Description
The purpose of this paper is to understand the antecedents and consequences of an
international tourist phenomenon known as the culture cushion
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
An examination of culture cushion: antecedents and consequences
Katherine B. Hartman Tracy Meyer Heather Hurley
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Katherine B. Hartman Tracy Meyer Heather Hurley , (2013),"An examination of culture cushion: antecedents and consequences",
International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 4 pp. 340 - 352
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Katherine B. Hartman, Tracy Meyer, Lisa L. Scribner, (2009),"Culture cushion: inherently positive inter-cultural tourist experiences",
International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 3 Iss 3 pp. 259-268http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506180910980555
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An examination of culture cushion:
antecedents and consequences
Katherine B. Hartman, Tracy Meyer and Heather Hurley
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand the antecedents and consequences of an
international tourist phenomenon known as the culture cushion.
Design/methodology/approach – Using surveys, participants considered a speci?c international
consumption experience and responded to culture cushion, situational variables, the perceived
differences in the encounter relative to one in the USA, and behavioral intention items.
Findings – The amount spent was found to be an antecedent to both the excitement and the cultural
knowledge dimensions of culture cushion while language was an antecedent for excitement only.
Excitement had a positive relationship with satisfaction and other behavioral intention measures.
Perceived differences mediated the relationship between knowledge and satisfaction with products,
atmosphere and customer service such that lower perceptions of cultural knowledge caused greater
perceived differences, which resulted in lower satisfaction ratings.
Research limitations/implications – A study of international tourists in the USA should be conducted
to determine if the culture cushion has a similar in?uence.
Practical implications – First, ?rms that cater to international tourists should speak their native
language. Second, the more knowledge a tourist has about the cultural differences in service and retail
encounters the more likely he is to appreciate the differences as being culturally driven and not a
re?ection of poor service.
Originality/value – This research provides unique insights into the international tourist experiences with
clear practical implications.
Keywords Culture, Consumer ritual, Culture cushion, Perception of differences, Tourist
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Tourism has proven over the decades to be one of the most resilient and dynamic economic
sectors of the world, a key driver of socio-economic progress, and a primary factor in
international commerce (UNWTO, n.d.). According to the UNWTO (n.d.), international
tourism grew from 25 million to 940 million from 1950 to 2010, which represents an average
annual increase of 6.2 percent.
One way to enhance the growth rate of international tourism is by understanding the
complexities of the tourist experience. What is it about the international tourist experience
that increases satisfaction and likelihood to travel again? To what extent do cultural
differences in the retail and service experiences matter? It seems important to study the
in?uence of perceived cultural differences in international tourist experiences since these
readily observable differences are inherent in the service delivery (Davies and Fitchett,
2004). For example, it is acceptable in the US for the server to leave the check with
customers after the meal is ?nished and dishes are collected. However, in Italy the servers
wait until the customer asks for the check to bring it to the table. A US tourist may wait a long
time for the check unless he is aware of the cultural difference. As an example of a
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VOL. 7 NO. 4 2013, pp. 340-352, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-12-2011-0002
Katherine B. Hartman,
Tracy Meyer and
Heather Hurley are based in
the Department of
Marketing, University of
North Carolina Wilmington,
Wilmington, North Carolina,
USA.
Received 5 December 2011
Revised 11 June 2012
Accepted 12 June 2012
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culturally-based difference in service delivery, it has the potential to lead a US tourist to be
upset with or excited about the service received.
McCracken (1986) suggests these differences occur because we live in a culturally
constituted world. Everyday experiences are viewed through cultural lenses that determine
how the phenomena will be apprehended and assimilated (McCracken, 1986). Culture also
provides a unique and meaningful blueprint of activity that speci?es the behaviors and objects
of social or public action (McCracken, 1986). An international tourist’s sensitivity to variations in
culturally bound scripts is expected to in?uence the outcome of the encounter, which refers to
the interactions between the customer and the ?rm(Bitner et al., 1990). The generalized social
norms that describe how society is to behave can differ by country. Applebaum and Jordt
(1996, p. 216) refer to this as ‘‘particularistic sociocultural circumstances’’.
One concept that provides insight into the in?uence of cultural differences in the international
tourist experience is the culture cushion (Hartman et al., 2009a, b). Research has revealed
that the intercultural nature of the encounter in and of itself mitigates potential negativity. The
culture cushion has two distinct dimensions: excitement and perceived cultural knowledge.
Excitement is an effective element that considers the degree to which the experience
seemed more enjoyable, thrilling, or fun simply because it was in a foreign country.
Perceived cultural knowledge is a cognitive element that relates to the amount of information
the individual had about the country and their customs prior to the experience. Speci?cally,
this study strives to provide a deeper understanding of the international tourist experience
and ?ll voids in the literature by examining the culture cushion phenomena more fully
(Hartman et al., 2009a, b). We begin with an investigation of the antecedents of culture
cushion. By understanding the antecedents we can understand if there are any aspects of
the encounter that might enhance or detract from the positive effect. The second goal is to
consider the role of perceived similarities and differences in the retail or service encounter
driven by cultural factors. Finally, the study examines how the culture cushion in?uences a
variety of behavioral outcomes. By examining these relationships, the study contributes to
extant literature by developing a better understanding of the attitudes and consumption
behavior of the international tourist.
Literature review
This study focuses on the consumption experiences of international tourists. An international
tourist is de?ned by Reisinger (2009, p. xviii) as ‘‘[. . .] a culturally different visitor who
sojourns at a destination for a minimum of 24 hours and a maximum of 12 months for the
purpose of holiday, business, study, family, sport, or conference’’. For the purposes of this
study, culture is de?ned as ‘‘a group’s collective meaning system and includes values,
attitudes, beliefs, customs, and thoughts’’ (Barnett and Sung, 2005).
McCracken (1986) suggests culture determines how one perceives and understands the
world as well as guides one’s behaviors during social interaction. As such, during an
intercultural consumption encounter, tourists will perceive, comprehend, and act consistent
with their own culture yet will also anticipate differences in meanings and social roles due to
the context of the foreign culture (Hartman et al., 2009b). According to assimilation theory,
tourists encountering cultural differences may adjust prior beliefs and perceptions of
performance to accommodate new information (del Bosque and San Martin, 2008). As such,
culture cushion refers to the mitigating in?uence of the intercultural aspects of the experience
on the overall perceptions and evaluations of the experience (Hartman et al., 2009b, p. 210).
Speci?cally, culture cushion is a phenomenon that insulates an international tourist from
negative reactions through two processes: a cognitive process in which one attributes
differences between expectations and performance to culture dissimilarity and an affective
process in which the intercultural experience itself evokes heightedexcitement (Hartman et al.,
2009a). Even though Strauss and Mang (1999) suggest perceptions of differences between
expectations and performance outside a zone of tolerance may result in negative reactions
associated with culture shock, previous research also suggests international tourists may be
less demanding, more forgiving, and more tolerant of perceived differences (Steiner and
Reisinger, 2006; Weiermair and Fuchs, 2000; Hartman et al., 2009a, b).
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Antecedents of culture cushion
The exploration of culture cushion begins by examining variables that contribute to the
excitement or perceived knowledge dimensions of the culture cushion. Speci?cally, the
study explores ?ve situational and two subjective variables thought to be important to
intercultural encounter evaluations. The situational variables include the type of experience
(retail, service, or bar/restaurant), the language of the experience (English only or foreign),
the presence or absence of other tourists (friends) with you, the amount of money spent
(more or less than $20), and familiarity represented as whether or not the experience was a
?rst time visit to the establishment. Because consumption experiences vary by ritual,
behaviors, involvement, perceived risk, and extent of employee-customer interactions, we
hypothesize the following:
H1. Culture cushion will vary by situational variables including (a) type of experience,
(b) language of the experience, (c) presence of others, (d) money spent, and (e)
familiarity.
The subjective measures included authenticity and sensation seeking. Authenticity is
de?ned as tourists’ enjoyment and perceptions of the genuineness of the experiences (Kolar
and Zabkar, 2010). MacCannell (1973) argues that tourists seek to share in the real life of the
places visited. As such, tourist settings such as guided tours are arranged to provide an
impression that tourists are seeing life as it is really lived even if it not (i.e. staged
authenticity). Tourists’ pursuit of authentic experiences is acknowledged as one of the key
trends in tourismand is positively related to satisfaction and loyalty (Kolar and Zabkar, 2010).
In the tourism context, products of tourism such as works of art, festivals, rituals, or cuisine
can be perceived as authentic or inauthentic by tourists according to how the objects are
made or how the experience ?ts into tourists’ expectations of local custom or tradition
(Wang, 1999). As such, we hypothesize the following:
H2. Culture cushion will vary by perceived authenticity.
Sensation seeking is de?ned as one’s need for varied, novel, complex, and intense sensory
stimulation and the level of willingness to take physical, legal, and/or ?nancial risks to satisfy
the desire for such stimulation (Zuckerman, 1994). Individuals with this trait simply feel better
when taking risks due to their high levels of optimal arousal (Breen and Zuckerman, 1999). In
the context of tourism, Lepp and Gibson (2003) suggest people who travel internationally
tend to be high in sensation seeking. As such, we hypothesize the following:
H3. Culture cushion will vary by sensation seeking.
Figure 1 shows an overview of the antecedents of culture cushion.
Perceived cultural similarities or differences
The second goal of this study relates to the role of perceived similarities and differences in
the international encounter. Since most service and encounters are social in nature there are
likely to be culturally-bound variations in expectations (Tsaur et al., 2005). A consumer’s
behavior results from the individual’s cultural value system (Luna and Gupta, 2001). The
inseparable nature of culture from the individual is such that culture guides actions and
judgments across situations.
Ritual literature provides insights into the subjective negotiation of cultural meanings that
might enhance or detract fromthe international tourist experience. According to Rook (1985,
p. 252):
The term ritual refers to a type of expressive, symbolic activity constructed of multiple behaviors
that occur in a ?xed, episodic sequence, and that tend to be repeated over time.
Furthermore, ritualized behavior is built around a string of events and individual actions that
conform to prescribed scripts, which may reduce anxiety arising from uncertainty about
what to do in certain situations by providing guidelines relative to appropriateness (Rook,
1985; Tetreault and Kleine, 1990). The four tangible components of a ritual experience
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include artifacts (products, items consumed, clothing), scripts (identi?es artifacts to be
used, their behavioral sequence, and by whom they will be used), performance roles
(individuals who perform the script), and audience (Rook, 1985). Because rituals involve the
consumption of goods and services and re?ect a shared understanding about how to
behave within a social context, they are important in understanding the dynamic interaction
between international tourists and the environment during exchange encounters.
McCracken’s (1986) de?nition of rituals emphasizes the goal of such behavior using the
cultural meaning-transfer model, which contends consumption experiences associated with
consumer goods are culturally bound. That is, consumer goods are imbued with cultural
meaning because it is drawn from a culturally constituted world and this meaning is then
transferred to the individual consumer. As such, variation in content or sequence may be met
with considerable resistance.
Rituals are pervasive in any society. For example, Marshall (2005) described the ritualistic
nature of the everyday meal and the culturally in?uenced perceptions about what it means to
eat properly. This suggests that perceptions of culturally induced variations in the ritual laden
experience speci?c to the object, the environment, and customer service will have an
in?uence on evaluative outcomes. By its very nature the tourist encounter is a departure from
the everyday routine (Urry, 1990). When the retail or service encounter occurs in a different
culture, what was commonly thought to be the right way to proceed is often challenged. Our
cultural predisposition has a differentiated impact on service quality expectations and the
resulting interpretation of events has the potential to lead to dissatisfaction.
This suggests that individuals make sense of new environments by contrasting them to what
they know. An ethnographic study by Davies and Fitchett (2004) revealed that binary
opposites are used to make sense of differences in culture. For example, stating that people
of a particular culture are unsociable as compared to their more sociably inclined culture. A
person’s attempt to make sense of the encounter is facilitated by the construction of both
similarities and opposites. They ?nd that the originating culture serves as a comparative
basis for subsequent judgments about life in the new cultural environment. Thus, an
examination of similarities and differences in perceptions as they relate to ritualized aspects
of the encounter has the potential to add insights relative to the manner in which the culture
cushion relates to satisfaction. As such, we hypothesize the following:
H4. Perceived differences in (a) products, (b) atmosphere, (c) service, and (d) overall
will mediate the relationships between the perceived cultural knowledge dimension
of culture cushion and satisfaction.
Figure 1 Antecedents of culture cushion
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H5. Perceived differences in (a) products, (b) atmosphere, (c) service, and (d) overall
will mediate the relationships between the excitement dimension of culture cushion
and satisfaction.
Behavioral consequences
For the third goal of this study, the impact of satisfaction on behavior outcome variables
including the likelihood of recommending the experience to others, repeat likelihood, desire
to travel, and attitude towards culture. A number of studies indicate satisfaction will positively
in?uence repeat purchases (Halstead and Page, 1992), word-of-mouth behaviors
(Anderson, 1998), and other desirable behavior and attitude consequences (Oppermann,
1998). As such, we hypothesize the following:
H6. Satisfaction will mediate the relationships between the perceived cultural
knowledge dimension of culture cushion and (a) recommendation intentions, (b)
repeat patronage intentions, (c) desire to travel, and (d) attitude toward the culture.
H7. Satisfaction will mediate the relationships between the excitement dimension of
culture cushion and (a) recommendation intentions, (b) repeat patronage
intentions, (c) desire to travel, and (d) attitude toward the culture.
A visual portrayal of the relationships described in H4-H7 is shown in Figure 2.
Research method
Data were collected using concealed, structured, participant observation (i.e. mystery
shopping). The method of complete participation was used (Hammersley and Atkinson,
1995) in which researchers concurrently participate in research activities and the data
collection process (Cole, 2005). The unit of analysis included retail and service experiences
by US natives in European countries.
Measurement instruments
Data were collected using two measurement instruments: a brief online survey prior to the
international travel experience and a mystery shopping survey during the international travel
experience. Data collected prior to the international travel experience included respondent
Figure 2 Consequences of culture cushion
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demographics, sensation seeking, foreign language abilities, and prior international travel
experience.
Data were collected about intercultural consumption experiences using an online mystery
shopping survey. All shoppers were provided with instructions about mystery shopping and
how to complete the survey. First, shoppers independently participated in a consumption
experience at a restaurant, retail store, or service provider during international travel. For
example, a tourist from the US might decide to visit a restaurant in Italy for dinner.
Afterwards, shoppers provided information about this experience by completing the online
survey. For example, a tourist from the US would provide information about his/her
experience associated with having dinner restaurant in Italy. Shoppers completed the
survey within 24 hours of the experience in order to avoid recall bias.
Measures
The online mystery survey was designed in three distinct parts. The ?rst section measured
descriptive data about the consumption experience. Five objective situational variables
were measured. First, type of experience was measured using a multiple-choice question:
retail, service, and bars/restaurants. Second, language of experience was measured using
a dichotomous choice question: English-only or foreign language. Third, the presence of
shopping companions was measured using a dichotomous choice question: alone or with a
companion. Fourth, money spent was measured using an open-ended question asking for
amount spent in local currency, which was transformed using the exchange ratio to US
dollars on the date of the experience. Fifth, familiarity was measured using a dichotomous
choice question: ?rst visit or repeat visit.
Two subjective variables were also measured: perceived authenticity and sensation
seeking. Authenticity was adapted from Naoi (2003) and was measured using four,
seven-point semantic differential scale items about the experience’s staged authenticity for
tourists as compared to a genuinely authentic cultural experience (a ¼ 0.75). Sensation
seeking was a dispositional measure and, as such, collected from each shopper prior to
travel. Measures were adapted from Hoyle et al. (2002); data were collected using eight
items with a seven-point Likert-type scale (a ¼ 0.89). Table I provides scale reliabilities and
sample items.
Table I Reliabilities for measurement scales
Measure
a
Source Scale Items Example sample items a
Authenticity Adapted from Naoi (2003) Semantic differential 4 Staged authenticity vs truly authentic 0.75
Not typical for locals vs typical place
for locals
Sensation seeking Adapted fromHoyle et al. (2002) Likert-type 8 I would like to explore strange places 0.89
I get restless when I spend too much
time at home
Culture cushion –
excitement
Hartman et al. (2009a) Likert-type 7 There was something thrilling about
having this experience in a foreign
country
0.96
Knowing this experience was
different than a typical experience in
the US was stimulating
Culture cushion –
knowledge
Hartman et al. (2009a) Likert-type 4 I didn’t have the same
understanding of things as I would
have in a similar situation back home
0.78
I was fairly unfamiliar with the local
customs going into this experience
Note:
a
All measures were seven-point scales
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The second section of the mystery shopping survey measured similarity-difference
perceptions and culture cushion (adapted from Hartman et al., 2009a). For
similarity-difference perceptions, data were collected using four, seven-point semantic
differential scale items (very different to very similar) and included perceptions about
objects, environment/atmosphere, customer service, and overall experience. For culture
cushion, data for two dimensions – excitement and perceived cultural knowledge – were
collected using 12 items with a seven-point, Likert-type scale. After removing one of the
scale items, seven items measured the excitement dimension (a ¼ 0.96); four items
measured the cultural knowledge dimension (a ¼ 0.78). Table I provides scale reliabilities
and sample items for the dimensions of culture cushion.
The third section of the mystery shopping survey measured post-experience satisfaction,
attitudes, and behavioral intentions. Data for satisfaction were collected using seven-point,
semantic differential scales (very dissatis?ed to very satis?ed) adapted from Hartman et al.
(2009a) and included four scale items: products/objects, environment/atmosphere,
customer service, and overall. Data for other outcome measures were collected using
seven-point, semantic differential scales (no way to absolutely) adapted from Hartman et al.
(2009a). Recommendation likelihood measured the degree to which the shopper would
recommend the experience to others. Repeat likelihood measured the degree to which the
shopper would repeat the experience if given the opportunity. Desire to travel measured the
degree to which the experience increased or decreased the shopper’s desire to travel
internationally in the future. Attitude towards the culture measured the degree to which the
experience improved or worsened the shopper’s attitude towards the culture.
Sample
The mystery shoppers were 84 undergraduate students participating in one of six study
abroad programs. The study abroad programs were six-week summer programs led by
professors from a single university in the Southeastern region of the USA. All participants
were native to the USA. The age of the researchers ranged from 18 to 55. Approximately, 60
percent were females; 76 percent were undergraduates majoring in business. The majority
(86 percent) had visited a foreign country before as a tourist, and approximately 82 percent
had some pro?ciency in a foreign language[1]. Shoppers completed 146 questionnaires
about consumption experiences at restaurants (44 percent), retail stores (28 percent), and
service ?rms (27 percent). The experiences occurred in England (n ¼ 34), Germany
(n ¼ 28), France (n ¼ 31), Italy (n ¼ 20), Spain (n ¼ 11), and other European countries
(n ¼ 22) such as Finland, Portugal, Scotland, The Netherlands, Ireland and Greece.
Analyses and results
Culture cushion and situational factors
In order to test variations in culture cushion by situational factors, mean scores for each of
the dimensions of culture cushion (excitement and cultural knowledge) were calculated
using an average of the scale items. Data for the situational factors were analyzed using
ANOVA or t-tests to test for mean differences between groups. For each ANOVA (t-test)
results for Levene’s tests of homogeneity (equality) of variances indicate the data passes the
assumption for equal variances. Surprisingly, the dimensions of culture cushion did not vary
for most of the situational factors including experience type, shopping companion,
familiarity, perceived authenticity, and sensation seeking. As such, H1a, H1c, H1e, H2, and
H3 are not supported.
However, the culture cushion excitement dimension did vary by language (H1b) where
experiences in a foreign language (M ¼ 4.76, SD ¼ 1.46) were more exciting than
experiences in English (M ¼ 3.98, SD ¼ 1.56), t(144) ¼ 2.91, p , 0.01, d ¼ 0.52. Cohen’s
(1992) effect size for d indicates a moderate mean difference. In addition, both dimensions
of culture cushion varied by money spent (H1d). For excitement, less than $20 (M ¼ 4.24,
SD ¼ 1.55) were less exciting than more than $20 (M ¼ 4.81, SD ¼ 1.47), t(144) ¼ 2.23,
p , 0.05, d ¼ 0.37. For cultural knowledge, situations in which participants spent less than
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$20 (M ¼ 3.70, SD ¼ 1.29) demonstrated greater cultural knowledge as compared to more
than $20 (M ¼ 3.30, SD ¼ 1.10), t(144) ¼ 2.05, p , 0.05, d ¼ 0.34. However, Cohen’s
(1992) effect size for d indicates a moderate to small mean differences. As such, only H1d is
supported for cultural knowledge while H1b and H1d are supported for excitement.
Culture cushion, perceptions of experience differences, and satisfaction
Data for the perceived experience differences and post-experience outcome variables were
analyzed using mediated regression analyses. Mediated regression was calculated using
Hayes and Preacher’s (2011) MEDIATE macro for SPSS with bootstrapping (5000). The
MEDIATE macro was selected because it can accommodate multiple mediator variables
(Hayes and Preacher, 2011). Each mediation regression analysis assumed a three-variable
system with three causal paths: the direct in?uence of the antecedent on the dependent
variable, the in?uence of the antecedent on the mediator, and the in?uence of mediator on
the dependent variable (Baron and Kenny, 1986). For each mediation model, mediation was
assessed only if the direct in?uence of the antecedent on the dependent variable is
signi?cant (Baron and Kenny, 1986). For each dependent variable, the total effects
(antecedent !dependent), direct effects (mediator !dependent), and mediated effects
(antecedent !mediator !dependent) models were calculated (Hayes and Preacher,
2011). After determining the signi?cance of the total effects model, mediation effects were
assessed by comparing the direct effects model to the mediated effects model. Speci?cally,
full mediation was determined when the antecedent variable no longer affected the
dependent variable after controlling for the mediation variable; partial mediation was
determined when the path from the antecedent variable still had a signi?cant impact on the
dependent variable after the mediation variable was introduced (Hayes and Preacher,
2011).
The ?rst set of mediated regression analyses examined perceptions of experience
differences as a mediator between the relationships between culture cushion dimensions
and satisfaction variables. For each mediation test, the total effects model was signi?cant,
p , 0.05. Adding perceptions of differences as a mediator improved the models for
satisfaction with products (AR
2
Total
¼ 0:19, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:24), satisfaction with atmosphere
(AR
2
Total
¼ 0:27, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:30), satisfaction with service (AR
2
Total
¼ 0:14, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:32),
and overall satisfaction (AR
2
Total
¼ 0:35, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:46). Table II provides the results of the
mediation analyses.
Table II Mediation models for culture cushion, perceived differences, and satisfaction
Total effects
a
Direct effects
b
Mediation effects
c
Model F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
Mediation
Products 17.32 0.19 3.19 0.03 15.54 0.24
Differences b¼20.22 t ¼ 23.13*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.24 t ¼ 2.43* b ¼ 20.29 t ¼ 22.53* b ¼ 0.18 t ¼ 1.78 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.41 t ¼ 5.30* b ¼ 0.05 t ¼ 0.05 b ¼ 0.41 T ¼ 5.48* Direct only
Atmosphere 27.03 0.27 9.36 0.10 21.70 0.30
Differences b ¼ 20.21 t ¼ 22.87*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.33 t ¼ 3.47* b ¼ 20.41 t ¼ 23.80* b ¼ 0.25 t ¼ 2.51* Partial
Excitement b ¼ 0.49 t ¼ 6.50* b ¼ 0.18 t ¼ 2.05* b ¼ 0.53 t ¼ 7.06* Partial
Service 12.30 0.14 6.34 0.07 23.82 0.32
Differences b ¼ 20.47 t ¼ 26.33*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.24 t ¼ 1.91* b ¼ 20.43 t ¼ 23.49* b ¼ 0.03 t ¼ 0.28 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.45 t ¼ 4.59* b ¼ 20.07 t ¼ 20.72 b ¼ 0.42 t ¼ 4.80* Direct only
Overall 39.77 0.35 9.17 0.10 41.67 0.46
Differences b ¼ 20.36 t ¼ 25.42*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.99* b ¼ 20.45 t ¼ 24.28* b ¼ 0.11 t ¼ 1.25 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.42* b ¼ 20.01 t ¼ 20.20 b ¼ 0.42 t ¼ 4.80* Direct only
Notes: Signi?cant at: *p , 0.05;
a
total effects model: culture cushion!satisfaction;
b
direct effects model: culture cushion!perceived
differences;
c
mediation effects model: culture cushion!perceived differences !satisfaction
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For the products, customer service, and overall experience models, culture cushion
excitement had direct, positive effects on satisfaction with no mediation ( p
Direct
.0.05). By
contrast, perceptions of experience differences fully mediated the relationships between
culture cushion knowledge and satisfaction with products (b
Direct
¼20.29, p , 0.05,
b
Med
¼0.18, p . 0.05), satisfaction with service (b
Direct
¼20.43, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.03,
p . 0.05), and overall satisfaction (b
Direct
¼20.45, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.11, p . 0.05). The full
mediation models indicate inverse relationships between knowledge and differences as well
as differences and satisfaction. For each model, an increase in cultural knowledge is
associated with a decrease in perceived differences; a decrease of perceived differences is
then associated with an increase in satisfaction ratings. As such, H4a, H4c, and H4d are fully
supported yet H5a, H5c, and H5d are not supported.
The results also indicate perceived differences in atmosphere partially mediate the
relationship between excitement and satisfaction (b
Direct
¼0.18, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.53,
p , 0.05) and between cultural knowledge and satisfaction (b
Direct
¼20.41, p , 0.05,
b
Med
¼0.25, p , 0.05). For the atmosphere model, perceptions of differences partially
mediate the relationships where:
B greater excitement resulted in higher satisfaction ratings directly and indirectly through
greater perceived differences; and
B greater knowledge resulted in higher satisfaction ratings directly and indirectly by
negatively in?uencing perceived experience differences.
As such, both H4b and H5b are partially supported.
Culture cushion, overall satisfaction, and post-experience attitudes
The second set of mediated regression analyses examined perceptions of overall
satisfaction as a mediator between the relationships between culture cushion dimensions
and post-experience measures. Adding satisfaction as a mediator improved the model for
recommendation intentions (AR
2
Total
¼ 0.35, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.64), repeat patronage intentions
(AR
2
Total
¼ 0.27, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.47), desire to travel (AR
2
Total
¼ 0.22, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.27), and attitude
toward culture (AR
2
Total
¼ 0.17, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.31). Table III provides the results of the mediation
analyses.
For three of the dependent variables, the total effects model for culture cushion knowledge
was not signi?cant ( p
Total
.0.05). As such, culture cushion knowledge had no signi?cant
Table III Mediation models for culture cushion, satisfaction, and post-experience
Total effects
a
Direct effects
b
Mediation effects
c
Model F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
Mediation
Recommend 38.63 0.35 38.25 0.34 83.63 0.64
Satisfaction b¼0.75 t ¼ 10.59*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.22 t ¼ 2.15* b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.02 t ¼ 0.22 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.70 t ¼ 8.56* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.25 t ¼ 3.32* Partial
Repeat 27.39 0.27 38.25 0.34 42.44 0.47
Satisfaction b ¼ 0.65 t ¼ 7.23*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.17 t ¼ 1.54 b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.00 t ¼ 0.00 None
Excitement b ¼ 0.66 t ¼ 5.03* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.26 t ¼ 2.81* Partial
Desire to travel 20.44 0.22 38.25 0.34 18.12 0.27
Satisfaction b ¼ 0.32 t ¼ 3.26*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.05 t ¼ 0.49 b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.03 t ¼ 0.30 None
Excitement b ¼ 0.55 t ¼ 6.38* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.35 t ¼ 3.54* Partial
Attitude towards culture 15.59 0.17 38.25 0.34 22.41 0.31
Satisfaction b ¼ 0.47 t ¼ 5.44*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.07 t ¼ 0.67 b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.06 t ¼ 0.61 None
Excitement b ¼ 0.45 t ¼ 5.44* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.17 t ¼ 1.91 Full
Notes: Signi?cant at: *p , 0.05;
a
total effects model: culture cushion!post-experience measure;
b
direct effects model: culture
cushion!overall satisfaction;
c
mediation effects model: culture cushion!overall satisfaction !post-experience measure
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in?uence on repeat likelihood, desire to travel, and attitudes towards the culture either
directly or indirectly. Therefore, H6b, H6c, and H6d are not supported. However, for
recommendation likelihood, overall satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between
perceived cultural knowledge and recommendation intentions (b
Direct
¼0.27, p , 0.05,
b
Med
¼0.02, p . 0.05) where increased knowledge resulted in higher satisfaction ratings,
which resulted in increased likelihood to recommend. As such, H6a is fully supported.
Overall, satisfaction partially mediated the relationships between culture cushion excitement
and recommendation likelihood (b
Direct
¼0.60, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.25, p , 0.05), repeat
likelihood (b
Direct
¼0.60, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.26, p , 0.05), and desire to travel (b
Direct
¼0.60,
p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.35, p , 0.05). Speci?cally, greater culture cushion excitement resulted in
increased likelihood to recommend, likelihood to repeat, and desire to travel directly and
indirectly through greater satisfaction. As such, H7a, H6b, and H7c are partially supported.
In addition, overall satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between excitement and
attitude towards the culture (b
Direct
¼0.60, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.06, p . 0.05) where greater
excitement resulted in better attitudes towards the culture indirectly through greater
satisfaction. As such, H7d is fully supported.
Discussion and conclusion
This research provides a better understanding of culture cushion relative to its antecedents
and consequences. The study reveals two speci?c and insightful antecedents of culture
cushion: language and money spent. First, the results indicate an international tourist
experience in a foreign language is found to lead to more excitement. Practically, this
suggests ?rms should deliver tourism experiences using the native language. Second, the
results suggest respondents reported signi?cantly more excitement yet less cultural
knowledge during experiences associated with spending more than $20. These ?ndings
could suggest experiences associated with higher spending may be less familiar, more
complex, or more involved from a ritual perspective. As such, this suggests ?rms offering
higher-priced products and services should spend time educating tourists about the culture
and relevant rituals.
The study also revealed unique insights relative to the role of perceived cultural differences.
According to Cohen (1972) the international tourist appreciates and enjoys the strangeness
and novelty inherent in visiting another culture. Events are distinctive from everyday life.
However, Cohen (1972) adds that when an experience becomes too different from his native
culture, the tourist may consider it unpleasant. This may be due to the ?nding that
international tourists bring their own culture with themin service encounter (Winstead, 2007).
These culturally driven expectations shape perceptions of service outcomes, which is
consistent with the ?ndings from this study. Speci?cally, the excitement dimension of the
culture cushion had a direct and positive effect on satisfaction with the products, with
customer service, and overall satisfaction. However, perceptions of differences mediated
the relationship between the knowledge dimension of the culture cushion and satisfaction.
The results indicate the more information participants believed they knew about culture
resulted in a decrease in perceived differences noticed, which ultimately led to higher
satisfaction ratings with the products, the customer service and overall. The results for
atmosphere looked different. In this case, perceptions of differences in atmosphere played a
role for both dimensions both directly and indirectly. Excitement had a positive effect on
perceived differences in atmosphere, which had a positive effect on satisfaction; knowledge
had a negative impact on perceived differences in atmosphere.
These ?ndings suggest that some knowledge about the culture being visited is a good thing.
Educating a tourist to help them become familiar with the local customs should help the
international tourist understand what is happening and be less likely to consider it strange or
lacking. Understanding what is happening and why allows the international tourist to relax and
immerse themselves in the cultural traditions of the country. The results are consistent with
assimilation theory. We suggest that ?rms need to be sensitive to different cultures but should
not treat international tourists differentially. Given this we suggest that ?rms need to be
sensitive to different cultures but should not treat international tourists differentially. Rather they
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should educate consumers relative to what’s happening and why so that the consumer can
understand and appreciate the culturally based differences. This is consistent with Woodside
and Dubelaar (2002) relative to visitor information guides. They found that tourists who read
through visitor information guides prior to their visit were more satis?ed with the trip and spent
more while there. Ahigh level of knowledge of the place visited should clarify expectations and
add to the positive nature of overall evaluations. The ?ndings are also consistent with a study of
the role of tour directors (Cohen, 1985). Tour directors are thought to serve a mediating role
between the cultures. In their role of culture-broker, transcultural interpretation of the unfamiliar
transpires. Cultural driven differences in encounters are explained. The ?ndings of these
studies in conjunction with the results of the present study lead us to suggest tourists should
be educated about similarities and differences in the values and traditions they will encounter
prior to the visit. Understanding culturally derived differences in the encounter will enhance the
outcome for all parties.
Lastly, the in?uence of the culture cushion on satisfaction and several behavioral intention
measures was considered. The results suggest more cultural knowledge results in higher
satisfaction ratings and a greater inclination to recommend. Additionally, excitement
resulted in increased satisfaction and increased intentions to repeat the experience,
increased desire to travel, and stronger intentions to recommend. Therefore, both
dimensions of culture cushion performed as expected. As such, these results provide strong
empirical evidence of what can be done to enhance the international tourist experience.
Cultural differences in the experience are especially positive when the consumer
understands them in advance.
There are limitations to this research. First, the sample size is small (n ¼ 146) due to the
number of students that traveled abroad the summer that data collection was conducted.
Also the data was somewhat skewed due to the nature of the study abroad educational
experience. Additional studies should explore larger sample sizes and other populations of
tourists. Second, the study speci?cally considered US individuals traveling abroad. The fact
that study participants were college students and the one way (USA to Europe) nature of
data collection effort limits the generalizability of the results. Additional studies should be
conducted to see if the results hold in the other direction (Europe to USA) and should
consider additional antecedents such as possibly familiarity with the speci?c ?rm and
involvement. Third, data were collected using only one method: mystery shopping. It would
be interesting to perform this research using another method such as an experiment where
one group was given more cultural information than the other. While this research sheds
much light on the inherent positivity of the international tourist experience much remains to
be understood.
Note
1. Data for language pro?ciency was collected using a self-report measure asking respondents to
indicate level of language abilities. As such, a respondent could have over- or under-estimated
his/her true language pro?ciency.
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About the authors
Katherine B. Hartman earned a BBA and MBA from Ohio University and a PhD from Indiana
University. Her research focuses on communications and retail. Dr Hartman is an Associate
Professor and has published in the Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Personal
Selling and Sales Management, the Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, and the
International Journal of Culture, Tourism, and Hospitality Research. Katherine B. Hartman is
the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Tracy Meyer earned a BBA fromTexas Christian University, a MBA fromXavier University and
spent 15 years in commercial banking before attaining a PhD at the University of Cincinnati.
Her research focuses on consumers’ perceptions of negative events that occur in the
service/retail environment. Dr Meyer is an Associate Professor and has published in the
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, the Journal of Business Research, the
Academy of Marketing Science Review and the Journal of Consumer Psychology.
Heather Hurley earned a BS in Business from the University of North Carolina Wilmington in
2010. She graduated Magna Cum Laude with two concentrations: Marketing with Honors
and Finance. Her honors thesis is entitled ‘‘Exploring culture cushion: consequences
and antecedents’’.
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doc_164360470.pdf
The purpose of this paper is to understand the antecedents and consequences of an
international tourist phenomenon known as the culture cushion
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
An examination of culture cushion: antecedents and consequences
Katherine B. Hartman Tracy Meyer Heather Hurley
Article information:
To cite this document:
Katherine B. Hartman Tracy Meyer Heather Hurley , (2013),"An examination of culture cushion: antecedents and consequences",
International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 7 Iss 4 pp. 340 - 352
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An examination of culture cushion:
antecedents and consequences
Katherine B. Hartman, Tracy Meyer and Heather Hurley
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand the antecedents and consequences of an
international tourist phenomenon known as the culture cushion.
Design/methodology/approach – Using surveys, participants considered a speci?c international
consumption experience and responded to culture cushion, situational variables, the perceived
differences in the encounter relative to one in the USA, and behavioral intention items.
Findings – The amount spent was found to be an antecedent to both the excitement and the cultural
knowledge dimensions of culture cushion while language was an antecedent for excitement only.
Excitement had a positive relationship with satisfaction and other behavioral intention measures.
Perceived differences mediated the relationship between knowledge and satisfaction with products,
atmosphere and customer service such that lower perceptions of cultural knowledge caused greater
perceived differences, which resulted in lower satisfaction ratings.
Research limitations/implications – A study of international tourists in the USA should be conducted
to determine if the culture cushion has a similar in?uence.
Practical implications – First, ?rms that cater to international tourists should speak their native
language. Second, the more knowledge a tourist has about the cultural differences in service and retail
encounters the more likely he is to appreciate the differences as being culturally driven and not a
re?ection of poor service.
Originality/value – This research provides unique insights into the international tourist experiences with
clear practical implications.
Keywords Culture, Consumer ritual, Culture cushion, Perception of differences, Tourist
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Tourism has proven over the decades to be one of the most resilient and dynamic economic
sectors of the world, a key driver of socio-economic progress, and a primary factor in
international commerce (UNWTO, n.d.). According to the UNWTO (n.d.), international
tourism grew from 25 million to 940 million from 1950 to 2010, which represents an average
annual increase of 6.2 percent.
One way to enhance the growth rate of international tourism is by understanding the
complexities of the tourist experience. What is it about the international tourist experience
that increases satisfaction and likelihood to travel again? To what extent do cultural
differences in the retail and service experiences matter? It seems important to study the
in?uence of perceived cultural differences in international tourist experiences since these
readily observable differences are inherent in the service delivery (Davies and Fitchett,
2004). For example, it is acceptable in the US for the server to leave the check with
customers after the meal is ?nished and dishes are collected. However, in Italy the servers
wait until the customer asks for the check to bring it to the table. A US tourist may wait a long
time for the check unless he is aware of the cultural difference. As an example of a
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VOL. 7 NO. 4 2013, pp. 340-352, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-12-2011-0002
Katherine B. Hartman,
Tracy Meyer and
Heather Hurley are based in
the Department of
Marketing, University of
North Carolina Wilmington,
Wilmington, North Carolina,
USA.
Received 5 December 2011
Revised 11 June 2012
Accepted 12 June 2012
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culturally-based difference in service delivery, it has the potential to lead a US tourist to be
upset with or excited about the service received.
McCracken (1986) suggests these differences occur because we live in a culturally
constituted world. Everyday experiences are viewed through cultural lenses that determine
how the phenomena will be apprehended and assimilated (McCracken, 1986). Culture also
provides a unique and meaningful blueprint of activity that speci?es the behaviors and objects
of social or public action (McCracken, 1986). An international tourist’s sensitivity to variations in
culturally bound scripts is expected to in?uence the outcome of the encounter, which refers to
the interactions between the customer and the ?rm(Bitner et al., 1990). The generalized social
norms that describe how society is to behave can differ by country. Applebaum and Jordt
(1996, p. 216) refer to this as ‘‘particularistic sociocultural circumstances’’.
One concept that provides insight into the in?uence of cultural differences in the international
tourist experience is the culture cushion (Hartman et al., 2009a, b). Research has revealed
that the intercultural nature of the encounter in and of itself mitigates potential negativity. The
culture cushion has two distinct dimensions: excitement and perceived cultural knowledge.
Excitement is an effective element that considers the degree to which the experience
seemed more enjoyable, thrilling, or fun simply because it was in a foreign country.
Perceived cultural knowledge is a cognitive element that relates to the amount of information
the individual had about the country and their customs prior to the experience. Speci?cally,
this study strives to provide a deeper understanding of the international tourist experience
and ?ll voids in the literature by examining the culture cushion phenomena more fully
(Hartman et al., 2009a, b). We begin with an investigation of the antecedents of culture
cushion. By understanding the antecedents we can understand if there are any aspects of
the encounter that might enhance or detract from the positive effect. The second goal is to
consider the role of perceived similarities and differences in the retail or service encounter
driven by cultural factors. Finally, the study examines how the culture cushion in?uences a
variety of behavioral outcomes. By examining these relationships, the study contributes to
extant literature by developing a better understanding of the attitudes and consumption
behavior of the international tourist.
Literature review
This study focuses on the consumption experiences of international tourists. An international
tourist is de?ned by Reisinger (2009, p. xviii) as ‘‘[. . .] a culturally different visitor who
sojourns at a destination for a minimum of 24 hours and a maximum of 12 months for the
purpose of holiday, business, study, family, sport, or conference’’. For the purposes of this
study, culture is de?ned as ‘‘a group’s collective meaning system and includes values,
attitudes, beliefs, customs, and thoughts’’ (Barnett and Sung, 2005).
McCracken (1986) suggests culture determines how one perceives and understands the
world as well as guides one’s behaviors during social interaction. As such, during an
intercultural consumption encounter, tourists will perceive, comprehend, and act consistent
with their own culture yet will also anticipate differences in meanings and social roles due to
the context of the foreign culture (Hartman et al., 2009b). According to assimilation theory,
tourists encountering cultural differences may adjust prior beliefs and perceptions of
performance to accommodate new information (del Bosque and San Martin, 2008). As such,
culture cushion refers to the mitigating in?uence of the intercultural aspects of the experience
on the overall perceptions and evaluations of the experience (Hartman et al., 2009b, p. 210).
Speci?cally, culture cushion is a phenomenon that insulates an international tourist from
negative reactions through two processes: a cognitive process in which one attributes
differences between expectations and performance to culture dissimilarity and an affective
process in which the intercultural experience itself evokes heightedexcitement (Hartman et al.,
2009a). Even though Strauss and Mang (1999) suggest perceptions of differences between
expectations and performance outside a zone of tolerance may result in negative reactions
associated with culture shock, previous research also suggests international tourists may be
less demanding, more forgiving, and more tolerant of perceived differences (Steiner and
Reisinger, 2006; Weiermair and Fuchs, 2000; Hartman et al., 2009a, b).
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Antecedents of culture cushion
The exploration of culture cushion begins by examining variables that contribute to the
excitement or perceived knowledge dimensions of the culture cushion. Speci?cally, the
study explores ?ve situational and two subjective variables thought to be important to
intercultural encounter evaluations. The situational variables include the type of experience
(retail, service, or bar/restaurant), the language of the experience (English only or foreign),
the presence or absence of other tourists (friends) with you, the amount of money spent
(more or less than $20), and familiarity represented as whether or not the experience was a
?rst time visit to the establishment. Because consumption experiences vary by ritual,
behaviors, involvement, perceived risk, and extent of employee-customer interactions, we
hypothesize the following:
H1. Culture cushion will vary by situational variables including (a) type of experience,
(b) language of the experience, (c) presence of others, (d) money spent, and (e)
familiarity.
The subjective measures included authenticity and sensation seeking. Authenticity is
de?ned as tourists’ enjoyment and perceptions of the genuineness of the experiences (Kolar
and Zabkar, 2010). MacCannell (1973) argues that tourists seek to share in the real life of the
places visited. As such, tourist settings such as guided tours are arranged to provide an
impression that tourists are seeing life as it is really lived even if it not (i.e. staged
authenticity). Tourists’ pursuit of authentic experiences is acknowledged as one of the key
trends in tourismand is positively related to satisfaction and loyalty (Kolar and Zabkar, 2010).
In the tourism context, products of tourism such as works of art, festivals, rituals, or cuisine
can be perceived as authentic or inauthentic by tourists according to how the objects are
made or how the experience ?ts into tourists’ expectations of local custom or tradition
(Wang, 1999). As such, we hypothesize the following:
H2. Culture cushion will vary by perceived authenticity.
Sensation seeking is de?ned as one’s need for varied, novel, complex, and intense sensory
stimulation and the level of willingness to take physical, legal, and/or ?nancial risks to satisfy
the desire for such stimulation (Zuckerman, 1994). Individuals with this trait simply feel better
when taking risks due to their high levels of optimal arousal (Breen and Zuckerman, 1999). In
the context of tourism, Lepp and Gibson (2003) suggest people who travel internationally
tend to be high in sensation seeking. As such, we hypothesize the following:
H3. Culture cushion will vary by sensation seeking.
Figure 1 shows an overview of the antecedents of culture cushion.
Perceived cultural similarities or differences
The second goal of this study relates to the role of perceived similarities and differences in
the international encounter. Since most service and encounters are social in nature there are
likely to be culturally-bound variations in expectations (Tsaur et al., 2005). A consumer’s
behavior results from the individual’s cultural value system (Luna and Gupta, 2001). The
inseparable nature of culture from the individual is such that culture guides actions and
judgments across situations.
Ritual literature provides insights into the subjective negotiation of cultural meanings that
might enhance or detract fromthe international tourist experience. According to Rook (1985,
p. 252):
The term ritual refers to a type of expressive, symbolic activity constructed of multiple behaviors
that occur in a ?xed, episodic sequence, and that tend to be repeated over time.
Furthermore, ritualized behavior is built around a string of events and individual actions that
conform to prescribed scripts, which may reduce anxiety arising from uncertainty about
what to do in certain situations by providing guidelines relative to appropriateness (Rook,
1985; Tetreault and Kleine, 1990). The four tangible components of a ritual experience
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include artifacts (products, items consumed, clothing), scripts (identi?es artifacts to be
used, their behavioral sequence, and by whom they will be used), performance roles
(individuals who perform the script), and audience (Rook, 1985). Because rituals involve the
consumption of goods and services and re?ect a shared understanding about how to
behave within a social context, they are important in understanding the dynamic interaction
between international tourists and the environment during exchange encounters.
McCracken’s (1986) de?nition of rituals emphasizes the goal of such behavior using the
cultural meaning-transfer model, which contends consumption experiences associated with
consumer goods are culturally bound. That is, consumer goods are imbued with cultural
meaning because it is drawn from a culturally constituted world and this meaning is then
transferred to the individual consumer. As such, variation in content or sequence may be met
with considerable resistance.
Rituals are pervasive in any society. For example, Marshall (2005) described the ritualistic
nature of the everyday meal and the culturally in?uenced perceptions about what it means to
eat properly. This suggests that perceptions of culturally induced variations in the ritual laden
experience speci?c to the object, the environment, and customer service will have an
in?uence on evaluative outcomes. By its very nature the tourist encounter is a departure from
the everyday routine (Urry, 1990). When the retail or service encounter occurs in a different
culture, what was commonly thought to be the right way to proceed is often challenged. Our
cultural predisposition has a differentiated impact on service quality expectations and the
resulting interpretation of events has the potential to lead to dissatisfaction.
This suggests that individuals make sense of new environments by contrasting them to what
they know. An ethnographic study by Davies and Fitchett (2004) revealed that binary
opposites are used to make sense of differences in culture. For example, stating that people
of a particular culture are unsociable as compared to their more sociably inclined culture. A
person’s attempt to make sense of the encounter is facilitated by the construction of both
similarities and opposites. They ?nd that the originating culture serves as a comparative
basis for subsequent judgments about life in the new cultural environment. Thus, an
examination of similarities and differences in perceptions as they relate to ritualized aspects
of the encounter has the potential to add insights relative to the manner in which the culture
cushion relates to satisfaction. As such, we hypothesize the following:
H4. Perceived differences in (a) products, (b) atmosphere, (c) service, and (d) overall
will mediate the relationships between the perceived cultural knowledge dimension
of culture cushion and satisfaction.
Figure 1 Antecedents of culture cushion
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H5. Perceived differences in (a) products, (b) atmosphere, (c) service, and (d) overall
will mediate the relationships between the excitement dimension of culture cushion
and satisfaction.
Behavioral consequences
For the third goal of this study, the impact of satisfaction on behavior outcome variables
including the likelihood of recommending the experience to others, repeat likelihood, desire
to travel, and attitude towards culture. A number of studies indicate satisfaction will positively
in?uence repeat purchases (Halstead and Page, 1992), word-of-mouth behaviors
(Anderson, 1998), and other desirable behavior and attitude consequences (Oppermann,
1998). As such, we hypothesize the following:
H6. Satisfaction will mediate the relationships between the perceived cultural
knowledge dimension of culture cushion and (a) recommendation intentions, (b)
repeat patronage intentions, (c) desire to travel, and (d) attitude toward the culture.
H7. Satisfaction will mediate the relationships between the excitement dimension of
culture cushion and (a) recommendation intentions, (b) repeat patronage
intentions, (c) desire to travel, and (d) attitude toward the culture.
A visual portrayal of the relationships described in H4-H7 is shown in Figure 2.
Research method
Data were collected using concealed, structured, participant observation (i.e. mystery
shopping). The method of complete participation was used (Hammersley and Atkinson,
1995) in which researchers concurrently participate in research activities and the data
collection process (Cole, 2005). The unit of analysis included retail and service experiences
by US natives in European countries.
Measurement instruments
Data were collected using two measurement instruments: a brief online survey prior to the
international travel experience and a mystery shopping survey during the international travel
experience. Data collected prior to the international travel experience included respondent
Figure 2 Consequences of culture cushion
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demographics, sensation seeking, foreign language abilities, and prior international travel
experience.
Data were collected about intercultural consumption experiences using an online mystery
shopping survey. All shoppers were provided with instructions about mystery shopping and
how to complete the survey. First, shoppers independently participated in a consumption
experience at a restaurant, retail store, or service provider during international travel. For
example, a tourist from the US might decide to visit a restaurant in Italy for dinner.
Afterwards, shoppers provided information about this experience by completing the online
survey. For example, a tourist from the US would provide information about his/her
experience associated with having dinner restaurant in Italy. Shoppers completed the
survey within 24 hours of the experience in order to avoid recall bias.
Measures
The online mystery survey was designed in three distinct parts. The ?rst section measured
descriptive data about the consumption experience. Five objective situational variables
were measured. First, type of experience was measured using a multiple-choice question:
retail, service, and bars/restaurants. Second, language of experience was measured using
a dichotomous choice question: English-only or foreign language. Third, the presence of
shopping companions was measured using a dichotomous choice question: alone or with a
companion. Fourth, money spent was measured using an open-ended question asking for
amount spent in local currency, which was transformed using the exchange ratio to US
dollars on the date of the experience. Fifth, familiarity was measured using a dichotomous
choice question: ?rst visit or repeat visit.
Two subjective variables were also measured: perceived authenticity and sensation
seeking. Authenticity was adapted from Naoi (2003) and was measured using four,
seven-point semantic differential scale items about the experience’s staged authenticity for
tourists as compared to a genuinely authentic cultural experience (a ¼ 0.75). Sensation
seeking was a dispositional measure and, as such, collected from each shopper prior to
travel. Measures were adapted from Hoyle et al. (2002); data were collected using eight
items with a seven-point Likert-type scale (a ¼ 0.89). Table I provides scale reliabilities and
sample items.
Table I Reliabilities for measurement scales
Measure
a
Source Scale Items Example sample items a
Authenticity Adapted from Naoi (2003) Semantic differential 4 Staged authenticity vs truly authentic 0.75
Not typical for locals vs typical place
for locals
Sensation seeking Adapted fromHoyle et al. (2002) Likert-type 8 I would like to explore strange places 0.89
I get restless when I spend too much
time at home
Culture cushion –
excitement
Hartman et al. (2009a) Likert-type 7 There was something thrilling about
having this experience in a foreign
country
0.96
Knowing this experience was
different than a typical experience in
the US was stimulating
Culture cushion –
knowledge
Hartman et al. (2009a) Likert-type 4 I didn’t have the same
understanding of things as I would
have in a similar situation back home
0.78
I was fairly unfamiliar with the local
customs going into this experience
Note:
a
All measures were seven-point scales
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The second section of the mystery shopping survey measured similarity-difference
perceptions and culture cushion (adapted from Hartman et al., 2009a). For
similarity-difference perceptions, data were collected using four, seven-point semantic
differential scale items (very different to very similar) and included perceptions about
objects, environment/atmosphere, customer service, and overall experience. For culture
cushion, data for two dimensions – excitement and perceived cultural knowledge – were
collected using 12 items with a seven-point, Likert-type scale. After removing one of the
scale items, seven items measured the excitement dimension (a ¼ 0.96); four items
measured the cultural knowledge dimension (a ¼ 0.78). Table I provides scale reliabilities
and sample items for the dimensions of culture cushion.
The third section of the mystery shopping survey measured post-experience satisfaction,
attitudes, and behavioral intentions. Data for satisfaction were collected using seven-point,
semantic differential scales (very dissatis?ed to very satis?ed) adapted from Hartman et al.
(2009a) and included four scale items: products/objects, environment/atmosphere,
customer service, and overall. Data for other outcome measures were collected using
seven-point, semantic differential scales (no way to absolutely) adapted from Hartman et al.
(2009a). Recommendation likelihood measured the degree to which the shopper would
recommend the experience to others. Repeat likelihood measured the degree to which the
shopper would repeat the experience if given the opportunity. Desire to travel measured the
degree to which the experience increased or decreased the shopper’s desire to travel
internationally in the future. Attitude towards the culture measured the degree to which the
experience improved or worsened the shopper’s attitude towards the culture.
Sample
The mystery shoppers were 84 undergraduate students participating in one of six study
abroad programs. The study abroad programs were six-week summer programs led by
professors from a single university in the Southeastern region of the USA. All participants
were native to the USA. The age of the researchers ranged from 18 to 55. Approximately, 60
percent were females; 76 percent were undergraduates majoring in business. The majority
(86 percent) had visited a foreign country before as a tourist, and approximately 82 percent
had some pro?ciency in a foreign language[1]. Shoppers completed 146 questionnaires
about consumption experiences at restaurants (44 percent), retail stores (28 percent), and
service ?rms (27 percent). The experiences occurred in England (n ¼ 34), Germany
(n ¼ 28), France (n ¼ 31), Italy (n ¼ 20), Spain (n ¼ 11), and other European countries
(n ¼ 22) such as Finland, Portugal, Scotland, The Netherlands, Ireland and Greece.
Analyses and results
Culture cushion and situational factors
In order to test variations in culture cushion by situational factors, mean scores for each of
the dimensions of culture cushion (excitement and cultural knowledge) were calculated
using an average of the scale items. Data for the situational factors were analyzed using
ANOVA or t-tests to test for mean differences between groups. For each ANOVA (t-test)
results for Levene’s tests of homogeneity (equality) of variances indicate the data passes the
assumption for equal variances. Surprisingly, the dimensions of culture cushion did not vary
for most of the situational factors including experience type, shopping companion,
familiarity, perceived authenticity, and sensation seeking. As such, H1a, H1c, H1e, H2, and
H3 are not supported.
However, the culture cushion excitement dimension did vary by language (H1b) where
experiences in a foreign language (M ¼ 4.76, SD ¼ 1.46) were more exciting than
experiences in English (M ¼ 3.98, SD ¼ 1.56), t(144) ¼ 2.91, p , 0.01, d ¼ 0.52. Cohen’s
(1992) effect size for d indicates a moderate mean difference. In addition, both dimensions
of culture cushion varied by money spent (H1d). For excitement, less than $20 (M ¼ 4.24,
SD ¼ 1.55) were less exciting than more than $20 (M ¼ 4.81, SD ¼ 1.47), t(144) ¼ 2.23,
p , 0.05, d ¼ 0.37. For cultural knowledge, situations in which participants spent less than
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$20 (M ¼ 3.70, SD ¼ 1.29) demonstrated greater cultural knowledge as compared to more
than $20 (M ¼ 3.30, SD ¼ 1.10), t(144) ¼ 2.05, p , 0.05, d ¼ 0.34. However, Cohen’s
(1992) effect size for d indicates a moderate to small mean differences. As such, only H1d is
supported for cultural knowledge while H1b and H1d are supported for excitement.
Culture cushion, perceptions of experience differences, and satisfaction
Data for the perceived experience differences and post-experience outcome variables were
analyzed using mediated regression analyses. Mediated regression was calculated using
Hayes and Preacher’s (2011) MEDIATE macro for SPSS with bootstrapping (5000). The
MEDIATE macro was selected because it can accommodate multiple mediator variables
(Hayes and Preacher, 2011). Each mediation regression analysis assumed a three-variable
system with three causal paths: the direct in?uence of the antecedent on the dependent
variable, the in?uence of the antecedent on the mediator, and the in?uence of mediator on
the dependent variable (Baron and Kenny, 1986). For each mediation model, mediation was
assessed only if the direct in?uence of the antecedent on the dependent variable is
signi?cant (Baron and Kenny, 1986). For each dependent variable, the total effects
(antecedent !dependent), direct effects (mediator !dependent), and mediated effects
(antecedent !mediator !dependent) models were calculated (Hayes and Preacher,
2011). After determining the signi?cance of the total effects model, mediation effects were
assessed by comparing the direct effects model to the mediated effects model. Speci?cally,
full mediation was determined when the antecedent variable no longer affected the
dependent variable after controlling for the mediation variable; partial mediation was
determined when the path from the antecedent variable still had a signi?cant impact on the
dependent variable after the mediation variable was introduced (Hayes and Preacher,
2011).
The ?rst set of mediated regression analyses examined perceptions of experience
differences as a mediator between the relationships between culture cushion dimensions
and satisfaction variables. For each mediation test, the total effects model was signi?cant,
p , 0.05. Adding perceptions of differences as a mediator improved the models for
satisfaction with products (AR
2
Total
¼ 0:19, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:24), satisfaction with atmosphere
(AR
2
Total
¼ 0:27, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:30), satisfaction with service (AR
2
Total
¼ 0:14, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:32),
and overall satisfaction (AR
2
Total
¼ 0:35, AR
2
Med
¼ 0:46). Table II provides the results of the
mediation analyses.
Table II Mediation models for culture cushion, perceived differences, and satisfaction
Total effects
a
Direct effects
b
Mediation effects
c
Model F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
Mediation
Products 17.32 0.19 3.19 0.03 15.54 0.24
Differences b¼20.22 t ¼ 23.13*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.24 t ¼ 2.43* b ¼ 20.29 t ¼ 22.53* b ¼ 0.18 t ¼ 1.78 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.41 t ¼ 5.30* b ¼ 0.05 t ¼ 0.05 b ¼ 0.41 T ¼ 5.48* Direct only
Atmosphere 27.03 0.27 9.36 0.10 21.70 0.30
Differences b ¼ 20.21 t ¼ 22.87*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.33 t ¼ 3.47* b ¼ 20.41 t ¼ 23.80* b ¼ 0.25 t ¼ 2.51* Partial
Excitement b ¼ 0.49 t ¼ 6.50* b ¼ 0.18 t ¼ 2.05* b ¼ 0.53 t ¼ 7.06* Partial
Service 12.30 0.14 6.34 0.07 23.82 0.32
Differences b ¼ 20.47 t ¼ 26.33*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.24 t ¼ 1.91* b ¼ 20.43 t ¼ 23.49* b ¼ 0.03 t ¼ 0.28 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.45 t ¼ 4.59* b ¼ 20.07 t ¼ 20.72 b ¼ 0.42 t ¼ 4.80* Direct only
Overall 39.77 0.35 9.17 0.10 41.67 0.46
Differences b ¼ 20.36 t ¼ 25.42*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.99* b ¼ 20.45 t ¼ 24.28* b ¼ 0.11 t ¼ 1.25 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.42* b ¼ 20.01 t ¼ 20.20 b ¼ 0.42 t ¼ 4.80* Direct only
Notes: Signi?cant at: *p , 0.05;
a
total effects model: culture cushion!satisfaction;
b
direct effects model: culture cushion!perceived
differences;
c
mediation effects model: culture cushion!perceived differences !satisfaction
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For the products, customer service, and overall experience models, culture cushion
excitement had direct, positive effects on satisfaction with no mediation ( p
Direct
.0.05). By
contrast, perceptions of experience differences fully mediated the relationships between
culture cushion knowledge and satisfaction with products (b
Direct
¼20.29, p , 0.05,
b
Med
¼0.18, p . 0.05), satisfaction with service (b
Direct
¼20.43, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.03,
p . 0.05), and overall satisfaction (b
Direct
¼20.45, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.11, p . 0.05). The full
mediation models indicate inverse relationships between knowledge and differences as well
as differences and satisfaction. For each model, an increase in cultural knowledge is
associated with a decrease in perceived differences; a decrease of perceived differences is
then associated with an increase in satisfaction ratings. As such, H4a, H4c, and H4d are fully
supported yet H5a, H5c, and H5d are not supported.
The results also indicate perceived differences in atmosphere partially mediate the
relationship between excitement and satisfaction (b
Direct
¼0.18, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.53,
p , 0.05) and between cultural knowledge and satisfaction (b
Direct
¼20.41, p , 0.05,
b
Med
¼0.25, p , 0.05). For the atmosphere model, perceptions of differences partially
mediate the relationships where:
B greater excitement resulted in higher satisfaction ratings directly and indirectly through
greater perceived differences; and
B greater knowledge resulted in higher satisfaction ratings directly and indirectly by
negatively in?uencing perceived experience differences.
As such, both H4b and H5b are partially supported.
Culture cushion, overall satisfaction, and post-experience attitudes
The second set of mediated regression analyses examined perceptions of overall
satisfaction as a mediator between the relationships between culture cushion dimensions
and post-experience measures. Adding satisfaction as a mediator improved the model for
recommendation intentions (AR
2
Total
¼ 0.35, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.64), repeat patronage intentions
(AR
2
Total
¼ 0.27, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.47), desire to travel (AR
2
Total
¼ 0.22, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.27), and attitude
toward culture (AR
2
Total
¼ 0.17, AR
2
Med
¼ 0.31). Table III provides the results of the mediation
analyses.
For three of the dependent variables, the total effects model for culture cushion knowledge
was not signi?cant ( p
Total
.0.05). As such, culture cushion knowledge had no signi?cant
Table III Mediation models for culture cushion, satisfaction, and post-experience
Total effects
a
Direct effects
b
Mediation effects
c
Model F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
F Adj. R
2
Mediation
Recommend 38.63 0.35 38.25 0.34 83.63 0.64
Satisfaction b¼0.75 t ¼ 10.59*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.22 t ¼ 2.15* b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.02 t ¼ 0.22 Full
Excitement b ¼ 0.70 t ¼ 8.56* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.25 t ¼ 3.32* Partial
Repeat 27.39 0.27 38.25 0.34 42.44 0.47
Satisfaction b ¼ 0.65 t ¼ 7.23*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.17 t ¼ 1.54 b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.00 t ¼ 0.00 None
Excitement b ¼ 0.66 t ¼ 5.03* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.26 t ¼ 2.81* Partial
Desire to travel 20.44 0.22 38.25 0.34 18.12 0.27
Satisfaction b ¼ 0.32 t ¼ 3.26*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.05 t ¼ 0.49 b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.03 t ¼ 0.30 None
Excitement b ¼ 0.55 t ¼ 6.38* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.35 t ¼ 3.54* Partial
Attitude towards culture 15.59 0.17 38.25 0.34 22.41 0.31
Satisfaction b ¼ 0.47 t ¼ 5.44*
Knowledge b ¼ 0.07 t ¼ 0.67 b ¼ 0.27 t ¼ 2.96* b ¼ 0.06 t ¼ 0.61 None
Excitement b ¼ 0.45 t ¼ 5.44* b ¼ 0.60 t ¼ 8.27* b ¼ 0.17 t ¼ 1.91 Full
Notes: Signi?cant at: *p , 0.05;
a
total effects model: culture cushion!post-experience measure;
b
direct effects model: culture
cushion!overall satisfaction;
c
mediation effects model: culture cushion!overall satisfaction !post-experience measure
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in?uence on repeat likelihood, desire to travel, and attitudes towards the culture either
directly or indirectly. Therefore, H6b, H6c, and H6d are not supported. However, for
recommendation likelihood, overall satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between
perceived cultural knowledge and recommendation intentions (b
Direct
¼0.27, p , 0.05,
b
Med
¼0.02, p . 0.05) where increased knowledge resulted in higher satisfaction ratings,
which resulted in increased likelihood to recommend. As such, H6a is fully supported.
Overall, satisfaction partially mediated the relationships between culture cushion excitement
and recommendation likelihood (b
Direct
¼0.60, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.25, p , 0.05), repeat
likelihood (b
Direct
¼0.60, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.26, p , 0.05), and desire to travel (b
Direct
¼0.60,
p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.35, p , 0.05). Speci?cally, greater culture cushion excitement resulted in
increased likelihood to recommend, likelihood to repeat, and desire to travel directly and
indirectly through greater satisfaction. As such, H7a, H6b, and H7c are partially supported.
In addition, overall satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between excitement and
attitude towards the culture (b
Direct
¼0.60, p , 0.05, b
Med
¼0.06, p . 0.05) where greater
excitement resulted in better attitudes towards the culture indirectly through greater
satisfaction. As such, H7d is fully supported.
Discussion and conclusion
This research provides a better understanding of culture cushion relative to its antecedents
and consequences. The study reveals two speci?c and insightful antecedents of culture
cushion: language and money spent. First, the results indicate an international tourist
experience in a foreign language is found to lead to more excitement. Practically, this
suggests ?rms should deliver tourism experiences using the native language. Second, the
results suggest respondents reported signi?cantly more excitement yet less cultural
knowledge during experiences associated with spending more than $20. These ?ndings
could suggest experiences associated with higher spending may be less familiar, more
complex, or more involved from a ritual perspective. As such, this suggests ?rms offering
higher-priced products and services should spend time educating tourists about the culture
and relevant rituals.
The study also revealed unique insights relative to the role of perceived cultural differences.
According to Cohen (1972) the international tourist appreciates and enjoys the strangeness
and novelty inherent in visiting another culture. Events are distinctive from everyday life.
However, Cohen (1972) adds that when an experience becomes too different from his native
culture, the tourist may consider it unpleasant. This may be due to the ?nding that
international tourists bring their own culture with themin service encounter (Winstead, 2007).
These culturally driven expectations shape perceptions of service outcomes, which is
consistent with the ?ndings from this study. Speci?cally, the excitement dimension of the
culture cushion had a direct and positive effect on satisfaction with the products, with
customer service, and overall satisfaction. However, perceptions of differences mediated
the relationship between the knowledge dimension of the culture cushion and satisfaction.
The results indicate the more information participants believed they knew about culture
resulted in a decrease in perceived differences noticed, which ultimately led to higher
satisfaction ratings with the products, the customer service and overall. The results for
atmosphere looked different. In this case, perceptions of differences in atmosphere played a
role for both dimensions both directly and indirectly. Excitement had a positive effect on
perceived differences in atmosphere, which had a positive effect on satisfaction; knowledge
had a negative impact on perceived differences in atmosphere.
These ?ndings suggest that some knowledge about the culture being visited is a good thing.
Educating a tourist to help them become familiar with the local customs should help the
international tourist understand what is happening and be less likely to consider it strange or
lacking. Understanding what is happening and why allows the international tourist to relax and
immerse themselves in the cultural traditions of the country. The results are consistent with
assimilation theory. We suggest that ?rms need to be sensitive to different cultures but should
not treat international tourists differentially. Given this we suggest that ?rms need to be
sensitive to different cultures but should not treat international tourists differentially. Rather they
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should educate consumers relative to what’s happening and why so that the consumer can
understand and appreciate the culturally based differences. This is consistent with Woodside
and Dubelaar (2002) relative to visitor information guides. They found that tourists who read
through visitor information guides prior to their visit were more satis?ed with the trip and spent
more while there. Ahigh level of knowledge of the place visited should clarify expectations and
add to the positive nature of overall evaluations. The ?ndings are also consistent with a study of
the role of tour directors (Cohen, 1985). Tour directors are thought to serve a mediating role
between the cultures. In their role of culture-broker, transcultural interpretation of the unfamiliar
transpires. Cultural driven differences in encounters are explained. The ?ndings of these
studies in conjunction with the results of the present study lead us to suggest tourists should
be educated about similarities and differences in the values and traditions they will encounter
prior to the visit. Understanding culturally derived differences in the encounter will enhance the
outcome for all parties.
Lastly, the in?uence of the culture cushion on satisfaction and several behavioral intention
measures was considered. The results suggest more cultural knowledge results in higher
satisfaction ratings and a greater inclination to recommend. Additionally, excitement
resulted in increased satisfaction and increased intentions to repeat the experience,
increased desire to travel, and stronger intentions to recommend. Therefore, both
dimensions of culture cushion performed as expected. As such, these results provide strong
empirical evidence of what can be done to enhance the international tourist experience.
Cultural differences in the experience are especially positive when the consumer
understands them in advance.
There are limitations to this research. First, the sample size is small (n ¼ 146) due to the
number of students that traveled abroad the summer that data collection was conducted.
Also the data was somewhat skewed due to the nature of the study abroad educational
experience. Additional studies should explore larger sample sizes and other populations of
tourists. Second, the study speci?cally considered US individuals traveling abroad. The fact
that study participants were college students and the one way (USA to Europe) nature of
data collection effort limits the generalizability of the results. Additional studies should be
conducted to see if the results hold in the other direction (Europe to USA) and should
consider additional antecedents such as possibly familiarity with the speci?c ?rm and
involvement. Third, data were collected using only one method: mystery shopping. It would
be interesting to perform this research using another method such as an experiment where
one group was given more cultural information than the other. While this research sheds
much light on the inherent positivity of the international tourist experience much remains to
be understood.
Note
1. Data for language pro?ciency was collected using a self-report measure asking respondents to
indicate level of language abilities. As such, a respondent could have over- or under-estimated
his/her true language pro?ciency.
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About the authors
Katherine B. Hartman earned a BBA and MBA from Ohio University and a PhD from Indiana
University. Her research focuses on communications and retail. Dr Hartman is an Associate
Professor and has published in the Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Personal
Selling and Sales Management, the Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, and the
International Journal of Culture, Tourism, and Hospitality Research. Katherine B. Hartman is
the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Tracy Meyer earned a BBA fromTexas Christian University, a MBA fromXavier University and
spent 15 years in commercial banking before attaining a PhD at the University of Cincinnati.
Her research focuses on consumers’ perceptions of negative events that occur in the
service/retail environment. Dr Meyer is an Associate Professor and has published in the
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, the Journal of Business Research, the
Academy of Marketing Science Review and the Journal of Consumer Psychology.
Heather Hurley earned a BS in Business from the University of North Carolina Wilmington in
2010. She graduated Magna Cum Laude with two concentrations: Marketing with Honors
and Finance. Her honors thesis is entitled ‘‘Exploring culture cushion: consequences
and antecedents’’.
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