Description
Personalization involves using technology to accommodate the differences between individuals. Once confined mainly to the Web, it is becoming a factor in education, health care (i.e. personalized medicine), television, and in both "business to business" and "business to consumer" settings.
An investigation into the determinants of user acceptance of personalization in online banking
A.K. Banjo Masters thesis
Supervisors: Dr. T. M. van der Geest Dr. ir. P. W. de Vries
Communication Studies Faculty of behavioural Science The University of Twente Enschede, 17th August 2006
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Acknowledgement
I want to thank my supervisors, Dr. T. M. van der Geest and Dr. ir. P. W. de Vries for their kind support, input and guidance throughout the duration of this work. I am grateful to all my family and friends who have supported and encouraged me throughout this time. I also want to thank my wonderful wife for all her encouragement and sacrifice and lastly I would like to thank God for making it all possible and see me through it all.
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Executive summary
Personalization is an innovative strategy which enables the bank to further differentiate from its competitors by drawing the client into increasingly deeper levels of mutually beneficial relationships. However for any personalization effort to succeed both the bank and its clients need to perceive it as being relevant and beneficial to their interests. The bank needs the clients implicit and explicit consent to use their personal data to enable them tailor the clients experience to suit s/he’s purposes as well as meet their goals. On the other hand the client needs to see its relevance and desirability as well as trust the bank to deliver what it promises. Since such decisions are based on previous experience, a major determinant of success of the personalization effort is thus a function of the client’s perception of the bank and their current relationship with it. Consequently in this research we have focused on understanding the underlying factors involved in the client’s relationship with the bank and how they influence the acceptance of five concrete personalization features, namely adaptive login feature, adaptable settings, emails, adaptive banners adverts and adaptive financial advice. We adopted this approach because we view personalization as a relationship marketing strategy and therefore propose that the basic underlying factors in relationship marketing would be major determinants of acceptance of personalization. We used the Commitment-Trust Theory (Morgan and Hunt, 1994) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) as analytical tools to model the relationship between the basic relationship marketing constructs and the specific highlighted personalization features. We added the variable Control (data) to our models because it has been indicated in research as being important in acceptance of personalization. We found that clients in general want more personalization. We also found that five variables namely, Control (self-efficacy), Control (data), Relationship terminations cost, Relationship benefit and Subjective norm were significant determinants of acceptance of personalization in online banking. At lower levels we found various issues which linked these variables to the acceptance of the personalized features. For instance we found that clients were more sensitive to control of content than they were to control of the interface. This clearly raises issue of data control in acceptance. Also their perception of self competence on the site determined how effectively they used it. While we found as stated earlier that clients desire more personalization, the observed level of acceptance was relatively low. This shows there is a gap between what is on offer or how it is being offered and what they really want. There is a lot of room for improvement, a lot of the clients are passively engaged because it is a necessary service which they need. The bank however needs to take them from there to a position where they are actively engaged and driving the process. 3
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 7 1.1. BACKGROUND TO PERSONALIZATION IN INTERNET BANKING ......................................................... 7 1.2. CHALLENGES OF PERSONALIZATION................................................................................................. 9 1.3. RESEARCH FOCUS ............................................................................................................................. 10 2. LITERATURE REVIEW/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................... 11 2.1. PERSONALIZATION ........................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.2. Personalization defined ............................................................................................................. 12 2.1.3. Types of personalization............................................................................................................ 13 2.1.4. Personalization technique. ........................................................................................................ 14 2.1.5. Personalization framework ....................................................................................................... 16 2.2. ONLINE BANKING ............................................................................................................................ 18 2.3. PERSONALIZATION IN ONLINE BANKING......................................................................................... 20 2.4. COMMITMENT-TRUST THEORY ........................................................................................................ 21 2.4.1. Relationship commitment ......................................................................................................... 23 2.4.2. Trust ......................................................................................................................................... 23 2.4.3. Relationship terminations cost.................................................................................................. 24 2.4.4. Relationship benefits ................................................................................................................. 25 2.4.5. Shared values ............................................................................................................................ 25 2.4.6. Communication ........................................................................................................................ 26 2.4.7. Opportunistic Behaviour .......................................................................................................... 26 2.4.8. Acquiescence ............................................................................................................................. 26 2.4.9. Propensity to leave .................................................................................................................... 26 2.5.0. Cooperation ............................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.1. Functional conflict .................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.2. Decision-making uncertainty ................................................................................................... 27 2.5. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR.................................................................................................. 28 2.6. CONTROL (DATA) ............................................................................................................................. 29 2.7. CONTROL (SELF-EFFICACY) .............................................................................................................. 30 2.8. PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS............................................................................................................. 30 2.8.1. Research questions: ................................................................................................................... 31 3. METHOD ............................................................................................................................................... 34 3.2. PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................................................................. 34 3.3. INSTRUMENTS ................................................................................................................................... 35 3.3.1. Structured questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 35 3.3.2. Semi-structured interviews....................................................................................................... 36 3.3.3. Focus group............................................................................................................................... 37 3.4. PROCEDURE ...................................................................................................................................... 37 3.5. DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................ 38 4. RESULTS................................................................................................................................................ 39 PART A: DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS OF THE RESPONDENTS AND VARIABLES IN THE RESEARCH................................................................................................................................................ 39 4.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS............................................................................................... 40 4.1.1. Gender of respondents............................................................................................................... 40
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4.1.2. Age of respondents .................................................................................................................... 40 4.1.3. Educational level of respondents ............................................................................................... 41 4.1.4. Level of Internet usage of respondents ...................................................................................... 41 4.2. ACCEPTANCE (ACC), ACCEPTABILITY AND INTENTION TO USE (INTU) ...................................... 42 4.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLES .................................................................................................... 43 4.3.1. Relationship commitment ......................................................................................................... 43 4.3.2. Trust ......................................................................................................................................... 44 4.3.3. Relationship termination cost ................................................................................................... 45 4.3.4. Relationship benefit................................................................................................................... 45 4.3.5. Shared values ............................................................................................................................ 46 4.3.6. Opportunistic behaviour ........................................................................................................... 47 4.3.7. Communications ....................................................................................................................... 48 4.3.8. Acquiescence ............................................................................................................................. 49 4.3.9. Propensity to leave .................................................................................................................... 49 4.3.10. Cooperation ............................................................................................................................. 50 4.3.11. Functional conflict .................................................................................................................. 51 4.3.12. Uncertainty ............................................................................................................................. 52 4.3.13. Attitude ................................................................................................................................... 53 4.3.14. Subjective norm ...................................................................................................................... 53 4.3.15. Control (data).......................................................................................................................... 54 4.3.16. Control (self-efficacy) .............................................................................................................. 55 4.3.17. Acceptance .............................................................................................................................. 56 4.4. RELATIONSHIPS WITH ACCEPTANCE ............................................................................................... 58 PART B: MODELLING RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 59 4.5. MODEL 1: MODIFIED COMMITMENT-TRUST THEORY MODEL ......................................................... 60 4.5.1. Determinants of Acceptance (ACC) ......................................................................................... 62 4.5.2. Determinants of Control (self-efficacy) (CTR_SE) ................................................................... 62 4.5.3. Determinants of Control (data) (CTRD) .................................................................................. 62 4.5.4. Determinants of Relationship termination cost (RTC)............................................................. 63 4.5.5. Determinants of Relationship commitment (RC) ..................................................................... 63 4.5.6. Determinants of Subjective norm (SN) .................................................................................... 63 4.6. MODEL 2 (THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR) ............................................................................... 64 4.7. COMPARISON WITH MORGAN AND HUNT (1994) KMV MODEL ................................................... 65 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 70 5.1. ACCEPTANCE.................................................................................................................................... 70 5.2. EFFECTIVENESS OF MODELS .............................................................................................................. 76 5.3. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ....................................................................................... 78 5.4. LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 79 5.5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 79 6. RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 81 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................ 85 APPENDIX................................................................................................................................................. 96 APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 96 APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 100 APPENDIX 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 101 APPENDIX 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 103 APPENDIX: 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 105 APPENDIX 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 107 APPENDIX 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 109
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APPENDIX 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 111 APPENDIX 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 113 APPENDIX 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 117 APPENDIX 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 122
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1. Introduction
1.1. Background to Personalization in Internet banking
Internet banking has been one of the most successful of all the traditional commercial ventures that have adopted the internet platform. The internet is taking over as a main access channel to complement branch and call centres in the banking industries’ efforts to enhance their services, improve integration with partners and interaction with their clients. The high level of internet penetration in Europe and particularly in the Netherlands has made it a very attractive channel. According to a recent report of, Ensor and van Tongeren for Forrester Research (2005), the Netherlands has a 50% broadband penetration rate and 44% of all customers use online banking. This has created huge opportunities for the banking industry in terms of being able to reach their clients and offer new services.
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The internet has proved to be a very cost effective delivery platform, because of its inherent built-in qualities. According to Centeno (2003, 6) “Banks offer Internet banking mainly to increase cost-effectiveness, increase customer reach, and retain market share.” Also according to Turban (2000) Internet banking is extremely beneficial to customers because of the savings that can accrue in the costs, time, and space it offers, its quick response to complaints, and its delivery of improved services. It is clear that the internet provides excellent new opportunities for the banking industry in terms of it being able to reduce long-term overhead costs and offer improved services. “Estimates for banking transactions costs across delivery channels, e.g. physical branch, phone, ATM, PC-based dial-up, show that Internet transactions are the cheapest with a factor of 1-2:100 compared to physical branches, 1-2:30 compared to ATM’s and 1:2-10 compared to PC-based dial-up Internet“Centeno (2003, 6), (Hawkins & Dubravko, 2001). Banks have moved rapidly into the internet channel to exploit these advantages. All banks in the Netherlands have adopted some form of internet banking, and as was stated earlier the public has responded very enthusiastically with a 44% percent penetration in less than 5 years. However while it has brought major benefits to both customer and bank it has also brought about fierce competition in the industry. This has been beneficial to the customer but has thrown up several challenges for the banks. A research report by Deutsche Bank Research (2005, 2), expresses the current situation succinctly. According to them, “Retaining the current customer base is key… the cost of acquiring new customers is high, but the probability that they stay is quite low. New customers who are acquired at the margin are quite likely to be ‘switches’. They will eventually switch to a better offer.” They use an observation of Reichheld (1996) to buttress this point. According to him, for many businesses, the customers most likely to sign on after switching from another provider were precisely the worst customers you could possibly find. As a result of this banks are looking for innovative ways of retaining their customers even if it causes some losses in the short and medium term. Retaining customers is the primary goal of relationship marketing. Relationship marketing attempts to draw the customer and the client into a recursive learning relationship where they both become increasingly acquainted and satisfied with each other. Customer satisfaction is the key. Another quote from Deutsche Bank Research (2005, 2) is instructive here “Customer satisfaction is the prerequisite for customer retention. More than two-thirds of the customers who are “delighted” with their bank say they will not switch to another provider. Quite the contrary: they consider buying other products from the same provider, and will even recommend them to others.
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By contrast, almost three-quarters of dissatisfied customers say they will switch their financial institution.” A key tool of relationship marketing is personalization, and banks have increasingly turned to this strategy as a means to improve their customer relations. Personalization in itself can be quite a complex process. It involves powerful new technologies and sophisticated systems. The potential of these systems is enormous. Acquiring data on behaviours and preferences allows businesses to enhance customer relationships, distribute knowledge and expertise around, Kasanoff (2001).
1.2. Challenges of Personalization
There are many challenges involved in implementing personalization. There are certain issues which need to be taking into consideration and resolved before personalization is implemented. In this regard Friedlein (2001) has proposed that the five following issues need to be addressed. (1) Legal issues such as resolving regulatory, security and privacy issues as well as maintaining data protection across multiple jurisdictions. (2) Technical issues; Developing and implementing integrated real-time personalisation systems as well as keeping an accurate up to date database. (3)Personnel issues; you need skilled people who have experience in those specific areas. (4) Channel issues: creating a single customer view on an enterprise-wide basis, by integrating channels. (5) Customer issues: few site users leap into personalization at once, they are usually cautious, trying to making up their minds as to whether they can trust the provider or not. They also need to be comfortable with the site, It also takes time to configure personalisation features and time is precious, so response is by no means swift or guaranteed. Many users can quite happily do without personalisation. Mistakes can also be made, with preferences being incorrectly inferred by the personalization engine etc. As has been highlighted above there are various challenges which organizations face when implementing Personalization. Each issue needs to be addressed thoroughly and in an integrated manner. We believe however that ‘Customer issues’ form the core with all the other components being built on it.
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1.3. Research focus
Our focus in this research is on this last aspect ‘Customer issues’. This we believe is the foundation of any personalization effort. Personalization is all about the customer and is demand driven, in other words it is developed around the wishes and desires of the customer. This study was done in collaboration with the ABNAMRO based in the Netherlands and was an investigation into which factors determine user acceptance of Personalization in online banking. In this investigation we sought to find out three things; (1) To determine the underlying factors influencing the acceptance of personalization in online banking, (2) The degree to which they affect acceptance and (3) To ascertain which factors had an immediate (or direct) effect on it. We approached this task using two theoretical frameworks, namely the Commitment-Trust theory, and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. They both served as a basis of our modelling and analysis. This report is divided into six chapters. In chapter 1, we give a brief introduction into the current situation and the problems created by this situation. In chapter 2 we go through the constructs under study; personalization and online banking and then we look into the Commitment-Trust theory and The Theory of Planned Behaviour which are the theoretical frameworks being used in the study. We end the chapter with the hypotheses we intend to test. In chapter 3 we look at the methods used and why they were adopted in this research. In chapter 4 we highlight the results from the analysis of the data. This is done in two parts, the first deals with the descriptive details while the second part deals with the modelling. In chapter 5 we discuss our results and conclusions as well as highlight the extent to which the research questions were answered. We also point out areas for further research and the limitations of the study. Lastly in chapter 6 we give some recommendations to our host bank the ABNAMRO.
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2. Literature review/Theoretical framework
2.1. Personalization
Personalization is a concept that has become prominent in recent years as a result of the increasing importance organizations have placed on their relationship with their clients. Organizations have come to realize that traditional approaches to organisation/customer relationships are no longer sufficient to convey any unique advantage to the organization in relation to its clients, or offer any differentiating benefit to the customer. Personalization has thus been coined as a general term to describe the process of adapting the relationship or interaction between the customer and the organization to a more personal level. Personalization as a concept has been defined in various ways depending on the application and the environment/platform within which it is being realized. For us to properly appreciate the concept of personalization as it is currently applied we need to look at its antecedents in relationship marketing.
2.1.1. Background Personalization has its root in relationship marketing. While personalization as a practice has been adopted in areas outside marketing, marketing has been the main driver for its development and where it has founds its highest expression. Relationship marketing is a long term, mutually beneficial relationship in which both buyer and seller focus on value enhancement through the creation of more satisfying exchanges (Sheth, Eshghi and Krishnan, 2001). In its most basic form it can be observed when we walk into a restaurant and are acknowledged by name and led to a favourite position. At a higher level this was expressed in the relationship between banks and their preferred customers, where account managers were assigned to cater for the needs of specific clients. The focus in all these instances is to enable the client and organisation to know each other better and use the information gained to define and anticipate their needs respectively and further improve the relationship. Until recent times this has only been possible on a small scale and with very high value clients. However with the advent of the new media, such as the Internet it has become 11
possible to adopt relationship marketing principles and apply them in a very practical way on a large scale. 2.1.2. Personalization defined In a general sense personalization is “a process of gathering user-information during interaction with the user, which is then used to deliver appropriate content and services, tailor-made to the user’s needs.” (Bonett, 2001). We see here four key elements of any personalization effort, interaction, information gathering, information processing and specifically tailored output. All this happens in a recursive process which may be organizational or user defined. We can see a further elaboration of this in the definition given by Jupiter Communications. According to Foster for Jupiter Communications, “personalization can be defined as predictive analysis of consumer data used to adapt targeted media, advertising and merchandising to consumer needs.” (Foster, 2000) A careful review on the literature on personalization will show that most of the definitions proffered by theorists are in relation to the new media. Personalization as we currently know it has only become possible because of the new media, and is consequently defined in this context. One problem we face in doing this is that in trying to define the concept many of the theorists give a technical and descriptive view of the process and in many cases do not distinguish between personalization as a concept and as a technique. Those who have been able to take the concept out of a strict technical view point unfortunately have taken quite divergent positions making it difficult to reconcile all such views. A few definitions are instructive here; “Personalization is a toolbox of technologies and application features used in the design of an end-user experience. Features classified as ‘personalization’ are wide-ranging, from simple display of the end-user’s name on a web page, to complex catalogue navigation and product customization based on deep model of user’s needs and behaviours. ” (Kramer, Noronha & Vergo, 2001, 44) “Personalization includes customization, where users build their own user interface by selecting from channels of information, 1-to-1 marketing and other processes where customers “automatically”, receive different levels of treatment based on past behavior [and] Collaborative filtering, where group behavior and preferences are leveraged to provide recommendations for individuals.” (Instone, 2000, 2) “…an approach of using artificial intelligence to observe and analyze users’ demographic and behavioral data in order to make recommendations.” (Kambil & Nunes, 2001, 110)
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A careful purview of the above definitions will affirm a strictly technical orientation to the concept. Huang and Lin (2005, 27), have criticized this approach, stating “personalization should not be confined within the IT department, because design for the overall personalization experience of customers is often more difficult and at the same time more important than personalization technologies.” Theorist who define personalization beyond strictly technical terms in most cases view it as a strategy but then take divergent views as to what this really means as highlighted in the following examples. “…personalization is a strategy, a marketing tool, and an art. Personalization requires implicitly or explicitly collecting visitor information and leveraging that knowledge in your content delivery framework to manipulate what information you present to your users and how you present it.” Ricci (2004) DataMonitor have presented personalization as a business strategy, according to them “Personalization is first and foremost a business strategy, and is an attempt to counter-balance the anonymity that typically characterizes interactions between consumers and large businesses, especially over the Internet” (Broadvision, 2004). Berg, Janowski, and Sarner, (2001) also view personalization as a strategy developed to address tailoring customer interactions across all customer-facing departments such as sales, marketing, and customer service. A review of all these definitions show us that personalization is a strategy facilitated by new media technology which enables the interaction between the organization and the customers causing them to receive increasing amounts of information about each other which in turn enables better interaction and relationships. 2.1.3. Types of personalization. Personalization can be subcategorized into two broad categories; user-adaptive and user-adaptable personalization (Teltzrow and Kobsa, 2004, Treiblmaier, 2004). Some theorists (Nielsen, 1998, Kambil and Nunes, 2001, Bonett, 2001, Huang and Lin, 2005) use the terminology personalization for adaptive personalization and customization for adaptable personalization. The difference between adaptive and adaptable systems is the extent to which the user can influence the ‘individualization’ process. Adaptable systems require conscious input on the part of the user, whereas in adaptive systems the process works automatically (Treiblmaier, 2004). There are various personalization techniques available and we will be highlighting some of the most common and relevant ones in this paper.
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2.1.4. Personalization technique.
Cookies: These are small data files that are stored on the local host machine. They are created when the user first interacts with a website. As the user provides information such as a name, address or other form of identification, the server running the website stores this information on the user’s machine. In follow-up visits to the website, the server can then identify needed information about the user without requiring the user to retype it. Cookies are usually small, containing no more than simple user identification, for example a name associated with a computer id. The rest of the user information is usually obtained from the web server’s database. A lot of websites use cookies as a basic technology for personalization. Users see this in the form of a welcoming address that uses their name, e.g., “Good morning Victor, Welcome Back!” (Wu, Im, Tremaine, Instone, Turoff, 2002) Profile-based personalization: To be able to purchase or receive advanced services from many websites, users are required to register and enter personal information such as gender, age, interests, etc (creating a user profile). The websites store this information in a database on the web server. This information is used primarily to support the user with “type once” operations such as maintaining the user’s shipping address. Websites also use user profiles for personalized services. The user’s postal code provides economic information so that the website can reorganize product access according to a customer’s economic profile. For example, a featured wine sale might not be advertised to users residing in an area known to have a depressed economy (Wu et al, 2002). This method falls within the user-adaptable category. A lot of sites use this technique, giving the user the choice to specify their preferences to the organization. It requires a lot of user input, but is highly rewarding if well done. Most email providers require this from their users. Personal tools: Some websites allow users to create shortcuts (links) to the information that interests them most. A lot of news and information sites allow you to configure the kind of news and information you receive and also enable you to create short cuts to take to such pages, www.google.com is a good example. In portal sites such as Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com) and MSN (http://www.msn.com), users can create a page containing personally chosen
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links. Personal tools differ from profile-based personalization because it is the user, not the software that creates the personalization. (Wu et al, 2002) Rules based: This is probably the easiest technique to understand and implement. Designers must know ahead of time what the condition is, what to do about it, and it is often similar to an if/then type format. For instance, Business A knows that they have printer paper overstocked, so they decide they need to get rid of it somehow. So, if a customer adds a printer to their "shopping cart," they are then prompted with a request whether they want to buy some printer paper. The business could also incorporate sales or discounts in this approach - if a customer buys a printer, we'll sell them paper at half price. (Payne, 2000) Recommender systems: Collaborative and content filtering are two of the most common methods used in this category. Collaborative filtering compares a user’s tastes with those of other users in order to build up a picture of like-minded people. The choice of content is then based on the assumption that this particular user will value that which the like-minded people also enjoyed. The preferences of the community of like-minded people are used to predict appropriate content. The user’s tastes are either inferred from their previous actions (for example buying a book, or viewing a product is assumed to show an interest (or taste) for that product) or else measured directly by asking the user to rate products. This method has an advantage of speed and efficiency in computation, thus delivering rapid feedback. The reliance on a ‘critical mass’ of users can be a problem for collaborative filtering; a small sample population may lead to lower-quality recommendations. The quality of recommendations increases with the size of the user population. Another potential limitation is the inability to make a recommendation for an unusual user if a match with a like-minded set cannot be found. Collaborative filtering may be less important as a technique when categories of users and preferences are already well-known and well-defined. (Bonett, 2001) Content filtering generates recommendations similar to collaborative filtering, but instead of matching a user to other users, the user’s preference profile is matched to information known about each of the products on the website. The closest matches are then recommended to the user (Wu et al, 2002). Clickstream analysis: This is the technique of collecting data about user movements on a website. It can be used to record a track of the links visited, including where a user came from, their route through the website and their destination on exiting the site. Link analysis can include observations of the links clicked and their associated position on the screen, time spent within a page and making connections between links visited and consequences (e.g. purchase
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made). This method of learning about users from their behaviour imposes the least extra work on the user. However it is also the most subtle since it happens transparently. The information gathered can be intensively processed, giving insight into the make up of visitors using the site. It can be used for characterising users and segmenting customers.
2.1.5. Personalization framework Personalization as a concept is a very broad one, its meaning in practice differs from one context to another. In order to reconcile these differences and create a coherent basis for the identification, analysis and more importantly implementation of personalization techniques within specific contexts a framework is very relevant. Wu et al (2003) have developed a useful tool in this regard. They have developed a conceptual framework based on “(1) how much active vs. passive input has to be provided by the user and (2) what types of personalized changes are experienced by the user.” They use this approach for categorizing personalization interventions, because according to them “it represents the interaction of the user with the [interface] website which we believe to be the primary concern of [the providers] website owners.” (See diagram below).
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Figure 1: Conceptual framework of personalization (Wu et al, 2002)
Implicit (Adaptive)
Who Personalizes Explicit (Adaptable)
Interface configured by computer Examples: Cookies that provide a personal welcome with user’s name; Opportunistic links that generate additional advertisements for a travel destination Interface configured by users Examples: Profile-based personalization that removes graphics from displays to save user download time, personal tools such as a personal calendar
Content configured by computer Example: Collaborative filtering recommendations for book purchases based on prior buyers’ purchases
User-configured content customization Example: Content filtering recommendations for a video based on a user-provided profile
Interface
Content
What is Personalized
This model helps capture in a concise way the interaction of the user with the interface (or website as is the case in this model). This is useful in characterizing the different kinds of personalization, where the input is coming from and what areas it influences. It is a 2 by 2 categorization of ‘who or what ‘does the personalization. If the user actively and knowingly does the personalization, then the personalization is explicit. If, on the other hand, the personalization is
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achieved by the website collecting information on the user’s activity at the website, e.g. product purchases, time spent at various pages displayed, etc etc., without the user being fully aware of the underlying activity then the personalization is implicit. The second two categories deal with what is personalized. If the organization of information on the web page and the appearance of this information are adapted to user needs, the interface is personalized. If, on the other hand, the information or links to information are modified to match a user’s perceived needs, the content is personalized (Wu et al, 2002). The main advantage of this model is that it enables the easy classification and analysis of the different types of personalization interventions and techniques. This is useful when an overview is required for decision making purposes with regards to which personalization strategy and technique is most appropriate in a particular situation. It is also useful as a tool for analysing personalization interventions. However a problem with this framework is that it only shows the possibilities for personalization, it does not show the relevance and gives no indication as to the sensitivity of adopting different techniques within the different contexts. For instance the framework shows that collaborative filtering can be used to adapt content to user needs, it doesn’t say whether it is an effective or acceptable way of achieving this goal.
2.2. Online Banking
Online banking is a relatively new phenomenon; it has gained prominence in recent years as a result of the rapid and massive adoption of new media technologies, particularly the Internet. Online banking can be defined as “A system allowing individuals to perform banking activities at home, via the Internet” (Investor words, 2005), as “Services that provide banking transactions electronically” (Bitpipe, 2005). Online banking was first adopted on October 6, 1995 in the United States of America, when the Presidential Savings Bank offered its customers an online alternative to traditional banking, (Presidential Savings Bank, 2005). Online banking usage has grown very rapidly, according to current estimates by Pew research; more than 50 million adults in the United States do their banking online. (Sullivan, 2005) Rapid adoption of online banking has been as a result of certain unique benefits which it confers. (1) It is convenient, as it enables year round 24hour access.
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(2) It is ubiquitous as you can access your account anywhere there is an Internet connection. (3) It is fast; as transactions can be completed and confirmed within seconds, (4) It is efficient; as you can manage all your accounts and transactions from one site, (5) It is effective; as many banking sites can offer sophisticated tools, information and integration with local software packages.
Online banking however has few drawbacks which are gradually being addressed such as complicated and time consuming setup procedure, users may be forced into a steep learning curve to enable them navigate the site effectively. Users also need to have basic computer skills and Internet knowledge as well as be connected to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Trust is also reason why some individuals have refused to set up online accounts. Trust here is at three levels: Firstly trust in the provider, trust in the ability of the technology platform to deliver without errors or failure, and trust in one’s capacity to operate the system properly. Putting one’s confidence in software and a faceless network of computers takes a while to develop, (Bruce, 2003). In spite of these challenges Internet banking has been a huge success, it has even been described as “one of the most important changes within the retail financial industry in the last hundred years…” (Hiltunen, Heng, Helgesen, 2004, 119) Most of the major banks in the world, particularly those in the developed nations offer Internet banking services. For instance all banks operating in the Netherlands offer Internet banking services. The Internet has thus become the frontline in the battle to acquire new as well as retain the old customers. The consequence of this is that opening and closing an account is just a click away. Attracting customers and maintaining traditional loyalties which were cultivated and maintained by personal contact with specialized staff, strategically located offices and awe/confidence inspiring structures are becoming increasingly irrelevant. The challenge facing most banks is how to create in the online environment a differentiating experience that would give them a competitive advantage. Personalization is one of the major strategies being used to enhance the online interaction between the customers and the banks.
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2.3. Personalization in online banking
The banking industry has been in the forefront of the e-commerce revolution. The adoption of the Internet channel in banking has been very rapid, however the very advantages that make it such an attractive channel to use, makes it difficult to differentiate and gain competitive advantage. The webpage being the main access point makes it difficult to offer services that competitors cannot duplicate quickly and cheaply. It is this situation and the need for firms to differentiate their services from that of their competitors that have brought the adoption of personalization to the forefront. A leading ecommerce research firm Jupiter Communications has stated that it is those financial services that invest heavily in personalization that will succeed in the online environment, (Inos, 2001). Another such firm The Tower Group opined that a banks ability to react, change and embrace new novel situations will separate the winners from losers, (Eckenrode, 2006, 8). Personalization is one of the strategies being adopted by banks to enable them create competitive advantage in the online channel. (Hiltunen et al, 1994, 126) have argued that personalization in online banking is a “win-win” situation, because the key ingredients necessary to make it work are present in the bank – customer relationship, namely frequent usage and personal customer information. They go further to highlight several benefits derivable both by the bank and the customers. According to them the bank would benefit by gaining more loyal customers, selling more, create a competitive edge and increase the trust from its customers. The users will benefit by saving time, enjoying added value services, financial and other benefits, increased trust, improved user experience and reduced cognitive workload. Inspite of these advantages implementing personalization is quite a daunting task. Personalization is not an exact science and the room for error is almost non existent in banking, therefore banks have to ‘get it right’ the first time. They need to understand thoroughly the underlying issues, as well as the implementation issues involved with regards to personalizing for their customers as any error may be severely punished. According to a survey by the Ponemon Institute, (Ponemon, 2005), “one privacy breach would cause 57% of customers with a high level of trust in their banks to take their business to a competitor.” The essence of this research is to look into the underlying and immediate influences on acceptance of personalization in online banking with a view to understanding them and proffering solutions to avoid the pitfalls.
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2.4. Commitment-Trust Theory
Personalization as a competitive strategy in a business to consumer (B2C) environment is all about building relationships. Personalization is one of the strategies at the heart of relationship marketing. Consequently for us to understanding Personalization and the underlying constructs influencing it we need to look to relationship marketing theory. Relationship marketing has been variously regarded as a paradigm shift (Kotler, 1991, Parvatiyar, Sheth, and Whittington, 1992) because it proposed that marketing relations will change from being predatory and competitive to collaborative and relational (Bleek and Ernst, 1993, 1). The Commitment-Trust theory was developed by Morgan and Hunt (1994, 20) to explain this shift; they theorize that successful relationship marketing requires relationship commitment and trust. They then model relationship commitment and trust as key mediating variables. According to them understanding relationship marketing “requires distinguishing between the discrete transaction, which has a ‘distinct beginning, short duration, and sharp ending by performance,’ and relational exchange, which ‘traces to previous agreements [and]…is longer in duration, reflecting an ongoing process’ (Dwyer, Schurr and Oh, 1987 cited in Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 21). Also according to Morgan and Hunt (1994, 21) relationship marketing is “…all marketing activities directed toward establishing, developing, and maintaining successful relational exchanges.” This definition clearly shows that the emphasis is on the process, the relationship how it is developed and maintained. This is essentially what personalization is all about and this is where building blocks or the underlying factors behind personalization can be seen. The kernel of their theory is that commitment and trust are fundamental to successful relationship marketing and not power. According to them commitment and trust are ‘key’ because “they encourage marketers to; (1) work at preserving relationship investments by cooperating with exchange partners, (2) resist attractive short-term benefits of staying with existing partners, and (3) view potentially high-risk actions as being prudent because of the belief that their partners will not act opportunistically…” Morgan and Hunt (1994, 21) Their model shows the relationship between 12 variables, 5 antecedents and 5 outcomes, with relationship commitment and trust in-between as ‘key mediating variables’. See model below.
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Figure 2: The Commitment-Trust Theory (Key Mediating Variable) model of relationship marketing (Morgan & Hunt, 1994, 22)
The Commitment-Trust Theory was developed within the context of a ‘Brick and mortar’ world to show the underlying constructs in relationship marketing and their interaction. It also showed how these interactions influenced outcomes positively or negatively. Personalization in its current form has been driven by new media technologies and is primarily a creation of a different era; however the underlying, goals, intentions and constructs are the same. Personalization is essentially part of a relationship marketing strategy. The Commitment-Trust Theory thus offers us a good platform to analyze current personalization efforts with regards to understanding the underlying constructs behind it and provide some predictive value as to the efficacy or otherwise of a particular intervention. As was stated earlier the model is built on the relationship between 12 constructs and we want to briefly highlight them here.
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2.4.1. Relationship commitment Relationship commitment is one of the key mediating variables in this theory. Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23) define “relationship commitment as an exchange partner believing that an ongoing relationship with another is so important as to warrant maximum efforts at maintaining it; that is, the committed party believes the relationship is worth working on to ensure that it endures indefinitely.” Relationship commitment according to them is central to relationship marketing. This is an interesting concept in commercial relationships because it implies an intention to work on the relationship to make it successful even when it goes against strict rational economic principles. This concept is founded in social exchange theory, and is the basis of interpersonal relationships such as marriage. (Thompson and Spanier, 1983) It is gradually being introduced into economic and interorganizational theory. While theorists such as Cook and Emerson (1978, 728) and McDonald (1981, 836) view commitment as the central distinguishing feature between economic and social exchange, Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23) on the contrary believe that it is central to relationship marketing, which brings it under economic theory. Berry and Parasuraman (1991, 139) have also argued along the lines of Morgan and Hunt, they say “Relationships are built on the foundation of mutual commitment” Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23) have further stated that “As brand attitude becomes central to the repurchase decision in relational exchange, brand loyalty becomes increasingly similar to our conceptualization of commitment.” Personalization is at the centre of relational exchange, it facilitates and is facilitated by relational exchanges in a continuously recursive cycle. According to Kwon and Suh (2004, 6) “…commitment is central to all of the relational exchanges between the firm and its various partners.” Commitment is thus a key element in the success of any personalization effort.
2.4.2. Trust Trust is a very widely researched construct and is a central concept in exchange relationships. Reviewing the literature on trust however show that conceptualizing it can be a daunting task (McKnight, Cummings & Chervany, 1996). There is a “confusing potpourri” (Shapiro, 1987a, 625) of definitions in literature and this has made it difficult to give a concise meaning to it. Researchers such as Smith (1990) have described it as a ‘homonymy’ meaning that it is actually a label for different concepts. Trust has been defined as an attitude (Kegan & Rubenstein, 1973); confidence (Cohen, 1966); a behaviour, (Zand, 1972);
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a belief or set of beliefs (Barber, 1983; Bromiley and Cummings, 1995; Rotter, 1967); an expectancy (Rotter, 1980). The reason for this is that trust is a ‘key enabler’ in all relationships and is multifaceted and can be applied at different levels (McKnight, Cummings & Chervany, 1996). For this research we have adopted the conceptualization given by Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23). They state that trust exists when “…one party has confidence in an exchange partner’s reliability and integrity.” They rely on Rotter’s (1967, 651) classical view which states that trust is “a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word of another…can be relied on.” Certain key qualities can be distilled from these conceptualizations such as confidence, reliability, integrity, consistency, competency, honesty, fairness, responsibility, helpfulness and benevolence, (Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 23). These are attributes which are essential for the development of any successful exchange relationship. Trust is not static, it is formed over time and may be strengthened or weakened depending on the actions or inactions of exchange partners. In this research we approach trust from a holistic point of view rather than a ‘narrow’ web-centred point of view. This is firstly because we want to capture the underlying effect of trust in its entirety as it influences personalization. While we recognize that there are a myriad of factors influencing trust in this medium, we also recognize that banking has certain peculiar characteristics which may not hold for other online industries. Banking is based primarily on trust and integrity, which has to be real and not just perceived, because the customer and regulatory authorities demand it. There are other issues such as website design, level of feedback, consistency, level of down-time etc. These things influence to some degree the level of confidence and integrity we have toward the service and ultimately towards the provider. However our focus here is directed to Trust in relation to the organization and not as it relates to the communication medium. Trust however is still a major issue and as has been cited earlier, one survey by the Ponemon Institute, has concluded that a single privacy breach could cause more than half of the customers with a high level of trust in their bank to move to another provider (Ponemon, 2005). However we are of the view that the trust we have in the provider is the dominant factor and thus conceptualize and measure trust in this way, rather than as a measure of our experience with the site. 2.4.3. Relationship terminations cost Termination costs are all expected losses from termination and result from the perceived lack of comparable potential alternative partners, relationship
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dissolution expenses, and/or substantial switching costs. The argument here is that in any marketing relationship changing partners has a certain cost, which creates a level of dependency between the two parties. The strength of this dependency will depend on the difficulty or otherwise (cost) of getting another partner of comparable value to the first. According to Morgan and Hunt(1994, 24) “Termination costs are, therefore, all expected losses from the termination and result from the perceived lack of comparable potential alternative partners, relationship dissolution expenses, and/or substantial switching costs.” The switching cost in the online banking industry have been gradually eroded, particularly as most banks have moved most of their retail banking operations to the online environment. Personalization is actually intended to increase the switching cost in this environment, however due to the fact that it is at an early stage of deployment it may not pose much of a deterrent to switching. We are of the opinion that this construct will not have a significant influence on acceptance of personalization in online banking. 2.4.4. Relationship benefits Relationship benefits are the benefits derivable by each party as a result of their interaction with each other. Sweeney and Web (2002, 2), have identified benefit from the buyer [customer] side and well as benefits on the supplier [providers] side, they say “from the buyer’s viewpoint, improved overall quality, an expanded product mix, increased customer satisfaction, reduced costs and prices, protection of the investment and from the supplier’s viewpoint contract predictability, price and production stability, increased R & D effectiveness, lowering of transaction costs that would be spent on safeguarding competition, customer feedback,…” Partners that deliver superior benefits will be highly valued; firms [individuals] will commit themselves to establishing, developing, and maintaining relationships with such partners. Online banking has conferred huge added benefits to the customers, however all differentiating benefits are gradually being eroded as most banks offer almost identical services. We can discount the goodwill and familiarity customers have towards their banks and we posit that it will have a significant influence on their acceptance of any personalization effort. 2.4.5. Shared values Shared values “…is the extent to which partners have beliefs in common about what behaviours, goals and policies are important or unimportant, appropriate or inappropriate, and right or wrong. When exchange partners share values, they indeed
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will be more committed to their relationships…” (Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 25). Shared values have been described as being important to any relationship building strategy as it helps foster trust between two parties (Halliday and Christy, 2003). 2.4.6. Communication Communication can be defined broadly as “the formal as well as informal sharing of meaningful and timely information between firms [individuals and firms]” (Anderson and Narus, 1990, 44). Communications is a major precursor to trust, especially when it is timely. It helps in resolving disputes, aligning perceptions and expectations (Etgar, 1979, 77). Communication that is timely, relevant and reliable will build trust in the relationship. (Morgan and Hunt, 1994) 2.4.7. Opportunistic Behaviour Opportunistic behaviour implies that one partner in a relationship acts in their own interest to the detriment of the interest of their partner. Williamson (1975, 6) has defined this concept as “self-interest seeking with guile”. In any relationship there is some level of interdependence and with this comes the possibility of acting in a cooperative or opportunistic manner. According to Steinmueller (2004, 2) this is one of the underlying factors determining trust. According to him the expected behaviour of the parties in such relationships will determine the level of trust. Morgan and Hunt (1994, 25) have also found that the perception of a party that their partners are acting opportunistically will lead to decreased trust. 2.4.8. Acquiescence Acquiescence is “…the degree to which a partner accepts or adheres to another’s specific requests or policies…”(Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 25). According to them relationship commitment positively influences acquiescence, while trust influences it indirectly through its influence on commitment. 2.4.9. Propensity to leave Propensity to leave connotes the willingness/unwillingness of a partner leaving a particular relationship. Propensity to leave is the perceived probability that a partner will end the relationship in the (reasonably) near future (Bluedorn, 1982). According to Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26) there is a strong negative relationship
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between relationship commitment and propensity to leave. In other words the higher the relationship commitment the less relationship partners are likely to leave each other, and vice versa. 2.5.0. Cooperation Cooperation can be said to take place when two or more parties work together to achieve mutual goals, (Anderson and Narus, 1990). According to Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26) cooperation implies coordination. Coordination according to them is a function of commitment and trust rather than the interplay of ‘power and conflict’ relationships. They question the role of power as the underlining principle behind coordination, they say “Why the focus on power? Because, as the epigraph quote from Alderson reminds us, marketers have long noted the absence of a theory that explains cooperation. The commitment-trust theory contributes to that long sought goal.”(Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 26). While commitment and trust may play a role in determining cooperation we should not be quick to discount the value of power and conflict in shaping cooperative relationships. 2.5.1. Functional conflict Functional conflict has been defined as “a constructive challenging of ideas, beliefs, and assumptions, respect for other’s view point even when parties disagree, and consultative interactions involving useful give and take.” (Massey and Dawes, 2004, 6). Differences of opinions, beliefs and intentions will give rise to disagreements among parties in relationships, this is a natural process. The challenge for the parties is how to resolve these differences. When it is done amicably, such disputes can be referred to as ‘functional conflicts’ “because they prevent stagnation, stimulate interest and curiosity…” Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26). 2.5.2. Decision-making uncertainty Uncertainty has to do with the degree of confidence that one can judge a situation and act accordingly. Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26) referencing Achrol and Stern (1988) have stated that uncertainty in decision making refers to the degree to which a partner (1) has sufficient information to make crucial decisions, (2) can predict the outcomes of those decisions, and (3) has confidence in those decisions. They have also stated that as trust between parties in an exchange relationship increases, it will cause decision-making uncertainty to decrease, as the trusting party would have the confidence in the trustworthiness of the partner.
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In the above section we have introduced the Commitment-Trust theory and highlighted the various constructs used in this model. In the next section we look into the second theoretical framework used in this study, The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and its attendant constructs.
2.5. Theory of Planned Behaviour
The theory of Planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Mathieson, 1991) is an extension of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) developed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). Both theories were developed to predict and understand motivational influences on behaviour, identify how and where to target strategies for changing behaviour and to explain such behaviours (Brown, 1999). According to the theories the most important determinant of human behaviour is behavioural intention. The individual’s intention to perform certain behaviour is a combination of the person’s attitude towards performing that behaviour and the subjective norm. The extension included in TPB adds perceived behavioural control to the predictors of intention. This is because it is recognized that not all behaviours are in the volitional control of the individual. Figure 3: Theory of Planned behaviour model (Azjen, 1991)
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The TPB has been used in many studies in information systems literature (Mathieson, 1991; Taylor and Todd, 1995a, b; Harrison et al., 1997). Predicting behavioural intention and actual behaviour is extremely useful in the online environment. This medium has the peculiar characteristics of speed, ubiquity and wide reach; this holds huge advantages for businesses as they can now reach large user groups, in a timely manner. However the disadvantage of this is that errors and miss-steps are glaring and may propagate very fast over large audiences. This leaves very little margin for error for any prospective online business venture. Being able to predict user behaviour and its antecedents in relation to an online venture are of crucial importance. Personalization in online banking is no exception to this; it even takes on a more sensitive nature as a result of the underlying intention of facilitating relationships. According to a study in adoption of online banking by Shih and Fang (2004, 220221) attitude and perceived behavioural control could be used to explain behaviour. They found that subjective norm did not have any predictive value. Another study by Tan and Teo (2000, 31), found that attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control had an influence. Like Shih et al (2004, 220221) they found that only attitude and perceived behavioural control had a significant effect. While these studies where focused on online banking, the current study is in personalization within online banking. The emphasis is thus on current customers and not so much on new ones. We believe that attitudes formed during interaction with the banking website would form the basis of the user’s attitude towards the personalization of the site. The normative beliefs of user within the online banking environment would not differ much with regards to personalization within the same environment. We believe the subjective norm will not have a significant effect on behavioural intention, and that the outcomes here will mirror that of Tan and Teo (2000, 31) and Shih et al (2004), where no significant effect was found. We believe the effect of perceived behavioural control will be significant. Ajzen (1991) compares this construct to Bandura’s (1997) concept of self efficacy, or the belief in ones competence to perform an action. This we believe will be significant in predicting behavioural intention towards personalization in an online environment.
2.6. Control (data)
Control over personal data is a major factor which we believe would influence the acceptance of personalization in online banking and we have consequently included it in our model. In most of the research literature this construct is 29
formulated as privacy, however we feel more inclined to view this issue as one of control over personal data than that of privacy. A review of the definitions of, and thinking behind privacy shows that control is the central issue. Olivero and Lunt (2002, 244) quoting Westin (1967) have defined privacy as “the claim of individuals to determine for themselves, when, how and to what extent information about them is communicated to others…” Kobsa and Teltzrow (2004, 1) have stated in relation to privacy that “…in the relationship between companies and Internet users. … knowing how their data will be used would be an important factor in their decision on whether or not to disclose personal data.” Ackerman, Darrell and Weitzner (2000) puts it in a very succinct fashion when they say “privacy is intrinsically bound up with control – who control what information and well as applications and systems that construct and disseminate that information.” From these definitions and statements we can infer that in the online environment what we regard as privacy is actually an issue of control.
2.7. Control (Self-efficacy)
Control (self-efficacy) (CTR_SE) is the same as Perceived Behavioural control as defined by Ajzen (1985). Ajzen defined Perceived behavioural control as “people's perceptions of their ability to perform a given behaviour.” This is a concept that is derived from Social cognitive theory. According to Bandura (1986, 391) self-efficacy beliefs are “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances’’. Self-efficacy is a strong motivating factor and has been proposed as one of essential factor determining behaviour. According to Pajares (2002) ‘’Self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment. This is because unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcomes they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties.’’ We believe Control (self-efficacy) because of its ability to determine and shape behaviour will be a key factor in determining acceptance of personalization in online banking.
2.8. Problem and Hypothesis
Personalization is not an end in itself but a strategy to achieve a qualitative and fulfilling interactive relationship. The essence of having such a relationship is to 30
enable the organization better anticipate and meet the needs of their clients. The online environment makes this a particularly challenging venture, because the human (inter)face has to be replaced by computer with its logic which is still very rudimentary and basic in terms of its ability to analyse human interaction. While the criterion for building relationships transcends all contexts the icons and interactive elements applicable in the online environment differs to some degree from that in the traditional ‘bricks and mortar’ realm. While a lot of research has focused on personalization, very few have focused on its application to online banking. The banking industry has been in the forefront in the migration of services to the Internet. The advantages for banking online as stated above are very obvious; however there is a gradual trend towards the commoditization of this service. This has led banks to push the curve further with regards to their services and how they are rendered. Personalization is crucial to this process, and understandings of which underlying and immediate factors influencing its acceptance are invaluable in this regard. 2.8.1. Research questions: To enable us properly explore the research area we have proposed the following research questions. • What are the underlying factors that influence the acceptance of personalization in online banking? To what degree do they influence the acceptance of online banking? What are the immediate causes of acceptance in online banking?
• •
We have approached this research from the point of view that personalization is a strategy to achieve relationship marketing goals. We have therefore adopted the Commitment-Trust theory as a framework to investigate the acceptance of personalization in online banking. We believe that most of the underlying factors influencing personalization and relationship marketing are identical. It is our view that by using this key relationship marketing framework we will be able to successfully model the determining factors influencing the acceptance of personalization in online banking. While we recognize that not all the constructs measured in the original model developed by Morgan and Hunt (1994) may be relevant to the online environment for completeness we test all relationships highlighted in the model.
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We have also adopted the Theory of Planned Behaviour as an alternate theory to predict Acceptance and for comparison. Furthermore we have added the constructs Control (of data) and Control (self-efficacy). We are measuring control as two separate constructs, because while the underlying issue is control the focus in either case is completely different. We propose the following hypothesis highlighted in below; all red lines indicate a hypothesized direct between a variable and Acceptance. All blue broken indirect relationships. Where the expected relationships is inserted. Figure 4: Hypothesized pathways
CTRD
the diagram (figure 1) predictive relationship lines indicate all other are negative the (-) sign
RTC AQ
RB RC
PL
OB
COOP
AC
TR COM FC
UC SV CTR_ SE
KEY Direct determinant pathways Indirect determinant pathways
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The above diagram shows all the predicted significant pathways. We have enlarged placed the variables Acceptance further out then the other for emphasis. In the next chapter we look at the methods adopted in carrying out this research.
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3. Method
We have approached this research from a deductive point of view, testing a number of hypotheses framed on the theoretical background of the Commitment-Trust Theory and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The research design was crafted in a way as to enable us accomplish the goals of this research as practically as possible within the limitation imposed by the context of the research. This area of research is a highly sensitive and newly evolving one. This posed a lot of challenges, particularly in the area of access. We adopted a multimethod approach in this research so as to enable triangulation as we recognize that each strategy has its unique weaknesses and strengths, (Smith, 1975). For this study we thus combine the Survey, Case study and Explanatory methods, (Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill, 1996, 92-99) The Survey method was adopted because of the ability it gave us to “gather large amounts of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way” (Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill, 1996, 93, 94). This is the best means of collecting standardized data in a large scale way. It was useful in measuring the constructs under study in this research across a reasonably representative sample. The Case study approach was adopted because it enabled us get some depth in relation to specific personalization issues in a particular bank. This we believe will lead to more concrete results which can also be generalized to other user populations. This research was primarily an explanatory one even though other methods were used. It was thus very important for us to use tools that facilitate the explanatory process. This was very useful as it gave more insight into the concepts and processes under study. Three instruments were used in this regard, namely structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focus group. These three instruments were employed to correspond to the three different methods highlighted above.
3.2. Participants
The first and primary characteristic of the participants in this research was that they were all users of online banking services. They were made up of a mix of men and women within the ages of 18 to 65. The selection of individuals was based on ‘Convenience sampling’ (Schonlau, Fricker, Elliott, 2002), ‘Purposive
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sampling’ and on ‘Self-selection sampling’ (Saunders et al, 1996) depending on the instrument being used. These methods have been indicated as being the most practical for business research, market surveys and case studies, where alternative sampling methods may not be possible. This is particularly relevant where the research is exploratory in nature (Saunders et al, 1996). For the structured questionnaires the ‘self-selection sampling’ method was adopted. Individuals who fitted the reference frame of having online banking accounts were solicited through various means such as adverts, direct and indirect requests. They were then directed to a particular web address where the questionnaire could be found. The respondents were made up of students, workers, self-employed individuals and the unemployed. The participants for the semi-structured interviews were selected using purposive sampling as they were chosen from a pool of respondents corresponding to the various segments within the bank involved in the research. A total of 7 participants were involved in the semi-structured interviews. The participants for the Focus groups were chosen using the ‘convenience sampling’ (Schonlau, et al, 2002) method. Direct solicitations were made to participant who then chose whether to participate or not. One meeting with a group of 5 students of a Dutch university was held.
3.3. Instruments
3.3.1. Structured questionnaire A structured questionnaire was developed to measure all the constructs being under study in this research. A modified version of the Morgan and Hunt (1994) instrument was used to measure, Opportunistic behaviour, Trust, Acquiescence, Propensity to leave, Cooperation, Functional conflict, and Uncertainty. A modified version of Odekerken-Schroder and Bloemer (2000) instrument was used to measure Relationship termination cost. Relationship commitment was measured by an instrument developed by Gurviez and Korchia (2003). Relationship benefits and Communication & Information exchange were measured by a modified version of Lancastre and Lages (2004) instrument. Attitude, Subjective Norm, Usage and Intention to use were measured by a modified version of the instrument developed by Shih and Fang (2004). Control was measured by a modified version of the instrument developed by Dinev and Hart (2003). Lastly Acceptance was measured using an instrument we
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developed ourselves. Most of the questionnaires used had to be modified as they could not be applied to online banking in the original form in which they were developed. All these various modified instruments were combined into one and then built into an online questionnaire which could be accessed by clicking on a specified URL. The questionnaire contained 63 questions, 5 were for demographic data and 58 for measuring the various constructs. All 58 questions were graded on a 7-point Likert scale.
3.3.2. Semi-structured interviews The semi-structured interviews were conducted in a quiet room in an office building in Amsterdam. The researchers as well as the host bank involved drew up a list of questions which we thought were relevant to enable us elicit the responses we desired. The interviews were focused on the respondent’s interaction with the Bank’s website. These questions were primarily aimed at getting the clients to express their understanding and use of the banks website. This was particularly aimed towards getting their responses in relation to the personalization of the site. The main focus here was on five specific personalized aspects of the site namely; the login page, the commercial adverts, email, financial advice and the settings. The first three of the above personalized features have been implemented to some degree; however the last two are in the pipe line and may be implemented in the near future. The essence of the interviews was to get the client’s level of appreciation of the personalization the site currently offers, may be offering in the near future, and most importantly their preferences in relation to this. There were eight general topic areas and 60 sub-areas covered in these interviews. At the end of the interview the participants were thanked and led out of the room. There were seven participants in all that took part in the interviews and they were all drawn from different marketing segments within the Internet banking service. They were selected using the ‘Purposive sampling method’, in other words they were chosen by the bank because they were representative of the different client segment groups. They included students, Young professionals, Regular bankers and Preferred bankers. See appendix 11 for a summary of the outcomes of these interviews.
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3.3.3. Focus group The Focus group meetings were held at the University of Twente campus in the Netherlands. The individuals used were selected using the ‘convenience sampling’ method. In other words they fell within the general reference frame and they were available and willing to take part in the research at that time. The participants were informed some days before about the time and place the meeting would be held. They were also given information about how the interviews would proceed and the number of people participating. They were told that the meeting would be recorded on video and that their consent was required. They were also told that they would be given a gift after the meetings. All the participants of the focus groups were given the structured questionnaire fill in before the meeting.
3.4. Procedure
The questionnaires were self-administered and could be filled over a period of time. Cookies are stored on the respondent computers which enabled to them to stop and start up again from the stoppage point. All the respondents needed to do was to click on the link to the website and fill-in the questionnaires. All questions but one had the options displayed on the page making it very easy to fill-in. The interviews were conducted in a quiet room, with the participants sitting across from the interviewers. The interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes. As the participants came in they were taken directly to the interview room where they were asked to sit. They were then offered a drink after which they were informed about how the interview would progress and that they would be recorded on DVD and were asked to give their consent and sign an undertaking to this effect. The interview then started in earnest with the interviewer asking questions point by point based on the highlighted topic areas. The Focus group meetings were conducted in a quiet reserved room on the university campus. As the participants arrived for the meeting they were welcomed and ushered to their sits. They were then introduced to each other and then instructed on how the meetings would be run. The meeting rooms were equipped with a computer and beamer. With this equipment screen dumps of the personalized features from the bank were shown. The participants were asked to fill a short questionnaire based on each screen shown. Discussions were held after each short questionnaire was filled. This sequence was followed
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throughout the meeting, and after all the items were exhausted the participants were thanked, made to sign a consent form and given their gifts.
3.5. Data analysis
We used different statistical methods to analyse the collected data. In part A of chapter 4 we looked primarily for statistical differences within the gender and age categories in general and also in relation to their scoring on the questionnaire. We used the T-Test to test for mean variances between the males and females, while we used the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to test for mean variances between the three different age groups. In section 4.4 of part A we used Pearson correlation analysis to highlight the linear relationships between the different variables. In section B we used regression analysis to plot the significant determinant pathways between the various variables on the one hand and their relationship with Acceptance (ACC). We also used the SOBEL Test (Sobel, 1982) to highlight the indirect relationships between the variables. The data from the semi-structured interviews and the Focus groups was analysed qualitatively using a partially ordered matrix, (see appendix 11). We use the results from this matrix to support, emphasise and confirm the results received through the questionnaires. Except of from this source can be found interspersed within the following three chapters.
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4. Results
The aim of this research was to find out the factors influencing the acceptance of personalization in online banking. To facilitate this process we narrowed our focus to 3 problem questions namely; (1)what are the underlying factors that influence the acceptance of personalization in online banking?, (2)to what degree do they influence the acceptance of online banking?, and (3) what are the immediate causes of acceptance in online banking?. To carry this out we proposed several hypothesis (see figure 1, chapter 2). The results are highlighted in two broad categories namely, Part A and Part B; the first part (sections 4.1 to 4.4) deals with the descriptive data/output, while the second part (sections 4.5 to 4.7) deals with the output from the Commitment-Trust theory and Theory of Planned behaviour models and a comparison between the output of Morgan and Hunt and ours. In section 4.1 we point out the respondent’s characteristics by showing in detail the relevant structure and traits of the actual sample used. In section 4.2 we explain briefly how we have used the two focal variables Acceptance (ACC) and Intention to use (INTU) and why we have chosen to do so. In section 4.3 we look at the output characteristics of the different variables and the underlying questions used to measure them, while in section 4.4 we look at the relationships between Acceptance and the other variables. In section 4.5 and 4.6 we look at the results from the analysis of the models and it is here that the hypotheses are actually tested and the research questions resolved. Lastly in section 4.7 we compare the output of our modified Morgan and Hunt (1994) model with that of the original model with a view to seeing how well they ‘fit’ in resolving the problem questions within our specific context (Business to Customer (B2C), online environment).
Part A: Descriptive results of the respondents and variables in the research.
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4.1. Characteristics of respondents
For this research we used three categories of respondents, those who filled out the questionnaire, those who took part in a focus group study and those who took part in the in-depth interviews. Out of a total of over 300 solicitations for the questionnaires, 113 responses were received of which 86 were sufficiently completed to be used in this research. The respondents were drawn from a convenience sample of the population of online banking users in the Netherlands. Our sample thus comprises male and female users of different ages and backgrounds currently using online banking facilities in one of the various banks in the Netherlands. The tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 below show some of the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Five of the respondents who filled-out questionnaires (2 females and 3 males), took part in the focus group study. For the in-depth interviews we had 3 male and 4 female participants. The details in the remaining part of this section (4.1.1 to 4.1.4) are related to those respondents who filled out the questionnaires. 4.1.1. Gender of respondents Out of our total of 86 respondents, 49 (57%) were male, 31 (36%) were female and the remaining 6 (7%) did not specify their gender. The preponderance of male respondents raises questions with regards to our ability to generalize our findings across the population as a strong male skew could obscure results that are specific for female respondents. We found a small but significant difference between the distribution of males and females, with a chi-square figure of (x2= 4.05, d.f. = 1, p
Personalization involves using technology to accommodate the differences between individuals. Once confined mainly to the Web, it is becoming a factor in education, health care (i.e. personalized medicine), television, and in both "business to business" and "business to consumer" settings.
An investigation into the determinants of user acceptance of personalization in online banking
A.K. Banjo Masters thesis
Supervisors: Dr. T. M. van der Geest Dr. ir. P. W. de Vries
Communication Studies Faculty of behavioural Science The University of Twente Enschede, 17th August 2006
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Acknowledgement
I want to thank my supervisors, Dr. T. M. van der Geest and Dr. ir. P. W. de Vries for their kind support, input and guidance throughout the duration of this work. I am grateful to all my family and friends who have supported and encouraged me throughout this time. I also want to thank my wonderful wife for all her encouragement and sacrifice and lastly I would like to thank God for making it all possible and see me through it all.
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Executive summary
Personalization is an innovative strategy which enables the bank to further differentiate from its competitors by drawing the client into increasingly deeper levels of mutually beneficial relationships. However for any personalization effort to succeed both the bank and its clients need to perceive it as being relevant and beneficial to their interests. The bank needs the clients implicit and explicit consent to use their personal data to enable them tailor the clients experience to suit s/he’s purposes as well as meet their goals. On the other hand the client needs to see its relevance and desirability as well as trust the bank to deliver what it promises. Since such decisions are based on previous experience, a major determinant of success of the personalization effort is thus a function of the client’s perception of the bank and their current relationship with it. Consequently in this research we have focused on understanding the underlying factors involved in the client’s relationship with the bank and how they influence the acceptance of five concrete personalization features, namely adaptive login feature, adaptable settings, emails, adaptive banners adverts and adaptive financial advice. We adopted this approach because we view personalization as a relationship marketing strategy and therefore propose that the basic underlying factors in relationship marketing would be major determinants of acceptance of personalization. We used the Commitment-Trust Theory (Morgan and Hunt, 1994) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) as analytical tools to model the relationship between the basic relationship marketing constructs and the specific highlighted personalization features. We added the variable Control (data) to our models because it has been indicated in research as being important in acceptance of personalization. We found that clients in general want more personalization. We also found that five variables namely, Control (self-efficacy), Control (data), Relationship terminations cost, Relationship benefit and Subjective norm were significant determinants of acceptance of personalization in online banking. At lower levels we found various issues which linked these variables to the acceptance of the personalized features. For instance we found that clients were more sensitive to control of content than they were to control of the interface. This clearly raises issue of data control in acceptance. Also their perception of self competence on the site determined how effectively they used it. While we found as stated earlier that clients desire more personalization, the observed level of acceptance was relatively low. This shows there is a gap between what is on offer or how it is being offered and what they really want. There is a lot of room for improvement, a lot of the clients are passively engaged because it is a necessary service which they need. The bank however needs to take them from there to a position where they are actively engaged and driving the process. 3
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 7 1.1. BACKGROUND TO PERSONALIZATION IN INTERNET BANKING ......................................................... 7 1.2. CHALLENGES OF PERSONALIZATION................................................................................................. 9 1.3. RESEARCH FOCUS ............................................................................................................................. 10 2. LITERATURE REVIEW/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................... 11 2.1. PERSONALIZATION ........................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.2. Personalization defined ............................................................................................................. 12 2.1.3. Types of personalization............................................................................................................ 13 2.1.4. Personalization technique. ........................................................................................................ 14 2.1.5. Personalization framework ....................................................................................................... 16 2.2. ONLINE BANKING ............................................................................................................................ 18 2.3. PERSONALIZATION IN ONLINE BANKING......................................................................................... 20 2.4. COMMITMENT-TRUST THEORY ........................................................................................................ 21 2.4.1. Relationship commitment ......................................................................................................... 23 2.4.2. Trust ......................................................................................................................................... 23 2.4.3. Relationship terminations cost.................................................................................................. 24 2.4.4. Relationship benefits ................................................................................................................. 25 2.4.5. Shared values ............................................................................................................................ 25 2.4.6. Communication ........................................................................................................................ 26 2.4.7. Opportunistic Behaviour .......................................................................................................... 26 2.4.8. Acquiescence ............................................................................................................................. 26 2.4.9. Propensity to leave .................................................................................................................... 26 2.5.0. Cooperation ............................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.1. Functional conflict .................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.2. Decision-making uncertainty ................................................................................................... 27 2.5. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR.................................................................................................. 28 2.6. CONTROL (DATA) ............................................................................................................................. 29 2.7. CONTROL (SELF-EFFICACY) .............................................................................................................. 30 2.8. PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS............................................................................................................. 30 2.8.1. Research questions: ................................................................................................................... 31 3. METHOD ............................................................................................................................................... 34 3.2. PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................................................................. 34 3.3. INSTRUMENTS ................................................................................................................................... 35 3.3.1. Structured questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 35 3.3.2. Semi-structured interviews....................................................................................................... 36 3.3.3. Focus group............................................................................................................................... 37 3.4. PROCEDURE ...................................................................................................................................... 37 3.5. DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................ 38 4. RESULTS................................................................................................................................................ 39 PART A: DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS OF THE RESPONDENTS AND VARIABLES IN THE RESEARCH................................................................................................................................................ 39 4.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS............................................................................................... 40 4.1.1. Gender of respondents............................................................................................................... 40
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4.1.2. Age of respondents .................................................................................................................... 40 4.1.3. Educational level of respondents ............................................................................................... 41 4.1.4. Level of Internet usage of respondents ...................................................................................... 41 4.2. ACCEPTANCE (ACC), ACCEPTABILITY AND INTENTION TO USE (INTU) ...................................... 42 4.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLES .................................................................................................... 43 4.3.1. Relationship commitment ......................................................................................................... 43 4.3.2. Trust ......................................................................................................................................... 44 4.3.3. Relationship termination cost ................................................................................................... 45 4.3.4. Relationship benefit................................................................................................................... 45 4.3.5. Shared values ............................................................................................................................ 46 4.3.6. Opportunistic behaviour ........................................................................................................... 47 4.3.7. Communications ....................................................................................................................... 48 4.3.8. Acquiescence ............................................................................................................................. 49 4.3.9. Propensity to leave .................................................................................................................... 49 4.3.10. Cooperation ............................................................................................................................. 50 4.3.11. Functional conflict .................................................................................................................. 51 4.3.12. Uncertainty ............................................................................................................................. 52 4.3.13. Attitude ................................................................................................................................... 53 4.3.14. Subjective norm ...................................................................................................................... 53 4.3.15. Control (data).......................................................................................................................... 54 4.3.16. Control (self-efficacy) .............................................................................................................. 55 4.3.17. Acceptance .............................................................................................................................. 56 4.4. RELATIONSHIPS WITH ACCEPTANCE ............................................................................................... 58 PART B: MODELLING RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 59 4.5. MODEL 1: MODIFIED COMMITMENT-TRUST THEORY MODEL ......................................................... 60 4.5.1. Determinants of Acceptance (ACC) ......................................................................................... 62 4.5.2. Determinants of Control (self-efficacy) (CTR_SE) ................................................................... 62 4.5.3. Determinants of Control (data) (CTRD) .................................................................................. 62 4.5.4. Determinants of Relationship termination cost (RTC)............................................................. 63 4.5.5. Determinants of Relationship commitment (RC) ..................................................................... 63 4.5.6. Determinants of Subjective norm (SN) .................................................................................... 63 4.6. MODEL 2 (THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR) ............................................................................... 64 4.7. COMPARISON WITH MORGAN AND HUNT (1994) KMV MODEL ................................................... 65 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 70 5.1. ACCEPTANCE.................................................................................................................................... 70 5.2. EFFECTIVENESS OF MODELS .............................................................................................................. 76 5.3. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ....................................................................................... 78 5.4. LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 79 5.5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 79 6. RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 81 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................ 85 APPENDIX................................................................................................................................................. 96 APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 96 APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 100 APPENDIX 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 101 APPENDIX 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 103 APPENDIX: 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 105 APPENDIX 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 107 APPENDIX 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 109
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APPENDIX 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 111 APPENDIX 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 113 APPENDIX 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 117 APPENDIX 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 122
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1. Introduction
1.1. Background to Personalization in Internet banking
Internet banking has been one of the most successful of all the traditional commercial ventures that have adopted the internet platform. The internet is taking over as a main access channel to complement branch and call centres in the banking industries’ efforts to enhance their services, improve integration with partners and interaction with their clients. The high level of internet penetration in Europe and particularly in the Netherlands has made it a very attractive channel. According to a recent report of, Ensor and van Tongeren for Forrester Research (2005), the Netherlands has a 50% broadband penetration rate and 44% of all customers use online banking. This has created huge opportunities for the banking industry in terms of being able to reach their clients and offer new services.
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The internet has proved to be a very cost effective delivery platform, because of its inherent built-in qualities. According to Centeno (2003, 6) “Banks offer Internet banking mainly to increase cost-effectiveness, increase customer reach, and retain market share.” Also according to Turban (2000) Internet banking is extremely beneficial to customers because of the savings that can accrue in the costs, time, and space it offers, its quick response to complaints, and its delivery of improved services. It is clear that the internet provides excellent new opportunities for the banking industry in terms of it being able to reduce long-term overhead costs and offer improved services. “Estimates for banking transactions costs across delivery channels, e.g. physical branch, phone, ATM, PC-based dial-up, show that Internet transactions are the cheapest with a factor of 1-2:100 compared to physical branches, 1-2:30 compared to ATM’s and 1:2-10 compared to PC-based dial-up Internet“Centeno (2003, 6), (Hawkins & Dubravko, 2001). Banks have moved rapidly into the internet channel to exploit these advantages. All banks in the Netherlands have adopted some form of internet banking, and as was stated earlier the public has responded very enthusiastically with a 44% percent penetration in less than 5 years. However while it has brought major benefits to both customer and bank it has also brought about fierce competition in the industry. This has been beneficial to the customer but has thrown up several challenges for the banks. A research report by Deutsche Bank Research (2005, 2), expresses the current situation succinctly. According to them, “Retaining the current customer base is key… the cost of acquiring new customers is high, but the probability that they stay is quite low. New customers who are acquired at the margin are quite likely to be ‘switches’. They will eventually switch to a better offer.” They use an observation of Reichheld (1996) to buttress this point. According to him, for many businesses, the customers most likely to sign on after switching from another provider were precisely the worst customers you could possibly find. As a result of this banks are looking for innovative ways of retaining their customers even if it causes some losses in the short and medium term. Retaining customers is the primary goal of relationship marketing. Relationship marketing attempts to draw the customer and the client into a recursive learning relationship where they both become increasingly acquainted and satisfied with each other. Customer satisfaction is the key. Another quote from Deutsche Bank Research (2005, 2) is instructive here “Customer satisfaction is the prerequisite for customer retention. More than two-thirds of the customers who are “delighted” with their bank say they will not switch to another provider. Quite the contrary: they consider buying other products from the same provider, and will even recommend them to others.
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By contrast, almost three-quarters of dissatisfied customers say they will switch their financial institution.” A key tool of relationship marketing is personalization, and banks have increasingly turned to this strategy as a means to improve their customer relations. Personalization in itself can be quite a complex process. It involves powerful new technologies and sophisticated systems. The potential of these systems is enormous. Acquiring data on behaviours and preferences allows businesses to enhance customer relationships, distribute knowledge and expertise around, Kasanoff (2001).
1.2. Challenges of Personalization
There are many challenges involved in implementing personalization. There are certain issues which need to be taking into consideration and resolved before personalization is implemented. In this regard Friedlein (2001) has proposed that the five following issues need to be addressed. (1) Legal issues such as resolving regulatory, security and privacy issues as well as maintaining data protection across multiple jurisdictions. (2) Technical issues; Developing and implementing integrated real-time personalisation systems as well as keeping an accurate up to date database. (3)Personnel issues; you need skilled people who have experience in those specific areas. (4) Channel issues: creating a single customer view on an enterprise-wide basis, by integrating channels. (5) Customer issues: few site users leap into personalization at once, they are usually cautious, trying to making up their minds as to whether they can trust the provider or not. They also need to be comfortable with the site, It also takes time to configure personalisation features and time is precious, so response is by no means swift or guaranteed. Many users can quite happily do without personalisation. Mistakes can also be made, with preferences being incorrectly inferred by the personalization engine etc. As has been highlighted above there are various challenges which organizations face when implementing Personalization. Each issue needs to be addressed thoroughly and in an integrated manner. We believe however that ‘Customer issues’ form the core with all the other components being built on it.
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1.3. Research focus
Our focus in this research is on this last aspect ‘Customer issues’. This we believe is the foundation of any personalization effort. Personalization is all about the customer and is demand driven, in other words it is developed around the wishes and desires of the customer. This study was done in collaboration with the ABNAMRO based in the Netherlands and was an investigation into which factors determine user acceptance of Personalization in online banking. In this investigation we sought to find out three things; (1) To determine the underlying factors influencing the acceptance of personalization in online banking, (2) The degree to which they affect acceptance and (3) To ascertain which factors had an immediate (or direct) effect on it. We approached this task using two theoretical frameworks, namely the Commitment-Trust theory, and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. They both served as a basis of our modelling and analysis. This report is divided into six chapters. In chapter 1, we give a brief introduction into the current situation and the problems created by this situation. In chapter 2 we go through the constructs under study; personalization and online banking and then we look into the Commitment-Trust theory and The Theory of Planned Behaviour which are the theoretical frameworks being used in the study. We end the chapter with the hypotheses we intend to test. In chapter 3 we look at the methods used and why they were adopted in this research. In chapter 4 we highlight the results from the analysis of the data. This is done in two parts, the first deals with the descriptive details while the second part deals with the modelling. In chapter 5 we discuss our results and conclusions as well as highlight the extent to which the research questions were answered. We also point out areas for further research and the limitations of the study. Lastly in chapter 6 we give some recommendations to our host bank the ABNAMRO.
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2. Literature review/Theoretical framework
2.1. Personalization
Personalization is a concept that has become prominent in recent years as a result of the increasing importance organizations have placed on their relationship with their clients. Organizations have come to realize that traditional approaches to organisation/customer relationships are no longer sufficient to convey any unique advantage to the organization in relation to its clients, or offer any differentiating benefit to the customer. Personalization has thus been coined as a general term to describe the process of adapting the relationship or interaction between the customer and the organization to a more personal level. Personalization as a concept has been defined in various ways depending on the application and the environment/platform within which it is being realized. For us to properly appreciate the concept of personalization as it is currently applied we need to look at its antecedents in relationship marketing.
2.1.1. Background Personalization has its root in relationship marketing. While personalization as a practice has been adopted in areas outside marketing, marketing has been the main driver for its development and where it has founds its highest expression. Relationship marketing is a long term, mutually beneficial relationship in which both buyer and seller focus on value enhancement through the creation of more satisfying exchanges (Sheth, Eshghi and Krishnan, 2001). In its most basic form it can be observed when we walk into a restaurant and are acknowledged by name and led to a favourite position. At a higher level this was expressed in the relationship between banks and their preferred customers, where account managers were assigned to cater for the needs of specific clients. The focus in all these instances is to enable the client and organisation to know each other better and use the information gained to define and anticipate their needs respectively and further improve the relationship. Until recent times this has only been possible on a small scale and with very high value clients. However with the advent of the new media, such as the Internet it has become 11
possible to adopt relationship marketing principles and apply them in a very practical way on a large scale. 2.1.2. Personalization defined In a general sense personalization is “a process of gathering user-information during interaction with the user, which is then used to deliver appropriate content and services, tailor-made to the user’s needs.” (Bonett, 2001). We see here four key elements of any personalization effort, interaction, information gathering, information processing and specifically tailored output. All this happens in a recursive process which may be organizational or user defined. We can see a further elaboration of this in the definition given by Jupiter Communications. According to Foster for Jupiter Communications, “personalization can be defined as predictive analysis of consumer data used to adapt targeted media, advertising and merchandising to consumer needs.” (Foster, 2000) A careful review on the literature on personalization will show that most of the definitions proffered by theorists are in relation to the new media. Personalization as we currently know it has only become possible because of the new media, and is consequently defined in this context. One problem we face in doing this is that in trying to define the concept many of the theorists give a technical and descriptive view of the process and in many cases do not distinguish between personalization as a concept and as a technique. Those who have been able to take the concept out of a strict technical view point unfortunately have taken quite divergent positions making it difficult to reconcile all such views. A few definitions are instructive here; “Personalization is a toolbox of technologies and application features used in the design of an end-user experience. Features classified as ‘personalization’ are wide-ranging, from simple display of the end-user’s name on a web page, to complex catalogue navigation and product customization based on deep model of user’s needs and behaviours. ” (Kramer, Noronha & Vergo, 2001, 44) “Personalization includes customization, where users build their own user interface by selecting from channels of information, 1-to-1 marketing and other processes where customers “automatically”, receive different levels of treatment based on past behavior [and] Collaborative filtering, where group behavior and preferences are leveraged to provide recommendations for individuals.” (Instone, 2000, 2) “…an approach of using artificial intelligence to observe and analyze users’ demographic and behavioral data in order to make recommendations.” (Kambil & Nunes, 2001, 110)
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A careful purview of the above definitions will affirm a strictly technical orientation to the concept. Huang and Lin (2005, 27), have criticized this approach, stating “personalization should not be confined within the IT department, because design for the overall personalization experience of customers is often more difficult and at the same time more important than personalization technologies.” Theorist who define personalization beyond strictly technical terms in most cases view it as a strategy but then take divergent views as to what this really means as highlighted in the following examples. “…personalization is a strategy, a marketing tool, and an art. Personalization requires implicitly or explicitly collecting visitor information and leveraging that knowledge in your content delivery framework to manipulate what information you present to your users and how you present it.” Ricci (2004) DataMonitor have presented personalization as a business strategy, according to them “Personalization is first and foremost a business strategy, and is an attempt to counter-balance the anonymity that typically characterizes interactions between consumers and large businesses, especially over the Internet” (Broadvision, 2004). Berg, Janowski, and Sarner, (2001) also view personalization as a strategy developed to address tailoring customer interactions across all customer-facing departments such as sales, marketing, and customer service. A review of all these definitions show us that personalization is a strategy facilitated by new media technology which enables the interaction between the organization and the customers causing them to receive increasing amounts of information about each other which in turn enables better interaction and relationships. 2.1.3. Types of personalization. Personalization can be subcategorized into two broad categories; user-adaptive and user-adaptable personalization (Teltzrow and Kobsa, 2004, Treiblmaier, 2004). Some theorists (Nielsen, 1998, Kambil and Nunes, 2001, Bonett, 2001, Huang and Lin, 2005) use the terminology personalization for adaptive personalization and customization for adaptable personalization. The difference between adaptive and adaptable systems is the extent to which the user can influence the ‘individualization’ process. Adaptable systems require conscious input on the part of the user, whereas in adaptive systems the process works automatically (Treiblmaier, 2004). There are various personalization techniques available and we will be highlighting some of the most common and relevant ones in this paper.
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2.1.4. Personalization technique.
Cookies: These are small data files that are stored on the local host machine. They are created when the user first interacts with a website. As the user provides information such as a name, address or other form of identification, the server running the website stores this information on the user’s machine. In follow-up visits to the website, the server can then identify needed information about the user without requiring the user to retype it. Cookies are usually small, containing no more than simple user identification, for example a name associated with a computer id. The rest of the user information is usually obtained from the web server’s database. A lot of websites use cookies as a basic technology for personalization. Users see this in the form of a welcoming address that uses their name, e.g., “Good morning Victor, Welcome Back!” (Wu, Im, Tremaine, Instone, Turoff, 2002) Profile-based personalization: To be able to purchase or receive advanced services from many websites, users are required to register and enter personal information such as gender, age, interests, etc (creating a user profile). The websites store this information in a database on the web server. This information is used primarily to support the user with “type once” operations such as maintaining the user’s shipping address. Websites also use user profiles for personalized services. The user’s postal code provides economic information so that the website can reorganize product access according to a customer’s economic profile. For example, a featured wine sale might not be advertised to users residing in an area known to have a depressed economy (Wu et al, 2002). This method falls within the user-adaptable category. A lot of sites use this technique, giving the user the choice to specify their preferences to the organization. It requires a lot of user input, but is highly rewarding if well done. Most email providers require this from their users. Personal tools: Some websites allow users to create shortcuts (links) to the information that interests them most. A lot of news and information sites allow you to configure the kind of news and information you receive and also enable you to create short cuts to take to such pages, www.google.com is a good example. In portal sites such as Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com) and MSN (http://www.msn.com), users can create a page containing personally chosen
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links. Personal tools differ from profile-based personalization because it is the user, not the software that creates the personalization. (Wu et al, 2002) Rules based: This is probably the easiest technique to understand and implement. Designers must know ahead of time what the condition is, what to do about it, and it is often similar to an if/then type format. For instance, Business A knows that they have printer paper overstocked, so they decide they need to get rid of it somehow. So, if a customer adds a printer to their "shopping cart," they are then prompted with a request whether they want to buy some printer paper. The business could also incorporate sales or discounts in this approach - if a customer buys a printer, we'll sell them paper at half price. (Payne, 2000) Recommender systems: Collaborative and content filtering are two of the most common methods used in this category. Collaborative filtering compares a user’s tastes with those of other users in order to build up a picture of like-minded people. The choice of content is then based on the assumption that this particular user will value that which the like-minded people also enjoyed. The preferences of the community of like-minded people are used to predict appropriate content. The user’s tastes are either inferred from their previous actions (for example buying a book, or viewing a product is assumed to show an interest (or taste) for that product) or else measured directly by asking the user to rate products. This method has an advantage of speed and efficiency in computation, thus delivering rapid feedback. The reliance on a ‘critical mass’ of users can be a problem for collaborative filtering; a small sample population may lead to lower-quality recommendations. The quality of recommendations increases with the size of the user population. Another potential limitation is the inability to make a recommendation for an unusual user if a match with a like-minded set cannot be found. Collaborative filtering may be less important as a technique when categories of users and preferences are already well-known and well-defined. (Bonett, 2001) Content filtering generates recommendations similar to collaborative filtering, but instead of matching a user to other users, the user’s preference profile is matched to information known about each of the products on the website. The closest matches are then recommended to the user (Wu et al, 2002). Clickstream analysis: This is the technique of collecting data about user movements on a website. It can be used to record a track of the links visited, including where a user came from, their route through the website and their destination on exiting the site. Link analysis can include observations of the links clicked and their associated position on the screen, time spent within a page and making connections between links visited and consequences (e.g. purchase
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made). This method of learning about users from their behaviour imposes the least extra work on the user. However it is also the most subtle since it happens transparently. The information gathered can be intensively processed, giving insight into the make up of visitors using the site. It can be used for characterising users and segmenting customers.
2.1.5. Personalization framework Personalization as a concept is a very broad one, its meaning in practice differs from one context to another. In order to reconcile these differences and create a coherent basis for the identification, analysis and more importantly implementation of personalization techniques within specific contexts a framework is very relevant. Wu et al (2003) have developed a useful tool in this regard. They have developed a conceptual framework based on “(1) how much active vs. passive input has to be provided by the user and (2) what types of personalized changes are experienced by the user.” They use this approach for categorizing personalization interventions, because according to them “it represents the interaction of the user with the [interface] website which we believe to be the primary concern of [the providers] website owners.” (See diagram below).
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Figure 1: Conceptual framework of personalization (Wu et al, 2002)
Implicit (Adaptive)
Who Personalizes Explicit (Adaptable)
Interface configured by computer Examples: Cookies that provide a personal welcome with user’s name; Opportunistic links that generate additional advertisements for a travel destination Interface configured by users Examples: Profile-based personalization that removes graphics from displays to save user download time, personal tools such as a personal calendar
Content configured by computer Example: Collaborative filtering recommendations for book purchases based on prior buyers’ purchases
User-configured content customization Example: Content filtering recommendations for a video based on a user-provided profile
Interface
Content
What is Personalized
This model helps capture in a concise way the interaction of the user with the interface (or website as is the case in this model). This is useful in characterizing the different kinds of personalization, where the input is coming from and what areas it influences. It is a 2 by 2 categorization of ‘who or what ‘does the personalization. If the user actively and knowingly does the personalization, then the personalization is explicit. If, on the other hand, the personalization is
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achieved by the website collecting information on the user’s activity at the website, e.g. product purchases, time spent at various pages displayed, etc etc., without the user being fully aware of the underlying activity then the personalization is implicit. The second two categories deal with what is personalized. If the organization of information on the web page and the appearance of this information are adapted to user needs, the interface is personalized. If, on the other hand, the information or links to information are modified to match a user’s perceived needs, the content is personalized (Wu et al, 2002). The main advantage of this model is that it enables the easy classification and analysis of the different types of personalization interventions and techniques. This is useful when an overview is required for decision making purposes with regards to which personalization strategy and technique is most appropriate in a particular situation. It is also useful as a tool for analysing personalization interventions. However a problem with this framework is that it only shows the possibilities for personalization, it does not show the relevance and gives no indication as to the sensitivity of adopting different techniques within the different contexts. For instance the framework shows that collaborative filtering can be used to adapt content to user needs, it doesn’t say whether it is an effective or acceptable way of achieving this goal.
2.2. Online Banking
Online banking is a relatively new phenomenon; it has gained prominence in recent years as a result of the rapid and massive adoption of new media technologies, particularly the Internet. Online banking can be defined as “A system allowing individuals to perform banking activities at home, via the Internet” (Investor words, 2005), as “Services that provide banking transactions electronically” (Bitpipe, 2005). Online banking was first adopted on October 6, 1995 in the United States of America, when the Presidential Savings Bank offered its customers an online alternative to traditional banking, (Presidential Savings Bank, 2005). Online banking usage has grown very rapidly, according to current estimates by Pew research; more than 50 million adults in the United States do their banking online. (Sullivan, 2005) Rapid adoption of online banking has been as a result of certain unique benefits which it confers. (1) It is convenient, as it enables year round 24hour access.
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(2) It is ubiquitous as you can access your account anywhere there is an Internet connection. (3) It is fast; as transactions can be completed and confirmed within seconds, (4) It is efficient; as you can manage all your accounts and transactions from one site, (5) It is effective; as many banking sites can offer sophisticated tools, information and integration with local software packages.
Online banking however has few drawbacks which are gradually being addressed such as complicated and time consuming setup procedure, users may be forced into a steep learning curve to enable them navigate the site effectively. Users also need to have basic computer skills and Internet knowledge as well as be connected to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Trust is also reason why some individuals have refused to set up online accounts. Trust here is at three levels: Firstly trust in the provider, trust in the ability of the technology platform to deliver without errors or failure, and trust in one’s capacity to operate the system properly. Putting one’s confidence in software and a faceless network of computers takes a while to develop, (Bruce, 2003). In spite of these challenges Internet banking has been a huge success, it has even been described as “one of the most important changes within the retail financial industry in the last hundred years…” (Hiltunen, Heng, Helgesen, 2004, 119) Most of the major banks in the world, particularly those in the developed nations offer Internet banking services. For instance all banks operating in the Netherlands offer Internet banking services. The Internet has thus become the frontline in the battle to acquire new as well as retain the old customers. The consequence of this is that opening and closing an account is just a click away. Attracting customers and maintaining traditional loyalties which were cultivated and maintained by personal contact with specialized staff, strategically located offices and awe/confidence inspiring structures are becoming increasingly irrelevant. The challenge facing most banks is how to create in the online environment a differentiating experience that would give them a competitive advantage. Personalization is one of the major strategies being used to enhance the online interaction between the customers and the banks.
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2.3. Personalization in online banking
The banking industry has been in the forefront of the e-commerce revolution. The adoption of the Internet channel in banking has been very rapid, however the very advantages that make it such an attractive channel to use, makes it difficult to differentiate and gain competitive advantage. The webpage being the main access point makes it difficult to offer services that competitors cannot duplicate quickly and cheaply. It is this situation and the need for firms to differentiate their services from that of their competitors that have brought the adoption of personalization to the forefront. A leading ecommerce research firm Jupiter Communications has stated that it is those financial services that invest heavily in personalization that will succeed in the online environment, (Inos, 2001). Another such firm The Tower Group opined that a banks ability to react, change and embrace new novel situations will separate the winners from losers, (Eckenrode, 2006, 8). Personalization is one of the strategies being adopted by banks to enable them create competitive advantage in the online channel. (Hiltunen et al, 1994, 126) have argued that personalization in online banking is a “win-win” situation, because the key ingredients necessary to make it work are present in the bank – customer relationship, namely frequent usage and personal customer information. They go further to highlight several benefits derivable both by the bank and the customers. According to them the bank would benefit by gaining more loyal customers, selling more, create a competitive edge and increase the trust from its customers. The users will benefit by saving time, enjoying added value services, financial and other benefits, increased trust, improved user experience and reduced cognitive workload. Inspite of these advantages implementing personalization is quite a daunting task. Personalization is not an exact science and the room for error is almost non existent in banking, therefore banks have to ‘get it right’ the first time. They need to understand thoroughly the underlying issues, as well as the implementation issues involved with regards to personalizing for their customers as any error may be severely punished. According to a survey by the Ponemon Institute, (Ponemon, 2005), “one privacy breach would cause 57% of customers with a high level of trust in their banks to take their business to a competitor.” The essence of this research is to look into the underlying and immediate influences on acceptance of personalization in online banking with a view to understanding them and proffering solutions to avoid the pitfalls.
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2.4. Commitment-Trust Theory
Personalization as a competitive strategy in a business to consumer (B2C) environment is all about building relationships. Personalization is one of the strategies at the heart of relationship marketing. Consequently for us to understanding Personalization and the underlying constructs influencing it we need to look to relationship marketing theory. Relationship marketing has been variously regarded as a paradigm shift (Kotler, 1991, Parvatiyar, Sheth, and Whittington, 1992) because it proposed that marketing relations will change from being predatory and competitive to collaborative and relational (Bleek and Ernst, 1993, 1). The Commitment-Trust theory was developed by Morgan and Hunt (1994, 20) to explain this shift; they theorize that successful relationship marketing requires relationship commitment and trust. They then model relationship commitment and trust as key mediating variables. According to them understanding relationship marketing “requires distinguishing between the discrete transaction, which has a ‘distinct beginning, short duration, and sharp ending by performance,’ and relational exchange, which ‘traces to previous agreements [and]…is longer in duration, reflecting an ongoing process’ (Dwyer, Schurr and Oh, 1987 cited in Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 21). Also according to Morgan and Hunt (1994, 21) relationship marketing is “…all marketing activities directed toward establishing, developing, and maintaining successful relational exchanges.” This definition clearly shows that the emphasis is on the process, the relationship how it is developed and maintained. This is essentially what personalization is all about and this is where building blocks or the underlying factors behind personalization can be seen. The kernel of their theory is that commitment and trust are fundamental to successful relationship marketing and not power. According to them commitment and trust are ‘key’ because “they encourage marketers to; (1) work at preserving relationship investments by cooperating with exchange partners, (2) resist attractive short-term benefits of staying with existing partners, and (3) view potentially high-risk actions as being prudent because of the belief that their partners will not act opportunistically…” Morgan and Hunt (1994, 21) Their model shows the relationship between 12 variables, 5 antecedents and 5 outcomes, with relationship commitment and trust in-between as ‘key mediating variables’. See model below.
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Figure 2: The Commitment-Trust Theory (Key Mediating Variable) model of relationship marketing (Morgan & Hunt, 1994, 22)
The Commitment-Trust Theory was developed within the context of a ‘Brick and mortar’ world to show the underlying constructs in relationship marketing and their interaction. It also showed how these interactions influenced outcomes positively or negatively. Personalization in its current form has been driven by new media technologies and is primarily a creation of a different era; however the underlying, goals, intentions and constructs are the same. Personalization is essentially part of a relationship marketing strategy. The Commitment-Trust Theory thus offers us a good platform to analyze current personalization efforts with regards to understanding the underlying constructs behind it and provide some predictive value as to the efficacy or otherwise of a particular intervention. As was stated earlier the model is built on the relationship between 12 constructs and we want to briefly highlight them here.
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2.4.1. Relationship commitment Relationship commitment is one of the key mediating variables in this theory. Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23) define “relationship commitment as an exchange partner believing that an ongoing relationship with another is so important as to warrant maximum efforts at maintaining it; that is, the committed party believes the relationship is worth working on to ensure that it endures indefinitely.” Relationship commitment according to them is central to relationship marketing. This is an interesting concept in commercial relationships because it implies an intention to work on the relationship to make it successful even when it goes against strict rational economic principles. This concept is founded in social exchange theory, and is the basis of interpersonal relationships such as marriage. (Thompson and Spanier, 1983) It is gradually being introduced into economic and interorganizational theory. While theorists such as Cook and Emerson (1978, 728) and McDonald (1981, 836) view commitment as the central distinguishing feature between economic and social exchange, Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23) on the contrary believe that it is central to relationship marketing, which brings it under economic theory. Berry and Parasuraman (1991, 139) have also argued along the lines of Morgan and Hunt, they say “Relationships are built on the foundation of mutual commitment” Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23) have further stated that “As brand attitude becomes central to the repurchase decision in relational exchange, brand loyalty becomes increasingly similar to our conceptualization of commitment.” Personalization is at the centre of relational exchange, it facilitates and is facilitated by relational exchanges in a continuously recursive cycle. According to Kwon and Suh (2004, 6) “…commitment is central to all of the relational exchanges between the firm and its various partners.” Commitment is thus a key element in the success of any personalization effort.
2.4.2. Trust Trust is a very widely researched construct and is a central concept in exchange relationships. Reviewing the literature on trust however show that conceptualizing it can be a daunting task (McKnight, Cummings & Chervany, 1996). There is a “confusing potpourri” (Shapiro, 1987a, 625) of definitions in literature and this has made it difficult to give a concise meaning to it. Researchers such as Smith (1990) have described it as a ‘homonymy’ meaning that it is actually a label for different concepts. Trust has been defined as an attitude (Kegan & Rubenstein, 1973); confidence (Cohen, 1966); a behaviour, (Zand, 1972);
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a belief or set of beliefs (Barber, 1983; Bromiley and Cummings, 1995; Rotter, 1967); an expectancy (Rotter, 1980). The reason for this is that trust is a ‘key enabler’ in all relationships and is multifaceted and can be applied at different levels (McKnight, Cummings & Chervany, 1996). For this research we have adopted the conceptualization given by Morgan and Hunt (1994, 23). They state that trust exists when “…one party has confidence in an exchange partner’s reliability and integrity.” They rely on Rotter’s (1967, 651) classical view which states that trust is “a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word of another…can be relied on.” Certain key qualities can be distilled from these conceptualizations such as confidence, reliability, integrity, consistency, competency, honesty, fairness, responsibility, helpfulness and benevolence, (Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 23). These are attributes which are essential for the development of any successful exchange relationship. Trust is not static, it is formed over time and may be strengthened or weakened depending on the actions or inactions of exchange partners. In this research we approach trust from a holistic point of view rather than a ‘narrow’ web-centred point of view. This is firstly because we want to capture the underlying effect of trust in its entirety as it influences personalization. While we recognize that there are a myriad of factors influencing trust in this medium, we also recognize that banking has certain peculiar characteristics which may not hold for other online industries. Banking is based primarily on trust and integrity, which has to be real and not just perceived, because the customer and regulatory authorities demand it. There are other issues such as website design, level of feedback, consistency, level of down-time etc. These things influence to some degree the level of confidence and integrity we have toward the service and ultimately towards the provider. However our focus here is directed to Trust in relation to the organization and not as it relates to the communication medium. Trust however is still a major issue and as has been cited earlier, one survey by the Ponemon Institute, has concluded that a single privacy breach could cause more than half of the customers with a high level of trust in their bank to move to another provider (Ponemon, 2005). However we are of the view that the trust we have in the provider is the dominant factor and thus conceptualize and measure trust in this way, rather than as a measure of our experience with the site. 2.4.3. Relationship terminations cost Termination costs are all expected losses from termination and result from the perceived lack of comparable potential alternative partners, relationship
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dissolution expenses, and/or substantial switching costs. The argument here is that in any marketing relationship changing partners has a certain cost, which creates a level of dependency between the two parties. The strength of this dependency will depend on the difficulty or otherwise (cost) of getting another partner of comparable value to the first. According to Morgan and Hunt(1994, 24) “Termination costs are, therefore, all expected losses from the termination and result from the perceived lack of comparable potential alternative partners, relationship dissolution expenses, and/or substantial switching costs.” The switching cost in the online banking industry have been gradually eroded, particularly as most banks have moved most of their retail banking operations to the online environment. Personalization is actually intended to increase the switching cost in this environment, however due to the fact that it is at an early stage of deployment it may not pose much of a deterrent to switching. We are of the opinion that this construct will not have a significant influence on acceptance of personalization in online banking. 2.4.4. Relationship benefits Relationship benefits are the benefits derivable by each party as a result of their interaction with each other. Sweeney and Web (2002, 2), have identified benefit from the buyer [customer] side and well as benefits on the supplier [providers] side, they say “from the buyer’s viewpoint, improved overall quality, an expanded product mix, increased customer satisfaction, reduced costs and prices, protection of the investment and from the supplier’s viewpoint contract predictability, price and production stability, increased R & D effectiveness, lowering of transaction costs that would be spent on safeguarding competition, customer feedback,…” Partners that deliver superior benefits will be highly valued; firms [individuals] will commit themselves to establishing, developing, and maintaining relationships with such partners. Online banking has conferred huge added benefits to the customers, however all differentiating benefits are gradually being eroded as most banks offer almost identical services. We can discount the goodwill and familiarity customers have towards their banks and we posit that it will have a significant influence on their acceptance of any personalization effort. 2.4.5. Shared values Shared values “…is the extent to which partners have beliefs in common about what behaviours, goals and policies are important or unimportant, appropriate or inappropriate, and right or wrong. When exchange partners share values, they indeed
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will be more committed to their relationships…” (Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 25). Shared values have been described as being important to any relationship building strategy as it helps foster trust between two parties (Halliday and Christy, 2003). 2.4.6. Communication Communication can be defined broadly as “the formal as well as informal sharing of meaningful and timely information between firms [individuals and firms]” (Anderson and Narus, 1990, 44). Communications is a major precursor to trust, especially when it is timely. It helps in resolving disputes, aligning perceptions and expectations (Etgar, 1979, 77). Communication that is timely, relevant and reliable will build trust in the relationship. (Morgan and Hunt, 1994) 2.4.7. Opportunistic Behaviour Opportunistic behaviour implies that one partner in a relationship acts in their own interest to the detriment of the interest of their partner. Williamson (1975, 6) has defined this concept as “self-interest seeking with guile”. In any relationship there is some level of interdependence and with this comes the possibility of acting in a cooperative or opportunistic manner. According to Steinmueller (2004, 2) this is one of the underlying factors determining trust. According to him the expected behaviour of the parties in such relationships will determine the level of trust. Morgan and Hunt (1994, 25) have also found that the perception of a party that their partners are acting opportunistically will lead to decreased trust. 2.4.8. Acquiescence Acquiescence is “…the degree to which a partner accepts or adheres to another’s specific requests or policies…”(Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 25). According to them relationship commitment positively influences acquiescence, while trust influences it indirectly through its influence on commitment. 2.4.9. Propensity to leave Propensity to leave connotes the willingness/unwillingness of a partner leaving a particular relationship. Propensity to leave is the perceived probability that a partner will end the relationship in the (reasonably) near future (Bluedorn, 1982). According to Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26) there is a strong negative relationship
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between relationship commitment and propensity to leave. In other words the higher the relationship commitment the less relationship partners are likely to leave each other, and vice versa. 2.5.0. Cooperation Cooperation can be said to take place when two or more parties work together to achieve mutual goals, (Anderson and Narus, 1990). According to Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26) cooperation implies coordination. Coordination according to them is a function of commitment and trust rather than the interplay of ‘power and conflict’ relationships. They question the role of power as the underlining principle behind coordination, they say “Why the focus on power? Because, as the epigraph quote from Alderson reminds us, marketers have long noted the absence of a theory that explains cooperation. The commitment-trust theory contributes to that long sought goal.”(Morgan and Hunt, 1994, 26). While commitment and trust may play a role in determining cooperation we should not be quick to discount the value of power and conflict in shaping cooperative relationships. 2.5.1. Functional conflict Functional conflict has been defined as “a constructive challenging of ideas, beliefs, and assumptions, respect for other’s view point even when parties disagree, and consultative interactions involving useful give and take.” (Massey and Dawes, 2004, 6). Differences of opinions, beliefs and intentions will give rise to disagreements among parties in relationships, this is a natural process. The challenge for the parties is how to resolve these differences. When it is done amicably, such disputes can be referred to as ‘functional conflicts’ “because they prevent stagnation, stimulate interest and curiosity…” Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26). 2.5.2. Decision-making uncertainty Uncertainty has to do with the degree of confidence that one can judge a situation and act accordingly. Morgan and Hunt (1994, 26) referencing Achrol and Stern (1988) have stated that uncertainty in decision making refers to the degree to which a partner (1) has sufficient information to make crucial decisions, (2) can predict the outcomes of those decisions, and (3) has confidence in those decisions. They have also stated that as trust between parties in an exchange relationship increases, it will cause decision-making uncertainty to decrease, as the trusting party would have the confidence in the trustworthiness of the partner.
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In the above section we have introduced the Commitment-Trust theory and highlighted the various constructs used in this model. In the next section we look into the second theoretical framework used in this study, The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and its attendant constructs.
2.5. Theory of Planned Behaviour
The theory of Planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Mathieson, 1991) is an extension of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) developed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). Both theories were developed to predict and understand motivational influences on behaviour, identify how and where to target strategies for changing behaviour and to explain such behaviours (Brown, 1999). According to the theories the most important determinant of human behaviour is behavioural intention. The individual’s intention to perform certain behaviour is a combination of the person’s attitude towards performing that behaviour and the subjective norm. The extension included in TPB adds perceived behavioural control to the predictors of intention. This is because it is recognized that not all behaviours are in the volitional control of the individual. Figure 3: Theory of Planned behaviour model (Azjen, 1991)
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The TPB has been used in many studies in information systems literature (Mathieson, 1991; Taylor and Todd, 1995a, b; Harrison et al., 1997). Predicting behavioural intention and actual behaviour is extremely useful in the online environment. This medium has the peculiar characteristics of speed, ubiquity and wide reach; this holds huge advantages for businesses as they can now reach large user groups, in a timely manner. However the disadvantage of this is that errors and miss-steps are glaring and may propagate very fast over large audiences. This leaves very little margin for error for any prospective online business venture. Being able to predict user behaviour and its antecedents in relation to an online venture are of crucial importance. Personalization in online banking is no exception to this; it even takes on a more sensitive nature as a result of the underlying intention of facilitating relationships. According to a study in adoption of online banking by Shih and Fang (2004, 220221) attitude and perceived behavioural control could be used to explain behaviour. They found that subjective norm did not have any predictive value. Another study by Tan and Teo (2000, 31), found that attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control had an influence. Like Shih et al (2004, 220221) they found that only attitude and perceived behavioural control had a significant effect. While these studies where focused on online banking, the current study is in personalization within online banking. The emphasis is thus on current customers and not so much on new ones. We believe that attitudes formed during interaction with the banking website would form the basis of the user’s attitude towards the personalization of the site. The normative beliefs of user within the online banking environment would not differ much with regards to personalization within the same environment. We believe the subjective norm will not have a significant effect on behavioural intention, and that the outcomes here will mirror that of Tan and Teo (2000, 31) and Shih et al (2004), where no significant effect was found. We believe the effect of perceived behavioural control will be significant. Ajzen (1991) compares this construct to Bandura’s (1997) concept of self efficacy, or the belief in ones competence to perform an action. This we believe will be significant in predicting behavioural intention towards personalization in an online environment.
2.6. Control (data)
Control over personal data is a major factor which we believe would influence the acceptance of personalization in online banking and we have consequently included it in our model. In most of the research literature this construct is 29
formulated as privacy, however we feel more inclined to view this issue as one of control over personal data than that of privacy. A review of the definitions of, and thinking behind privacy shows that control is the central issue. Olivero and Lunt (2002, 244) quoting Westin (1967) have defined privacy as “the claim of individuals to determine for themselves, when, how and to what extent information about them is communicated to others…” Kobsa and Teltzrow (2004, 1) have stated in relation to privacy that “…in the relationship between companies and Internet users. … knowing how their data will be used would be an important factor in their decision on whether or not to disclose personal data.” Ackerman, Darrell and Weitzner (2000) puts it in a very succinct fashion when they say “privacy is intrinsically bound up with control – who control what information and well as applications and systems that construct and disseminate that information.” From these definitions and statements we can infer that in the online environment what we regard as privacy is actually an issue of control.
2.7. Control (Self-efficacy)
Control (self-efficacy) (CTR_SE) is the same as Perceived Behavioural control as defined by Ajzen (1985). Ajzen defined Perceived behavioural control as “people's perceptions of their ability to perform a given behaviour.” This is a concept that is derived from Social cognitive theory. According to Bandura (1986, 391) self-efficacy beliefs are “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances’’. Self-efficacy is a strong motivating factor and has been proposed as one of essential factor determining behaviour. According to Pajares (2002) ‘’Self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment. This is because unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcomes they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties.’’ We believe Control (self-efficacy) because of its ability to determine and shape behaviour will be a key factor in determining acceptance of personalization in online banking.
2.8. Problem and Hypothesis
Personalization is not an end in itself but a strategy to achieve a qualitative and fulfilling interactive relationship. The essence of having such a relationship is to 30
enable the organization better anticipate and meet the needs of their clients. The online environment makes this a particularly challenging venture, because the human (inter)face has to be replaced by computer with its logic which is still very rudimentary and basic in terms of its ability to analyse human interaction. While the criterion for building relationships transcends all contexts the icons and interactive elements applicable in the online environment differs to some degree from that in the traditional ‘bricks and mortar’ realm. While a lot of research has focused on personalization, very few have focused on its application to online banking. The banking industry has been in the forefront in the migration of services to the Internet. The advantages for banking online as stated above are very obvious; however there is a gradual trend towards the commoditization of this service. This has led banks to push the curve further with regards to their services and how they are rendered. Personalization is crucial to this process, and understandings of which underlying and immediate factors influencing its acceptance are invaluable in this regard. 2.8.1. Research questions: To enable us properly explore the research area we have proposed the following research questions. • What are the underlying factors that influence the acceptance of personalization in online banking? To what degree do they influence the acceptance of online banking? What are the immediate causes of acceptance in online banking?
• •
We have approached this research from the point of view that personalization is a strategy to achieve relationship marketing goals. We have therefore adopted the Commitment-Trust theory as a framework to investigate the acceptance of personalization in online banking. We believe that most of the underlying factors influencing personalization and relationship marketing are identical. It is our view that by using this key relationship marketing framework we will be able to successfully model the determining factors influencing the acceptance of personalization in online banking. While we recognize that not all the constructs measured in the original model developed by Morgan and Hunt (1994) may be relevant to the online environment for completeness we test all relationships highlighted in the model.
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We have also adopted the Theory of Planned Behaviour as an alternate theory to predict Acceptance and for comparison. Furthermore we have added the constructs Control (of data) and Control (self-efficacy). We are measuring control as two separate constructs, because while the underlying issue is control the focus in either case is completely different. We propose the following hypothesis highlighted in below; all red lines indicate a hypothesized direct between a variable and Acceptance. All blue broken indirect relationships. Where the expected relationships is inserted. Figure 4: Hypothesized pathways
CTRD
the diagram (figure 1) predictive relationship lines indicate all other are negative the (-) sign
RTC AQ
RB RC
PL
OB
COOP
AC
TR COM FC
UC SV CTR_ SE
KEY Direct determinant pathways Indirect determinant pathways
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The above diagram shows all the predicted significant pathways. We have enlarged placed the variables Acceptance further out then the other for emphasis. In the next chapter we look at the methods adopted in carrying out this research.
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3. Method
We have approached this research from a deductive point of view, testing a number of hypotheses framed on the theoretical background of the Commitment-Trust Theory and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The research design was crafted in a way as to enable us accomplish the goals of this research as practically as possible within the limitation imposed by the context of the research. This area of research is a highly sensitive and newly evolving one. This posed a lot of challenges, particularly in the area of access. We adopted a multimethod approach in this research so as to enable triangulation as we recognize that each strategy has its unique weaknesses and strengths, (Smith, 1975). For this study we thus combine the Survey, Case study and Explanatory methods, (Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill, 1996, 92-99) The Survey method was adopted because of the ability it gave us to “gather large amounts of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way” (Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill, 1996, 93, 94). This is the best means of collecting standardized data in a large scale way. It was useful in measuring the constructs under study in this research across a reasonably representative sample. The Case study approach was adopted because it enabled us get some depth in relation to specific personalization issues in a particular bank. This we believe will lead to more concrete results which can also be generalized to other user populations. This research was primarily an explanatory one even though other methods were used. It was thus very important for us to use tools that facilitate the explanatory process. This was very useful as it gave more insight into the concepts and processes under study. Three instruments were used in this regard, namely structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focus group. These three instruments were employed to correspond to the three different methods highlighted above.
3.2. Participants
The first and primary characteristic of the participants in this research was that they were all users of online banking services. They were made up of a mix of men and women within the ages of 18 to 65. The selection of individuals was based on ‘Convenience sampling’ (Schonlau, Fricker, Elliott, 2002), ‘Purposive
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sampling’ and on ‘Self-selection sampling’ (Saunders et al, 1996) depending on the instrument being used. These methods have been indicated as being the most practical for business research, market surveys and case studies, where alternative sampling methods may not be possible. This is particularly relevant where the research is exploratory in nature (Saunders et al, 1996). For the structured questionnaires the ‘self-selection sampling’ method was adopted. Individuals who fitted the reference frame of having online banking accounts were solicited through various means such as adverts, direct and indirect requests. They were then directed to a particular web address where the questionnaire could be found. The respondents were made up of students, workers, self-employed individuals and the unemployed. The participants for the semi-structured interviews were selected using purposive sampling as they were chosen from a pool of respondents corresponding to the various segments within the bank involved in the research. A total of 7 participants were involved in the semi-structured interviews. The participants for the Focus groups were chosen using the ‘convenience sampling’ (Schonlau, et al, 2002) method. Direct solicitations were made to participant who then chose whether to participate or not. One meeting with a group of 5 students of a Dutch university was held.
3.3. Instruments
3.3.1. Structured questionnaire A structured questionnaire was developed to measure all the constructs being under study in this research. A modified version of the Morgan and Hunt (1994) instrument was used to measure, Opportunistic behaviour, Trust, Acquiescence, Propensity to leave, Cooperation, Functional conflict, and Uncertainty. A modified version of Odekerken-Schroder and Bloemer (2000) instrument was used to measure Relationship termination cost. Relationship commitment was measured by an instrument developed by Gurviez and Korchia (2003). Relationship benefits and Communication & Information exchange were measured by a modified version of Lancastre and Lages (2004) instrument. Attitude, Subjective Norm, Usage and Intention to use were measured by a modified version of the instrument developed by Shih and Fang (2004). Control was measured by a modified version of the instrument developed by Dinev and Hart (2003). Lastly Acceptance was measured using an instrument we
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developed ourselves. Most of the questionnaires used had to be modified as they could not be applied to online banking in the original form in which they were developed. All these various modified instruments were combined into one and then built into an online questionnaire which could be accessed by clicking on a specified URL. The questionnaire contained 63 questions, 5 were for demographic data and 58 for measuring the various constructs. All 58 questions were graded on a 7-point Likert scale.
3.3.2. Semi-structured interviews The semi-structured interviews were conducted in a quiet room in an office building in Amsterdam. The researchers as well as the host bank involved drew up a list of questions which we thought were relevant to enable us elicit the responses we desired. The interviews were focused on the respondent’s interaction with the Bank’s website. These questions were primarily aimed at getting the clients to express their understanding and use of the banks website. This was particularly aimed towards getting their responses in relation to the personalization of the site. The main focus here was on five specific personalized aspects of the site namely; the login page, the commercial adverts, email, financial advice and the settings. The first three of the above personalized features have been implemented to some degree; however the last two are in the pipe line and may be implemented in the near future. The essence of the interviews was to get the client’s level of appreciation of the personalization the site currently offers, may be offering in the near future, and most importantly their preferences in relation to this. There were eight general topic areas and 60 sub-areas covered in these interviews. At the end of the interview the participants were thanked and led out of the room. There were seven participants in all that took part in the interviews and they were all drawn from different marketing segments within the Internet banking service. They were selected using the ‘Purposive sampling method’, in other words they were chosen by the bank because they were representative of the different client segment groups. They included students, Young professionals, Regular bankers and Preferred bankers. See appendix 11 for a summary of the outcomes of these interviews.
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3.3.3. Focus group The Focus group meetings were held at the University of Twente campus in the Netherlands. The individuals used were selected using the ‘convenience sampling’ method. In other words they fell within the general reference frame and they were available and willing to take part in the research at that time. The participants were informed some days before about the time and place the meeting would be held. They were also given information about how the interviews would proceed and the number of people participating. They were told that the meeting would be recorded on video and that their consent was required. They were also told that they would be given a gift after the meetings. All the participants of the focus groups were given the structured questionnaire fill in before the meeting.
3.4. Procedure
The questionnaires were self-administered and could be filled over a period of time. Cookies are stored on the respondent computers which enabled to them to stop and start up again from the stoppage point. All the respondents needed to do was to click on the link to the website and fill-in the questionnaires. All questions but one had the options displayed on the page making it very easy to fill-in. The interviews were conducted in a quiet room, with the participants sitting across from the interviewers. The interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes. As the participants came in they were taken directly to the interview room where they were asked to sit. They were then offered a drink after which they were informed about how the interview would progress and that they would be recorded on DVD and were asked to give their consent and sign an undertaking to this effect. The interview then started in earnest with the interviewer asking questions point by point based on the highlighted topic areas. The Focus group meetings were conducted in a quiet reserved room on the university campus. As the participants arrived for the meeting they were welcomed and ushered to their sits. They were then introduced to each other and then instructed on how the meetings would be run. The meeting rooms were equipped with a computer and beamer. With this equipment screen dumps of the personalized features from the bank were shown. The participants were asked to fill a short questionnaire based on each screen shown. Discussions were held after each short questionnaire was filled. This sequence was followed
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throughout the meeting, and after all the items were exhausted the participants were thanked, made to sign a consent form and given their gifts.
3.5. Data analysis
We used different statistical methods to analyse the collected data. In part A of chapter 4 we looked primarily for statistical differences within the gender and age categories in general and also in relation to their scoring on the questionnaire. We used the T-Test to test for mean variances between the males and females, while we used the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to test for mean variances between the three different age groups. In section 4.4 of part A we used Pearson correlation analysis to highlight the linear relationships between the different variables. In section B we used regression analysis to plot the significant determinant pathways between the various variables on the one hand and their relationship with Acceptance (ACC). We also used the SOBEL Test (Sobel, 1982) to highlight the indirect relationships between the variables. The data from the semi-structured interviews and the Focus groups was analysed qualitatively using a partially ordered matrix, (see appendix 11). We use the results from this matrix to support, emphasise and confirm the results received through the questionnaires. Except of from this source can be found interspersed within the following three chapters.
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4. Results
The aim of this research was to find out the factors influencing the acceptance of personalization in online banking. To facilitate this process we narrowed our focus to 3 problem questions namely; (1)what are the underlying factors that influence the acceptance of personalization in online banking?, (2)to what degree do they influence the acceptance of online banking?, and (3) what are the immediate causes of acceptance in online banking?. To carry this out we proposed several hypothesis (see figure 1, chapter 2). The results are highlighted in two broad categories namely, Part A and Part B; the first part (sections 4.1 to 4.4) deals with the descriptive data/output, while the second part (sections 4.5 to 4.7) deals with the output from the Commitment-Trust theory and Theory of Planned behaviour models and a comparison between the output of Morgan and Hunt and ours. In section 4.1 we point out the respondent’s characteristics by showing in detail the relevant structure and traits of the actual sample used. In section 4.2 we explain briefly how we have used the two focal variables Acceptance (ACC) and Intention to use (INTU) and why we have chosen to do so. In section 4.3 we look at the output characteristics of the different variables and the underlying questions used to measure them, while in section 4.4 we look at the relationships between Acceptance and the other variables. In section 4.5 and 4.6 we look at the results from the analysis of the models and it is here that the hypotheses are actually tested and the research questions resolved. Lastly in section 4.7 we compare the output of our modified Morgan and Hunt (1994) model with that of the original model with a view to seeing how well they ‘fit’ in resolving the problem questions within our specific context (Business to Customer (B2C), online environment).
Part A: Descriptive results of the respondents and variables in the research.
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4.1. Characteristics of respondents
For this research we used three categories of respondents, those who filled out the questionnaire, those who took part in a focus group study and those who took part in the in-depth interviews. Out of a total of over 300 solicitations for the questionnaires, 113 responses were received of which 86 were sufficiently completed to be used in this research. The respondents were drawn from a convenience sample of the population of online banking users in the Netherlands. Our sample thus comprises male and female users of different ages and backgrounds currently using online banking facilities in one of the various banks in the Netherlands. The tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 below show some of the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Five of the respondents who filled-out questionnaires (2 females and 3 males), took part in the focus group study. For the in-depth interviews we had 3 male and 4 female participants. The details in the remaining part of this section (4.1.1 to 4.1.4) are related to those respondents who filled out the questionnaires. 4.1.1. Gender of respondents Out of our total of 86 respondents, 49 (57%) were male, 31 (36%) were female and the remaining 6 (7%) did not specify their gender. The preponderance of male respondents raises questions with regards to our ability to generalize our findings across the population as a strong male skew could obscure results that are specific for female respondents. We found a small but significant difference between the distribution of males and females, with a chi-square figure of (x2= 4.05, d.f. = 1, p