
importance that the city gains in connection to these events. The cluster of events includes
Expos, the Venice Biennale, the European Capital of Culture and the Olympic Games. The
manufacturing and services ‘‘machine’’ which is built around the event is active throughout
the year, while the event has a limited duration. To ensure a cluster of urban creativity, a
system of governance needs to be created to support the network of players who must
cooperate so as to generate newresources and enhance those already existing. This system
also contributes to embedding the results in the area. The risk of losing the positive
long-term effect of such operations at the conclusion of the event is thereby avoided. Thus
the function of the cluster should serve to transform the intangible energies connected to
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culture, art and leisure, into ?nancial, productive and social resources both for the host city
and the surrounding area, which in turn are capable of transforming them into structural
resources. The overlap of the cultural cluster with the events cluster (Caves, 2000) is due to
the convergence of information processes and new technology. Thus the clusters have
expanded opportunities, boosting area development and hence stimulating the economy of
cities.
By way of example, two emblematic case studies of creative clusters are illustrated, namely
Bilbao in relation to cultural clusters, and Zaragoza contextualized in the cluster of events.
These cities have used waterfront renewal as an opportunity for urban regeneration as well
as social, cultural, touristic and economic revitalization.
Substantial urban revitalization is now under way involving sea shores or river banks - mainly
for business use - after they have fallen into disuse. Waterfront redevelopment and
enhancement is increasingly becoming a starting point for implementing complex urban
redevelopment strategies which involve not only the waterfront but also the whole urban
area. These places are to take on new cultural features: large-scale projects involving
mega-events and/or the creation of new museums, theatres or multifunctional centers,
capable of attracting new businesses and cultural tourism (Guala, 2002; Roche, 2000;
Smith, 2007).
The case studies which are illustrated below are both located in Spain: the Bilbao project
mainly focuses on the regeneration of the Abandoibarra area along the Nervio´ n river, and
that of Zaragoza starts fromthe regeneration of a bend of the Ebro river and then involves the
city center. These projects were chosen because they are based on the attention to place
identity, strong involvement of the population and sustainability of the interventions, which
should be considered key elements for urban and cultural regeneration for both citizens and
visitors.
Abandoibarra regeneration in Bilbao
The Guggenheim Museum was the starting point of the urban regeneration which has
transformed the industrial area of Abandoibarra, allowing the cultural renaissance of Bilbao.
Built along the Nervio´ n river, Bilbao is a city of about 900,000 inhabitants and the capital of
the Northern Province of Biscay, whose industrial past has strongly characterized the urban
aspect of this city and its citizens. With the urban transformation of this city a signi?cant
cultural and political change involving all elements of the local community occurred. The
local inhabitants were initially opposed to the initiative because the community was still
attached to the model of the industrial city and did not believe in the enormous potential of
the regeneration program. The Guggenheim Foundation asked the Bilbao municipality to
create a unique work of architecture, capable of becoming the symbol of the city. Among the
proposals drawn up by international star architects, that of Frank O. Gehry was accepted
(Figure 1). The decision to build the new museum was part of a wider project to regenerate
the banks of the Nervio´ n river in order to launch economic transformation to tackle the crisis
that was occurring in the Basque Country and Bilbao in the 1970s and 1980s (Bilbao Ria
2000, 2007; Guala, 2002).
The aim was to transform the former area of Abandoibarra into the new center of Bilbao,
giving an image of innovation, in accordance with its identity, and international
competitiveness. The planning tool was the General Urban Plan to regenerate Bilbao,
approved in 1994, which proposed the replacement of the industrial function of
Abandoibarra with the mixed function, combining tertiary and residential uses, and the
creation of a multifunctional area.
Ce´ sar Pelli drew up the Guidelines for Planning for the Recovery of Abandoibarra following
an international ideas competition held in 1992. Pelli’s plan aims to improve the accessibility
of the city, the internal mobility and the urban and environmental quality, and, at the same
time, implement a social plan for the community, through interventions that focus on training,
higher education and local identity, and with culture as an element of Bilbao’s revitalization
and repositioning. This idea was realized by creating an area which includes space for
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of?ces, public spaces, commercial buildings, a convention center, tourist infrastructures
and university services, by developing residential areas and by improving the river’s
infrastructures. To achieve this broad program of actions, in 1992 the Bilbao R? ´a 2000
company was founded. Bilbao R? ´a has the strategic function to reach an agreement between
the various institutions participating in the plan.
Bilbao R? ´a also served the economic function of selling urbanized areas to private investors,
reinvesting the pro?ts in new businesses. The presence of projects entrusted to
stararchitects allowed an attractive area to be established, drawing in new capital and
encouraging investments. Finally, this structure has a function in terms of management
coordination, achieving new forms of urban governance by creating institutions for the
coordination, management, planning and implementation of the project.
The partners in this operation were the Spanish Government, the Basque Government, the
Government of the Province of Biscay, and the Municipality of Bilbao, as well as some public
companies (such as RENFE and the port authorities) and Bilbao Metropoli 30. The operation
resulted in the closure of the shipyards of Euskalduna, with the transfer of port activities to
the outer mouth of the river, the construction of new rail infrastructure able to link the two
shores of the river and improve subway mobility and interior access, and the enlargement
and modernization of the airport.
Santiago Calatrava designed the new airport and a new bridge over the Nervio´ n. New
facilities for conferences, sports and leisure by architects such as Robert Stern, Ricardo
Legorreta, Soriano y Palacios and Isozaki were built. Norman Foster was called to design
and build the metro, with the exits at street level, and the transport system to the sea front.
Thus the access to other Basque tourist destinations was improved, while walking and
cycling trails were built and the historic center was restored.
The Plan for the Recovery of Abandoibarra was still not complete at the time of writing. The
main economic force behind this regeneration is the GuggenheimMuseumwhich is growing
Figure 1 Bilbao, Guggenheim museum
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year by year (Plaza, 2007). Between 2002 and 2007 the number of visitors to the
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao increased by about 151,000, amounting to an average
period growth of 17.77 percent (Figure 2).
Peaks of year-on-year growth were recorded in 2004 and 2006. With respect to the previous
year, these two years showed an increase in visitors of 4.62 percent and 6.19 percent
respectively. Comparing the number of travelers to the city of Bilbao with that of the Province
of Vizcaya and the Basque region, a substantial increase can be observed in all three areas
during the years 2002-2007 (Figure 3): the highest percentage change is for the city of
Bilbao (55.65 percent), while the province and region experienced small - albeit signi?cant –
increases (respectively 9.9 percent and 4.53 percent). These data indicate the higher
Figure 3 Number of visitors to Basque Country - Vizcaya-Bilbao
Figure 2 Visitors to the Guggenheim Museum of Bilbao
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attraction capacity of Bilbao, where tourist ?ows increased by more than 200,000, recording
during the years in question a continuous increase in the number of visitors. The years 2002,
2003 and 2006 in particular show increasing peaks, with growth of 15.66 percent, 20.22
percent and 13.42 percent respectively.
Furthermore, the Guggenheim is now 78 percent self-funded and generates about 185
million Euros to the Basque Country’s GDP. The tourism industry has switched from business
tourism - operating throughout the year except for the summer - to cultural tourism, between
July and October. Indeed, since 1997 - when the museum opened - Bilbao has become an
international city, with the number of foreign visitors increasing by 63 percent (Lo´ pez, 2006).
The success of the operation is linked to effective public-private partnership, a major
investment in human resources, and development of centers for cultural performances,
exhibitions and other creative activities that constitute neighborhood bonding (Carta, 2007).
In different periods of the year, and in particular during August, the whole population is
involved in cultural festivals and events, based on a mix of local traditions and international
events. These attract large numbers of tourists and each event is discussed among the
stakeholders in the very broadest sense (i.e. among the people at large), contributing to the
embedding of the creative regeneration on the territory.
The Milla Digital project in Zaragoza
Zaragoza’s Milla Digital is a creative project, in the context of the cluster of events, which
mixes urban design, new cultural facilities and new media technologies with the aim of
creating or boosting a successful innovation ecosystem. The general aim of Milla Digital is to
build an innovative environment to become part of the city’s identity. This environment, which
consists of new digitally-mediated places, will provide a new generation of public facilities
able to develop a sustainable network of innovation and creativity. Zaragoza has about
700,000 inhabitants and is the capital of the Arago´ n region with a cultural heritage that
includes an old tradition of architecture and urban public spaces. The city has a growing
industrial base and very good socio-economic indicators within the Spanish average.
Milla Digital is converting the area between the old El Portillo station and the new Delicias
station of Zaragoza into an area of technology parks and development (Ayuntamiento de
Zaragoza, 2008). The City Council has collaborated on this project with: a research team
from MIT; the University of Zaragoza; a group of experts including W. Mitchell, P. Hall,
M. Castells, S. Sassen, D. Frenchman and M. Joroff; companies like Siemens, Samsung and
Telefonica. The project’s goals aim to achieve strategic urban and economic development:
‘‘create a global identity for Zaragoza; assert the city as a regional center for technological
innovation; build local skills in the use and development of information technology; activate
urban spaces that are currently underutilized; and express the evolving history and culture
of Zaragoza’’ (MIT School of Architecture and Planning, 2006, p. 10). In accordance with
these goals, the speci?c actions are as follows: to create new public spaces which knit the
old divided sections of the city; attract newvisitors and enhance the daily life of the people in
the residential neighborhoods; engage and educate the local citizenry in the use of
information technology; make the city a central location for technology industries and the
production of culture; continue the innovations in water use after the Expo; use the newest
technological accomplishments; and ‘‘make Zaragoza synonymous with information
technology and the twenty-?rst century economy around the globe’’ (MIT School of
Architecture and Planning, 2006, p. 10).
The starting points of the Milla project are the extension of the high-speed train (AVE)
network and other projects which include the 2008 Zaragoza Expo and the vast logistic
platform of PlaZa. In particular, the Expo covers an area of 25 hectares near the Ebro river, in
an area which falls within the Water Metropolitan Park.
The design themes of the Milla Digital project are based on two kinds of approaches: the
‘‘open source approach’’ and the physical one. The former refers to environments that
interact with their users and change to provide for different activities with the aim of both
favoring involvement and interaction among citizens and helping them to reveal past and
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present narratives about the city. The ?nal aim is to create a sense of belonging between
citizens and their public realm and facilitate a positive approach to new technologies. The
latter is related to the physical features which represent historical and identity elements of
Zaragoza. These include: water, the bridges - old and new - the towers, the walls, and the
layers - meant as the different inhabitants of Zaragoza who have lived out their memory over
the centuries through a continuity of culture – which will all be used as a tool to create sets of
activities, buildings and digital media for different groups (MIT School of Architecture and
Planning, 2006). The people-scale urban spaces, the mixes of activities and the pedestrian
connections, which are characteristics peculiar to Zaragoza, represent the model of a
traditional city to both conserve and transform by the project in contemporary fashion.
Three levels of design – physical, socio-cultural, and digital-connectivity – have been
identi?ed to achieve all those objectives (Pradas and Arnal, 2008).
At the physical level, 20 per cent of the area will be devoted to the digital economy and
creative sector companies that are able to develop a dynamic environment seven days a
week. The new AVE neighborhood which is envisaged under the General Urban Planning
Scheme of Zaragoza covers an area of 1,000,000m
2
allocated to green areas, facilities,
housing and other uses, including commercial, tertiary and hotels. With regard to the project
for the old station El Portillo, the 93,000 m
2
area is destined for green areas and facilities, new
homes and an of?ce block. Furthermore, the space between the two areas will be used for
the tertiary sector with the creation of a large number of new jobs. As for the socio-cultural
level, the project provides for the Milla Digital Campus, a campus for urban innovation which
aims to attract a mix of creative people.
The focus points of the Campus are the Art and Technology Center - a space for research,
education, exhibition and design - and the Milla Digital Museum, a museum which
comprises several functions, including a mediatheque, an exhibition space on current digital
developments in Zaragoza and a showroom space for companies.
Finally, the project includes a digital-connectivity level, which was developed by experts
fromMITand its Media Lab. The objective of this study is to design a city which incorporates
both the ‘‘hardware’’ and ‘‘software’’ – in other words, ‘‘social participation, creativity and the
need for a social ‘open source’ approach’’ - of the digital city (Pradas and Arnal, 2008, p. 28).
The idea is to develop a newgeneration of digital media for sustainable public spaces aimed
at allowing people to use, participate in and interact with the city and its citizens. The object
is to broaden public involvement by creating user-friendly places.
At the same time, this digital apparatus has to boost the attractiveness of Zaragoza to many
‘‘creative’’ groups. The proposals for these new places include: the use of water for de?ning
spaces and interactive facades, as in the case of the 2008 Expo Digital Water Pavilion
(Figure 4); the creation of paving where pedestrians can leave their footprints and responses
to other footprints (a sustainable form of graf?ti); the use of ultra-bright LED with a wi-?
connection and powered by photovoltaic energy, to mark areas and create safe places; the
creation of bus shelters, whose design will adapt to the local weather, geographical location,
traf?c conditions and offer connectivity for cell phones and laptops; and the creation of
screens on awnings to display images and video.
The Milla Digital project is in its early stages. The number of visitors fromSpain and abroad to
the city of Zaragoza grew over the years between 2002 and 2008 more than 621,000 (34.24
percent) according to data provided by INE (n.d.) (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica). Visitors
from abroad (40.82 percent) increased more sharply than those from Spain (33 percent)
(Figure 5).
With respect to the region of Aragon, tourists resident in Spain during the years in question
increased for the province of Zaragoza by 31.55 percent (259.18) compared with a 34.83
percent increase (251.86) in the region’s other two provinces - Huesca and Teruel. However,
foreign tourists to the province of Zaragoza were more numerous: between 2002 and 2008,
there was a 57 percent increase (90.83); as regards the other two provinces the variation
was less marked (17.32 percent) with an increase of 19,000 visitors (Figure 6).
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Figure 4 The 2008 Expo Digital Water Pavilion
Figure 5 Number of travelers - resident in Spain and resident abroad
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In the province of Aragon, the Zaragoza area is that which absorbs the largest number of
tourists (Figure 7). In particular, more than half (54.52 percent) the visitors in 2008, chose this
city instead of the city of Huesca and Teruel situated in the same province.
Presumably, the above increase is mainly due to the Expo and the 5,000 related events -
many of which involved citizens in the organization - although data concerning information
requested from the Zaragoza Tourist Of?ce - taken from the Informe anual (Zaragoza
turismo, 2008) - show that the main questions were about historical monuments in Zaragoza
(37 percent), followed by questions about the Expo (20 percent).
In any case, there were about 5.5 million visitors to the Expo and it created about 16,000
jobs. Now the aim is to create, through the Milla Digital project and the construction of the
digital PlaZa, 12,000 jobs and establish 300 creative businesses (Segantini, 2008).
Conclusion
This paper illustrated the concept of the creative city in which an important role is played by
place identity, cultural sustainability and involvement of the population. Traditional urban
renewal policies, mainly based on combating social exclusion and physically building, are
changing: there is the increasing realisation that cities are not just buildings and material
structures, but also persons, networks and intangible elements, such as memory, history,
social relationships, emotional experiences and cultural identities.
In this regard, we illustrated two emblematic case studies of creative clusters - both related
to urban waterfront regenerations - devoted to city residents, as well as cultural tourists and
other visitors, namely the Guggenheim museum of Bilbao and the Milla Digital project in
Zaragoza. As regards the success of cultural tourism in particular, some further
considerations can be made.
In the case of the Guggenheim museum in Bilbao, in the framework of cultural clusters, the
success of this project in terms of socio-economic and cultural impact is supported by
various kinds of data. Now, the efforts to complete the Abandoibarra area should be devoted
to producing a brand which does not become just a cultural icon. In accordance with the
mainstream literature on these themes, the creation of the brand has to be increasingly
Figure 6 Number of travelers - resident in Spain and resident abroad - to the Arago´ n region
divided by province
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linked to integrated strategies which concern all aspects of the city and at all levels. In other
words, culture based on mega-structures inserted within a town leads to a revitalization of
the city in terms of employment and cultural participation. However, interventions only
created on urban development with a vision overly tied to the physical and material aspects -
neglecting the social sustainability and the construction of infrastructure based on intangible
culture - produce repeatable places, prey to globalization. Interventions of art and culture
allow local identities to be supported and elements of distinctiveness to be built in place.
In the case of the Milla Digital project in Zaragoza - in the framework of the clusters of events
- the urban transformation offered by Expo 2008 has represented for Zaragoza the driving
force for planning and producing a new social, cultural and economic change for the city’s
image.
To avoid the risk of the direct bene?t of the Expo upon Zaragoza being lost at the conclusion
of the event, the Expo pavilions are being turned into a business park included in the Water
Metropolitan Park. The Exhibition allowed the crystallization of the cultural and technological
district as well as the launch of a comprehensive process of creative regeneration of the city
for residents and visitors. Although this process is only in its initial phase, data concerning
the socio-economic impact of the Expo are encouraging.
In both cases, it is necessary during the period of project completion to ensure that public
policies do not only focus on the potential of developing culture. To achieve the long-term
success of urban and cultural regeneration it is important to attain throughout the process
the involvement and integration of the local community at all levels, and enhance and
consolidate place identity, all in respect of economic, social and environmental
sustainability.
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