Description
The purpose of this paper is to present volunteering in tourism events as a sort of
spontaneous community participation that has far-reaching consequences for destination management.
It chooses the concept of value to explore volunteering experience in an international
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Consumer behavior in a religious event experience: an empirical assessment of value dimensionality among
volunteers
Martina G. Gallarza Francisco Arteaga Elena Floristán Irene Gil
Article information:
To cite this document:
Martina G. Gallarza Francisco Arteaga Elena Floristán Irene Gil, (2009),"Consumer behavior in a religious event experience: an empirical
assessment of value dimensionality among volunteers", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 3 Iss 2
pp. 165 - 180
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J udith Mair, Michelle Whitford, (2013),"An exploration of events research: event topics, themes and emerging trends", International
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Paul Barron, Ivana Rihova, (2011),"Motivation to volunteer: a case study of the Edinburgh International Magic Festival", International
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Antónia Correia, Metin Kozak, J oão Ferradeira, (2013),"From tourist motivations to tourist satisfaction", International J ournal of Culture,
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Consumer behavior in a religious event
experience: an empirical assessment of
value dimensionality among volunteers
Martina G. Gallarza, Francisco Arteaga, Elena Florista´ n and Irene Gil
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present volunteering in tourism events as a sort of
spontaneous community participation that has far-reaching consequences for destination management.
It chooses the concept of value to explore volunteering experience in an international religious
mega-event, using Holbrook’s value typology (ef?ciency, social value, play, spirituality).
Design/methodology/approach – The authors undertake this objective by means of testing
psychometric properties of the four value scales, as well as providing a causal model of relationships
among value dimensions and overall perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty or commitment to
volunteering in a special event tested with MBPLS, a particular algorithm for the partial least squares
methodology.
Findings – The results con?rm the reliability and validity of the scales tested in a sample of 1,638
volunteers, collected via e-mail from the database of a religious mega-event held in Valencia in July
2006. They also con?rm a relationship among overall perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty or
commitment as a chain of behavioral constructs.
Research limitations/implications – One can ?nd implications for the relevant weight of volunteers as
peculiar stakeholders of mega-events. For consumer behavior researchers, the chain of effects among
value dimensions and behavioral constructs is once more relevant, although the ?ndings are only related
to volunteers at religious events.
Practical implications – For destination marketing managers, this study can throw light on the pro?le of
volunteers for event marketing and how they behave in their own experience as relevant stakeholders in
the organization of a mega-event.
Originality/value – Very few works devote their interest to value dimensionality in a marketing event
context, despite the richness of that sort of tourism experience. Perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty
or commitment have been investigated among volunteers in sport or cultural mega-events, but rarely in
religious mega-events.
Keywords Calendar events, Festivals, Modelling, Marketing
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Modern approaches to consumer behavior research suggest that experiences shape future
consumption (Pine and Gilmore, 1999). In that sense, as the World Tourism Organization
(1998) already announced, future consumers of tourism will want to participate in the
production of the product. Tourismorganizations will need to deliver unique experiences that
personally engage the consumer. Newapproaches to destination management suggest that
an important part of the tourist experience comes from the human element (Szivas, 1999),
and the human elements in tourism organizations are not only employees but also residents.
In fact, the attitude towards residents is known as one of the most salient determinants of
tourism destination image (Gallarza et al., 2002). The relationship between tourists and
residents is a signi?cant part of the success of the tourist experience; residents are thus a
DOI 10.1108/17506180910962168 VOL. 3 NO. 2 2009, pp. 165-180, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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PAGE 165
Martina G. Gallarza is
based at the Universidad
de Valencia, Valencia,
Spain. Francisco Arteaga
and Elena Florista´ n are
based at the Universidad
Cato´ lica de Valencia San
Vicente Ma´ rtir, Valencia,
Spain. Irene Gil is based at
the Universidad de
Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
Received: April 2008
Revised: June 2008
Accepted: August 2008
The authors thank the Spanish
Ministry for Education and
Science for the ?nancial
support given to this line of
research (I þD del Plan
Nacional SEJ2007-66054).
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particular stakeholder of destination management because they are involved in the delivery
of most tourism services. However, the tourism literature has not widely studied the forms of
community participation in a tourist destination (Tosum, 2006). Tosum(1999) considers three
types of community participation:
1. spontaneous community participation;
2. coercive community participation; and
3. induced community participation.
We can understand volunteering in cultural and/or religious events as a sort of spontaneous
community participation that has far-reaching relevance for destination management. In that
sense, special events and volunteering are closer areas of research, because ‘‘the number
of events has grown by expanding in size and complexity, so the number of staff and
volunteers has mushroomed’’ (Goeldner et al., 2000, p. 235). Understanding the experience
of volunteering in special events (cultural, religious or sport events) is thus an area of interest
for destination managers and leisure and recreation researchers.
With this in mind, for the present study we choose the concept of consumer value proposed by
Holbrook (1999) for analyzing a volunteering experience. The theory of value is of tremendous
potential relevance to the ?elds of marketing and consumer research (Holbrook, 1999), and
thus to tourismand leisure activities. Among other conceptual approaches to consumer value,
Holbrook’s framework is the most appropriate typology for researching a volunteering
experience as it encompasses functional, social, hedonist and spiritual facets of behavior.
In recent years, the consumer behavior literature has increasingly devoted itself to the topic
of value, based on a relatively wide consensus on the antecedent, mediating and
consequent relationships among quality, satisfaction and value (Cronin et al., 2000; Baker
and Crompton, 2000). The present work goes beyond the existing literature because it tests
a set of positive and negative dimensions of value within a particular leisure activity: the
experience of being a volunteer at a religious event. This paper also tests inter-relationships
among value, satisfaction and loyalty in this context.
Destination management and special events
Sometimes, a special events approach intensi?es the regular promotion of a destination
(Laws, 1995; Monga, 2006). In general, several advantages have been identi?ed for a
tourism destination when hosting special events (Hall, 1992):
B contribution to infrastructure improvements;
B amenity expansion;
B enhanced civic pride;
B improved international (diplomatic) relations;
B increased international awareness of the destination;
B experience of managing large numbers of visitors; and
B the potential for tourism development.
More particularly, Kim and Morrison’s (2005) research on the image of South Korea among
tourists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup suggests that an internationally signi?cant event can
change the image of a tourism destination in a short time period. But we can also assess the
effect of a special event among residents – Waitt (2003) studied during a two-year period
the changes in social dimensions (enthusiasm) towards Sydney’s Olympics among a
socially diverse sample of host city residents; the study revealed signi?cant improvement
with differences among respondents’ pro?les.
Additionally, a special event can provide impressions of a host country to both visitors and
spectators fromforeign countries, television viewers and users of other information media. In
the case of the city of Valencia, the 5th World Meeting of Families, held from July 7 to July 9,
2006, chaired by Pope Benedict XVI, accounted for the equivalent of more than 208,060,000
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viewers on TV and 46,910,000 listeners on radio, as the time exposure during the three days
was, respectively, 84, 59, and 28 hours on television and 57, 1, and 27 hours on radio
(Acceso Group, 2006).
Other cities such as Rome in 1994, Rio de Janeiro in 1997, Rome again in 2000 and Manila in
2003 hosted previous similar events (i.e. World Meeting of Families with the Pope). In the
meeting of July 2006 several testimonies of families about faith experiences alternated with
artistic-cultural performances, along with a Eucharist celebration chaired by the Pope Benedict
XVI. The meeting accounted for about 1,500,000 pilgrims frommore than 87 different countries.
The venue was the emblematic – the ‘‘City of Arts and Sciences’’ of Valencia, in a scenario of
more than 2,700m
2
of area in the central part and 2,500m
2
more in the perimeter crown. A key
part in the organization of the event was the nearly 11,000 volunteers helping in the meeting.
Volunteering phenomenon and tourism
The voluntary sector comprises all the activities and services provided on the basis of
volunteering; that is, unpaid work accomplished within the context of a formal business
(public or private) or an association. Volunteering can have its source in a positive attitude
that ?nds that helping people or serving society can lead to a higher degree of life
satisfaction (Gonza´ lez-Gallarza, 2000). In tourism, event volunteer research is a
well-developed ?eld, both conceptually and empirically. Some relevant work has
specialized in sport tourism (e.g. Farrell et al., 1998; Coyne and Coyne, 2001; Strigas and
Newton-Jackson, 2003). More recently, Monga (2006) offered a comprehensive view on
motivation to volunteer in special events, providing a 26-item scale tested in ?ve different
settings of special events (sport, cultural and others).
In fact, one could say that in tourism a positive attitude and motivation to volunteering may
very often be related to community participation (Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003; Coyne
and Coyne, 2001). In the tourism industry, volunteering can cover such activities as sport
tourism (e.g. the Olympic Games), cultural tourism (event and festival attendance) and
peace/religion tourism (pilgrimages and religious events). The latter is probably the least
common, and thus one area where more understanding is desirable (Vukonic, 2000). The
present study understands volunteering experience as spontaneous community
participation within this context of ‘‘positive attitude’’ and ‘‘life satisfaction’’ through the
concept and types of value. Previous works on volunteering have focused primarily on
motivation (Monga, 2006; Farrell et al., 1998; Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003). Consumer
value and its dimensionality are useful tools for assessing the volunteering experience within
the context of a religious tourism event such as the 5th World Meeting of Families.
The 5th World Meeting of Families needed a volunteering collaboration of an exceptional size
to develop all the activities planned. The organization of more than 11,000 volunteers helped in
organization and logistic issues (like giving information, assisting pilgrims, protocol, etc.); it
also involved a lot of people who were eager to participate in the organization in order to be
able to live a unique and particular experience. As Goeldner et al. (2000, p. 235) suggest,
‘‘volunteering is one of the key factors in the success of events. It takes the hard work and
support from community volunteers to ensure that a festival or event runs smoothly’’.
The organization grouped the volunteers into different teams within the different areas of
work. Each team had 15-20 volunteers and one team leader. The functions of the different
volunteer teams were:
B audience attention (reception in train stations and airports, information points, etc.);
B administration and management (press centre, translation and interpretation, etc.);
B event logistics (theological congress, festive and prayer meeting, etc.);
B protocol (escort of authorities);
B volunteer logistics;
B control and security; and
B medical services.
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Researching value in tourism
The efforts and discussions of the last decades have enabled researchers to obtain a better
understanding of the conceptual and methodological relationships between service quality,
perceived value and customer satisfaction (e.g. Chadee and Mattsson, 1995; Oh and Parks,
1997; Murphy and Pritchard, 1997; Baker and Crompton, 2000; Kim et al., 2001). However,
during the 1990s, these works viewed value as a rather neglected aspect in the customer’s
assessment of services (Petrick, 2002). But, since 2000, both academically and
managerially, research works in tourism have increasingly turned their interest to the
concept of value (e.g. Oh, 1999, 2000, 2003; Kashyap and Bojanic, 2000; Murphy et al.,
2000; Tam, 2000; Babin and Kim, 2001; Petrick et al., 2001; Walker et al., 2001; Petrick and
Backman, 2002; Petrick, 2003; Oh, 2003; Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004). The critical review of
these studies reveals some peculiarities (Gallarza and Gil, 2006):
B Means-end models usually consider different forms of customer loyalty, in addition to the
more traditional variables service quality and satisfaction.
B Methodologically speaking, the adoption of SEM models using LISREL or PLS has been
relevant. The use of secondary data is quite extensive (e.g. Stevens, 1992; Jayanti and
Ghosh, 1996; Bojanic, 1996; Murphy and Pritchard, 1997; Kashyap and Bojanic, 2000;
Murphy et al., 2000).
B Concerning the linkages among constructs, those have been found in some cases to be
inconsistent across different product categories (see, for example, the satisfaction-value
link in Petrick et al., 2001 or Petrick and Backman, 2002). Nevertheless, in most empirical
attempts, there is a natural quality-value-satisfaction chain, with some form of loyalty as a
?nal outcome.
This study is an additional attempt to assess this natural chain of behavioral constructs,
within the context of a volunteering experience in a religious tourism event, by providing and
testing a means-end model.
From a managerial point of view, value is linked to capital marketing strategies such as
market segmentation (Tellis and Gaeth, 1990), product differentiation (Heskett et al., 1997)
and positioning policies (Kotler, 1999). In fact, value is a key for gaining competitive
advantage (Gale, 1994; Woodruff and Gardial, 1996; Woodruff, 1997; Day, 1999). In a
tourism management context, value is a useful tool for improving a destination’s competitive
edge (Pechlaner et al., 2002). In that sense, the multidimensionality of consumer value may
unveil deep-seated driving forces of destination management because ‘‘the marketing of
destinations is complex as we are dealing not only with the tangible inventory of physical
attributes [. . .] but also intangible social and cultural factors’’ (Cooper et al., 2005, p. 682).
Many authors recognize the value concept as multidimensional (Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004;
Babin and Kim, 2001; Petrick, 2003); however, most of the initial empirical testing of tourism
value models adopts an utilitarian perspective, where value is just quality relative to the price
paid (e.g. Bojanic, 1996; Jayanti and Ghosh, 1996; Tam, 2000) or the very simple view of
value for money (Murphy et al., 2000; Murphy and Pritchard, 1997).
Consequently, single-item value scales have been quite usual in tourism, although several
authors have recognized their limitations (e.g. Oh, 1999; Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004). However,
in recent years, multi-item measurement of value emerged within the tourism literature.
Authors interested in value composites have adopted classical value typologies: Petrick and
Backman (2002) use Grewal et al.’s (1998) scale of transaction versus acquisition value and
Babin and Kim(2001) adopt Babin et al.’s (1994) dimensions of hedonic and utilitarian value.
Al-Sabbahy et al. (2004) apply Grewal et al.’s (1998) two-dimensional value scale to hotels
and restaurants services with inconsistent results for the transaction value dimension;
Petrick’s (2002, 2003) works propose a value structure of ?ve dimensions (behavioral price,
monetary price, emotional response, quality and reputation) that is meant to work for all
service categories. Finally, Gallarza and Gil (2006) gave support to an adaptation of
Holbrook’s typology of value: a structure of ?ve positive dimensions (ef?ciency, service
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quality, play, aesthetics and social value) and one negative dimension (cost of time) within
the context of university students’ travel behavior.
Although consumer researchers have undertaken several conceptual debates (e.g. Oliver,
1996, 1999; Leclerc and Schmitt, 1999; Smith, 1999) on Holbrook’s types of value, there are
very few empirical works on it. The present study is an attempt of adopting and adapting
Holbrook’s value typology (see Table I) to a particular consuming experience, i.e.
volunteering in a special event. ‘‘Everything is consumption’’ as Holbrook has declared
many times; acting as a volunteer in an event is a formof consumption, and when the event is
a religious one, Holbrook’s typology of value is particularly interesting as it covers all human
behavior dimensions with a particular interest on ethics and spirituality, or more
parsimoniously on an altruistic dimension (e.g. sel?ess acts of charity, generosity, or
kindness).
Research hypothesis and proposed model
The purpose of the empirical study is exploring value dimensionality in the context chosen
along the aim of providing a means-end-model of behavioral constructs.
Given the multidimensional nature of consumption value (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982,
Sheth et al., 1991; Babin et al., 1994; Holbrook, 1999; Parasuraman and Grewal, 2000)
positive and negative value dimensions can have positive and negative effects on perceived
value. As we have already stated, Holbrook’s framework is the most appropriate typology for
researching a volunteering experience as it encompasses functional, social, hedonist and
spiritual facets of behavior. Following Holbrook’s theory, the cells of his typology can be
considered as positive value inputs. From the self-oriented dimension, play and ef?ciency
are both chosen for being active values as volunteering involves ‘‘active tasks’’ more than
‘‘reactive’’ ones. Ef?ciency, for example, deals with time management in the event
organization; and play refers to the hedonic dimensions of acting as a volunteer (leisure and
free time, having fun, etc.). Obviously, from the other-oriented dimension, spirituality is
considered for analyzing involvement in a religious event. Additionally, social interactions are
a speci?c trait of consumer value (Sheth et al., 1991). Volunteering has much to do with
social interaction. As Holbrook’s typology also offers a social dimension, a fourth positive
input of perceived value is included, named social value, encompassing indicators of both
esteem and status. This structure is also consistent with some previous research on
volunteering in special events, especially in the ef?ciency and social dimension (e.g. Strigas
and Newton-Jackson, 2003; Farrell et al., 1998).
Many authors conceptualize value as a trade-off between negative and positive elements
(e.g. Monroe, 1979; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Lovelock, 1996; Kotler et al., 2000). The cost
of ‘‘time and physical or mental effort’’ (Berry and Yadav, 1997) is also considered as the
opportunity cost of dedicating time to a voluntary service instead of anything else (friends,
family, work, etc.). According to the particular experience investigated, i.e. volunteering, the
structure tested does not consider additional sacri?ces such as monetary cost or perceived
risk.
These initial ?ve value dimensions (four positive and one negative) are considered as
exogenous variables of a causal model. This model is an adaptation of Zeithaml’s (1988)
value model, which considers the positive and negative dimensions of value as direct
antecedents of perceived value. A chain of effects between value, satisfaction and loyalty is
Table I Holbrook’s typology of value
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Self-oriented Active Ef?ciency (O/I; convenience) Play (fun)
Reactive Excellence (quality) Aesthetics (beauty)
Other-oriented Active Status (success, impression) Ethics (virtue, justice)
Reactive Esteem (reputation, materialism) Spirituality (faith)
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then postulated as endogenous variables, following previous works such as Cronin et al.
(2000), Oh (1999) and Tam(2000). This paper leads to an understanding of loyalty, within the
context of volunteering, as the commitment and attachment to the experience of
volunteering in a similar event (Farrell et al., 1998). Figure 1 shows the hypotheses testing
the proposed model.
Methodology
The methodology undertaken is divided into three different stages. First, according to
Decrop (1999), who stresses the need of applying qualitative techniques to tourism
marketing and consumer behavior research (especially with no previous scaling effort in the
particular ?eld investigated), qualitative information was collected from two sources:
1. four in depth interviews with experts among the 5th Families World Meeting Organization
(responsible for the volunteers organisation, responsible for the volunteers process
selection, responsible for the General Secretary of the 5th Meeting, and interviewers for
volunteers selection); and
2. four focus groups with different pro?les of volunteers (students from Valencia, mid-age
working women, housewives, over 50 years old, etc.) with the aim of learning more about
their expectations and motivations on their next volunteer experience task.
The structure proposed of ?ve dimensions of value is consistent with the statements heard
during focus group with volunteers.
Second, an additional bibliographical review about other social experiences similar to
voluntary services in several related subjects completes the information gathered: social
marketing, psychological and sociological dimensions of volunteer jobs, etc. (Kim and
Morrison, 2005; Yuan et al., 2005; Gnoth, 1997; Crompton and McKay, 1997; Monga, 2006;
Farrell et al., 1998; Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003). Scales chosen for value, satisfaction
and loyalty were previously tested in Cronin et al. (2000) and in Gallarza and Gil (2006).
Third, this work conducts a pre test with 25 people (all of them volunteers) in order to further
re?ne the scales. The ?nal questionnaire contained 38 indicators that encompass all the
different levels of volunteer experience:
B functional;
B ef?ciency (making useful things, being useful to other people);
Figure 1 The proposed model
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B social;
B social value (meeting other people, making relationships, friends);
B hedonistic;
B play (fun, enjoyment);
B altruistic;
B spirituality (ethical behaviors, religious motivation); and
B sacri?ces (cost of time and effort).
All indicators were expressed positively (except the cost dimension) with a ?ve-point Likert
scale. The questionnaire was sent via e-mail to the 9,199 volunteers from the 5th Families
World Meeting Organization database, asking for their collaboration with the survey: 1,638
questionnaires were returned correctly answered (response rate of 17.8 percent).
The volunteer pro?le (see Table II) is clearly skewed towards young people (71 percent
younger than 36 years old), and slightly towards females (57 percent verus 42 percent
males); most have Spanish nationality (95 percent) and 69.5 percent come from the city of
Valencia. This is therefore a good sample for exploring spontaneous community
participation, as most of the volunteers were residents. With regarding to languages
spoken, 78 percent speak more than one language, and 43 percent more than two. Finally, it
is important to state that 61 percent of the volunteers had no previous experience in
volunteer services.
Analysis and results
Partial least squares (PLS) is a regression method mainly developed by Herman Wold (Wold,
1982, 1985). PLS can be considered as a two stage process in which the set of K predictor
variables are ?rst linearly transformed into a new set of A (A , K) factors which have
maximal covariance with the response variable subject to them being orthogonal to each
other. Geladi (1988) and Geladi and Kowalski (1986) provide further information on PLS. The
present study uses the multi block partial least squares path modeling (MBPLSPM)
Table II Sample description
n Percentage
Sex
Men 697 42.6
Women 939 57.4
Languages spoken
1 350 21.3
2 576 35.2
.2 712 43.4
Previous volunteer experience
Never 1,003 61.2
Once 209 12.8
Several times 426 26.0
Nationality
Valencia 1,081 69.5
Alicante 51 3.3
Castello´ n 72 4.6
Others places in Spain 352 22.6
Foreign 82 5.0
Age
16-25 696 42.0
26-35 472 29.0
36-50 340 21.0
þ50 128 8.0
Note: n ¼ 1; 638
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algorithm, which has produced better results than classical PLS (Arteaga et al., 2007). The
study assesses measurement results using sequentially, reliability analysis through
Cronbach’s a and correlation analysis to assess discriminant validity (with SPSS 11.0) and
MBPLSPM to assess the causal links between constructs. Table III offers information on
scale reliability along with descriptive statistics for each indicator.
The scores were quite high in all value dimensions, especially in affective dimensions such
as social value and play. As a cognitive assessment, ef?ciency is the least valued dimension,
along with the cost of time and effort spent. Perceptions of value, satisfaction and the
willingness to recommend or re-participate (loyalty) had the highest levels, (all indicators of
Table III Reliability analysis and descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics Reliability
Mean SD Cronbach’s a a if item eliminated
Spirituality 0.689
Item 1 4.412 0.891 0.59
Item 2 4.524 0.796 0.60
Item 3 4.325 0.969 0.62
Item 4 3.672 1.281 0.73
Item 5 4.352 0.952 0.67
Item 6 3.974 1.074 0.65
Social value 0.805
Item 7 4.205 0.997 0.78
Item 8 4.213 0.988 0.77
Item 9 3.160 1.212 0.79
Item 10 3.697 1.125 0.78
Item 11 4.476 0.762 0.79
Item 12 4.615 0.718 0.78
Item 13 4.369 0.869 0.77
Item 14 3.600 1.165 0.80
Play 0.818
Item 16 4.537 0.836 0.79
Item 17 4.093 1.111 0.80
Item 18 4.059 1.025 0.79
Item 19 4.176 1.000 0.76
Item 20 4.513 0.784 0.80
Item 21 4.458 0.824 0.79
Ef?ciency 0.825
Item 22 3.220 1.294 0.84
Item 23 3.957 1.183 0.81
Item 24 4.175 1.037 0.80
Item 25 3.778 1.155 0.78
Item 26 3.413 1.266 0.77
Item 27 3.726 1.195 0.77
Effort 0.799
Item 29 3.656 0.979 0.67
Item 30 3.810 0.954 0.65
Item 31 3.545 1.095 0.84
Value 0.854
Item 46 4.500 0.817 –
Item 47 4.373 0.839 –
Satisfaction 0.823
Item 43 4.597 0.780 0.67
Item 44 4.609 0.753 0.67
Item 45 3.832 1.106 0.90
Loyalty 0.855
Item 48 4.517 0.819 0.81
Item 49 4.539 0.831 0.74
Item 50 4.667 0.788 0.83
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more than 4.2 except one). Thus, one can consider the experience of being a volunteer in the
5th World Meeting of Families as extremely successful for the respondents interviewed.
The scales used to measure the latent constructs in the model show acceptable construct
reliability (see Cronbach’s alphas in Table III) except for the ef?ciency dimension (lower than
the 0.7 criteria). However, the elimination of item 4 increases scale reliability up to 0.73. This
item is related to the civic pride of the volunteer, which is closer to an ethical dimension and
thus less related to the spirituality dimension. Further research could throw more light onto
the civic dimension of volunteering, maybe as an independent dimension.
Discriminant validity is assessed using the ?rst criteria used by Sweeney and Soutar (2001),
i.e. correlations between constructs signi?cantly lower than 1. All latent constructs satisfy the
criteria (see Table IV). Correlations between value dimensions are relatively high. The
correlation between play and social value is the highest (0.75), which seems consistent
because of their common affective nature, followed by ef?ciency and play (0.609), and
social value and spirituality (0.603). The play dimension is also strongly correlated with the
overall value (0.607), which indicates that respondents place a strong accent on the
affective side (intrinsic values in Holbrook’s nomenclature) of value perceptions.
Among the endogenous variables, value and loyalty present a strong correlation (0.668) but
in a similar range as other value tourismstudies (e.g. Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004); one could say
the same for satisfaction and loyalty (0.656). Value and satisfaction are also very highly
correlated variables (0.640). Although strongly connected, these three measures capture
different aspects of the volunteering experience, all of them very satisfactory.
For further insights into the validity of the scales, an item-to-scale correlation analysis is
conducted (see Table V for results). The structure is fully con?rmed as indicators from a
given dimension present the highest correlations with its dimension, all of them being quite
high.
Concerning the structural results, Figure 2 gives speci?c information with respect to ML
estimators of each proposed path, along with the R
2
coef?cients. The results provided by
the MBPLS methodology indicate that the hypothesis structure proposed supports the
model. The signi?cance of the estimated coef?cients, with no previous hypothesis about the
data distribution, is assessed through the bootstrap method (Efrom and Tibshirani, 1993),
taking 1,000 samples with the replacement of 1,638 individuals from the original sample.
With the structure obtained, six of the seven hypothesis were supported (H1, H2, H3, H4, H6
and H7). Time and effort spent, as the only cost associated with value perceptions, is not an
antecedent of value (H5), as it presents a non-signi?cant path of 20.011. Theoretical
considerations need to guide interpretation of the model (Long, 1983; Diamantopoulos,
1994). But, no previous attempts of scaling and measuring value in a volunteering context
have been proposed, so comparisons for interpretation are very limited. Previous scaling
efforts on the motivation of volunteering in special events did not consider the time and effort
dimension explicitly (e.g. Monga, 2006; Farrell et al., 1998). Probably, acting as a volunteer is
a personal engagement of time and energy that the person involved normally assumes, and
thus it is not ‘‘experienced’’ as a cost. Anyway, other studies inside and outside the tourism
Table IV Correlations among constructs
Spirituality Social value Play Ef?ciency Effort Value Satisfaction Loyalty
Spirituality 0.735
Social value 0.603 0.805
Play 0.581 0.751 0.818
Ef?ciency 0.435 0.566 0.609 0.825
Effort 0.307 0.309 0.274 0.162 0.799
Value 0.496 0.544 0.607 0.515 0.189 0.854
Satisfaction 0.459 0.493 0.588 0.443 0.214 0.640 0.823
Loyalty 0.405 0.474 0.560 0.438 0.139 0.668 0.656 0.855
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literature also provide weak links between value and negative inputs such as perceived
sacri?ce (e.g. Cronin et al., 2000; Gallarza and Gil, 2006).
Also, consistent with predictions, spirituality, play, ef?ciency and social value are positive
antecedents of value (H1, H2, H3 and H4 were supported). Among them, the stronger links
appear between the the affective dimension and perceived value. Play is the strongest
antecedent of perceived value (0.311), showing a clear prominence of the intrinsic
(affective) dimension in the experience investigated. Nevertheless, the extrinsic dimension
(ef?ciency) is also an antecedent of perceived value (0.188). Work by Monga (2006) also
found instrumental motivations as a signi?cant determinant for volunteering in special
events, but less important than other intrinsic motivations. Work by Farrell et al. (1998) on
sports competitions also showed a relative importance of volunteers’ satisfaction with
Table V Item-to-scale correlations
Question Spirituality Social value Play Ef?ciency Effort Value Satisfaction Loyalty
Spirituality
Item 1 0.88 0.46 0.46 0.37 0.25 0.41 0.38 0.32
Item 2 0.85 0.48 0.50 0.35 0.26 0.44 0.41 0.37
Item 3 0.80 0.42 0.41 0.35 0.23 0.43 0.37 0.34
Item 5 0.39 0.41 0.35 0.20 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.20
Item 6 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.22 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.16
Social value
Item 7 0.35 0.70 0.50 0.34 0.24 0.33 0.30 0.29
Item 8 0.49 0.76 0.58 0.44 0.25 0.51 0.44 0.43
Item 9 0.29 0.58 0.37 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.14
Item 10 0.35 0.64 0.43 0.32 0.23 0.27 0.23 0.23
Item 11 0.43 0.60 0.47 0.41 0.12 0.36 0.32 0.33
Item 12 0.43 0.65 0.59 0.45 0.16 0.41 0.40 0.41
Item 13 0.53 0.73 0.58 0.43 0.20 0.46 0.42 0.40
Item 14 0.23 0.53 0.37 0.27 0.17 0.23 0.22 0.20
Play
Item 16 0.48 0.52 0.71 0.41 0.24 0.42 0.43 0.35
Item 17 0.34 0.44 0.67 0.37 0.17 0.35 0.36 0.34
Item 18 0.33 0.53 0.72 0.44 0.19 0.39 0.40 0.41
Item 19 0.49 0.62 0.83 0.50 0.26 0.55 0.52 0.47
Item 20 0.40 0.60 0.67 0.53 0.14 0.46 0.43 0.46
Item 21 0.48 0.56 0.73 0.42 0.18 0.46 0.41 0.40
Ef?ciency
Item 22 0.26 0.48 0.46 0.50 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.25
Item 23 0.36 0.45 0.49 0.66 0.26 0.40 0.39 0.33
Item 24 0.35 0.50 0.53 0.71 0.16 0.45 0.39 0.38
Item 25 0.33 0.39 0.43 0.83 0.03 0.40 0.31 0.33
Item 26 0.29 0.37 0.40 0.83 0.06 0.36 0.29 0.30
Item 27 0.34 0.39 0.45 0.84 0.04 0.41 0.34 0.35
Effort
Item 29 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.16 0.88 0.20 0.22 0.15
Item 30 0.31 0.30 0.27 0.17 0.89 0.19 0.23 0.14
Item 31 0.20 0.20 0.16 0.06 0.76 0.09 0.09 0.06
Value
Item 46 0.44 0.47 0.54 0.46 0.15 0.93 0.59 0.61
Item 47 0.48 0.55 0.59 0.51 0.20 0.93 0.61 0.64
Satisfaction
Item 43 0.39 0.40 0.51 0.36 0.16 0.57 0.91 0.62
Item 44 0.41 0.41 0.50 0.36 0.19 0.55 0.91 0.59
Item 45 0.38 0.48 0.53 0.43 0.20 0.54 0.75 0.47
Loyalty
Item 48 0.29 0.37 0.42 0.32 0.10 0.50 0.49 0.87
Item 49 0.41 0.47 0.55 0.44 0.13 0.64 0.61 0.91
Item 50 0.37 0.41 0.51 0.40 0.13 0.63 0.64 0.86
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functional aspects such as administrative and managerial conditions. Social value is a weak
antecedent of calue (0.111) compared to other types of value, which is a surprising result
that demands further insights into other volunteering experiences. Coyne and Coyne’s
(2001) study of golf events ?nds that veteran volunteers were more concerned about
relationships than ?rst-timers. As in the present study, more than 60 percent of respondents
were ?rst timers (see Table II). The lack of previous experience of volunteers may be related
to this result. Finally, spirituality is linked to perceived value as predicted, but with a relatively
low path (0.167), which is also a peculiar result given the nature of a religious event. In fact,
self-oriented dimensions are better antecedents of value of the volunteering experience,
which is consistent with some of the statements heard in focus groups about the helping
motivation as an individualistic motivation (‘‘I feel better within myself when I help’’). Results
of previous works on volunteer motivation have also shown a signi?cant weight of egoistic
motivation (e.g. Monga, 2006; Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003) that emphasise
self-esteem and feeling well about oneself.
Concerning the links among endogenous variables, the results indicate that value is a
consistent positive antecedent of satisfaction (0.639) and so is satisfaction for loyalty
(0.665). The proposal of a chain between perceptual constructs in a volunteering experience
(value-satisfaction-loyalty) is then ful?lled, thereby lending support to H6 and H7.
Additionally, the set of hypotheses that the model sequentially proposes explained about
43.65 percent of the variance in value, 40.85 percent in satisfaction, and 44.20 percent in
loyalty (see R
2
in Figure 2). These results collectively suggested the strong prominence of
the constructs chain proposed, although according to the results of the negative path time
and effort spent !value, the data did not substantiate the whole structure proposed. Maybe
the volunteering experience is very consistent with Holbrook’s typology, which is an
ambitious theoretical proposal that may not get along with cost dimension structures (Oliver,
1999; Smith, 1999). The author himself has explicitly admitted it (Holbrook, 1999, p. 187). Or
perhaps, one can consider the volunteer value structure in a superior hierarchical stage
because ‘‘in the internal valuation process, at the uppermost level, cost is irrelevant’’ (Oliver,
1999, p. 50).
The study has some limitations: the scales of value dimensions could have had more
re?nements with additional testing on different micro-samples. As there is no previous
scaling effort on the value of a volunteering experience, no additional validity analysis such
as convergent validity or content validity is conducted; furthermore, the nature of the group
of volunteers investigated may be also very peculiar due to the religious nature of the event.
Figure 2 The model tested
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General limitations are also acknowledged on the methodological procedure of assessing
consumer behavioral experiences via e-mail questionnaires.
Further applications of the proposals contained in this work could be both theoretical and
empirical. First, tourism destination management needs to focus on alternative stakeholders
such as volunteers acting during cultural and/or religious events. Second, one could test the
scaling effort proposed in this study and the causal model provided in other tourism event
contexts such as sports competition and festivals, changing spirituality dimensions into
‘‘community participation dimension’’ as a particular form of civic pride or ethical value.
More learning is yet to come to understanding better how to involve residents as volunteers
in special events as a form of contributing to a modern approach of human resources in
tourismdestination management. In that sense, opportunities for researchers and managers
in this particular ?eld are wide open.
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Appendix
Marks from 1 to 5 (1¼strongly disagree, 2 ¼ disagree, 3 ¼ neither in agreement or
disagreement, 4 ¼ in agreement and 5 ¼ totally in agreement)
1. I consider that taking part as a volunteer allowed me to support the Pope.
2. I consider that taking part as a volunteer allowed me to support the families.
3. I consider that taking part as a volunteer allowed me to help the Church for everything it
has given to me.
4. I wanted to take part as a volunteer because the event was taking place in Valencia.
5. I wanted to help to be supportive, altruistic and to be useful to others.
6. I wanted to help because I felt that I was needed.
7. I consider that being a volunteer has allowed me to meet new people.
8. I consider that I have been enriched as a person by the experience of being a volunteer
and meeting people who lead by example.
9. I consider that the experience of being a volunteer has given me recognition among the
people who are important to me such as my parents, children, friends, etc.
10. I consider that my being a volunteer has made people around me happier and made
them proud of my work.
11. I consider that there has been a good relationship with the pilgrims.
12. I consider that there has been a good relationship between the volunteers.
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13. It has been important for me to work among people who have the same interest as me.
14. In my opinion, the group of volunteers that I have collaborated with has been more
important than the task I was given.
15. I believe that this has been a unique experience, a historical event.
16. I think that being a volunteer has allowed me to experience the Meeting on a more
intense level than being just a pilgrim.
17. The experience of being a volunteer has been entertaining and fun.
18. I consider that being a volunteer has been an exciting and moving experience.
19. I consider that there has been a good atmosphere among the volunteers.
20. I was excited about working on a project of such universal character.
21. I think that my task as a volunteer has allowed me to learn and gain work experience.
22. I think that the tasks I undertook have been in line with my abilities.
23. I think that my group has worked correctly.
24. I think that the organization of the Meeting has worked satisfactorily.
25. I think that the information the organization gave has been appropriate.
26. I think that the organization has ful?lled all that it had promised.
The following questions are regarding the effort and time that the job of volunteer has meant
to you. Mark each question using the following scale (1 ¼ not very much/high; 2 ¼ a little/
low; 3 ¼ neither a little nor a lot; 4 ¼ a lot/high; 5 ¼ very, very much/high)
27. I consider the time I have employed as a volunteer has been . . .
28. I consider that the effort required in my work has been . . .
29. I consider leaving aside other things (family, friends, sports etc) for being volunteer has
been an effort.
Mark from 1 to 5 (1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ totally in agreement) the following
questions regarding your satisfaction with your experience as a volunteer
30. It was a correct choice to participate as a volunteer.
31. Participating as a volunteer was exactly what I needed.
Mark from 1 to 5 (1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ totally in agreement) the following
questions regarding your satisfaction with your experience as a volunteer
32. When comparing the sacri?ces made to the bene?ts obtained, I consider that the
experience has been worth it.
33. Generally speaking, the value I have gained fromthis experience has been appropriate.
34. I would be a volunteer again in other events.
35. I would recommend my experience to my family and friends.
36. If I were in the same situation once more, I would make the same choice.
Corresponding author
Martina G. Gallarza is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: martina.gallarza@
uv.es
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doc_832996716.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to present volunteering in tourism events as a sort of
spontaneous community participation that has far-reaching consequences for destination management.
It chooses the concept of value to explore volunteering experience in an international
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Consumer behavior in a religious event experience: an empirical assessment of value dimensionality among
volunteers
Martina G. Gallarza Francisco Arteaga Elena Floristán Irene Gil
Article information:
To cite this document:
Martina G. Gallarza Francisco Arteaga Elena Floristán Irene Gil, (2009),"Consumer behavior in a religious event experience: an empirical
assessment of value dimensionality among volunteers", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 3 Iss 2
pp. 165 - 180
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Consumer behavior in a religious event
experience: an empirical assessment of
value dimensionality among volunteers
Martina G. Gallarza, Francisco Arteaga, Elena Florista´ n and Irene Gil
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present volunteering in tourism events as a sort of
spontaneous community participation that has far-reaching consequences for destination management.
It chooses the concept of value to explore volunteering experience in an international religious
mega-event, using Holbrook’s value typology (ef?ciency, social value, play, spirituality).
Design/methodology/approach – The authors undertake this objective by means of testing
psychometric properties of the four value scales, as well as providing a causal model of relationships
among value dimensions and overall perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty or commitment to
volunteering in a special event tested with MBPLS, a particular algorithm for the partial least squares
methodology.
Findings – The results con?rm the reliability and validity of the scales tested in a sample of 1,638
volunteers, collected via e-mail from the database of a religious mega-event held in Valencia in July
2006. They also con?rm a relationship among overall perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty or
commitment as a chain of behavioral constructs.
Research limitations/implications – One can ?nd implications for the relevant weight of volunteers as
peculiar stakeholders of mega-events. For consumer behavior researchers, the chain of effects among
value dimensions and behavioral constructs is once more relevant, although the ?ndings are only related
to volunteers at religious events.
Practical implications – For destination marketing managers, this study can throw light on the pro?le of
volunteers for event marketing and how they behave in their own experience as relevant stakeholders in
the organization of a mega-event.
Originality/value – Very few works devote their interest to value dimensionality in a marketing event
context, despite the richness of that sort of tourism experience. Perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty
or commitment have been investigated among volunteers in sport or cultural mega-events, but rarely in
religious mega-events.
Keywords Calendar events, Festivals, Modelling, Marketing
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Modern approaches to consumer behavior research suggest that experiences shape future
consumption (Pine and Gilmore, 1999). In that sense, as the World Tourism Organization
(1998) already announced, future consumers of tourism will want to participate in the
production of the product. Tourismorganizations will need to deliver unique experiences that
personally engage the consumer. Newapproaches to destination management suggest that
an important part of the tourist experience comes from the human element (Szivas, 1999),
and the human elements in tourism organizations are not only employees but also residents.
In fact, the attitude towards residents is known as one of the most salient determinants of
tourism destination image (Gallarza et al., 2002). The relationship between tourists and
residents is a signi?cant part of the success of the tourist experience; residents are thus a
DOI 10.1108/17506180910962168 VOL. 3 NO. 2 2009, pp. 165-180, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
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PAGE 165
Martina G. Gallarza is
based at the Universidad
de Valencia, Valencia,
Spain. Francisco Arteaga
and Elena Florista´ n are
based at the Universidad
Cato´ lica de Valencia San
Vicente Ma´ rtir, Valencia,
Spain. Irene Gil is based at
the Universidad de
Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
Received: April 2008
Revised: June 2008
Accepted: August 2008
The authors thank the Spanish
Ministry for Education and
Science for the ?nancial
support given to this line of
research (I þD del Plan
Nacional SEJ2007-66054).
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particular stakeholder of destination management because they are involved in the delivery
of most tourism services. However, the tourism literature has not widely studied the forms of
community participation in a tourist destination (Tosum, 2006). Tosum(1999) considers three
types of community participation:
1. spontaneous community participation;
2. coercive community participation; and
3. induced community participation.
We can understand volunteering in cultural and/or religious events as a sort of spontaneous
community participation that has far-reaching relevance for destination management. In that
sense, special events and volunteering are closer areas of research, because ‘‘the number
of events has grown by expanding in size and complexity, so the number of staff and
volunteers has mushroomed’’ (Goeldner et al., 2000, p. 235). Understanding the experience
of volunteering in special events (cultural, religious or sport events) is thus an area of interest
for destination managers and leisure and recreation researchers.
With this in mind, for the present study we choose the concept of consumer value proposed by
Holbrook (1999) for analyzing a volunteering experience. The theory of value is of tremendous
potential relevance to the ?elds of marketing and consumer research (Holbrook, 1999), and
thus to tourismand leisure activities. Among other conceptual approaches to consumer value,
Holbrook’s framework is the most appropriate typology for researching a volunteering
experience as it encompasses functional, social, hedonist and spiritual facets of behavior.
In recent years, the consumer behavior literature has increasingly devoted itself to the topic
of value, based on a relatively wide consensus on the antecedent, mediating and
consequent relationships among quality, satisfaction and value (Cronin et al., 2000; Baker
and Crompton, 2000). The present work goes beyond the existing literature because it tests
a set of positive and negative dimensions of value within a particular leisure activity: the
experience of being a volunteer at a religious event. This paper also tests inter-relationships
among value, satisfaction and loyalty in this context.
Destination management and special events
Sometimes, a special events approach intensi?es the regular promotion of a destination
(Laws, 1995; Monga, 2006). In general, several advantages have been identi?ed for a
tourism destination when hosting special events (Hall, 1992):
B contribution to infrastructure improvements;
B amenity expansion;
B enhanced civic pride;
B improved international (diplomatic) relations;
B increased international awareness of the destination;
B experience of managing large numbers of visitors; and
B the potential for tourism development.
More particularly, Kim and Morrison’s (2005) research on the image of South Korea among
tourists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup suggests that an internationally signi?cant event can
change the image of a tourism destination in a short time period. But we can also assess the
effect of a special event among residents – Waitt (2003) studied during a two-year period
the changes in social dimensions (enthusiasm) towards Sydney’s Olympics among a
socially diverse sample of host city residents; the study revealed signi?cant improvement
with differences among respondents’ pro?les.
Additionally, a special event can provide impressions of a host country to both visitors and
spectators fromforeign countries, television viewers and users of other information media. In
the case of the city of Valencia, the 5th World Meeting of Families, held from July 7 to July 9,
2006, chaired by Pope Benedict XVI, accounted for the equivalent of more than 208,060,000
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viewers on TV and 46,910,000 listeners on radio, as the time exposure during the three days
was, respectively, 84, 59, and 28 hours on television and 57, 1, and 27 hours on radio
(Acceso Group, 2006).
Other cities such as Rome in 1994, Rio de Janeiro in 1997, Rome again in 2000 and Manila in
2003 hosted previous similar events (i.e. World Meeting of Families with the Pope). In the
meeting of July 2006 several testimonies of families about faith experiences alternated with
artistic-cultural performances, along with a Eucharist celebration chaired by the Pope Benedict
XVI. The meeting accounted for about 1,500,000 pilgrims frommore than 87 different countries.
The venue was the emblematic – the ‘‘City of Arts and Sciences’’ of Valencia, in a scenario of
more than 2,700m
2
of area in the central part and 2,500m
2
more in the perimeter crown. A key
part in the organization of the event was the nearly 11,000 volunteers helping in the meeting.
Volunteering phenomenon and tourism
The voluntary sector comprises all the activities and services provided on the basis of
volunteering; that is, unpaid work accomplished within the context of a formal business
(public or private) or an association. Volunteering can have its source in a positive attitude
that ?nds that helping people or serving society can lead to a higher degree of life
satisfaction (Gonza´ lez-Gallarza, 2000). In tourism, event volunteer research is a
well-developed ?eld, both conceptually and empirically. Some relevant work has
specialized in sport tourism (e.g. Farrell et al., 1998; Coyne and Coyne, 2001; Strigas and
Newton-Jackson, 2003). More recently, Monga (2006) offered a comprehensive view on
motivation to volunteer in special events, providing a 26-item scale tested in ?ve different
settings of special events (sport, cultural and others).
In fact, one could say that in tourism a positive attitude and motivation to volunteering may
very often be related to community participation (Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003; Coyne
and Coyne, 2001). In the tourism industry, volunteering can cover such activities as sport
tourism (e.g. the Olympic Games), cultural tourism (event and festival attendance) and
peace/religion tourism (pilgrimages and religious events). The latter is probably the least
common, and thus one area where more understanding is desirable (Vukonic, 2000). The
present study understands volunteering experience as spontaneous community
participation within this context of ‘‘positive attitude’’ and ‘‘life satisfaction’’ through the
concept and types of value. Previous works on volunteering have focused primarily on
motivation (Monga, 2006; Farrell et al., 1998; Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003). Consumer
value and its dimensionality are useful tools for assessing the volunteering experience within
the context of a religious tourism event such as the 5th World Meeting of Families.
The 5th World Meeting of Families needed a volunteering collaboration of an exceptional size
to develop all the activities planned. The organization of more than 11,000 volunteers helped in
organization and logistic issues (like giving information, assisting pilgrims, protocol, etc.); it
also involved a lot of people who were eager to participate in the organization in order to be
able to live a unique and particular experience. As Goeldner et al. (2000, p. 235) suggest,
‘‘volunteering is one of the key factors in the success of events. It takes the hard work and
support from community volunteers to ensure that a festival or event runs smoothly’’.
The organization grouped the volunteers into different teams within the different areas of
work. Each team had 15-20 volunteers and one team leader. The functions of the different
volunteer teams were:
B audience attention (reception in train stations and airports, information points, etc.);
B administration and management (press centre, translation and interpretation, etc.);
B event logistics (theological congress, festive and prayer meeting, etc.);
B protocol (escort of authorities);
B volunteer logistics;
B control and security; and
B medical services.
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Researching value in tourism
The efforts and discussions of the last decades have enabled researchers to obtain a better
understanding of the conceptual and methodological relationships between service quality,
perceived value and customer satisfaction (e.g. Chadee and Mattsson, 1995; Oh and Parks,
1997; Murphy and Pritchard, 1997; Baker and Crompton, 2000; Kim et al., 2001). However,
during the 1990s, these works viewed value as a rather neglected aspect in the customer’s
assessment of services (Petrick, 2002). But, since 2000, both academically and
managerially, research works in tourism have increasingly turned their interest to the
concept of value (e.g. Oh, 1999, 2000, 2003; Kashyap and Bojanic, 2000; Murphy et al.,
2000; Tam, 2000; Babin and Kim, 2001; Petrick et al., 2001; Walker et al., 2001; Petrick and
Backman, 2002; Petrick, 2003; Oh, 2003; Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004). The critical review of
these studies reveals some peculiarities (Gallarza and Gil, 2006):
B Means-end models usually consider different forms of customer loyalty, in addition to the
more traditional variables service quality and satisfaction.
B Methodologically speaking, the adoption of SEM models using LISREL or PLS has been
relevant. The use of secondary data is quite extensive (e.g. Stevens, 1992; Jayanti and
Ghosh, 1996; Bojanic, 1996; Murphy and Pritchard, 1997; Kashyap and Bojanic, 2000;
Murphy et al., 2000).
B Concerning the linkages among constructs, those have been found in some cases to be
inconsistent across different product categories (see, for example, the satisfaction-value
link in Petrick et al., 2001 or Petrick and Backman, 2002). Nevertheless, in most empirical
attempts, there is a natural quality-value-satisfaction chain, with some form of loyalty as a
?nal outcome.
This study is an additional attempt to assess this natural chain of behavioral constructs,
within the context of a volunteering experience in a religious tourism event, by providing and
testing a means-end model.
From a managerial point of view, value is linked to capital marketing strategies such as
market segmentation (Tellis and Gaeth, 1990), product differentiation (Heskett et al., 1997)
and positioning policies (Kotler, 1999). In fact, value is a key for gaining competitive
advantage (Gale, 1994; Woodruff and Gardial, 1996; Woodruff, 1997; Day, 1999). In a
tourism management context, value is a useful tool for improving a destination’s competitive
edge (Pechlaner et al., 2002). In that sense, the multidimensionality of consumer value may
unveil deep-seated driving forces of destination management because ‘‘the marketing of
destinations is complex as we are dealing not only with the tangible inventory of physical
attributes [. . .] but also intangible social and cultural factors’’ (Cooper et al., 2005, p. 682).
Many authors recognize the value concept as multidimensional (Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004;
Babin and Kim, 2001; Petrick, 2003); however, most of the initial empirical testing of tourism
value models adopts an utilitarian perspective, where value is just quality relative to the price
paid (e.g. Bojanic, 1996; Jayanti and Ghosh, 1996; Tam, 2000) or the very simple view of
value for money (Murphy et al., 2000; Murphy and Pritchard, 1997).
Consequently, single-item value scales have been quite usual in tourism, although several
authors have recognized their limitations (e.g. Oh, 1999; Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004). However,
in recent years, multi-item measurement of value emerged within the tourism literature.
Authors interested in value composites have adopted classical value typologies: Petrick and
Backman (2002) use Grewal et al.’s (1998) scale of transaction versus acquisition value and
Babin and Kim(2001) adopt Babin et al.’s (1994) dimensions of hedonic and utilitarian value.
Al-Sabbahy et al. (2004) apply Grewal et al.’s (1998) two-dimensional value scale to hotels
and restaurants services with inconsistent results for the transaction value dimension;
Petrick’s (2002, 2003) works propose a value structure of ?ve dimensions (behavioral price,
monetary price, emotional response, quality and reputation) that is meant to work for all
service categories. Finally, Gallarza and Gil (2006) gave support to an adaptation of
Holbrook’s typology of value: a structure of ?ve positive dimensions (ef?ciency, service
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quality, play, aesthetics and social value) and one negative dimension (cost of time) within
the context of university students’ travel behavior.
Although consumer researchers have undertaken several conceptual debates (e.g. Oliver,
1996, 1999; Leclerc and Schmitt, 1999; Smith, 1999) on Holbrook’s types of value, there are
very few empirical works on it. The present study is an attempt of adopting and adapting
Holbrook’s value typology (see Table I) to a particular consuming experience, i.e.
volunteering in a special event. ‘‘Everything is consumption’’ as Holbrook has declared
many times; acting as a volunteer in an event is a formof consumption, and when the event is
a religious one, Holbrook’s typology of value is particularly interesting as it covers all human
behavior dimensions with a particular interest on ethics and spirituality, or more
parsimoniously on an altruistic dimension (e.g. sel?ess acts of charity, generosity, or
kindness).
Research hypothesis and proposed model
The purpose of the empirical study is exploring value dimensionality in the context chosen
along the aim of providing a means-end-model of behavioral constructs.
Given the multidimensional nature of consumption value (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982,
Sheth et al., 1991; Babin et al., 1994; Holbrook, 1999; Parasuraman and Grewal, 2000)
positive and negative value dimensions can have positive and negative effects on perceived
value. As we have already stated, Holbrook’s framework is the most appropriate typology for
researching a volunteering experience as it encompasses functional, social, hedonist and
spiritual facets of behavior. Following Holbrook’s theory, the cells of his typology can be
considered as positive value inputs. From the self-oriented dimension, play and ef?ciency
are both chosen for being active values as volunteering involves ‘‘active tasks’’ more than
‘‘reactive’’ ones. Ef?ciency, for example, deals with time management in the event
organization; and play refers to the hedonic dimensions of acting as a volunteer (leisure and
free time, having fun, etc.). Obviously, from the other-oriented dimension, spirituality is
considered for analyzing involvement in a religious event. Additionally, social interactions are
a speci?c trait of consumer value (Sheth et al., 1991). Volunteering has much to do with
social interaction. As Holbrook’s typology also offers a social dimension, a fourth positive
input of perceived value is included, named social value, encompassing indicators of both
esteem and status. This structure is also consistent with some previous research on
volunteering in special events, especially in the ef?ciency and social dimension (e.g. Strigas
and Newton-Jackson, 2003; Farrell et al., 1998).
Many authors conceptualize value as a trade-off between negative and positive elements
(e.g. Monroe, 1979; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Lovelock, 1996; Kotler et al., 2000). The cost
of ‘‘time and physical or mental effort’’ (Berry and Yadav, 1997) is also considered as the
opportunity cost of dedicating time to a voluntary service instead of anything else (friends,
family, work, etc.). According to the particular experience investigated, i.e. volunteering, the
structure tested does not consider additional sacri?ces such as monetary cost or perceived
risk.
These initial ?ve value dimensions (four positive and one negative) are considered as
exogenous variables of a causal model. This model is an adaptation of Zeithaml’s (1988)
value model, which considers the positive and negative dimensions of value as direct
antecedents of perceived value. A chain of effects between value, satisfaction and loyalty is
Table I Holbrook’s typology of value
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Self-oriented Active Ef?ciency (O/I; convenience) Play (fun)
Reactive Excellence (quality) Aesthetics (beauty)
Other-oriented Active Status (success, impression) Ethics (virtue, justice)
Reactive Esteem (reputation, materialism) Spirituality (faith)
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then postulated as endogenous variables, following previous works such as Cronin et al.
(2000), Oh (1999) and Tam(2000). This paper leads to an understanding of loyalty, within the
context of volunteering, as the commitment and attachment to the experience of
volunteering in a similar event (Farrell et al., 1998). Figure 1 shows the hypotheses testing
the proposed model.
Methodology
The methodology undertaken is divided into three different stages. First, according to
Decrop (1999), who stresses the need of applying qualitative techniques to tourism
marketing and consumer behavior research (especially with no previous scaling effort in the
particular ?eld investigated), qualitative information was collected from two sources:
1. four in depth interviews with experts among the 5th Families World Meeting Organization
(responsible for the volunteers organisation, responsible for the volunteers process
selection, responsible for the General Secretary of the 5th Meeting, and interviewers for
volunteers selection); and
2. four focus groups with different pro?les of volunteers (students from Valencia, mid-age
working women, housewives, over 50 years old, etc.) with the aim of learning more about
their expectations and motivations on their next volunteer experience task.
The structure proposed of ?ve dimensions of value is consistent with the statements heard
during focus group with volunteers.
Second, an additional bibliographical review about other social experiences similar to
voluntary services in several related subjects completes the information gathered: social
marketing, psychological and sociological dimensions of volunteer jobs, etc. (Kim and
Morrison, 2005; Yuan et al., 2005; Gnoth, 1997; Crompton and McKay, 1997; Monga, 2006;
Farrell et al., 1998; Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003). Scales chosen for value, satisfaction
and loyalty were previously tested in Cronin et al. (2000) and in Gallarza and Gil (2006).
Third, this work conducts a pre test with 25 people (all of them volunteers) in order to further
re?ne the scales. The ?nal questionnaire contained 38 indicators that encompass all the
different levels of volunteer experience:
B functional;
B ef?ciency (making useful things, being useful to other people);
Figure 1 The proposed model
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B social;
B social value (meeting other people, making relationships, friends);
B hedonistic;
B play (fun, enjoyment);
B altruistic;
B spirituality (ethical behaviors, religious motivation); and
B sacri?ces (cost of time and effort).
All indicators were expressed positively (except the cost dimension) with a ?ve-point Likert
scale. The questionnaire was sent via e-mail to the 9,199 volunteers from the 5th Families
World Meeting Organization database, asking for their collaboration with the survey: 1,638
questionnaires were returned correctly answered (response rate of 17.8 percent).
The volunteer pro?le (see Table II) is clearly skewed towards young people (71 percent
younger than 36 years old), and slightly towards females (57 percent verus 42 percent
males); most have Spanish nationality (95 percent) and 69.5 percent come from the city of
Valencia. This is therefore a good sample for exploring spontaneous community
participation, as most of the volunteers were residents. With regarding to languages
spoken, 78 percent speak more than one language, and 43 percent more than two. Finally, it
is important to state that 61 percent of the volunteers had no previous experience in
volunteer services.
Analysis and results
Partial least squares (PLS) is a regression method mainly developed by Herman Wold (Wold,
1982, 1985). PLS can be considered as a two stage process in which the set of K predictor
variables are ?rst linearly transformed into a new set of A (A , K) factors which have
maximal covariance with the response variable subject to them being orthogonal to each
other. Geladi (1988) and Geladi and Kowalski (1986) provide further information on PLS. The
present study uses the multi block partial least squares path modeling (MBPLSPM)
Table II Sample description
n Percentage
Sex
Men 697 42.6
Women 939 57.4
Languages spoken
1 350 21.3
2 576 35.2
.2 712 43.4
Previous volunteer experience
Never 1,003 61.2
Once 209 12.8
Several times 426 26.0
Nationality
Valencia 1,081 69.5
Alicante 51 3.3
Castello´ n 72 4.6
Others places in Spain 352 22.6
Foreign 82 5.0
Age
16-25 696 42.0
26-35 472 29.0
36-50 340 21.0
þ50 128 8.0
Note: n ¼ 1; 638
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algorithm, which has produced better results than classical PLS (Arteaga et al., 2007). The
study assesses measurement results using sequentially, reliability analysis through
Cronbach’s a and correlation analysis to assess discriminant validity (with SPSS 11.0) and
MBPLSPM to assess the causal links between constructs. Table III offers information on
scale reliability along with descriptive statistics for each indicator.
The scores were quite high in all value dimensions, especially in affective dimensions such
as social value and play. As a cognitive assessment, ef?ciency is the least valued dimension,
along with the cost of time and effort spent. Perceptions of value, satisfaction and the
willingness to recommend or re-participate (loyalty) had the highest levels, (all indicators of
Table III Reliability analysis and descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics Reliability
Mean SD Cronbach’s a a if item eliminated
Spirituality 0.689
Item 1 4.412 0.891 0.59
Item 2 4.524 0.796 0.60
Item 3 4.325 0.969 0.62
Item 4 3.672 1.281 0.73
Item 5 4.352 0.952 0.67
Item 6 3.974 1.074 0.65
Social value 0.805
Item 7 4.205 0.997 0.78
Item 8 4.213 0.988 0.77
Item 9 3.160 1.212 0.79
Item 10 3.697 1.125 0.78
Item 11 4.476 0.762 0.79
Item 12 4.615 0.718 0.78
Item 13 4.369 0.869 0.77
Item 14 3.600 1.165 0.80
Play 0.818
Item 16 4.537 0.836 0.79
Item 17 4.093 1.111 0.80
Item 18 4.059 1.025 0.79
Item 19 4.176 1.000 0.76
Item 20 4.513 0.784 0.80
Item 21 4.458 0.824 0.79
Ef?ciency 0.825
Item 22 3.220 1.294 0.84
Item 23 3.957 1.183 0.81
Item 24 4.175 1.037 0.80
Item 25 3.778 1.155 0.78
Item 26 3.413 1.266 0.77
Item 27 3.726 1.195 0.77
Effort 0.799
Item 29 3.656 0.979 0.67
Item 30 3.810 0.954 0.65
Item 31 3.545 1.095 0.84
Value 0.854
Item 46 4.500 0.817 –
Item 47 4.373 0.839 –
Satisfaction 0.823
Item 43 4.597 0.780 0.67
Item 44 4.609 0.753 0.67
Item 45 3.832 1.106 0.90
Loyalty 0.855
Item 48 4.517 0.819 0.81
Item 49 4.539 0.831 0.74
Item 50 4.667 0.788 0.83
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more than 4.2 except one). Thus, one can consider the experience of being a volunteer in the
5th World Meeting of Families as extremely successful for the respondents interviewed.
The scales used to measure the latent constructs in the model show acceptable construct
reliability (see Cronbach’s alphas in Table III) except for the ef?ciency dimension (lower than
the 0.7 criteria). However, the elimination of item 4 increases scale reliability up to 0.73. This
item is related to the civic pride of the volunteer, which is closer to an ethical dimension and
thus less related to the spirituality dimension. Further research could throw more light onto
the civic dimension of volunteering, maybe as an independent dimension.
Discriminant validity is assessed using the ?rst criteria used by Sweeney and Soutar (2001),
i.e. correlations between constructs signi?cantly lower than 1. All latent constructs satisfy the
criteria (see Table IV). Correlations between value dimensions are relatively high. The
correlation between play and social value is the highest (0.75), which seems consistent
because of their common affective nature, followed by ef?ciency and play (0.609), and
social value and spirituality (0.603). The play dimension is also strongly correlated with the
overall value (0.607), which indicates that respondents place a strong accent on the
affective side (intrinsic values in Holbrook’s nomenclature) of value perceptions.
Among the endogenous variables, value and loyalty present a strong correlation (0.668) but
in a similar range as other value tourismstudies (e.g. Al-Sabbahy et al., 2004); one could say
the same for satisfaction and loyalty (0.656). Value and satisfaction are also very highly
correlated variables (0.640). Although strongly connected, these three measures capture
different aspects of the volunteering experience, all of them very satisfactory.
For further insights into the validity of the scales, an item-to-scale correlation analysis is
conducted (see Table V for results). The structure is fully con?rmed as indicators from a
given dimension present the highest correlations with its dimension, all of them being quite
high.
Concerning the structural results, Figure 2 gives speci?c information with respect to ML
estimators of each proposed path, along with the R
2
coef?cients. The results provided by
the MBPLS methodology indicate that the hypothesis structure proposed supports the
model. The signi?cance of the estimated coef?cients, with no previous hypothesis about the
data distribution, is assessed through the bootstrap method (Efrom and Tibshirani, 1993),
taking 1,000 samples with the replacement of 1,638 individuals from the original sample.
With the structure obtained, six of the seven hypothesis were supported (H1, H2, H3, H4, H6
and H7). Time and effort spent, as the only cost associated with value perceptions, is not an
antecedent of value (H5), as it presents a non-signi?cant path of 20.011. Theoretical
considerations need to guide interpretation of the model (Long, 1983; Diamantopoulos,
1994). But, no previous attempts of scaling and measuring value in a volunteering context
have been proposed, so comparisons for interpretation are very limited. Previous scaling
efforts on the motivation of volunteering in special events did not consider the time and effort
dimension explicitly (e.g. Monga, 2006; Farrell et al., 1998). Probably, acting as a volunteer is
a personal engagement of time and energy that the person involved normally assumes, and
thus it is not ‘‘experienced’’ as a cost. Anyway, other studies inside and outside the tourism
Table IV Correlations among constructs
Spirituality Social value Play Ef?ciency Effort Value Satisfaction Loyalty
Spirituality 0.735
Social value 0.603 0.805
Play 0.581 0.751 0.818
Ef?ciency 0.435 0.566 0.609 0.825
Effort 0.307 0.309 0.274 0.162 0.799
Value 0.496 0.544 0.607 0.515 0.189 0.854
Satisfaction 0.459 0.493 0.588 0.443 0.214 0.640 0.823
Loyalty 0.405 0.474 0.560 0.438 0.139 0.668 0.656 0.855
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literature also provide weak links between value and negative inputs such as perceived
sacri?ce (e.g. Cronin et al., 2000; Gallarza and Gil, 2006).
Also, consistent with predictions, spirituality, play, ef?ciency and social value are positive
antecedents of value (H1, H2, H3 and H4 were supported). Among them, the stronger links
appear between the the affective dimension and perceived value. Play is the strongest
antecedent of perceived value (0.311), showing a clear prominence of the intrinsic
(affective) dimension in the experience investigated. Nevertheless, the extrinsic dimension
(ef?ciency) is also an antecedent of perceived value (0.188). Work by Monga (2006) also
found instrumental motivations as a signi?cant determinant for volunteering in special
events, but less important than other intrinsic motivations. Work by Farrell et al. (1998) on
sports competitions also showed a relative importance of volunteers’ satisfaction with
Table V Item-to-scale correlations
Question Spirituality Social value Play Ef?ciency Effort Value Satisfaction Loyalty
Spirituality
Item 1 0.88 0.46 0.46 0.37 0.25 0.41 0.38 0.32
Item 2 0.85 0.48 0.50 0.35 0.26 0.44 0.41 0.37
Item 3 0.80 0.42 0.41 0.35 0.23 0.43 0.37 0.34
Item 5 0.39 0.41 0.35 0.20 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.20
Item 6 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.22 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.16
Social value
Item 7 0.35 0.70 0.50 0.34 0.24 0.33 0.30 0.29
Item 8 0.49 0.76 0.58 0.44 0.25 0.51 0.44 0.43
Item 9 0.29 0.58 0.37 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.14
Item 10 0.35 0.64 0.43 0.32 0.23 0.27 0.23 0.23
Item 11 0.43 0.60 0.47 0.41 0.12 0.36 0.32 0.33
Item 12 0.43 0.65 0.59 0.45 0.16 0.41 0.40 0.41
Item 13 0.53 0.73 0.58 0.43 0.20 0.46 0.42 0.40
Item 14 0.23 0.53 0.37 0.27 0.17 0.23 0.22 0.20
Play
Item 16 0.48 0.52 0.71 0.41 0.24 0.42 0.43 0.35
Item 17 0.34 0.44 0.67 0.37 0.17 0.35 0.36 0.34
Item 18 0.33 0.53 0.72 0.44 0.19 0.39 0.40 0.41
Item 19 0.49 0.62 0.83 0.50 0.26 0.55 0.52 0.47
Item 20 0.40 0.60 0.67 0.53 0.14 0.46 0.43 0.46
Item 21 0.48 0.56 0.73 0.42 0.18 0.46 0.41 0.40
Ef?ciency
Item 22 0.26 0.48 0.46 0.50 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.25
Item 23 0.36 0.45 0.49 0.66 0.26 0.40 0.39 0.33
Item 24 0.35 0.50 0.53 0.71 0.16 0.45 0.39 0.38
Item 25 0.33 0.39 0.43 0.83 0.03 0.40 0.31 0.33
Item 26 0.29 0.37 0.40 0.83 0.06 0.36 0.29 0.30
Item 27 0.34 0.39 0.45 0.84 0.04 0.41 0.34 0.35
Effort
Item 29 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.16 0.88 0.20 0.22 0.15
Item 30 0.31 0.30 0.27 0.17 0.89 0.19 0.23 0.14
Item 31 0.20 0.20 0.16 0.06 0.76 0.09 0.09 0.06
Value
Item 46 0.44 0.47 0.54 0.46 0.15 0.93 0.59 0.61
Item 47 0.48 0.55 0.59 0.51 0.20 0.93 0.61 0.64
Satisfaction
Item 43 0.39 0.40 0.51 0.36 0.16 0.57 0.91 0.62
Item 44 0.41 0.41 0.50 0.36 0.19 0.55 0.91 0.59
Item 45 0.38 0.48 0.53 0.43 0.20 0.54 0.75 0.47
Loyalty
Item 48 0.29 0.37 0.42 0.32 0.10 0.50 0.49 0.87
Item 49 0.41 0.47 0.55 0.44 0.13 0.64 0.61 0.91
Item 50 0.37 0.41 0.51 0.40 0.13 0.63 0.64 0.86
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functional aspects such as administrative and managerial conditions. Social value is a weak
antecedent of calue (0.111) compared to other types of value, which is a surprising result
that demands further insights into other volunteering experiences. Coyne and Coyne’s
(2001) study of golf events ?nds that veteran volunteers were more concerned about
relationships than ?rst-timers. As in the present study, more than 60 percent of respondents
were ?rst timers (see Table II). The lack of previous experience of volunteers may be related
to this result. Finally, spirituality is linked to perceived value as predicted, but with a relatively
low path (0.167), which is also a peculiar result given the nature of a religious event. In fact,
self-oriented dimensions are better antecedents of value of the volunteering experience,
which is consistent with some of the statements heard in focus groups about the helping
motivation as an individualistic motivation (‘‘I feel better within myself when I help’’). Results
of previous works on volunteer motivation have also shown a signi?cant weight of egoistic
motivation (e.g. Monga, 2006; Strigas and Newton-Jackson, 2003) that emphasise
self-esteem and feeling well about oneself.
Concerning the links among endogenous variables, the results indicate that value is a
consistent positive antecedent of satisfaction (0.639) and so is satisfaction for loyalty
(0.665). The proposal of a chain between perceptual constructs in a volunteering experience
(value-satisfaction-loyalty) is then ful?lled, thereby lending support to H6 and H7.
Additionally, the set of hypotheses that the model sequentially proposes explained about
43.65 percent of the variance in value, 40.85 percent in satisfaction, and 44.20 percent in
loyalty (see R
2
in Figure 2). These results collectively suggested the strong prominence of
the constructs chain proposed, although according to the results of the negative path time
and effort spent !value, the data did not substantiate the whole structure proposed. Maybe
the volunteering experience is very consistent with Holbrook’s typology, which is an
ambitious theoretical proposal that may not get along with cost dimension structures (Oliver,
1999; Smith, 1999). The author himself has explicitly admitted it (Holbrook, 1999, p. 187). Or
perhaps, one can consider the volunteer value structure in a superior hierarchical stage
because ‘‘in the internal valuation process, at the uppermost level, cost is irrelevant’’ (Oliver,
1999, p. 50).
The study has some limitations: the scales of value dimensions could have had more
re?nements with additional testing on different micro-samples. As there is no previous
scaling effort on the value of a volunteering experience, no additional validity analysis such
as convergent validity or content validity is conducted; furthermore, the nature of the group
of volunteers investigated may be also very peculiar due to the religious nature of the event.
Figure 2 The model tested
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General limitations are also acknowledged on the methodological procedure of assessing
consumer behavioral experiences via e-mail questionnaires.
Further applications of the proposals contained in this work could be both theoretical and
empirical. First, tourism destination management needs to focus on alternative stakeholders
such as volunteers acting during cultural and/or religious events. Second, one could test the
scaling effort proposed in this study and the causal model provided in other tourism event
contexts such as sports competition and festivals, changing spirituality dimensions into
‘‘community participation dimension’’ as a particular form of civic pride or ethical value.
More learning is yet to come to understanding better how to involve residents as volunteers
in special events as a form of contributing to a modern approach of human resources in
tourismdestination management. In that sense, opportunities for researchers and managers
in this particular ?eld are wide open.
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Appendix
Marks from 1 to 5 (1¼strongly disagree, 2 ¼ disagree, 3 ¼ neither in agreement or
disagreement, 4 ¼ in agreement and 5 ¼ totally in agreement)
1. I consider that taking part as a volunteer allowed me to support the Pope.
2. I consider that taking part as a volunteer allowed me to support the families.
3. I consider that taking part as a volunteer allowed me to help the Church for everything it
has given to me.
4. I wanted to take part as a volunteer because the event was taking place in Valencia.
5. I wanted to help to be supportive, altruistic and to be useful to others.
6. I wanted to help because I felt that I was needed.
7. I consider that being a volunteer has allowed me to meet new people.
8. I consider that I have been enriched as a person by the experience of being a volunteer
and meeting people who lead by example.
9. I consider that the experience of being a volunteer has given me recognition among the
people who are important to me such as my parents, children, friends, etc.
10. I consider that my being a volunteer has made people around me happier and made
them proud of my work.
11. I consider that there has been a good relationship with the pilgrims.
12. I consider that there has been a good relationship between the volunteers.
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13. It has been important for me to work among people who have the same interest as me.
14. In my opinion, the group of volunteers that I have collaborated with has been more
important than the task I was given.
15. I believe that this has been a unique experience, a historical event.
16. I think that being a volunteer has allowed me to experience the Meeting on a more
intense level than being just a pilgrim.
17. The experience of being a volunteer has been entertaining and fun.
18. I consider that being a volunteer has been an exciting and moving experience.
19. I consider that there has been a good atmosphere among the volunteers.
20. I was excited about working on a project of such universal character.
21. I think that my task as a volunteer has allowed me to learn and gain work experience.
22. I think that the tasks I undertook have been in line with my abilities.
23. I think that my group has worked correctly.
24. I think that the organization of the Meeting has worked satisfactorily.
25. I think that the information the organization gave has been appropriate.
26. I think that the organization has ful?lled all that it had promised.
The following questions are regarding the effort and time that the job of volunteer has meant
to you. Mark each question using the following scale (1 ¼ not very much/high; 2 ¼ a little/
low; 3 ¼ neither a little nor a lot; 4 ¼ a lot/high; 5 ¼ very, very much/high)
27. I consider the time I have employed as a volunteer has been . . .
28. I consider that the effort required in my work has been . . .
29. I consider leaving aside other things (family, friends, sports etc) for being volunteer has
been an effort.
Mark from 1 to 5 (1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ totally in agreement) the following
questions regarding your satisfaction with your experience as a volunteer
30. It was a correct choice to participate as a volunteer.
31. Participating as a volunteer was exactly what I needed.
Mark from 1 to 5 (1 ¼ strongly disagree and 5 ¼ totally in agreement) the following
questions regarding your satisfaction with your experience as a volunteer
32. When comparing the sacri?ces made to the bene?ts obtained, I consider that the
experience has been worth it.
33. Generally speaking, the value I have gained fromthis experience has been appropriate.
34. I would be a volunteer again in other events.
35. I would recommend my experience to my family and friends.
36. If I were in the same situation once more, I would make the same choice.
Corresponding author
Martina G. Gallarza is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: martina.gallarza@
uv.es
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