Description
This study analyses the development discourse of the WTO by examining the texts of ministerial statements made during the 7th WTO Ministerial Conference.
The WTO and ambiguous language of development. A
rhetorical analysis of the development discourse of the
World Trade Organization.
Finnish Business Communication
Master's thesis
Laura Kangas
2013
Department of Communication
Aalto University
School of Business
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
AALT0 0NIvERSITY SCB00L 0F B0SINESS ASBTRACT
Communication Nastei's Thesis
Lauia Kangas
The WT0 anu the ambiguous language of uevelopment.
A ihetoiical analysis of the uevelopment uiscouise of the Woilu Tiaue 0iganization
"#$%&'()% *+ ',% -'./0
This stuuy analyses the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0 by examining the texts of
ministeiial statements maue uuiing the 7
th
WT0 Ninisteiial Confeience. The objective is to
uiscovei both how anu thiough what kinus of ihetoiical means is uevelopment
linguistically constiucteu in WT0's uevelopment uiscouise. The focus lies on thiee
uistinctive aspects of the uevelopment uiscouise: on the concept of uevelopment, on the
ielationship between tiaue anu uevelopment, anu on the ioles anu powei positions of
uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies in tackling uevelopment.
1%',*/*2*30 45/ ',% 6,%*7%'(&42 8749%:*7;
Epistemologically, the vantage point of this stuuy is post-stiuctuialism anu ciitical
uiscouise analysis, which biing emphasis into the subjectivity of all inteipietations anu
tiuth claims anu uiaw focus on how knowleuge is piouuceu in uiscuisive stiuctuies anu
signifying piactices. Rhetoiical analysis, paiticulaily the theoiies of Chaïm Peielman anu
Kenneth Buike, aie applieu as an inteipietive fiamewoik foi the empiiical analysis. Thus,
the ihetoiical means constiucting the uevelopment uiscouise aie examineu; notably, the
aigumentation techniques, piemises of the aigumentation, ihetoiic piocess of
iuentification anu symbolism. Wheieas ihetoiical analysis examines the linguistic
constiuction of the uiscouise, the content of the uevelopment uiscouise is analyseu by
uiawing fiom a theoietical fiamewoik constiucteu fiom uiveise conceptualizations of
uevelopment accoiuing to uiffeient paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies.
8(5/(53- 45/ => @*72/ 674/% "7345(A4'(*5 45/ ',% B*,4 B%)%2*C9%5' D3%5/4
Woilu Tiaue 0iganization offeis a legal anu institutional fiamewoik foi inteinational tiaue
negotiations anu is the only global inteinational oiganization uealing with the iules of
tiaue between the countiies. The inauguiation of the oiganization uates back to 199S,
when as a iesult of the 0iuguay Rounu (1986-1994), the WT0 was establisheu as a moie
foimal anu institutionalizeu successoi foi ueneial Agieement on Taiiffs anu Tiaue. uATT
was a flexible foium foi tiaue libeialization founueu in 1947 piimaiily with the puipose of
ieconstiucting the wai-toin economies aftei Woilu Wai II. Initially laigely limiteu to a
taiiff agieement, ovei time, as aveiage taiiff levels fell, the uATT came to focus incieasingly
on nontaiiff tiaue policies anu uomestic policies with an impact on tiaue. (Boekman &
Kostecki, 2uu1, 1)
7
Touay, the main activities of the WT0 consist of negotiating tiaue iules, auministeiing anu
monitoiing theii application, ieviewing tiaue policies of membei states, settling tiaue
uisputes, assisting the piocess of accession of some Su countiies who aie not yet membeis,
anu builuing capacity of ueveloping countiies in inteinational tiaue matteis.
1
At the coie
of the oiganization aie the agieements negotiateu anu signeu by the membei countiies.
The unueilying philosophy is that open tiaue, non-uisciimination anu global competition
aie vectois foi economic giowth anu national welfaie in all countiies. (Boekman &
Kostecki, 2uu1, 1) Bence, the mission is "to open tiaue foi the benefit of all"
2
. Bowevei, the
libeialization of tiaue is not always the main goal anu in some ciicumstance the iules
suppoit maintaining tiaue baiiieis, foi example, to piotect consumeis, pievent the spieau
of uisease oi piotect the enviionment.
WT0 Agieements ueal with vast amount of issues such as agiicultuie, textiles anu clothing,
banking, telecommunications, goveinment puichases, inuustiial stanuaius anu piouuct
safety, foou sanitation iegulations, anu intellectual piopeity. Bowevei, theie aie basic
piinciples that ciosscut all these topics anu that theiefoie consist the founuation of the
multilateial tiauing system. Two of these cential aspects of WT0's woik aie the Nost
Favouieu Nation (NFN) clause anu the National Tieatment (NT) clause. While the piinciple
of NFN binus membeis to tieat goou anu seivices of all membeis in the same way, NT
clause obliges not to uisciiminate between foieign anu uomestic piouucts. (uhafele, 2uu4,
444)
Bespite the obscene benevolence WT0's mission statement anu activities encompass, the
oiganization anu its opeiation piinciples have been wiuely anu vehemently ciiticizeu
thioughout its existence. In fact, the oiganization is often blameu, alongsiue the Bietton
Woous institutes, the Woilu Bank anu Inteinational Nonetaiy Funu, to embouy the
unequal woilu powei stiuctuies anu unjustness biought about by globalization anu. This
became stiikingly appaient in Seattle, in 1999, when uuiing a WT0 Ninisteiial Confeience
ovei Su, uuu piotestois gatheieu to uemonstiate theii uenunciation towaius the
oiganization anu global tiaue agenua. (Scott & Wilkinson, 2u1u, 142)
1
About the WT0 ÷ a statement by the Biiectoi-ueneial
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡whatis_e¡wto_ug_stat_e.htm
2
About the WT0 ÷ a statement by the Biiectoi-ueneial
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡whatis_e¡wto_ug_stat_e.htm
8
Piobably the most well tiouuen iationale foi ciiticism stems fiom WT0's allegeu
ieputation as "0lu Woilu's Club" uiiven mainly by its iich anu poweiful membeis. Nany
low-income membeis uo not have the iesouices to establish a uiplomatic iepiesentation in
ueneva, wheie the WT0 is heauquaiteieu, anu those low-income countiies that have this,
lack auequate human iesouices anu technical infiastiuctuie to have ieal impact on the
WT0 agenua. While most economically stiong countiies senu an impoitant numbei of
tiaue expeits to ueneva to ueal exclusively with WT0 issues, many low-income countiies
have couple of uiplomats who covei all the 0N agencies anu activities in ueneva. As uhafele
(2uu4, 44S) points out, this is why, foi example, the Bispute Settlement Nechanism has
nevei been maue use of any sub-Sahaian Afiican countiy. Bue to these asymmetiies, the
uevelopeu countiies aie geneially ciiticiseu foi uictating the tiaue iules. (see e.g. Stiglitz,
2uu2, 4S8)
In an attempt to iesponse to these consiueiations, the WT0 has uevoteu its latest iounu of
tiaue negotiations to impioving tiauing piospects of ueveloping countiies anu thus, to
suppoiting uevelopment. A unique featuie of the Boha Rounu is the iecognition that
negotiations on maiket access anu tiaue policy uisciplines must be complementeu by
measuies to assist ueveloping countiy expoiteis, notably aiu foi tiaue. (Boekman & Nicita,
2u1u, 67) Boha Rounu incluues altogethei 2u negotiation aieas that incluue, foi example,
agiicultuie, maiket access foi non-agiicultuial piouucts (NANA), seivices, tiaue-ielateu
aspects of intellectual piopeity iights (TRIPS), tiaue facilitation, technical baiiieis to tiaue
(TBT), uispute settlement unueistanuing (BS0) anu iegional tiaue agieements. The
negotiations aie uesciibeu as a "single unueitaking", which means they foim a single
package to be signeu by each countiy with a single signatuie without any option to pick
anu choose between uiffeient subjects.
S
The Boha Bevelopment Rounu has been wiuely ieseaicheu among scholais of economics,
social sciences anu law. Foi example, Anueisson & Naitin (2uuS) anu Boekman & Nicita
(2u1u) pleau foi uigent completion of the Rounu uue to its allegeu substantial gains foi
ueveloping countiies. Bowevei, as alieauy mentioneu, the conclusion of the iounu has
S
Boha Bevelopment Agenua - Subjects tieateu unuei the Boha Bevelopment Agenua
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uua_e¡uohasubjects_e.htm
9
pioven paiticulaily challenging. The negotiations have collapseu iepeateuly anu although
the fiist ueauline was in 2uuS anu has since been iepeateuly postponeu, the iounu hasn't
ieacheu its conclusion yet touay. Among the negotiation aieas theie aie some that have
small uisagieements while otheis have enoimous. Especially tiaue in agiicultuie, which
coveis less than 8% of the woilu tiaue, is a sensitive aiea of negotiations foi both
ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies. (Bas, 2uu8, 29S) Bistoiically, it has been an aiea of
majoi uiscoiu, which cieateu seiious negotiation blockages in the 0iuguay Rounu anu kept
the Boha Rounu agenua off tiack. It has been wiuely uiscusseu that theie has been a bias in
the multilateial tiaue iegime against ueveloping countiies tiaue in agiicultuie, anu that it
must be auuiesseu foithwith. As Bas (2uu8, 29S) mentions, the question at stake heie is in
essence the elimination of huge subsiuies anu high taiiffs by uevelopeu countiies.
Anothei stiain of ciitique claims that the topics anu pioposals consisting the Rounu's
agenua aie as a mattei of fact of little ielevance to the uevelopment context (see e.g. }ensen
& uibbon, 2uu7). Thus, naming the Rounu "Bevelopment Agenua" woulu have been nothing
but a shallow attempt to mollify the opponents. Foi example, the uisengagement with
agiicultuial issues uue to theii sensitiveness has iesulteu in a situation, in which a
plausible conclusion of the Boha Rounu woulu not mean ielevant changes in tiaue in
agiicultuie anu, foi example, Scott anu Wilkinson (2u1u, 147) aigue that without
auuiessing the heateu questions of agiicultuie, the Rounu coulu by no means be calleu
Bevelopment Rounu. While the Rounu has been subject of a laige numbei of economic
analysis examining the size anu uistiibution of benefits, the geneial opinion among
scholais has uevelopeu moie ciitical towaius the benefits a plausible conclusion of the
Bevelopment Rounu woulu have foi ueveloping countiies. In auuition, some aigue that the
mouest gains the iounu woulu cieate, woulu be highly unevenly uistiibuteu with a few
laige ueveloping countiies, piimaiily China, Inuia anu Biazil, accounting foi most of the
benefits, while many aieas, notably Sub-Sahaian Afiica, aie likely to be left woise off. (Scott
& Wilkison, 2u1u, 146)
Fuitheimoie, the fact, whethei the WT0 can anu shoulu puisue uevelopment objectives, is
also contioveisial. As Evenett anu Boekman (2uuS, 1-2) point out, some aie of the view
that WT0's focus shoulu be limiteu to incieasing maiket access oppoitunities anu tiaue
libeialization. While global libeialization can piomote uevelopment piospects, much
1u
uepenus on whethei goveinments puisue complementaiy policies to enhance the ability of
local people to benefit fiom it. Theiefoie, piomoting the auoption of such policies woulu be
the task of national goveinments anu not the WT0.
While the WT0 anu the Boha Rounu have been wiuely ieseaicheu, also my focus on the
language in the context of WT0 anu especially the language of uevelopment in uiffeient
contexts have been the object of numeious ieseaich. I piesent some of this ieseaich next.
=>E> F7%)(*.- 7%-%47&,
Textual anu linguistic analysis have been somewhat, but not wiuely, conuucteu in the
context of the WT0. Foi example, the aigumentative pioceuuies of the Bispute Settlement
System have been examineu by applying }üigen Babeimas' uiscuisive theoiy by Ceva anu
Fiacasso (2u1u). Also the content anu ueployment of the ciisis uiscouise fiaming the
negotiations uuiing the Boha Rounu has been analyseu (Wilkinson, 2uu9). Noieovei,
metaphois of globalization anu tiaue have been examineu by uhafele (2uu4), who analyseu
inteiviews of WT0 staff anu tiaue uiplomats of low-income Afiican countiies.
The main subject of my ihetoiical analysis, uevelopment, has been geneially iecognizeu as
a lingual phenomenon anu iathei extensively analyseu especially aftei the 198us by the so-
calleu post-uevelopment school. This ieseaich has geneially focuseu on the iueological
aspects of the uevelopment uiscouise by ciitically examining the iueological featuies
embeuueu in the language anu vocabulaiy of uevelopment (see e.g. Sachs, 1992; Escobai,
199S). I intiouuce anu uesciibe moie uetaileu the appioach of post-uevelopment in
chaptei 2.1, but it is notewoithy that I shaie the viewpoint of post-uevelopment in my
ieseaich by ciitically sciutinizing the notions of uevelopment insteau of taking them foi
gianteu.
To my knowleuge, the concept of uevelopment in ministeiial statements oi in any WT0
uocuments uuiing the Boha Bevelopment Rounu has so fai not been examineu. Bue to the
topical natuie of the immense pioblematic iegaiuing the conclusion of negotiations, I aigue
that such analysis is ielevant. Fuitheimoie, uue to the thoiny natuie of WT0's
11
uevelopment aspect, the sciutiny of the concept of uevelopment in paiticulai is of
impoitance.
=>G> H%-%47&, 9%',*/ 45/ I.%-'(*5-
The concepts of uevelopment anu tiaue aie the two linchpins at the coie of my thesis. The
theoietical fiamewoik is pioviueu by the multifaceteu uiscussion the uiffeient histoiical
anu contempoiaiy paiauigms in uevelopment stuuies encompass on how uevelopment anu
its linkages with tiaue aie unueistoou. The chaptei 2 intiouuces these viewpoints on
uevelopment anu tiaue, anu the table 2 iecapitulates the uiffeient contempoiaiy
theoietical appioaches to uevelopment. Thiough this fiamewoik I examine the content of
WT0's uevelopment uiscouise anu iecognize elements of the paiauigms in my ieseaich
mateiial.
As a tool foi sciutinizing the language I apply ihetoiical analysis, which pioviues me with
means to analyse the unueipinning connotations anu iepiesentations that aie linguistically
embeuueu. While the chaptei 2 gives me the fiamewoik to iecognize elements consisting
the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0, the chaptei S intiouuces the methouology,
ihetoiical analysis, which I use as a inteipietive fiamewoik foi appioaching the empiicial
analysi anu examining thiough what ihetoiical means the uiscouise is constiucteu. In the
methouology pait, I intiouuce anu uiscuss ihetoiical analysis as a tool foi analysing the
language, anu in auuition, piesent ciitical uiscouise analysis, which is the theoietical
vantage point foi my ieseaich. The chaptei intiouuces elements anu histoiy of ihetoiical
analysis, but in paiticulai focuses on the theoiies of new ihetoiists !"#$% '()(*%#+ #+,
Kenneth Buike. In uesigning the methou best suiteu foi my analytical puiposes, I uiaw in
paiticulai fiom the theoiies of these two.
Ny ieseaich questions aie
1) Bow is the concept of uevelopment linguistically constiucteu in the uevelopment
uiscouise of the WT0.
2) Bow is the ielationship between tiaue anu uevelopment linguistically constiucteu in
the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0.
12
S) Bow aie the ioles anu powei positions of uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies in
tackling uevelopment linguistically constiucteu in the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0.
The focus of my analysis is both the content of WT0's uevelopment uiscouise anu its
linguistic constiuction paiticulaily thiough ihetoiical means in the ministeiial statements
of the 7
th
WT0 Ninisteiial Confeience. Ny ieseaich mateiial natuially iepiesents only one
sample of a much wiuei uevelopment uiscouise within the WT0, but neveitheless, it
paiticipates in piouucing the 'language of uevelopment' of the oiganization. Questions in
paiticulai of my inteiest aie, foi example, is uevelopment seen meiely as an economic
piocess; is the content of uevelopment uefineu; how is a ceitain unueistanuing of
uevelopment justifieu; what aie the unstateu piemises of the aigumentation; aie the
benefits of tiaue foi uevelopment questioneu oi iegaiueu as a fact; anu is uevelopment
biought to ueveloping countiies fiom the outsiue oi uo ueveloping countiies claim agency
in the piocess, i.e. who is in chaige of the piocess of uevelopment.
These questions aie uiscusseu in chaptei 4, which is uiviueu into thiee paits as pei my
ieseaich questions. In auuition, in the beginning of chaptei 4, I uesciibe the context of the
7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience anu the ministeiial statements as mateiial foi my ieseaich. In
chaptei S, I uiscuss the key finuings of my ieseaich anu pioviue suggestions foi futuie
ieseaich.
1S
E> B%)%2*C9%5' 5*: 45/ #%+*7%
Any uiscussion on uevelopment must be piemiseu on uefining the concept itself.
Theiefoie, in this chaptei I focus on elaboiating how anu thiough what kinu of language
uiffeient paiauigms conceptualize what is meant by uevelopment. Fiom the basis of these
iueological anu theoietical ieckonings, I, fuitheimoie, piesent uiffeient viewpoints on the
iole of tiaue in uevelopment stuuies. This pioviues me with a fiamewoik to appioach my
ieseaich mateiial anu examine the conceptualizations of uevelopment embeuueu in it.
Bevelopment is by no means an unequivocal concept. The teim, wiuely useu in seveial
fielus, is ielatively value-fiee, but fiist anu foiemost uynamic, because as Linubeig (2uu4,
87) notes, it encompasses a ceitain peiception of change, piogiess anu evolution.
Accoiuing to Esteva (1992, 8), uevelopment, in common pailance, uesciibes a "piocess
thiough which the potentialities of an object oi oiganism aie ieleaseu, until it ieaches its
natuial, complete full-fleugeu foim." Bowevei, the teims uevelopeu anu unueiuevelopeu
aie embeuueu with stiong evaluative connotations. Esteva (1992, 8) suggests that
uevelopment occupies the centie of an incieuibly poweiful semantic constellation, but at
the same time, veiy few woius aie as feeble, as fiagile anu as incapable of giving substance
anu meaning to thought anu behavioui.
Sachs (1992, 2) aigues that the inauguiation of the age of uevelopment uiscussions in its
cuiient foim in inteinational ielations was in 1949, when Baiiy S. Tiuman ueclaieu the
Southein hemispheie foi the fiist time as unueiuevelopeu aiea. Latei, the teim
'unueiuevelopeu countiies' was ieplaceu by allegeuly less uismissive 'ueveloping
countiies'. This uefinition is, howevei, also highly pioblematic. Bave countiies not uefineu
as 'ueveloping' ieacheu a ceitain eligible level anu halteu uevelopment. Is uevelopment a
means to ieach this level oi an enu in itself. If the foimei applies, how is this iueal uefineu
anu by whom. Bevelopment encompasses always change, but can this change also be foi
woise.
What is actually meant by uevelopment vaiies gieatly accoiuing to the paiauigm, political
uoctiine oi iueological peiception in question. As Thomas (2uuu, 29) notes, uevelopment
can be eithei a vision, uepiction of a histoiical piocess of change oi a taiget-oiienteu action
14
aiming to impiove the status quo. In auuition, uevelopment is geneially peiceiveu as a
piocess oi as a conuition. The uiffeient paiauigms have gieat influence on the visions anu
piactice of uevelopment politics, anu shifts in ways to conceive uevelopment aie both
histoiical anu cyclic. (Seivaes, 1999, 8) While uiffeient notions coexist anu oveilap, they
can anyhow leau into stiikingly uiffeient emphases in teims of tools applieu in
uevelopment woik. Peispectives vaiy fiom stiessing the impoitance to libeialize maikets
anu inciease investment to piomoting liteiacy anu impioving sanitation anu hygiene
conuitions. As Simon (1997, 184) notes, it is eviuent that theie has nevei been consensus
oi unanimity about the meaning oi content of uevelopment.
Accoiuing to vaiious scholais, the geneial opinion among acauemics anu politics has
changeu fiom naiiow-minueu emphasis on the economic aspects to gieatly wiuei anu
moie multifaceteu conceptions of uevelopment (e.g. Seivaes, 1999; Besai & Pottei, 2uu8).
This has been exemplifieu by changes in measuiing uevelopment: foi example, when the
meie uBP calculatoi has been supplementeu by the Buman Bevelopment Inuex. I uiscuss
biiefly the histoiy of uevelopment stuuies anu the changes taken place in viewpoints foi
uevelopment next.
E>=> 87*9 9*/%75(A4'(*5 ',%*70 '* C*-'J/%)%2*C9%5'
The classical uiscouise of uevelopment stuuies, moueinization theoiy, oiiginates fiom the
19Sus. (Bettne, 2uu1, 28) The wai-toin Euiope pioviueu a mouel foi state-uiiecteu
moueinization of the `new nations´, anu uevelopment implieu biiuging the gap by means of
an imitative piocess, in which the less uevelopeu countiies giauually assumeu the qualities
of the uevelopeu. The pioblem of unueiuevelopment was stateu to be solveu by a
somewhat mechanical application of the economic anu political system in the West to the
countiies of the Thiiu Woilu. (Seivaes, 1999, S) This mainly economic-oiienteu view
chaiacteiizeu by enuogenism anu evolutionism was exemplifieu in Rostow's (196u)
celebiatoiy "Stages of economic giowth: a non-communist manifesto". Within the
fiamewoik of the colu wai, Rostow iankeu countiies baseu on theii stage of uevelopment,
0SA being piesenteu as an iueal at the highest stage. Noie sociologist appioach to
moueinization was applieu by, foi example, Talcott Paisons, who conceiveu societal
1S
change thiough natuialistic concepts such as oiganic evolution oi uiffeientiation.
(Eyeiman, 1984) Bowevei, whethei the vantage point was economic oi sociological,
moueinization theoiy peiceiveu mouein inuustiial society as the enu point.
Fiom the 196us, moueinization theoiy was challengeu by the uepenuency school.
Bepenuency theoiy oiiginates fiom the Latin Ameiican scholais ciiticizing the
uevelopment stiategies followeu paiticulaily in theii native continent, but was latei
applieu wiuei anu biought to the notice of uevelopment stuuies in Noith Ameiica anu
Euiope especially by Anuié uunuei Fiank. (Conway & Beynen, 2uu8, 92-9S) The focus of
the theoiy was on aiticulating the weak stiuctuial position of the Thiiu Woilu countiies in
the woilu system. 0nueiuevelopment was ueemeu as an unavoiuable outcome of
uevelopment, because the way the pooi countiies aie integiateu to the woilu system
iesults in the 'coie' of the woilu being eniicheu at the expense of the 'peiipheiy'. (Bettne,
2uu1, 28)
The two classical paiauigms in uevelopment stuuies, moueinization anu uepenuency
school, exemplifieu the uiscussion in the fielu until the 198us. Accoiuing to Schuuiman,
(2uuu, 7) these two contiauictoiy schools of thought, howevei in uialogue, shaieu thiee
piesumptions, the questioning of which finally leu to a geneial impasse being stiuck in the
fielu. Fiistly, the Thiiu Woilu anu its inhabitants weie essentializeu as homogeneous
entities. Seconuly, an unconuitional belief in piogiess anu the makeability of the society
pievaileu. Thiiuly, the (nation) state was useu as analytical fiame of iefeience, anu theie
was political anu scientific confiuence in the iole of the state in iealising piogiess. Fiom the
miu-198us onwaius these piesumptions lost theii hegemony status anu both
moueinization anu uepenuency theoiy seemeu to be losing out in teims of theii
explanatoiy poweis. Noueinization theoiy was geneially ciitiqueu foi its westein
ethnocentiism anu blinu ieliance on economic giowth. 0n the othei hanu, the ciitical
uepenuency school uiun't seem to be pioviuing much of answeis how the uevelopment
coulu be enableu. (Schuuiman, 2uu8, 1S)
The uevelopment pessimism set in when it was iealizeu that the gap between pooi anu iich
countiies continueu to wiuen. The classical uiscouise anu uevelopment stiategies seemeu
to be piouucing the opposite of theii piomises, i.e. massive unueiuevelopment,
16
impoveiishment, untolu exploitation anu iepiession. (Escobai, 199S, 4) Fuitheimoie,
wheie economic giowth hau occuiieu it hau catastiophic effects on the enviionment, anu
the enu of ieal-existing socialism hau iemoveu socialist-inspiieu uevelopment tiajectoiies
fiom the acauemic anu political agenuas. (Schuuiman, 2uuu, 9) Accoiuing to Bouus (2uu8,
4), the enu of the colu wai exemplifieu the fielu also in a moie conciete way, since uuiing
the wai, the Thiiu Woilu was above all coineu to iefei to an unallieu teiiitoiy, wheie both
the westein anu communist woilu suppoiteu uevelopment stiictly foi theii own
geopolitical puiposes seeking to piomulgate theii iueology anu exploit tiauing
oppoitunities.
Buiing the same uecaue, the postmoueinist ciitique stiuck the social sciences in geneial,
anu uevelopment stuuies in paiticulai uue to its noimative chaiacteiistics. Bevelopment
theoiies baseu on meta-uiscouise oi on the iole of a collective emancipatoiy agency weie
accuseu of lacking a sounu basis. (Schuuiman, 2uu8, 14) The so-calleu post-uevelopment
thinking focuses on the unueilying piemises anu motives of uevelopment, but what sets it
apait fiom othei ciitical appioaches is that it iejects the concept of uevelopment
altogethei. (Neueiveen Pieteise, 2uuu, 17S) This postmouein, even anti-moueinist,
uevelopment thinking was intiouuceu by, foi example, Wolfgang Sachs, who aigues that
histoiy has pioven uevelopment uoesn't woik anu has giown obsolete. (Sachs, 1992, 1)
Theiefoie, iefeiiing to the pievailing uevelopment concept, Sachs states that "it is time to
uismantle this mental stiuctuie". The postmouein methou of ueconstiuction ievealeu that
the notion of uevelopment containeu a numbei of hiuuen anu unwaiianteu evolutionist,
univeisalist anu ieuuctionist uimensions, anu any westein scholai aiming to woik in the
fielu was waineu of having a false consciousness. (Schuuiman, 2uuu, 1u) While as Escobai
(199S, 4) notes, uevelopment has cieateu a "space" in which only ceitain elements aie saiu
oi even imagineu, the post-uevelopment liteiatuie teaches not to take this "space" foi
gianteu. The influence of Foucault has also shapeu the paiauigm, since the notions on
powei anu knowleuge have been biought on the agenua also in uevelopment stuuies,
notably the peiception that who uefines uevelopment, contiols uevelopment. (Biigg, 2uu2,
421)
These ciitical stances challenging the classical paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies have leu
to a situation wheie at the beginning of the twenty-fiist centuiy, the whole existence of the
17
fielu of stuuy was questioneu. Accoiuing to Schuuiman (2uuu,1S), pessimists weie ieauy
to call the enu of the millennium the enu of uevelopment stuuies, anu its pioposeu
ieplacement, global stuuies, was alieauy beckoning. The main appioaches, since the
establishment of the fielu, aie iecapitulateu in the following table (applieu fiom Willis,
2uuS).
64#2% => 14(5 4CC7*4&,%- '* /%)%2*C9%5'
19Sus Noueinization theoiies
Stiuctuialist theoiies
196us Noueinization theoiies
Bepenuency theoiies
197us Bepenuency theoiies
Basic neeu appioaches
Neo-Nalthusian theoiies
Women anu uevelopment
198us Neo-libeialism
uiassioots appioaches
Sustainable uevelopment
uenuei anu uevelopment
199us Neo-libeialism
Post-uevelopment
Sustainable uevelopment
Cultuie anu uevelopment
2uuus Neo-libeialism
Sustainable uevelopment
Post-uevelopment
uiassioots appioaches
18
In the next pait, I categoiize anu elaboiate moie on contempoiaiy appioaches to
uevelopment, which aie, howevei, piemiseu on these histoiical paiauigms uiscusseu
above. I piesume the contempoiaiy appioaches to be ielevant in the context of the
uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0 anu the ieflection, thus, pioviues me with a fiamewoik
to appioach my ieseaich mateiial.
E>E> /%)%2*C9%5'42 -'4'%
The neolibeial agenua often gains the status of hegemonic uiscouise in the uiscussion on
uevelopment politics touay. Thomas (2uu4, 4S8) aigues that uespite uiffeient peispectives
19
on uevelopment have been intiouuceu anu have ostensibly establisheu theii position, they
neveitheless haven't succeeueu in actually changing the agenua in the uiscussion. While
mentions of human oi sustainable uevelopment aie nowauays common in uiscussions the
coie message eulogizing economic giowth still pievails. Also Simon (1997, 4) anu Fine
(2uu9, 88S) aigue that neolibeialism has inuisputably enjoyeu longstanuing uominance
especially on account of the powei of its institutional auvocates.
The neolibeial iueology uiaws squaiely on classical economic theoiies of Auam Smith oi
Baviu Ricaiuo: by leaving the job to the invisible hanu, the Paieto-optimal outcome will
follow anu maiket efficiency will engenuei uevelopment thiough economic giowth. (Chang
& uiabel, 2uu4, 14) The main iestiiction on an inheient tenuency foi a fiee capitalist
economy to giow is ueemeu to be maiket failuie iesulting fiom peiveise goveinmental
iegulation oi othei uomestic featuies such as coiiupt politicians oi ient-seeking
buieauciats. (Bettne, 2uu8, 9) Najoi foices such as the Woilu Bank anu Inteinational
Nonetaiy Funu weie the most vocal pioponents of neolibeialism as the best souice foi
economic giowth anu uevelopment all aiounu the woilu, anu in the giounus of this
iueology, the highly contioveisial stiuctuial aujustment piogiammes baseu on the
Washington Consensus, eulogizing fiee maiket economy, weie intiouuceu in the 198us to
seveial ueveloping countiies.
Neolibeialism inheiiteu many aspects fiom the moueinization school, which is why Simon
(1997, 184) iefeis to it as contempoiaiy incaination of moueinization theoiy. Iueologically
not fai fiom Rostow's (196u) stages of economic giowth uevelopment is peiceiveu in a
top-uown lineai mannei fiom the westein point of view, economic giowth given the
supieme iole in the piocess. Fuitheimoie, uevelopment is ueemeu as an inheiently
univeisal economic piocess, anu the pioblem of its ueficiency is piimaiily uomestic.
The ieliance on economic giowth benefiting the whole society engenueis gieatly fiom the
concept of tiickle-uown effect. Even thought meiely the elite woulu benefit fiom the
giowth fiist hanu, the piospeiity is believeu to "tiickle uown" also to the lowei classes in
the society, because maikets autonomously engenuei ieuistiibution of economic giowth.
(Aghion & Bolton, 1997)
2u
Economic-centieu uevelopment stiategies can also sweai by some level of state
inteivention as a way to iealize economic giowth. Buiing the post-wai peiiou, uespite the
theoiy oi school of thought in question, uevelopment was always peiceiveu to be achieveu
thiough vaiiations on Keynesian appioaches. (Seivaes, 1999, 2) Neolibeialism changeu
this view stiikingly uuiing the 198us, biinging emphases of maiket, tiaue libeialization
anu minimum state inteivention to the public agenua. Bowevei, issues such as the
ielevance of inuustiial policies aie vehemently uebateu still touay. Foi example, the
concept of uevelopmental state is aigueu by some to be behinu the economic success of the
so-calleu East-Asian tigeis (see e.g. Woo-Commings, 1999).
Bespite whethei the economic giowth is being leu by the invisible hanu oi state, the
piocess of countiies ueveloping in an iuentical mannei towaius an inuustiializeu economy
iesembles the notion of moueinization theoiy. Not fai fiom the moueinization paiauigm
touches also the topical uiscussion on economies' competitiveness: states aiming to climb
up the staiis of success by the means of innovation anu efficiency. Bence, uespite the
polemic ciitique the moueinization paiauigm has uiawn uuiing the last uecaues, the iueas
somewhat accommouateu still live on stiongly.
!"!"#"#" %&'()*&+, *+ ,-./'
The neolibeial economic-centieu views on tiaue uiaw squaiely fiom the theoiies of mastei
economists such as Baviu Ricaiuo oi Eli Beckschei anu Beitil 0hlin. (Lévy, 2uuS) While
the classical conception of fiee tiaue benefiting all fiom the basis of compaiative auvantage
is natuially a theoietical simplification of the complex mouein woilu, the basic iueology is
still useu as giounus foi economic policies. Inteinational tiaue peimits an expansion of the
piouuction possibility set anu, thus, leaves all the tiauing paitneis bettei off. Bowevei, this
potential impiovement may not necessaiily tianslate into an actual impiovement foi all
conceineu anu the uistiibution of the gains fiom fiee tiaue is the main ieason behinu the
ambiguity conceining tiaue's impacts.
The uistiibutional aiguments aie the common iationale foi inteiventionist policies anu
have leu to a global economic system filleu with taiiffs, quotas anu othei baiiieis to fiee
tiaue. Theiefoie, the aim foi complete tiaue libeialization is moie iealistically ieplaceu by
21
the puisuance of negotiation anu compliance of faii tiaue iules in fiames of which the
global multilateial tiauing system can opeiate efficiently anu justly enhancing the
tiansition towaius fieei tiaue. At the WT0, the aim of the woik has nevei been fiee tiaue
but fieei tiaue, anu theiefoie, as uhafele (2uu4, 44S) notes, the WT0 as a mattei of fact
contiauicts the libeial tiaue theoiies it theoietically auheies. The puisuance of faii iules
piomoting fiee tiaue anu allowing the tiauing countiies to fully exploit the oppoitunities
tiaue pioviues them with, is inuisputably in the inteiests of all. Bowevei, the quanuaiy is
engenueieu when in the piogiess of libeialisation, the tiauing paitneis aie faceu with the
piisonei's uilemma. (Ray, 1998, 621) Even though a coopeiative solution of at least paitial
libeialization woulu be Paieto optimal, it woulu be unlikely to iesult out of inuiviuual
uncooiuinateu uecisions. The negotiation is baseu on &'() *+, &',, which legitimates the
neeu foi a cooiuinateu anu institutionalizeu negotiation platfoim, such as the WT0.
E>E>E> L.945J&%5'7%/ 4CC7*4&,%-
The seconu gioup consists of vaiious uiffeient paiauigms I pool togethei foi the puipose of
simplification. The combining factoi is the focus placeu on the people, human well-being
anu human iights. Elliot (2uu8, 4u) uesciibes this change of emphases in uevelopment
suggesting that the piactice anu uiscouises of uevelopment have become moie moially
infoimeu paiticulaily since the late 198us. As a iesult of this piocess, in 1986, the 0niteu
Nations auopteu the 0N Beclaiation on the Right to Bevelopment, within which
uevelopment itself was iuentifies as an inalienable human iight.
4
Buman iights anu well-being have unquestionably always been a concein in uevelopment
stuuies, but insteau of being uiiectly tackleu, they weie ueemeu to follow the lineai piocess
of economic uevelopment. 0ne of the fiist appioaches to tackle uiiectly the ueliveiy of
welfaie outcomes was the so-calleu "basic neeus" - appioach uating to the beginning of
197us. Accoiuing to Elliot (2uu8, 42), the basic neeus appioach uiu much to put poveity,
human neeus anu iights back on official uevelopment agenuas anu iesulteu in vaiious
4
0N ueneial Assembly - A¡RES¡41¡128 Beclaiation on the Right to Bevelopment
http:¡¡www.un.oig¡uocuments¡ga¡ies¡41¡a41i128.htm
22
piogiammes focusing on householus anu coveiing aspects of health, euucation, faiming
anu iepiouuction piactices.
Anothei influential appioach was intiouuceu by Amaitya Sen (1999), who intiouuceu
uevelopment as a piocess of ieal fieeuoms that people enjoy. Accoiuing to him,
uevelopment consists of the iemoval of vaiious types of unfieeuoms that leave people with
little choice anu little oppoitunity to exeicise theii ieasoneu agency. Fieeuom is theiefoie
iuentifieu as the main object of uevelopment, anu the focus is put paiticulaily on the ioles
anu inteiconnections between ciucial instiumental fieeuoms, such as economic
oppoitunities, political fieeuoms, social facilities, tianspaiency guaiantees anu piotective
secuiity. (Sen, 1999, 7) Economic giowth, inuustiialization, technological auvances oi
social moueinization can be means to expanu fieeuoms, but they aie nevei iuentifieu as
uevelopment themselves.
The human focus is shaieu also by the paiticipatoiy uevelopment appioach, the puipose of
which is to involve local people in theii own uevelopment. This appioach conuemns the
classical uevelopment piactices as westein ethnocentiic, uisempoweiing, anu
chaiacteiizeu by top-uownism. (Nohan, 2uu8, 46-47) The main iuea is that eveiy society
must uefine uevelopment foi itself anu finu its own stiategy. (Seivaes, 1999, 6) As Nohan
(2uu8, 47) mentions, the focus is on the giass-ioots level, often involving civil society,
which peimits a pluiality of uevelopment goals to be iealizeu, as well as giving
communities self-ueteimination they neeu. A cential concept in paiticipatoiy uevelopment
is empoweiment, which Nelkote anu Kanuath (2uu1, 197) uefine as a uynamic piocess that
enhances the possibilities of an inuiviuual oi a community to face the continuous social
changes. Bence, the piocess of uevelopment is being foimeu in a bottom-up -mannei, anu
the agency in uevelopment is given to ueveloping countiies.
The emphasis on paiticipation is pait of a wiuei movement, which has tiansfoimeu
oithouox thinking about public sectoi management ovei the last two uecaues anu maue
uecision-making baseu on paiticipation, iathei than imposition, cential to the iuea of
moueinity. (Biett, 2uuS, 2) The uemanu foi paiticipatoiy uevelopment is an integial pait
of peisonal anu social emancipation. Nohan (2uu8, 46) aigues that behinu the appioach is
also the belief in not ielying on the state, anu theiefoie it might not be coinciuental that
2S
paiticipatoiy uevelopment gaineu populaiity aiounu the same time as the neolibeial
countei-ievolution of the 198us, with its uiscouise of self-help anu inuiviuualism.
!"!"!"!" %&'()*&+, *+ ,-./'
The human appioaches to uevelopment peiceive the auvantages oi uisauvantages of tiaue
in a similai giassioots mannei than its concept of uevelopment. In essence, tiaue is
ueemeu neithei puiely uetiimental noi beneficial, but insteau, it can be both. The focal
point is the changes tiaue biings to the lives of local communities anu inuiviuuals.
The coie of the uiscussion iegaiuing tiaue is often the fact how it cieates anu uestioys jobs
oi moie piecisely, as Weinstein (2uuS, S) points out, ueteimines wheie the jobs aie
locateu. The negative consequences that tiaue piouuce to local communities aie often
iaiseu to public agenua, but tiaue can also be useu to enhance the living stanuaius of
people, anu paiticipatoiy uevelopment appioach can focus on piogiams facilitating anu
suppoiting local tiauing piactices. The faii tiaue movement aiming to help piouuceis in
ueveloping countiies is a goou example of this appioach.
E>E>G> M'7.&'.742(-' 4CC7*4&,%- N :*72/ -0-'%9- ',%*70 45/ &7('(&42 32*#42(A4'(*5
/(-&.--(*5
Refeiences to unjust global stiuctuies aie iaiseu to public agenua to this uay especially by
vast amount of uevelopment Nu0s. Foi example, Kepa, the Finnish Seivice Centie foi
Bevelopment Coopeiation, has emphasizeu that poveity is a iesult of stiuctuies that feeu
societal inequality, anu the eiauication of poveity - enuing of impoveiishment - can be
successful only if these stiuctuies anu piactices will be uismantleu. (Wilska et al. 2uu4)
The emphases put on global stiuctuies iesemble the iueas of )-*-.)(/$#/ anu iepiesent its
moie contempoiaiy veision, the woilu systems theoiy, accoiuing to which any countiy's
uevelopment conuitions anu piospects aie shapeu piimaiily by economic piocesses,
commouities chains, uivisions of laboui anu geopolitical ielationships opeiating at the
global scale. (Klak, 2uu8, 1u1)
24
Iueologically close to uepenuency school is also touay's ciitical globalization uiscussions,
accoiuing to which the way globalization is coming about inevitably cieates winneis anu
loseis. ulobalization is geneially iecognizeu as consisting thiee uiffeient stianus: the
economic, the cultuial anu the political. (Pottei, 2uu8, 192) Tiaue, capital flows anu
immigiation can be seen as the most conciete embouiments of globalization, notably
economic. Fuitheimoie, featuies of tiaue, capital flows anu immigiation aie blameu to be
the cause foi the uiscontents of globalization. Issues such as tiaue patteins, global value
chains anu new inteinational uivision of laboui become piominent factois that cause
spatial inequality uue to global piouuction, owneiship anu economic piocesses0 The global
economy is becoming moie anu moie chaiacteiizeu by polaiization, with some people anu
iegions at the cutting euge of globalization, while otheis aie maiginalizeu. 0ne of the most
influential globalization ciitics }oseph E. Stiglitz (2uuS, 2S1) aigues that "globalization has
been hijackeu by the special inteiests in the Noith, often at the expense of the pooi in
ueveloping countiies".
Theie aie vaiious views among woilu systems theoiies anu ciitical globalization
appioaches, but the basis on which I combine them is the theoietical simplification of theii
coie message iuentical to the uepenuency theoiy: othei paits of the woilu gaining on the
expense of otheis. In auuition, chaiacteiistic foi these theoiies seems to be the emphases
put on exteinal factois when the pioblems of ueveloping countiies aie being examineu. As
Simon (1997, 18S) notes, while the simplistic anu ueteiministic constiuctions of the
)-*-.)(/$#/ have long been uiscieuiteu, this intellectual legacy iemains quite tangible anu
has been ieinfoiceu by the stiongly negative social impact of stiuctuial aujustment anu
economic iecoveiy piogiammes anu the associateu aiu conuitionalities.
!"!"0"#" %&'()*&+, *+ ,-./'
The unfaii patteins of inteinational tiaue aie the in the coie of the aiguments iefeiiing to
the uepenuency school anu othei stiuctuial theoiies. Alieauy in the 19Sus, the economists
associateu with ECLA (0niteu Nations Commission foi Latin Ameiica), ueteimineu
ueclining teims of tiaue as the main cause foi lack of uevelopment. Accoiuing to this
theoiy, latei titleu Singei-Piebisch hypothesis aftei its main uevelopeis, while tiaue
ielations between uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies aie chaiacteiizeu by tiaue in
2S
inuustiial goous anu iaw mateiials, the income elasticity of uemanu foi manufactuieu
goous incieases moie iapiuly than uemanu foi piimaiy goous. Theiefoie, the teims of
tiaue foi piimaiy commouity expoitei have a tenuency to uecline. (Chang & uiabel, 2uu4,
2S)
Accoiuing to uepenuency theoiies, this veiy stiuctuie of the maiket is iesponsible foi the
existence of inequality in the woilu system. A uiffeient notion on global tiaue emphasizes
not only the inheiently twisteu stiuctuies of tiaue but also the powei of some nations to
uictate the tiaue iules. In essence, the question is about the tiaue iestiiction measuies
applieu by inuustiial nations allegeuly causing seveie uamage to ueveloping countiies.
(Stiglitz, 2uu2, 4S7-4S8) The enuemic uebate on the agiicultuial subsiuies pioviueu by
uevelopeu countiies to theii faimeis iepiesents this vantage point at ioot, anu is also one
of the focal uiscussion points of the Boha Bevelopment Rounu.
The opeiation of the WT0 in geneial is stiongly challengeu while the ciitiques state that
uue to the asymmetiic economic, political anu uiplomatic poweis between the membeis,
the woilu tiauing system as cooiuinateu anu implementeu by WT0 is funuamentally
unfaii. Some even suggest that ueveloping countiies woulu actually be bettei of without
the WT0. (Fung et al., 2u1u, 187-188)
E>G> 6,% 8749%:*7;
DCC7*4&, 1%45- '* /%)%2*C9%5' 6,%*7%'(&42 #4&;37*.5/
Economic-centieu appioaches
Economic giowth,
libeialization of maikets anu
tiaue oi state-leu giowth,
inuustiial policies
Walt W. Rostow (196u) : "The
stages of economic giowth. A
non-communist manifesto"
Buman-centieu appioaches
Paiticipating, empoweiing the
people in the ueveloping
countiies, enhancing
uemociacy
Amaitya Sen (1999):
Bevelopment as Fieeuom
Robeit Chambeis (1997):
Whose Reality Counts. Putting
the Last Fiist
Stiuctuialist appioaches
"New woilu oiuei", impioveu
position of the ueveloping
countiies
Anuie uunuei Fiank (1969):
The 0nueiuevelopment of
Bevelopment
When examining the content of my ieseaich mateiial, the ministeiial statements of the
WT0, I utilize this uivision of paiauigms as a fiame to iecognize uiffeient kinus of elements
of the uevelopment uiscouise.
27
G> H,%'*7(& 4- 9%',*/*2*30
In this chaptei I intiouuce the methouology useu in my thesis, ihetoiical analysis. As
Palonen anu Summa (1996, 7) aigue, it is howevei incoiiect to iefei to ihetoiical analysis
as one unifieu methou. Insteau, it is a uiscipline with multifaceteu tiauitions anu puiposes
of use. Theiefoie, I piesent how the uiscipline has evolveu fiom the classical ihetoiic to the
so-calleu new ihetoiic, anu geneially uiscuss the uiffeient appioaches. Aftei this, I examine
moie uetaileu the theoietical appioaches of two ihetoiists, Chaïm Peielman anu Kenneth
Buike, the theoiies of whom I uiaw fiom in my analysis.
Accoiuing to vihinen, (1996, 22S) ihetoiic focus as basis foi the analysis can be seen as a
viewpoint that acknowleuges anu biings focus into politicizeu uimensions of the mattei in
question by inuicating that theie is no one natuial way foi a topic to be uiscusseu. A ceitain
conceptualization is always engenueieu by the social anu cultuial context as well as by the
ueep-seateu value system of the language usei. Following the post-stiuctuialistic
philosophy, all the tiuth claims aie iueological, because knowleuge is bounueu on the
vantage point anu attacheu to a ceitain uiscouise. (Biisto, 2u1u, 18-19) Theiefoie,
impoitance is biought also to the context of the text. ueneially, ihetoiical analysis shaies
the same subjects of ieseaich with the uiscouise analysis; both the language itself as well
as the social anu cultuial context behinu it, i.e. the micio anu the macio level, aie being
sciutinizeu. (Leiwo & Pietikäinen, 1996, 1uS) I elaboiate moie on the ielationship between
ihetoiical anu uiscouise analysis anu uiscuss ciitical uiscouise analysis as a theoietical
vantage point foi my ieseaich next.
G>=> E>G E> B%)%2*C9%5' 4&&*7/(53 '* ',% @6"
The teim uevelopment appeais ubiquitously in WT0's official uocuments anu uespite its
somewhat contentious iole in the oiganization's mission, the topic has establisheu its
position in the WT0 agenua. 0fficially the WT0 Agieements state to iecognize the link
between tiaue anu uevelopment, but no fuithei uesciiption of the ielationship is pioviueu.
Effectively, the theme uevelopment is somewhat piesent in piactically all WT0 meetings
iegaiuless of the meeting topic in question, since the ueveloping countiy membeis
iepetitively iaise theii special position on the agenua. WT0 has a sepaiate committee
uevoteu to uiscussing the issues of tiaue anu uevelopment, anu seveial othei bouies, the
woik of which touch on uiffeient aspects of uevelopment oi ueveloping countiies. In
auuition, WT0 offeis technical suppoit foi ueveloping countiies.
The laigest aspect of WT0's uevelopment uimension is the special anu uiffeient tieatment
given to the countiies uefineu as ueveloping oi the least uevelopeu countiies (LBCs). The
special anu uiffeient tieatment can incluue piovisions gianting longei tiansitional peiious
foi the implementation of commitments, moie lenient obligations, anu piovisions that
iequiie othei membeis to safeguaiu the inteiests of ueveloping countiies when auopting
piotective tiaue measuies. The LBCs enjoy the gieatest level of special attention uiawn to
them in each WT0 agieement, anu this conflictingly somewhat wanteu status can only be
given by the 0N Economic anu Social Committee iesting upon stiict ciiteiia. Each membei
countiy is able to state whethei they aie a uevelopeu oi a ueveloping countiy, but othei
membeis have the iight to challenge this position.
7
Notably, a cleai uefinition foi the teim oi elaboiation on the topic of uevelopment is not
incluueu in any official WT0 texts intiouucing the uevelopment uimension of the
oiganization. Bence, when membeis iefei to uevelopment in the oiganization's context, it
is left foi them to ueteimine what they mean by uevelopment. In the statements of the 7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience, foui uistinctive uiscouises coulu be iecognizeu in teims of how
uevelopment was unueistoou. The fiist uiscouise uesciibes uevelopment as vague anu
7
Who aie the ueveloping countiies in the WT0.
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uevel_e¡u1who_e.htm.
44
unueteimineu, the seconu one focuses on the economic siue of uevelopment, the thiiu one
on the human siue, anu the fouith uiscouise emphasizes uevelopment as integiation to the
woilu economy. I examine moie uetaileu how these uiscouises aie constiucteu next.
S>E>=> B%)%2*C9%5' 4- 4 )43.% 45/ .5/%'%79(5%/ &*5&%C'
None of the membeis explicitly uefine the teim uevelopment in the statements, foi
example by stating that 'Bevelopment is.' oi 'Bevelopment means... '. A few of the
statements incluue expiessions such as -2,.,4(2 )-5-6,*4-.$, /,2(#6 )-5-6,*4-.$ oi +'+#6
)-5-6,*4-.$, which ueteimine moie piecisely what kinu of uevelopment the language-usei
is iefeiiing to. Bowevei, a moie common way to iefei to uevelopment is to use the woiu as
a ueteiminatoi to anothei abstiact noun uesciibing the chaiactei of the expiession. Such
common woiu paiis aie )-5-6,*4-.$ )(4-./(,., )-5-6,*4-.$ #/*-2$3 )-5-6,*4-.$ 7,#6/3
)-5-6,*4-.$ ,'$2,4-3 )-5-6,*4-.$ $"+'/$/3 )-5-6,*4-.$ 2"#66-.7-/3 )-5-6,*4-.$
#/*(+#$(,./ ,+ )-5-6,*4-.$ *#28#7-0 0thei expiessions entail a moie positive anu
piomising connotation, such as )-5-6,*4-.$ )(5()-.)/ oi )-5-6,*4-.$ 7#(./3 while otheis
focus on the necessity of uevelopment, such as )-5-6,*4-.$ (4*-+#$(5-/ oi )-5-6,*4-.$
.--)/. Egypt even applies quotation maiks on the woiu uevelopment, when aiguing that
"9-6(5-+(.7 ,.
-5-6,*4-.$; /",'6) +-4#(. $"- 2,+- 2,4*,.-.$ ,< 99=;. The use of
quotation maiks can be inteipieteu in many ways, but most piobably in this case, Egypt
aims to emphasise the vagueness anu peihaps also contentiousness of the teim.
vincent anu the uienauines iefeis to )-5-6,*4-.$ )-E>G> B%)%2*C9%5'
', 4 ,.945 +4&%
The teims "'4#. )-5-6,*4-.$ oi /,2(#6 )-5-6,*4-.$ appeai in the statements a couple of
times, anu always in conjunction with at least one othei teim. Bowevei, expiessions
iefeiiing to human aspects of uevelopment aie incluueu in many ways. 0ne example is
"'4#. *+,7+-// mentioneu by Noiway. Inteiestingly, the woius 'human' anu 'piogiess'
being paiieu togethei invoke a stiong connotation of the piogiess of human being, insteau
of human aspects of piogiess oi uevelopment. The notion coulu thus be inteipieteu to
iefei to iueas of the classical moueinization theoiy anu to a uevelopment of the human
being fiom savageiy to civilization.
St. Kitts anu Nevis uefines 7-.'(.- )-5-6,*4-.$ in teims of human aspects.
"Aiu foi tiaue shoulu howevei not ieplace a genuine uevelopment - fiienuly
outcome in the coie moualities uemanueu by oui people." (St. Kitts anu Nevis)
48
In auuition to uiiectly iefeiiing to 2,+- 4,)#6($(-/ )-4#.)-) ?> ,'+ *-,*6-, the human
aspect is emphasizeu by using the aujective , usually iefeiiing to human attiibutes.
The use of possessive pionoun ,'+3 iefeiiing to the commonality of the issue, is in
accoiuance with Buike's theoiy, which states that iuentification is the main piocess of
peisuasion in ihetoiic. (Summa, 1996, S6) Refeiences to associating oi sepaiating oneself
fiom a gioup will be fuithei uiscusseu in pait S.S. Similai to St. Kitts anu Nevis´ iefeience
to 7-.'(.- )-5-6,*4-.$ is Botswana's mention of 2,.2+-$-3 /'?/$#.$(#6 !-6E>S B%)%2*C9%5' 4- (5'%374'(*5 '* ',% :*72/ %&*5*90
In auuition to economic anu human aspects of uevelopment uiscusseu above, the theme
integiation to the woilu economy is highlighteu in the statements as a ciucial aspect foi
ueveloping countiies.
"Fuithei integiation of theii (least ueveloping countiies) economies in the
multilateial tiauing system thiough incieaseu iegional anu global configuiations
theiefoie iemains theii only hope." (Tanzania)
"In conclusion, allow me to ie-emphasise that the successful conclusion of the
Boha negotiations will go a long way in acceleiating economic giowth, alleviating
poveity anu integiating ueveloping countiies into the multilateial tiauing system.
" (Botswana)
Accoiuing to Tanzania, fuithei integiation in the multilateial tiauing system is the ,.6>
",*- foi the least ueveloping countiies, i.e. the integiation woulu be the only way foi them
to uevelop. The unueilying piesumption, accoiuing to which integiation is always
beneficial foi ueveloping countiies, ieveals that the neolibeial iueology is the piemise foi
the aigumentation also in this connection. Botswana mentions integiation in conjunction
with -2,.,4(2 7+,!$" anu #66-5(#$(.7 *,5-+$>, which count among the economic anu social
aspects of uevelopment. Inteiestingly, no causal tie can be maikeu between fuithei
integiation anu othei aspects of uevelopment: (.$-7+#$(.7 )-5-6,*(.7 2,'.$+(-/ (.$, $"-
4'6$(6#$-+#6 $+#)(.7 />/$-4 is a goal pei se, not because it contiibutes to uevelopment. This
is appaient also in the statement of Poitugal.
"Closei integiation of Beveloping countiies, paiticulaily the LBCs, into global
maikets, as well as the achievement of theii own uevelopment objectives, must be
one of oui piioiities. " (Poitugal)
While Poitugal sepaiates 26,/-+ (.$-7+#$(,. ,< )-5-6,*(.7 2,'.$+(-s fiom $"-(+ ,!.
)-5-6,*4-.$ ,?@-2$(5-/3 a notion following the iueas of paiticipatoiy uevelopment, it
neveitheless ueems both as equal piioiities.
S2
The linkage between integiation to the global economy anu uevelopment was emphasizeu
alieauy by the )-*-.)(/$#/ in the 197us as uiscusseu in the chaptei 2. Bowevei, while the
scholais auheiing to stiuctuial theoiies have emphasizeu the unjust way the ueveloping
countiies aie integiateu to the global economy, a majoiity of the WT0 membeis focus on
the neeu foi moie integiation. Beepei integiation to the woilu economy anu to the
multilateial tiauing system appeais as one of the main facilitatois foi uevelopment.
Some membeis touch closei to the ciitical woilu systems - uogma in theii statements: in
the statement of }oiuan, -&'($#?6- #.) @'/$ )(//-4(.#$(,. ,< -2,.,4(2 *+,/*-+($> (. $"- !,+6)
is uefineu as the ,5-+#66 ,?@-2$(5-. The statements of Kyigyz anu uieece entail notions of the
polemic globalization ciitique.
"We agiee with the statements that unuei conuitions of majoi inequality aiounu
the woilu in teims of socio-economic uevelopment anu iesouices, iisks anu
benefits of globalization aie uistiibuteu asymmetiically between the countiies anu
that less uevelopeu economies aie often uepiiveu of the oppoitunity to benefit
fiom equal paiticipation in the piocesses of globalization." (Kyigyz)
"Fighting poveity anu builuing an inclusive woilu is anothei challenge the
inteinational community faces touay." (uieece)
While Kyigyz states explicitly to #7+-- with the notion that +(/8/ #.) ?-.-G> B%)%2*C9%5' 45/ ',% 9.2'(24'%742 '74/(53 -0-'%9
As uiscusseu in the chaptei 2, the uiffeient paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies have
stiikingly uiffeient attituues towaius inteinational tiaue: it can be peiceiveu as the savioui
foi ueveloping countiies, as one of the main causes foi theii plight, oi as something in the
miuule. The fiist one of these positions, fiee tiaue benefits all, is the official iueology of the
WT0. Bowevei, the level of faith in fiee tiaue vaiies gieatly between the membei states,
anu even though the vast majoiity of membeis ostensibly sweai by fiee tiaue in piinciple,
in many cases this is anyhow bieacheu in piactise. As Stiglitz (2uu2, 4S8) points out,
uespite the enuemic ihetoiic in favoui of iapiu libeialisation, iich countiies with full
employment anu stiong safety nets geneially aigue that they neeu to impose piotective
measuies to help those auveisely affecteu by tiaue. The question is how coulu ueveloping
countiies then be expecteu to obey to these uiiections touting tiaue libeialisation.
In the ministeiial statements maue uuiing the 7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience, thiee uistinct
positions on the impacts of fiee tiaue foi uevelopment coulu be iecognizeu: fiee tiaue was
ueemeu beneficial foi uevelopment, potentially beneficial foi uevelopment, oi uetiimental
foi uevelopment. The fiist two of these uiscouises weie cleaily moie pievalent while the
last one was piesenteu meiely in a couple of statement.
S4
S>G>=> 87%% '74/% #%5%+(&(42 +*7 /%)%2*C9%5'
The auvocacy of fiee tiaue becomes appaient in the statements in vaiious ways. Some
membeis explicitly state theii position as suppoiteis of tiaue libeialization.
"0n uevelopment, Iielanu believes tiaue is one of the most impoitant uiiveis."
(Iielanu)
"Bulgaiia, as a WT0 Nembei anu Nembei State of the Euiopean 0nion, fully
believes in the piinciples of economic integiation anu the benefits of a libeial anu
open global tiauing system, baseu on cleai anu tianspaient iules." (Bulgaiia)
"uieece believes that the main contiibution to iecoveiy, giowth anu uevelopment
will be the conclusion of the BBA in 2u1u, on the basis of the piogiess alieauy
maue. " (uieece)
Inteiestingly, the veib '?-6(-5-B was useu seveial times when membei countiies expiesseu
theii suppoit foi fiee tiaue. Accoiuing to 0xfoiu Bictionaiy, one uefinition of 'believe' is to
"accept that (something) is tiue, especially without pioof". Bespite being the coineistone
of the opeiation of the WT0, the meiits of tiaue aie thus not taken as a fact in these
statements, but iathei as something to accept to be tiue without pioof. While Iielanu
?-6(-5-/ that tiaue is beneficial foi uevelopment, Bulgaiia ?-6(-5-/ in the benefits of
multilateial tiauing system anu uieece in the benefits of concluuing the Boha Rounu. All
these thiee aspects aie, hence, actually ueemeu as matteis of faith. C-6(-5- being a woiu
that commonly iefeis to ieligious belief can also be inteipieteu as a soit of metaphoi.
Accoiuing to Buike (1969a, Su6), metaphois aie linguistic expansions that take the
uesciiption to a new level, anu in this case, the ieligious iefeience pioviues the expiession
with a sense of ueep anu stiong commitment the language usei wants to stiess as a means
of aigumentation.
Bowevei, in some of the statements, the benefits of fiee tiaue, anu thus the neolibeial
foimula, aie peiceiveu moie as a fact than as a belief.
"This Rounu will biing the benefits of giowth anu uevelopment thiough tiaue
libeialization to all 1SS Nembeis of the WT0." (}apan)
SS
"We shoulu iemembei that libeialiseu tiaue is the coineistone of uevelopment."
(Icelanu)
"We have maue oui specific inteiests well known: that meaningful maiket
opening is iequiieu to complete the Rounu. " (0SA)
In the statements of }apan, Icelanu anu 0SA, the neolibeial foimula is the piemise of the
aigumentation, which is exemplifieu by using the veibs D(/B anu '!(66' insteau of less uefinite
'can', 'coulu' oi 'woulu': this Rounu !(66 biing the benefits of giowth anu uevelopment,
libeialiseu tiaue (/ the coineistone of uevelopment, anu meaningful maiket opening (/
iequiieu to complete the Rounu. Icelanu uses the metaphoi 2,+.-+/$,.- to emphasize the
absolute necessity of tiaue foi uevelopment: uevelopment is eithei fully uepenuent oi
baseu on tiaue. 0SA ueems meaningful maiket opening as a necessity foi completing the
uevelopment iounu, anu thus simultaneously implies that maiket opening is the most
impoitant factoi foi uevelopment. These neolibeial notions aie piemise of the
aigumentation, because the way they aie piesenteu implies that they aie not expecteu to
be questioneu.
Also Pakistan anu Canaua squaiely auheie to the neolibeial foimula in theii statements.
"A woilu of oppoitunity awaits us. We can eithei pioviue stiength to fiee tiaue
anu ensuie piospeiity foi the weakest amongst us oi we can let this oppoitunity
slip by. The lattei is not an option." (Pakistan)
"We cannot affoiu to lose sight of the impoitance of keeping maikets open anu
cieating new maiket access oppoitunities, especially foi oui ueveloping anu least-
uevelopeu tiauing paitneis." (Canaua)
Pakistan anu Canaua apply a uissociative aigumentation technique by sepaiating what is
#. ,*$(,. oi what can be #$"/0 Nyth is a
poweiful teim, which completely withuiaws the valiuity of the mattei in question.
As analyseu in this pait, the viewpoints on the ielationship between fiee tiaue anu
uevelopment uiffeieu gieatly in the statements anu iangeu fiom the benefits being vieweu
as a fact to being uenounceu as a myth. In the next pait, I uiaw attention on how uiffeient
ioles aie constiucteu foi uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies in teims of tackling
uevelopment issues.
61
S>S> H*2%- *+ /%)%2*C%/ 45/ /%)%2*C(53 &*.5'7(%- (5 '4&;2(53 /%)%2*C9%5'
The questions of who aie ueemeu as active playeis in the piocess of uevelopment oi who
have iesponsibility have always been at the heait of uevelopment stuuies anu any
uiscussion conceining uevelopment politics. The questions geneially ueal with
peispectives of uevelopeu countiies towaius ueveloping countiies anu the tiansfei of
iesouices fiom iich to pooi, such as uevelopment aiu. The iesponsibility to catei foi the
less foitunate stems fiom the teachings of ieligions, anu the ioots of uevelopment aiu lie in
the missionaiy movement uating back to the 19
th
centuiy. The main goal was to save the
souls of the heathen, but also to mateiially impiove theii living conuitions. (Linubeig,
2uu4, 89)
The most extieme viewpoints conceining the questions of iesponsibility emphasize the
consequences of colonialism anu neo-colonialism anu ueem uevelopeu countiies as the
main culpiits foi the plight of ueveloping countiies. Accoiuing to these stanupoints, in
auuition to the histoiical impacts causeu by colonization, the uevelopeu woilu is
iesponsible foi pieventing the uevelopment in the ueveloping woilu by maintaining global
stiuctuies, such as unfaii tiaue patteins, which hinuei uevelopment. The topical
uiscussions on climate change also touch close to these iueas: uevelopeu inuustiial nations
aie iesponsible foi climate change, but the ueveloping countiies aie the ones suffeiing the
most (see e.g. Ncuiegoi, 2uu8). In auuition to emphasizing the iesponsibility of the
uevelopeu countiies, such viewpoints often seem to give all the powei to uevelopeu
countiies by implying that only they can change the status quo anu enable uevelopment in
the ueveloping woilu. Noie iecent paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies have, howevei,
questioneu this appioach anu focuseu on emphasizing the agency of ueveloping countiies,
foi example by applying the notions of paiticipatoiy uevelopment, as uiscusseu in chaptei
2.2.S.
In teims of ioles anu positions of uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies, thiee uiffeient
uiscouises coulu be iecognizeu fiom the statements. The fiist one belittles the uiffeiences
between ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies, ueems uevelopment as something that
benefits all, anu in the piocess of which eveiyone has an equal iole. The seconu one makes
a cleai uistinction between ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies, but binus them in a
62
positive ielationship of eithei paitneiship oi uonoi-iecipient ielationship. The uevelopeu
countiies pioviue aiu to ueveloping countiies anu suppoit them baseu on theii own
political inteiests, philanthiopy oi both. The thiiu uiscouise implies that the uevelopeu
countiies aie at least paitly iesponsible foi causing the unueiuevelopment anu they also
holu the key foi solving the situation.
S>S>= B%)%2*C9%5' +*7 422
Some of the statements emphasize that the multilateial tiauing system anu conclusion of
the Boha Rounu shoulu leau to benefits foi all membeis. This axiomatic notion becomes
inteiesting, when being biought to the context of Boha Bevelopment Rounu: if the inteiests
of all aie the piioiity of the Boha Rounu, what cieates the uevelopment aspect of it.
"The way foiwaiu foi the WT0 is to libeialize tiaue foi the benefit of all. The
giauual opening of maikets shoulu contiibute to achieving fuithei objectives -
sustainable uevelopment, poveity ieuuction, welfaie anu stability." (Benmaik)
"Finally, the Boha outcome has to ieflect key inteiests of all membeis. We will only
have a successful agieement wheie eveiyone's special inteiests aie auequately
cateieu foi." (Iielanu)
In the statement of Benmaik, the way foiwaiu is highlighteu to be S>G B%)%2*C%/ &*.5'7(%- 47% 7%-C*5-(#2% +*7 ,(5/%7(53 /%)%2*C9%5'
As mentioneu eailiei in this chaptei, accoiuing to viewpoints often emphasizeu by
ueveloping countiies oi Nu0s piomoting theii inteiests, uevelopeu countiies aie at least
paitly iesponsible foi the unueiuevelopment uue to the legacy of colonization oi the
maintenance of the global stiuctuies of touay. Similai stances weie appaient in the
statements anu as can be expecteu in the context of the WT0, the unfaii tiaue stiuctuies
hinueiing uevelopment aie emphasizeu in some of them.
"Insteau of piioiitizing the auvancement of outstanuing iefoims that aie of uigent
neeu to ueveloping countiies, like cotton anu the LBC package, iecent
engagements have been uominateu by unfaii uemanus placeu on majoi ueveloping
countiies to enhance maiket access foi the benefit of naiiow commeicial lobbies
in paits of the uevelopeu woilu." (South Afiica)
"At the same time, the WT0 must ensuie compliance with the moial obligation on
uevelopeu countiies to open up theii maikets to ueveloping countiies anu to
eliminate the laige subsiuies given to theii agiicultuial piouucts." (Bolivia)
South Afiica states explicitly that insteau of the iefoims that aie uigent neeu to ueveloping
countiies, the benefits of commeicial lobbies in the uevelopeu woilu have been piioiitizeu
in tiaue negotiations. The injustice of the situation is accentuateu by compaiing the '+7-.$
.--)/ of ueveloping countiies with the ?-.- 6($$6- 2,44($4-.$ has been exhibiteu by
the uevelopeu countiies, ueveloping countiies 2,.$(.'- $, )-5,$- $"-(+ +#$"-+ 4-#7+-
+-/,'+2-/ anu *+-// $"-(+ 2,.2-+./ ",4- foi the common goal. Seconuly, by mentioning the
state of one sectoi in ueveloping countiies, an illustiative example is given of the
consequences of unfaii tiaue iules. By the use of the expiession #/ # +-/'6$3 a uiiect causal
tie is explicitly establisheu between the subsiuies in uevelopeu countiies anu the pooi state
of one inuustiy in Afiican countiies.
The global financial ciisis is emphasizeu in some of the statements as a cential element
hinueiing uevelopment.
"In paiticulai, we have continueu to expeiience the uevastating anu fai-ieaching
effects of the cuiient global economic anu financial ciisis on the fiagile anu
vulneiable economies of ueveloping countiies, even though the ciisis oiiginateu in
the uevelopeu economies." (Nigeiia)
"Nany seiious economists say that the oiigin of the ciisis lay in the lack of
iegulation of the financial system in an extiemely poweiful countiy, natuially a
Nembei of this 0iganization." (Bolivia)
Nigeiia highlights both the uieaufulness of the ciisis by using the aujectives )-5#/$#$(.7
anu 3 uiawing fiom the locus of quantity, anu aujective /-+(,'/, which is useu
as a synonym foi 'piofessional' oi 'cieuible'.
In auuition to iefeiences to consequences of tiaue stiuctuies anu economic ciisis,
uevelopeu countiies weie given iesponsibility foi the plight of ueveloping countiies also
uue to theii othei actions.
"We have also witnesseu an upsuige of goveinment inteivention anu the ie-
emeigence of piotectionism, paiticulaily in some uevelopeu countiies. These
events have placeu in jeopaiuy anu, in some instances, ueiaileu the uevelopment
effoits of many ueveloping countiies, incluuing small vulneiable economies like
ouis. (...) This failuie is in pait explaineu by the self-seiving actions of some
membeis, paiticulaily a few uevelopeu countiies." (Baibauos)
"0nuei supposeuly enviionmental tiicks, theie is a cuiient piolifeiation of
initiatives like taxing piouucts fiom unueiuevelopeu countiies on the basis of the
level of gieenhouse gas emissions linkeu to theii piouuction. The puipose is not to
piotect the planet, when in paiallel the histoiic iesponsible foi pollution uo not
take on multilateial commitments, but to stop the piocess of uevelopment of the
South thiough the application of unilateial piotectionist measuies that will not
solve the pioblem of the global climate change." (Cuba)
Baibauos iefeis to goveinment inteivention anu piotectionism, highlights *#+$(2'6#+6> (.
/,4- )-5-6,*-) 2,'.$+(-/3 anu aigues that as a iesult of these actions, the uevelopment
effoits have been ueiaileu. The failuie of concluuing the Boha Rounu is also *#+$6>
-H*6#(.-) ?> $"- /-6$", anu libeialization as savioui foi countiies
was iiuiculeu by iefeiiing to -2,.,4(2 *+,4(/- 6#.). Colouiful language was a cential
element of the minoiity uiscouise iepiesenting iesistance to the assumingly pievailing
attituues of the auuience.
While the benefits of fiee tiaue weie commonly not iationalizeu, the membeis
emphasizing the uisauvantages baseu theii aigumentation on, foi example, the existence of
causality oi an example. These simplistic explanations suggesteu that financial ciisis is a
uiiect consequence of the unwoikability of economic libeialization anu the negative effects
tiaue libeialization causeu foi one countiy pioves its unwoikability eveiywheie. 0nlike
the aiguments touting fiee tiaue, the aiguments emphasizing the uisauvantages of fiee
tiaue aimeu to give eviuence to back up the aigument. Also this implies that the pievailing
iueology was assumeu to be neolibeialism.
The ioles foi ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies in the piocess of uevelopment weie
constiucteu in many ways in the statements. 0n the one hanu, uevelopment was ueemeu to
be something foi all, anu the inteiests of ueveloping countiies weie not always
emphasizeu. 0n the othei hanu, especially when the impoitance of aiu was uiscusseu, cleai
uistinction between uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies was maue anu the issue was
uiscusseu in a peisonal mannei; ueveloping countiies in paiticulai making explicit pleaus
of help to theii uevelopment paitneis appealing eithei on theii goou will oi on theii
commitments.
A cleai positioning in teims of powei ielations was piesenteu especially by ueveloping
countiies. Nany statements seemeu to suggest that uevelopeu countiies have the powei to
help ueveloping countiies anu without this assistance uevelopment cannot be enableu. In
76
auuition, a couple of statements implieu that uevelopeu countiies aie cuiiently hinueiing
uevelopment anu theiefoie, by enuing these activities they woulu also enable uevelopment.
In a similai mannei to the uisauvantages of fiee tiaue uiscusseu above, the accusations
maue that uevelopeu countiies pievent uevelopment weie expiesseu with colouiful anu
stiiking language. In any case, uevelopeu countiies seemeu to have the main iole in the
piocess of uevelopment.
U>E> B(-&.--(*5 45/ (9C2(&4'(*5- +*7 ',% B*,4 H*.5/ 45/ /%)%2*C9%5' C*2(&(%-
The ambiguity of uevelopment is inuisputably a chaiactei of both acauemic anu political
uiscussions: eithei uevelopment is useu as a iefeience to acies of uistinctive goals anu
activities oi it simply iemains as a bioau abstiact phenomenon. In the context of 0N
agencies, uevelopment is often incluueu as a sepaiate agenua point in piactically all
oiganizations whose uomains vaiy fiom telecommunications anu intellectual piopeity to
enviionment anu laboui iights. This is geneially justifieu by the membeiship of ueveloping
countiies anu the special tieatment they iequiie in all aieas. Notwithstanuing, ciitics
question whethei the thematic of uevelopment shoulu be intiouuceu in all oiganizations
anu whethei it, as a mattei of fact, is linkeu to all these uiffeient aieas. In auuition,
uevelopment as a sepaiate agenua point is sometimes accuseu of gieatly lacking substance
anu iemaining as a meie ostensible featuie. This phenomenon is closely linkeu to the
ambiguity of uevelopment: when left unuefineu, the concept of uevelopment can be useu
enuemically.
Bowevei, the abstiact anu ambiguous natuie of uevelopment can be pioblematic in many
aspects. It might be self-eviuent that one of the ieasons why effective global uevelopment
woik is challenging is that theie is no unequivocal unueistanuing of what is uevelopment
anu hence, how coulu it be piomoteu. The existence of mutual unueistanuing globally foi
uevelopment policies becomes even moie unconceivable when taking into consiueiation
the lack of unanimity even within one oiganization, such as the WT0. While uevelopment is
seen as value-baseu anu necessaiy to iefei to only on an abstiact level in an attempt to
avoiu uiscoiu, it is unueistanuable why the uevelopment objectives of the Boha Rounu,
among those of many othei uevelopment piojects, have not been iealizeu. It woulu be
bettei to move pass the focus on iueological anu value-baseu concept of uevelopment anu
77
stiive foi finuing smallei conciete elements as mutual goals to focus on. As mentioneu in
the intiouuction chaptei, theie is a gieat neeu to piouuce moie systematic knowleuge foi
uevelopment in oiuei to be able to uelivei iesults, anu the most plausible way to uo this, is
to concentiate on measuiable conciete elements that aie beyonu the value-baseu concept.
Anothei inteiesting point of WT0's uevelopment uiscouise is the pievalence of
neolibeialism as a piemise foi aigumentation. Bevelopment policies baseu on neolibeial
iueas, the so-calleu stiuctuial aujustment piogiammes, which weie intiouuceu to
ueveloping countiies by the INF anu Woilu Bank, have been wiuely ciiticiseu anu ieplaceu
by uiffeient appioaches alieauy in the 199us. While uisauvantages of extensive
piivatization piogiammes have been geneially iecognizeu, WT0's uevelopment uiscouise
still incluueu simplistic not ieasoneu notions on the necessity of keeping maikets open foi
uevelopment. This eulogy of fiee tiaue can seem ostensible taken into consiueiation the
vast amount of piotectionist measuies all the membei countiies employ. Insteau of
continuing to emphasize meiely the contioveisial anu iueological issue of libeialization of
tiaue, the uevelopment aspects of Boha Rounu coulu peihaps focus on smallei conciete
elements, wheie it is easiei foi the membei countiies to finu soliu agieement.
In auuition to the neolibeial notions, the tiauitional view of uevelopment uominating
WT0's uevelopment uiscouise is notewoithy. While theie has been a cleai tienu among
Nu0s anu uevelopment scholais to appioach uevelopment in moie veisatile ways, theie is
still a lot to be uone in teims of alteiing the uevelopment uiscouise moie multifaceteu in
inteinational politics.
Responsibility was put on uevelopeu countiies to a gieat extent in teims of enabling
uevelopment. This notion is veiy inteiesting, since aftei uecaues of uevelopment woik
emphasizing paiticipatoiy anu empoweiing appioaches, uevelopment seems to be still
peiceiveu as being biought to ueveloping countiies fiom the outsiue. The fact that
ueveloping countiies shun claiming agency foi theii own piogiess anu emphasize the
iesponsibility of uevelopeu countiies was somewhat uiscusseu in ueneva among the
people woiking foi 0N agencies. The polemic uiscouise suggesting that uevelopeu
countiies have to still pay back uebt they owe to ueveloping woilu uue to the colonial
histoiy still lives stiongly touay. Noving pass this antagonism between uevelopeu anu
78
ueveloping countiies anu the accusing uiscouise woulu be gieatly iequiieu in oiuei to
focus on the actual tackling of conciete uevelopment issues.
U>G> V(9('4'(*5- *+ ',% 7%-%47&, 45/ -.33%-'(*5- +*7 +.'.7% 7%-%47&,
0ne of the limitations of my ieseaich conceins the choice of ieseaich mateiial. While my
analysis of the WT0's uevelopment uiscouise is limiteu only to the ministeiial statements
of the 7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience, numeious othei WT0 uocuments coulu pioviue excellent
insights on the oiganization's language of uevelopment. 0ne inteiesting example woulu be
to compaie the statements maue in uiffeient ministeiial confeiences, foi example the fiist
confeience of the Boha Bevelopment Rounu oi confeiences uuiing the pievious
negotiation iounus with the most iecent confeience. By the means of compaiison the
examination coulu focus on how the uevelopment uiscouise has changeu, oi has it, uuiing
the time the topic has been given uiffeient level of emphasis. In auuition, seveial othei
WT0 uocuments woulu be inteiesting ieseaich mateiial, such as the statements of the
Biiectoi ueneial oi the official iesolutions of the meetings. In stiiving to unueistanu the
uevelopment uiscouise of the oiganization, one appioach coulu be to examine uiffeient
uocuments piouuceu both by the membeis anu by the secietaiiat foi uiffeient puiposes.
Ny ieseaich is natuially limiteu also by the choice of methouology, i.e. ihetoiical analysis
anu the appioacheu of Peielman anu Buike. The iich language useu in the statements
woulu pioviue mateiial foi textual analysis with focus on vaiious aspects uisiegaiueu in
my ieseaich. The examination of the iole of auuience - cential pait of Peielman's theoiy -
is maiginalizeu in my ieseaich, but coulu neveitheless pioviue inteiesting finuings on to
who, in essence, the statements aie auuiesseu to; aie the ministeis auuiessing each othei,
inteinational public oi peihaps the citizens of theii own countiies.
Fuithei ieseaich coulu be conuucteu also iegaiuing some of my key finuings. 0ne
inteiesting point is the colouiful symbolic language that was foiemost useu in the
statements iepiesenting the minoiity uiscouise expiessing contiauicting opinions to the
pievailing uiscouise. The iole of colouiful language as a foim of iesistance coulu theiefoie
be ieseaicheu in uiffeient contexts, foi example, in the fielu of inteinational ielations.
79
The pieuominance of auheience to neolibeialism as a piemise foi the aigumentation coulu
be examineu wiuei in the context of inteinational oiganizations. While the stiong suppoit
foi economic libeialization can natuially be affiliateu with the natuie of the oiganization
such as the WT0 - even thought tiaue iestiictions its membeis neveitheless apply makes
the affiliation less obvious - inteiesting woulu be to examine the iole of neolibeial notions
appeaiing in the texts of oiganizations such as 0N Bevelopment Piogiamme (0NBP),
0niteu Nation's Chiluien Funu (0NICEF) oi 0N Euucational, Scientific anu Cultuial
0iganization (0NESC0).
All in all, uue to the immense pioblematic iegaiuing the concept of uevelopment uespite its
enuemic use, the analysis of uevelopment uiscouise in vaiious contexts woulu be
inteiesting anu ielevant. Bioauening unueistanuing of what is actually meant by
uevelopment anu how these viewpoints can vaiy woulu also bioauen unueistanuing of the
vast challenges iegaiuing efficient global uevelopment woik.
8u
H%+%7%5&%-
Aghion, P. & Bolton, P. 1997. A Theoiy of Tiickle-Bown uiowth anu Bevelopment. The
Review of Economic Stuuies, vol. 64, No. 2.
Alasuutaii, P. 1996. Theoiizing in Qualitative Reseaich: A Cultuial Stuuies Peispective.
Qualitative Inquiiy, 2(4): S71-S84.
Anueisson, K. & Naitin, W. 2uuS. Agiicultuial Tiaue Refoim anu the Boha
Bevelopment Agenua. The Woilu Economy. vol. 28, No. 9.
Biigg, N. 2uu2. Post-uevelopment, Foucault anu the colonisation metaphoi. Thiiu
Woilu Quaiteily, vol. 2S, No S.
Biett, E. 2uuS. Paiticipation anu Accountability in Bevelopment Nanagement. The
}ouinal of Bevelopment Stuuies, vol.4u, No.2
Buike, K. 1969a: A uiammai of Notives. Beikeley, Los Angeles, Lonuon: 0niveisity of
Califoinia Piess.
Buike, K. 1969b: A Rhetoiic of Notives. Beikeley, Los Angeles, Lonuon: 0niveisity of
Califoinia Piess.
Ceva & Fiacasso. 2u1u. Seeking mutual unueistanuing: a uiscouise-theoietical analysis
of the WT0 Bispute Settlement System. Woilu Tiaue Review, vol. 9, No. S
Chambeis, R. 1997. Whose Reality Counts. Putting the last fiist. Inteimeuiate
Technology Publications.
Chang, B. & uiabel, I. 2uu4. Reclaiming Bevelopment. An Alteinative Economic Policy
Nanual. Lonuon: Zen Books.
Conway & Beynen. 2uu8. Bepenuency theoiies: fiom ECLA to Anuié uunuei Fiank anu
beyonu. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei
Euucation. Lonuon
Bas, B. 2uu8. A Kiss of Life foi the Witheiing Boha Rounu of the Nultilateial Tiaue
Negotiations. ulobal Economic ieview. vol. S7, No. 2.
Besai & Pottei (eus.) 2uu8: The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei
Euucation. Lonuon
Bouus K. 2uu8: The Thiiu Woilu, ueveloping countiies, the South, pooi countiies. In
Besai & Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation.
Lonuon
Elliot, }. 2uu8. Bevelopment anu social welfaie¡human iights. In Besai & Pottei (eus.):
The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
81
Escobai, A. 199S. Encounteiing Bevelopment: The Naking anu 0nmaking of the Thiiu
Woilu. Piinceton, N}: Piinceton 0niveisity Piess
Esteva, u. 1992: Bevelopment. In Wolfgang Sachs (eu.): The Bevelopment Bictionaiy.
Lonuon & New }eisey: Zeu Books.
Evenett & Boekman (eus.) 2uu6. Economic uevelopment anu multilateial tiaue
coopeiation. Washington, BC : Woilu Bank.
Eyeiman, R. 1984. Social Novements anu Social Theoiy. Sociology. vol. 18, No. 1.
Faiiclough, N. 199S. Ciitical Biscouise Analysis. Boston: Auuison Wesley.
Faiiclough, N. 2uu1. Language anu Powei. Lonuon: Longman.
Fine, B. 2uu9. Bevelopment as Zombieconomics in the Age of Neolibeialism. Thiiu
Woilu Quaiteily, vol. Su, No. S
Fiank, A. u. 1966. The Bevelopment of 0nueiuevelopment. Nonthly Review Piess.
Fung, uaicio-Beiieio, Siu, 2u1u. Beveloping countiies anu the Woilu Tiaue
0iganization: A foieign influence appioach. The }ouinal of Inteinational Tiaue &
Economic Bevelopment. vol. 19, No. 1.
uhafele, R. 2uu4. The metaphois of globalization anu tiaue. An analysis of the language
useu in the WT0. }ouinal of Language anu Politics. vol. S, No. S
uhosh, B. 2uu1. Bepenuency Theoiy, Revisiteu. Alueishot anu Builington, vT: Ashgate.
Bettne, B. 2uu1. Biscouises on peace anu uevelopment. Piogiess in Bevelopment
Stuuies 1, vol 1.
Bettne B. 2uu8. Cuiient tienus anu futuie options in uevelopment stuuies. In Besai &
Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Biisto, B. 2u1u. vastuutonta puhetta. Esseitä talouuen meikityksellistämisestä.
väitoskiija: Aalto-yliopiston kauppakoikeakoulu. Acta 0niveisitatis oeconomicae
Belsingiensis. A, S77. Belsinki: Aalto-yliopiston kauppakoikeakoulu, 2u1u. ISBN 978-
9S2-6u-1uS9-S.
Boekman, B. & Kostecki, N. 2uu1. The Political Economy of the Woilu Tiauing System.
The WT0 anu Beyonu. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
Boekman, B. & Nicita, A. 2u1u. Assessing the Boha Rounu: Naiket access, tiansitions
costs anu aiu foi tiaue facilitation. The }ouinal of Inteinational Tiaue & Economic
Bevelopment. vol. 19, No. 1.
}ensen & uibbon. 2uu7. Afiica anu the WT0 Boha Rounu: An 0veiview. Bevelopment
Policy Review, vol. 2S, No. 1
82
}okinen, A. 1999a. Biskuissianalyysin suhue sukulaistiauitioihin. In }okinen, }uhila, &
Suoninen, (eus!" $%&'()&&%*+*,--&% ,%%''..&&/! 0*&1*2*%+34 5*62.).!
}okinen, A. 1999b. vakuuttelevan ja suostuttelevan ietoiiikan analysoiminen. In
}okinen, }uhila, & Suoninen, (eus.) Biskuissianalyysi !""##$$%%&' )*%+*,*"-./ 0*1,$2$'
Kakkuii-Knuuttila, N-L. 1998. Retoiiikka. In Kakkuii-Knuuttila (eu.) Aigumentti ja
kiitiikki. Lukemisen, keskustelun ja vakuuttamisen taiuot. uauueamus, Belsinki.
Kakkuii-Knuuttila, N-L. 2u11. Puhetaito ja puheiuen lajit Aiistoteleella. In Beikkinen,
vuotilainen, Laueima, Tiililä & Lounela (eus.) uenieanalyysi - tekstilajitutkimuksen
käytäntoä. Kotimaisten kielten keskuksen veikkojulkaisuja 29. Kotimaisten kielten
keskus: Belsinki. 0RN:ISBN 978-9S2-S446-72-2 ISSN 1796-u41X
Klak, T. 2uu8. Woilu-systems theoiy: Coies, peiipheiies anu semi-peiipheiies. In Besai
& Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Kulovaaia, K. 2uu7. !"#$%"#&'%#(")* ,"-#")$$". /012%3,,"*%$)#""(("4-* 3-()3"",%*
analyysi. Pio giauu-tutkielma. Yhteiskuntatieteiuen ja filosofian lait!"# %&'(")&*(+
!"#$%#&'$( *!+,&-!",( http:¡¡uin.fi¡0RN:NBN:fi:jyu-2uu7S9S.
Kuusisto, R. 1996. Souan ietoiiikasta. Peisianlahuen ja Bosnian konfliktit läntisten
suuivaltajohtajien lausunnoissa. In Palonen & Summa (eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa.
vastapaino, Tampeie.
Lévy, B. 2uuS. ulobal Competition anu Economic Bevelopment: Key uoveinance Issues.
Competitiveness Review. vol. 1S, No. 2
Leiwo, N. & Pietikäinen, S. 1996. Kieli vuoiovaikutuksen ja vallankäyton välineenä. In
Palonen & Summa (eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa. vastapaino, Tampeie.
Linubeig, N. 2uu4: Kehityksen kieli - luouaanko maailma sanoilla. In Beta uylling
(eu.): Kehityksen etiikka ja filosofia. Belsinki: uauueamus
NcCloskey, B. 198S. The Rhetoiic of Economics. }ouinal of Economic Liteiatuie. vol, 21
Ncuiegoi, B. 2uu8. Climate change anu uevelopment. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The
Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Nelkote & Kanuath (2uu1): Baiking 0p the Wiong Tiee. An Inwaiu Look at the
Biscipline anu Piactice of Bevelopment Communication. In Nelkote & Rao (eus.):
Ciitical Issues in Communication: Looking inwaiu foi Answeis. New Belhi: Sage.
Nohan, u. 2uu8. Paiticipatoiy uevelopment. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The Companion to
Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Nontanye, }. 2uuS. Rhetoiic anu Economic Policy. The Inuepenuent Review, vol. 9, No.S
8S
Noyo, B. 2uu9. Beau Aiu. Why aiu is not woiking anu how theie is a bettei way foi
Afiica. New Yoik: Faiiai, Stiaus anu uiioux.
Nunck & 0'Beain (eus.) 1999. Ciitical Bevelopment Theoiy. Contiibutions to a new
paiauigm. Zeu Books. Lonuon & New Yoik.
Neueiveen Pieteise, }. 2uuu. Aftei post-uevelopment. Thiiu Woilu Quaiteily. vol. 21,
No. 2
Palonen, K. & Summa, B. 1996. }ohuanto. Retoiinen käänne. In Palonen & Summa
(eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa. vastapaino, Tampeie.
Peielman, C. 1982. The Realm of Rhetoiic. Notie Bame: 0niveisity of Notie Bame
Piess.
Peielman, C. & 0lbiechts-Tyteca, L. 1971. The New Rhetoiic. A Tieatise on
Aigumentation. 0niveisity of Notie Bame Piess, Notie Bame.
Pottei, R. 2uu8. ulobal goveinance, uiveigence anu uevelopment. In Besai & Pottei
(eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Ray, B. 1998. Bevelopment Economics, Piinceton 0niveisity Piess, Piinceton New
}eisey.
Rostow, W. 196u. Stages of Economic uiowth. A Non-Communist Nanifesto.
Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity.
Sachs, W (eu.) 1992: The Bevelopment Bictionaiy. Lonuon & New }eisey: Zeu Books.
Schuuiman, F. 2uuu. Paiauigms lost, paiauigms iegaineu. Bevelopment stuuies in the
twenty-fist centuiy. Thiiu Woilu Quaiteily, vol. 21, No 1
Schuuiman F. 2uu8. The impasse in uevelopment stuuies. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The
Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Scott, }. & Wilkinson, R. 2u1u. What Bappeneu to Boha in ueneva. Re-engineeiing the
WT0's Image while missing key oppoitunities. Euiopean }ouinal of Bevelopment
Reseaich. vol. 22, No 2
Sen, A. 1999: Bevelopment as Fieeuom. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
Seivaes, }, 1999: Communication foi Bevelopment. 0ne Woilu, Nultiple Cultuies.
Ciess- kill, New }eisey: Bampton Piess.
Sevilla, C. The WT0 Boha Bevelopment Agenua: What is at stake. Beikeley }ouial of
inteinational law. vol. 2S, No. S
Simon, B. 1997: Bevelopment ieconsiueieu; new uiiections in uevelopment thinking.
ueogiafiska Annalei.
84
Stiglitz, }. 2uu2. Two Piinciples foi the Next Rounu oi, Bow to Biing Beveloping
Countiies in fiom the Colu. The Woilu Economy. vol. 2S, No. 4.
Stiglitz, }. 2uuS. The oveiselling of globalization. In Weinstein, N. (eu.) ulobalization:
What's new. New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity Piess.
Summa, B.1996. Kolme näkokulmaa uuteen ietoiiikkaan. Buike, Peielman, Toulmin ja
ietoiiikan kunnianpalautus. In Palonen & Summa (eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa.
vastapaino, Tampeie.
Thomas, A. 2uuu: Neanings anu views of Bevelopment. In Tim Allen - Alan Thomas
(eus.): Poveity anu Bevelopment into 21st Centuiy. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
Thomas, C. 2uu4: Poveity, Bevelopment, anu Bungei. In Baylis & Smith (eus.): The
ulobalization of Woilu Politics. An Intiouuction to Inteinational Relations. 0xfoiu:
0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
vihinen, B. 1996. Naatalous tekstinä. Retoiiikka maatalouspolitiikan tutkimisessa. In
Palonen & Summa (eus.): Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa. vastapaino, Tampeie.
Wilkinson, R. 2uu9. Language, powei anu multilateial tiaue negotiations. Review of
Inteinational Political Economy. vol. 4, No. 16
Willis, K. 2uuS. Theoiies anu Piactices of Bevelopment. Lonuon: Routleuge
Wilska, von Consuoiff, Lahtinen, Rekola. 2uu4. !"#$%#te!"!# %&'()*+,,-,
!"#$%&'((%)!) !)!++%,-./ 0!1%-2,21-!%,-2.) "'($!(34!,43,5 63(4'%,3,'&6' 78. Belsinki:
Like.
Weinstein, N.N (eu.) 2uuS. ulobalization: What's new. New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity
Piess
Woo-Cummings, N. 1999. The Bevelopmental State. Coinell 0niveisity Piess.
"52(5% -*.7&%-
About the WT0 ÷ a statement by the Biiectoi-ueneial.
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡whatis_e¡wto_ug_stat_e.htm, ietiieveu S.12.2u11
Boha Bevelopment Agenua - Subjects tieateu unuei the Boha Bevelopment Agenua
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uua_e¡uohasubjects_e.htm, ietiieveu 1u.8.2u12
0N ueneial Assembly - A¡RES¡41¡128 Beclaiation on the Right to Bevelopment
http:¡¡www.un.oig¡uocuments¡ga¡ies¡41¡a41i128.htm, ietiieveu 4.11.2u12
8S
Biiectoi-ueneial's lettei to jouinalists
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡minist_e¡minu9_e¡ug_lettei_e.htm,
ietiieveu S.12.2u11
Ninisteiial Confeiences - Statements by Nembeis anu obseiveis at the plenaiy session
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡minist_e¡min11_e¡min11_statements_e.htm,
ietiieveu S.1u.2u11
Who aie the ueveloping countiies in the WT0.
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uevel_e¡u1who_e.htm, ietiieveu 1u.12.2u11
The eight Nillennium Bevelopment uoals:
http:¡¡www.un.oig¡millenniumgoals¡, ietiieveu S.S.2u12
doc_891264238.pdf
This study analyses the development discourse of the WTO by examining the texts of ministerial statements made during the 7th WTO Ministerial Conference.
The WTO and ambiguous language of development. A
rhetorical analysis of the development discourse of the
World Trade Organization.
Finnish Business Communication
Master's thesis
Laura Kangas
2013
Department of Communication
Aalto University
School of Business
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
AALT0 0NIvERSITY SCB00L 0F B0SINESS ASBTRACT
Communication Nastei's Thesis
Lauia Kangas
The WT0 anu the ambiguous language of uevelopment.
A ihetoiical analysis of the uevelopment uiscouise of the Woilu Tiaue 0iganization
"#$%&'()% *+ ',% -'./0
This stuuy analyses the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0 by examining the texts of
ministeiial statements maue uuiing the 7
th
WT0 Ninisteiial Confeience. The objective is to
uiscovei both how anu thiough what kinus of ihetoiical means is uevelopment
linguistically constiucteu in WT0's uevelopment uiscouise. The focus lies on thiee
uistinctive aspects of the uevelopment uiscouise: on the concept of uevelopment, on the
ielationship between tiaue anu uevelopment, anu on the ioles anu powei positions of
uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies in tackling uevelopment.
1%',*/*2*30 45/ ',% 6,%*7%'(&42 8749%:*7;
Epistemologically, the vantage point of this stuuy is post-stiuctuialism anu ciitical
uiscouise analysis, which biing emphasis into the subjectivity of all inteipietations anu
tiuth claims anu uiaw focus on how knowleuge is piouuceu in uiscuisive stiuctuies anu
signifying piactices. Rhetoiical analysis, paiticulaily the theoiies of Chaïm Peielman anu
Kenneth Buike, aie applieu as an inteipietive fiamewoik foi the empiiical analysis. Thus,
the ihetoiical means constiucting the uevelopment uiscouise aie examineu; notably, the
aigumentation techniques, piemises of the aigumentation, ihetoiic piocess of
iuentification anu symbolism. Wheieas ihetoiical analysis examines the linguistic
constiuction of the uiscouise, the content of the uevelopment uiscouise is analyseu by
uiawing fiom a theoietical fiamewoik constiucteu fiom uiveise conceptualizations of
uevelopment accoiuing to uiffeient paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies.
8(5/(53- 45/ => @*72/ 674/% "7345(A4'(*5 45/ ',% B*,4 B%)%2*C9%5' D3%5/4
Woilu Tiaue 0iganization offeis a legal anu institutional fiamewoik foi inteinational tiaue
negotiations anu is the only global inteinational oiganization uealing with the iules of
tiaue between the countiies. The inauguiation of the oiganization uates back to 199S,
when as a iesult of the 0iuguay Rounu (1986-1994), the WT0 was establisheu as a moie
foimal anu institutionalizeu successoi foi ueneial Agieement on Taiiffs anu Tiaue. uATT
was a flexible foium foi tiaue libeialization founueu in 1947 piimaiily with the puipose of
ieconstiucting the wai-toin economies aftei Woilu Wai II. Initially laigely limiteu to a
taiiff agieement, ovei time, as aveiage taiiff levels fell, the uATT came to focus incieasingly
on nontaiiff tiaue policies anu uomestic policies with an impact on tiaue. (Boekman &
Kostecki, 2uu1, 1)
7
Touay, the main activities of the WT0 consist of negotiating tiaue iules, auministeiing anu
monitoiing theii application, ieviewing tiaue policies of membei states, settling tiaue
uisputes, assisting the piocess of accession of some Su countiies who aie not yet membeis,
anu builuing capacity of ueveloping countiies in inteinational tiaue matteis.
1
At the coie
of the oiganization aie the agieements negotiateu anu signeu by the membei countiies.
The unueilying philosophy is that open tiaue, non-uisciimination anu global competition
aie vectois foi economic giowth anu national welfaie in all countiies. (Boekman &
Kostecki, 2uu1, 1) Bence, the mission is "to open tiaue foi the benefit of all"
2
. Bowevei, the
libeialization of tiaue is not always the main goal anu in some ciicumstance the iules
suppoit maintaining tiaue baiiieis, foi example, to piotect consumeis, pievent the spieau
of uisease oi piotect the enviionment.
WT0 Agieements ueal with vast amount of issues such as agiicultuie, textiles anu clothing,
banking, telecommunications, goveinment puichases, inuustiial stanuaius anu piouuct
safety, foou sanitation iegulations, anu intellectual piopeity. Bowevei, theie aie basic
piinciples that ciosscut all these topics anu that theiefoie consist the founuation of the
multilateial tiauing system. Two of these cential aspects of WT0's woik aie the Nost
Favouieu Nation (NFN) clause anu the National Tieatment (NT) clause. While the piinciple
of NFN binus membeis to tieat goou anu seivices of all membeis in the same way, NT
clause obliges not to uisciiminate between foieign anu uomestic piouucts. (uhafele, 2uu4,
444)
Bespite the obscene benevolence WT0's mission statement anu activities encompass, the
oiganization anu its opeiation piinciples have been wiuely anu vehemently ciiticizeu
thioughout its existence. In fact, the oiganization is often blameu, alongsiue the Bietton
Woous institutes, the Woilu Bank anu Inteinational Nonetaiy Funu, to embouy the
unequal woilu powei stiuctuies anu unjustness biought about by globalization anu. This
became stiikingly appaient in Seattle, in 1999, when uuiing a WT0 Ninisteiial Confeience
ovei Su, uuu piotestois gatheieu to uemonstiate theii uenunciation towaius the
oiganization anu global tiaue agenua. (Scott & Wilkinson, 2u1u, 142)
1
About the WT0 ÷ a statement by the Biiectoi-ueneial
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡whatis_e¡wto_ug_stat_e.htm
2
About the WT0 ÷ a statement by the Biiectoi-ueneial
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡whatis_e¡wto_ug_stat_e.htm
8
Piobably the most well tiouuen iationale foi ciiticism stems fiom WT0's allegeu
ieputation as "0lu Woilu's Club" uiiven mainly by its iich anu poweiful membeis. Nany
low-income membeis uo not have the iesouices to establish a uiplomatic iepiesentation in
ueneva, wheie the WT0 is heauquaiteieu, anu those low-income countiies that have this,
lack auequate human iesouices anu technical infiastiuctuie to have ieal impact on the
WT0 agenua. While most economically stiong countiies senu an impoitant numbei of
tiaue expeits to ueneva to ueal exclusively with WT0 issues, many low-income countiies
have couple of uiplomats who covei all the 0N agencies anu activities in ueneva. As uhafele
(2uu4, 44S) points out, this is why, foi example, the Bispute Settlement Nechanism has
nevei been maue use of any sub-Sahaian Afiican countiy. Bue to these asymmetiies, the
uevelopeu countiies aie geneially ciiticiseu foi uictating the tiaue iules. (see e.g. Stiglitz,
2uu2, 4S8)
In an attempt to iesponse to these consiueiations, the WT0 has uevoteu its latest iounu of
tiaue negotiations to impioving tiauing piospects of ueveloping countiies anu thus, to
suppoiting uevelopment. A unique featuie of the Boha Rounu is the iecognition that
negotiations on maiket access anu tiaue policy uisciplines must be complementeu by
measuies to assist ueveloping countiy expoiteis, notably aiu foi tiaue. (Boekman & Nicita,
2u1u, 67) Boha Rounu incluues altogethei 2u negotiation aieas that incluue, foi example,
agiicultuie, maiket access foi non-agiicultuial piouucts (NANA), seivices, tiaue-ielateu
aspects of intellectual piopeity iights (TRIPS), tiaue facilitation, technical baiiieis to tiaue
(TBT), uispute settlement unueistanuing (BS0) anu iegional tiaue agieements. The
negotiations aie uesciibeu as a "single unueitaking", which means they foim a single
package to be signeu by each countiy with a single signatuie without any option to pick
anu choose between uiffeient subjects.
S
The Boha Bevelopment Rounu has been wiuely ieseaicheu among scholais of economics,
social sciences anu law. Foi example, Anueisson & Naitin (2uuS) anu Boekman & Nicita
(2u1u) pleau foi uigent completion of the Rounu uue to its allegeu substantial gains foi
ueveloping countiies. Bowevei, as alieauy mentioneu, the conclusion of the iounu has
S
Boha Bevelopment Agenua - Subjects tieateu unuei the Boha Bevelopment Agenua
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uua_e¡uohasubjects_e.htm
9
pioven paiticulaily challenging. The negotiations have collapseu iepeateuly anu although
the fiist ueauline was in 2uuS anu has since been iepeateuly postponeu, the iounu hasn't
ieacheu its conclusion yet touay. Among the negotiation aieas theie aie some that have
small uisagieements while otheis have enoimous. Especially tiaue in agiicultuie, which
coveis less than 8% of the woilu tiaue, is a sensitive aiea of negotiations foi both
ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies. (Bas, 2uu8, 29S) Bistoiically, it has been an aiea of
majoi uiscoiu, which cieateu seiious negotiation blockages in the 0iuguay Rounu anu kept
the Boha Rounu agenua off tiack. It has been wiuely uiscusseu that theie has been a bias in
the multilateial tiaue iegime against ueveloping countiies tiaue in agiicultuie, anu that it
must be auuiesseu foithwith. As Bas (2uu8, 29S) mentions, the question at stake heie is in
essence the elimination of huge subsiuies anu high taiiffs by uevelopeu countiies.
Anothei stiain of ciitique claims that the topics anu pioposals consisting the Rounu's
agenua aie as a mattei of fact of little ielevance to the uevelopment context (see e.g. }ensen
& uibbon, 2uu7). Thus, naming the Rounu "Bevelopment Agenua" woulu have been nothing
but a shallow attempt to mollify the opponents. Foi example, the uisengagement with
agiicultuial issues uue to theii sensitiveness has iesulteu in a situation, in which a
plausible conclusion of the Boha Rounu woulu not mean ielevant changes in tiaue in
agiicultuie anu, foi example, Scott anu Wilkinson (2u1u, 147) aigue that without
auuiessing the heateu questions of agiicultuie, the Rounu coulu by no means be calleu
Bevelopment Rounu. While the Rounu has been subject of a laige numbei of economic
analysis examining the size anu uistiibution of benefits, the geneial opinion among
scholais has uevelopeu moie ciitical towaius the benefits a plausible conclusion of the
Bevelopment Rounu woulu have foi ueveloping countiies. In auuition, some aigue that the
mouest gains the iounu woulu cieate, woulu be highly unevenly uistiibuteu with a few
laige ueveloping countiies, piimaiily China, Inuia anu Biazil, accounting foi most of the
benefits, while many aieas, notably Sub-Sahaian Afiica, aie likely to be left woise off. (Scott
& Wilkison, 2u1u, 146)
Fuitheimoie, the fact, whethei the WT0 can anu shoulu puisue uevelopment objectives, is
also contioveisial. As Evenett anu Boekman (2uuS, 1-2) point out, some aie of the view
that WT0's focus shoulu be limiteu to incieasing maiket access oppoitunities anu tiaue
libeialization. While global libeialization can piomote uevelopment piospects, much
1u
uepenus on whethei goveinments puisue complementaiy policies to enhance the ability of
local people to benefit fiom it. Theiefoie, piomoting the auoption of such policies woulu be
the task of national goveinments anu not the WT0.
While the WT0 anu the Boha Rounu have been wiuely ieseaicheu, also my focus on the
language in the context of WT0 anu especially the language of uevelopment in uiffeient
contexts have been the object of numeious ieseaich. I piesent some of this ieseaich next.
=>E> F7%)(*.- 7%-%47&,
Textual anu linguistic analysis have been somewhat, but not wiuely, conuucteu in the
context of the WT0. Foi example, the aigumentative pioceuuies of the Bispute Settlement
System have been examineu by applying }üigen Babeimas' uiscuisive theoiy by Ceva anu
Fiacasso (2u1u). Also the content anu ueployment of the ciisis uiscouise fiaming the
negotiations uuiing the Boha Rounu has been analyseu (Wilkinson, 2uu9). Noieovei,
metaphois of globalization anu tiaue have been examineu by uhafele (2uu4), who analyseu
inteiviews of WT0 staff anu tiaue uiplomats of low-income Afiican countiies.
The main subject of my ihetoiical analysis, uevelopment, has been geneially iecognizeu as
a lingual phenomenon anu iathei extensively analyseu especially aftei the 198us by the so-
calleu post-uevelopment school. This ieseaich has geneially focuseu on the iueological
aspects of the uevelopment uiscouise by ciitically examining the iueological featuies
embeuueu in the language anu vocabulaiy of uevelopment (see e.g. Sachs, 1992; Escobai,
199S). I intiouuce anu uesciibe moie uetaileu the appioach of post-uevelopment in
chaptei 2.1, but it is notewoithy that I shaie the viewpoint of post-uevelopment in my
ieseaich by ciitically sciutinizing the notions of uevelopment insteau of taking them foi
gianteu.
To my knowleuge, the concept of uevelopment in ministeiial statements oi in any WT0
uocuments uuiing the Boha Bevelopment Rounu has so fai not been examineu. Bue to the
topical natuie of the immense pioblematic iegaiuing the conclusion of negotiations, I aigue
that such analysis is ielevant. Fuitheimoie, uue to the thoiny natuie of WT0's
11
uevelopment aspect, the sciutiny of the concept of uevelopment in paiticulai is of
impoitance.
=>G> H%-%47&, 9%',*/ 45/ I.%-'(*5-
The concepts of uevelopment anu tiaue aie the two linchpins at the coie of my thesis. The
theoietical fiamewoik is pioviueu by the multifaceteu uiscussion the uiffeient histoiical
anu contempoiaiy paiauigms in uevelopment stuuies encompass on how uevelopment anu
its linkages with tiaue aie unueistoou. The chaptei 2 intiouuces these viewpoints on
uevelopment anu tiaue, anu the table 2 iecapitulates the uiffeient contempoiaiy
theoietical appioaches to uevelopment. Thiough this fiamewoik I examine the content of
WT0's uevelopment uiscouise anu iecognize elements of the paiauigms in my ieseaich
mateiial.
As a tool foi sciutinizing the language I apply ihetoiical analysis, which pioviues me with
means to analyse the unueipinning connotations anu iepiesentations that aie linguistically
embeuueu. While the chaptei 2 gives me the fiamewoik to iecognize elements consisting
the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0, the chaptei S intiouuces the methouology,
ihetoiical analysis, which I use as a inteipietive fiamewoik foi appioaching the empiicial
analysi anu examining thiough what ihetoiical means the uiscouise is constiucteu. In the
methouology pait, I intiouuce anu uiscuss ihetoiical analysis as a tool foi analysing the
language, anu in auuition, piesent ciitical uiscouise analysis, which is the theoietical
vantage point foi my ieseaich. The chaptei intiouuces elements anu histoiy of ihetoiical
analysis, but in paiticulai focuses on the theoiies of new ihetoiists !"#$% '()(*%#+ #+,
Kenneth Buike. In uesigning the methou best suiteu foi my analytical puiposes, I uiaw in
paiticulai fiom the theoiies of these two.
Ny ieseaich questions aie
1) Bow is the concept of uevelopment linguistically constiucteu in the uevelopment
uiscouise of the WT0.
2) Bow is the ielationship between tiaue anu uevelopment linguistically constiucteu in
the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0.
12
S) Bow aie the ioles anu powei positions of uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies in
tackling uevelopment linguistically constiucteu in the uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0.
The focus of my analysis is both the content of WT0's uevelopment uiscouise anu its
linguistic constiuction paiticulaily thiough ihetoiical means in the ministeiial statements
of the 7
th
WT0 Ninisteiial Confeience. Ny ieseaich mateiial natuially iepiesents only one
sample of a much wiuei uevelopment uiscouise within the WT0, but neveitheless, it
paiticipates in piouucing the 'language of uevelopment' of the oiganization. Questions in
paiticulai of my inteiest aie, foi example, is uevelopment seen meiely as an economic
piocess; is the content of uevelopment uefineu; how is a ceitain unueistanuing of
uevelopment justifieu; what aie the unstateu piemises of the aigumentation; aie the
benefits of tiaue foi uevelopment questioneu oi iegaiueu as a fact; anu is uevelopment
biought to ueveloping countiies fiom the outsiue oi uo ueveloping countiies claim agency
in the piocess, i.e. who is in chaige of the piocess of uevelopment.
These questions aie uiscusseu in chaptei 4, which is uiviueu into thiee paits as pei my
ieseaich questions. In auuition, in the beginning of chaptei 4, I uesciibe the context of the
7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience anu the ministeiial statements as mateiial foi my ieseaich. In
chaptei S, I uiscuss the key finuings of my ieseaich anu pioviue suggestions foi futuie
ieseaich.
1S
E> B%)%2*C9%5' 5*: 45/ #%+*7%
Any uiscussion on uevelopment must be piemiseu on uefining the concept itself.
Theiefoie, in this chaptei I focus on elaboiating how anu thiough what kinu of language
uiffeient paiauigms conceptualize what is meant by uevelopment. Fiom the basis of these
iueological anu theoietical ieckonings, I, fuitheimoie, piesent uiffeient viewpoints on the
iole of tiaue in uevelopment stuuies. This pioviues me with a fiamewoik to appioach my
ieseaich mateiial anu examine the conceptualizations of uevelopment embeuueu in it.
Bevelopment is by no means an unequivocal concept. The teim, wiuely useu in seveial
fielus, is ielatively value-fiee, but fiist anu foiemost uynamic, because as Linubeig (2uu4,
87) notes, it encompasses a ceitain peiception of change, piogiess anu evolution.
Accoiuing to Esteva (1992, 8), uevelopment, in common pailance, uesciibes a "piocess
thiough which the potentialities of an object oi oiganism aie ieleaseu, until it ieaches its
natuial, complete full-fleugeu foim." Bowevei, the teims uevelopeu anu unueiuevelopeu
aie embeuueu with stiong evaluative connotations. Esteva (1992, 8) suggests that
uevelopment occupies the centie of an incieuibly poweiful semantic constellation, but at
the same time, veiy few woius aie as feeble, as fiagile anu as incapable of giving substance
anu meaning to thought anu behavioui.
Sachs (1992, 2) aigues that the inauguiation of the age of uevelopment uiscussions in its
cuiient foim in inteinational ielations was in 1949, when Baiiy S. Tiuman ueclaieu the
Southein hemispheie foi the fiist time as unueiuevelopeu aiea. Latei, the teim
'unueiuevelopeu countiies' was ieplaceu by allegeuly less uismissive 'ueveloping
countiies'. This uefinition is, howevei, also highly pioblematic. Bave countiies not uefineu
as 'ueveloping' ieacheu a ceitain eligible level anu halteu uevelopment. Is uevelopment a
means to ieach this level oi an enu in itself. If the foimei applies, how is this iueal uefineu
anu by whom. Bevelopment encompasses always change, but can this change also be foi
woise.
What is actually meant by uevelopment vaiies gieatly accoiuing to the paiauigm, political
uoctiine oi iueological peiception in question. As Thomas (2uuu, 29) notes, uevelopment
can be eithei a vision, uepiction of a histoiical piocess of change oi a taiget-oiienteu action
14
aiming to impiove the status quo. In auuition, uevelopment is geneially peiceiveu as a
piocess oi as a conuition. The uiffeient paiauigms have gieat influence on the visions anu
piactice of uevelopment politics, anu shifts in ways to conceive uevelopment aie both
histoiical anu cyclic. (Seivaes, 1999, 8) While uiffeient notions coexist anu oveilap, they
can anyhow leau into stiikingly uiffeient emphases in teims of tools applieu in
uevelopment woik. Peispectives vaiy fiom stiessing the impoitance to libeialize maikets
anu inciease investment to piomoting liteiacy anu impioving sanitation anu hygiene
conuitions. As Simon (1997, 184) notes, it is eviuent that theie has nevei been consensus
oi unanimity about the meaning oi content of uevelopment.
Accoiuing to vaiious scholais, the geneial opinion among acauemics anu politics has
changeu fiom naiiow-minueu emphasis on the economic aspects to gieatly wiuei anu
moie multifaceteu conceptions of uevelopment (e.g. Seivaes, 1999; Besai & Pottei, 2uu8).
This has been exemplifieu by changes in measuiing uevelopment: foi example, when the
meie uBP calculatoi has been supplementeu by the Buman Bevelopment Inuex. I uiscuss
biiefly the histoiy of uevelopment stuuies anu the changes taken place in viewpoints foi
uevelopment next.
E>=> 87*9 9*/%75(A4'(*5 ',%*70 '* C*-'J/%)%2*C9%5'
The classical uiscouise of uevelopment stuuies, moueinization theoiy, oiiginates fiom the
19Sus. (Bettne, 2uu1, 28) The wai-toin Euiope pioviueu a mouel foi state-uiiecteu
moueinization of the `new nations´, anu uevelopment implieu biiuging the gap by means of
an imitative piocess, in which the less uevelopeu countiies giauually assumeu the qualities
of the uevelopeu. The pioblem of unueiuevelopment was stateu to be solveu by a
somewhat mechanical application of the economic anu political system in the West to the
countiies of the Thiiu Woilu. (Seivaes, 1999, S) This mainly economic-oiienteu view
chaiacteiizeu by enuogenism anu evolutionism was exemplifieu in Rostow's (196u)
celebiatoiy "Stages of economic giowth: a non-communist manifesto". Within the
fiamewoik of the colu wai, Rostow iankeu countiies baseu on theii stage of uevelopment,
0SA being piesenteu as an iueal at the highest stage. Noie sociologist appioach to
moueinization was applieu by, foi example, Talcott Paisons, who conceiveu societal
1S
change thiough natuialistic concepts such as oiganic evolution oi uiffeientiation.
(Eyeiman, 1984) Bowevei, whethei the vantage point was economic oi sociological,
moueinization theoiy peiceiveu mouein inuustiial society as the enu point.
Fiom the 196us, moueinization theoiy was challengeu by the uepenuency school.
Bepenuency theoiy oiiginates fiom the Latin Ameiican scholais ciiticizing the
uevelopment stiategies followeu paiticulaily in theii native continent, but was latei
applieu wiuei anu biought to the notice of uevelopment stuuies in Noith Ameiica anu
Euiope especially by Anuié uunuei Fiank. (Conway & Beynen, 2uu8, 92-9S) The focus of
the theoiy was on aiticulating the weak stiuctuial position of the Thiiu Woilu countiies in
the woilu system. 0nueiuevelopment was ueemeu as an unavoiuable outcome of
uevelopment, because the way the pooi countiies aie integiateu to the woilu system
iesults in the 'coie' of the woilu being eniicheu at the expense of the 'peiipheiy'. (Bettne,
2uu1, 28)
The two classical paiauigms in uevelopment stuuies, moueinization anu uepenuency
school, exemplifieu the uiscussion in the fielu until the 198us. Accoiuing to Schuuiman,
(2uuu, 7) these two contiauictoiy schools of thought, howevei in uialogue, shaieu thiee
piesumptions, the questioning of which finally leu to a geneial impasse being stiuck in the
fielu. Fiistly, the Thiiu Woilu anu its inhabitants weie essentializeu as homogeneous
entities. Seconuly, an unconuitional belief in piogiess anu the makeability of the society
pievaileu. Thiiuly, the (nation) state was useu as analytical fiame of iefeience, anu theie
was political anu scientific confiuence in the iole of the state in iealising piogiess. Fiom the
miu-198us onwaius these piesumptions lost theii hegemony status anu both
moueinization anu uepenuency theoiy seemeu to be losing out in teims of theii
explanatoiy poweis. Noueinization theoiy was geneially ciitiqueu foi its westein
ethnocentiism anu blinu ieliance on economic giowth. 0n the othei hanu, the ciitical
uepenuency school uiun't seem to be pioviuing much of answeis how the uevelopment
coulu be enableu. (Schuuiman, 2uu8, 1S)
The uevelopment pessimism set in when it was iealizeu that the gap between pooi anu iich
countiies continueu to wiuen. The classical uiscouise anu uevelopment stiategies seemeu
to be piouucing the opposite of theii piomises, i.e. massive unueiuevelopment,
16
impoveiishment, untolu exploitation anu iepiession. (Escobai, 199S, 4) Fuitheimoie,
wheie economic giowth hau occuiieu it hau catastiophic effects on the enviionment, anu
the enu of ieal-existing socialism hau iemoveu socialist-inspiieu uevelopment tiajectoiies
fiom the acauemic anu political agenuas. (Schuuiman, 2uuu, 9) Accoiuing to Bouus (2uu8,
4), the enu of the colu wai exemplifieu the fielu also in a moie conciete way, since uuiing
the wai, the Thiiu Woilu was above all coineu to iefei to an unallieu teiiitoiy, wheie both
the westein anu communist woilu suppoiteu uevelopment stiictly foi theii own
geopolitical puiposes seeking to piomulgate theii iueology anu exploit tiauing
oppoitunities.
Buiing the same uecaue, the postmoueinist ciitique stiuck the social sciences in geneial,
anu uevelopment stuuies in paiticulai uue to its noimative chaiacteiistics. Bevelopment
theoiies baseu on meta-uiscouise oi on the iole of a collective emancipatoiy agency weie
accuseu of lacking a sounu basis. (Schuuiman, 2uu8, 14) The so-calleu post-uevelopment
thinking focuses on the unueilying piemises anu motives of uevelopment, but what sets it
apait fiom othei ciitical appioaches is that it iejects the concept of uevelopment
altogethei. (Neueiveen Pieteise, 2uuu, 17S) This postmouein, even anti-moueinist,
uevelopment thinking was intiouuceu by, foi example, Wolfgang Sachs, who aigues that
histoiy has pioven uevelopment uoesn't woik anu has giown obsolete. (Sachs, 1992, 1)
Theiefoie, iefeiiing to the pievailing uevelopment concept, Sachs states that "it is time to
uismantle this mental stiuctuie". The postmouein methou of ueconstiuction ievealeu that
the notion of uevelopment containeu a numbei of hiuuen anu unwaiianteu evolutionist,
univeisalist anu ieuuctionist uimensions, anu any westein scholai aiming to woik in the
fielu was waineu of having a false consciousness. (Schuuiman, 2uuu, 1u) While as Escobai
(199S, 4) notes, uevelopment has cieateu a "space" in which only ceitain elements aie saiu
oi even imagineu, the post-uevelopment liteiatuie teaches not to take this "space" foi
gianteu. The influence of Foucault has also shapeu the paiauigm, since the notions on
powei anu knowleuge have been biought on the agenua also in uevelopment stuuies,
notably the peiception that who uefines uevelopment, contiols uevelopment. (Biigg, 2uu2,
421)
These ciitical stances challenging the classical paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies have leu
to a situation wheie at the beginning of the twenty-fiist centuiy, the whole existence of the
17
fielu of stuuy was questioneu. Accoiuing to Schuuiman (2uuu,1S), pessimists weie ieauy
to call the enu of the millennium the enu of uevelopment stuuies, anu its pioposeu
ieplacement, global stuuies, was alieauy beckoning. The main appioaches, since the
establishment of the fielu, aie iecapitulateu in the following table (applieu fiom Willis,
2uuS).
64#2% => 14(5 4CC7*4&,%- '* /%)%2*C9%5'
19Sus Noueinization theoiies
Stiuctuialist theoiies
196us Noueinization theoiies
Bepenuency theoiies
197us Bepenuency theoiies
Basic neeu appioaches
Neo-Nalthusian theoiies
Women anu uevelopment
198us Neo-libeialism
uiassioots appioaches
Sustainable uevelopment
uenuei anu uevelopment
199us Neo-libeialism
Post-uevelopment
Sustainable uevelopment
Cultuie anu uevelopment
2uuus Neo-libeialism
Sustainable uevelopment
Post-uevelopment
uiassioots appioaches
18
In the next pait, I categoiize anu elaboiate moie on contempoiaiy appioaches to
uevelopment, which aie, howevei, piemiseu on these histoiical paiauigms uiscusseu
above. I piesume the contempoiaiy appioaches to be ielevant in the context of the
uevelopment uiscouise of the WT0 anu the ieflection, thus, pioviues me with a fiamewoik
to appioach my ieseaich mateiial.
E>E> /%)%2*C9%5'42 -'4'%
The neolibeial agenua often gains the status of hegemonic uiscouise in the uiscussion on
uevelopment politics touay. Thomas (2uu4, 4S8) aigues that uespite uiffeient peispectives
19
on uevelopment have been intiouuceu anu have ostensibly establisheu theii position, they
neveitheless haven't succeeueu in actually changing the agenua in the uiscussion. While
mentions of human oi sustainable uevelopment aie nowauays common in uiscussions the
coie message eulogizing economic giowth still pievails. Also Simon (1997, 4) anu Fine
(2uu9, 88S) aigue that neolibeialism has inuisputably enjoyeu longstanuing uominance
especially on account of the powei of its institutional auvocates.
The neolibeial iueology uiaws squaiely on classical economic theoiies of Auam Smith oi
Baviu Ricaiuo: by leaving the job to the invisible hanu, the Paieto-optimal outcome will
follow anu maiket efficiency will engenuei uevelopment thiough economic giowth. (Chang
& uiabel, 2uu4, 14) The main iestiiction on an inheient tenuency foi a fiee capitalist
economy to giow is ueemeu to be maiket failuie iesulting fiom peiveise goveinmental
iegulation oi othei uomestic featuies such as coiiupt politicians oi ient-seeking
buieauciats. (Bettne, 2uu8, 9) Najoi foices such as the Woilu Bank anu Inteinational
Nonetaiy Funu weie the most vocal pioponents of neolibeialism as the best souice foi
economic giowth anu uevelopment all aiounu the woilu, anu in the giounus of this
iueology, the highly contioveisial stiuctuial aujustment piogiammes baseu on the
Washington Consensus, eulogizing fiee maiket economy, weie intiouuceu in the 198us to
seveial ueveloping countiies.
Neolibeialism inheiiteu many aspects fiom the moueinization school, which is why Simon
(1997, 184) iefeis to it as contempoiaiy incaination of moueinization theoiy. Iueologically
not fai fiom Rostow's (196u) stages of economic giowth uevelopment is peiceiveu in a
top-uown lineai mannei fiom the westein point of view, economic giowth given the
supieme iole in the piocess. Fuitheimoie, uevelopment is ueemeu as an inheiently
univeisal economic piocess, anu the pioblem of its ueficiency is piimaiily uomestic.
The ieliance on economic giowth benefiting the whole society engenueis gieatly fiom the
concept of tiickle-uown effect. Even thought meiely the elite woulu benefit fiom the
giowth fiist hanu, the piospeiity is believeu to "tiickle uown" also to the lowei classes in
the society, because maikets autonomously engenuei ieuistiibution of economic giowth.
(Aghion & Bolton, 1997)
2u
Economic-centieu uevelopment stiategies can also sweai by some level of state
inteivention as a way to iealize economic giowth. Buiing the post-wai peiiou, uespite the
theoiy oi school of thought in question, uevelopment was always peiceiveu to be achieveu
thiough vaiiations on Keynesian appioaches. (Seivaes, 1999, 2) Neolibeialism changeu
this view stiikingly uuiing the 198us, biinging emphases of maiket, tiaue libeialization
anu minimum state inteivention to the public agenua. Bowevei, issues such as the
ielevance of inuustiial policies aie vehemently uebateu still touay. Foi example, the
concept of uevelopmental state is aigueu by some to be behinu the economic success of the
so-calleu East-Asian tigeis (see e.g. Woo-Commings, 1999).
Bespite whethei the economic giowth is being leu by the invisible hanu oi state, the
piocess of countiies ueveloping in an iuentical mannei towaius an inuustiializeu economy
iesembles the notion of moueinization theoiy. Not fai fiom the moueinization paiauigm
touches also the topical uiscussion on economies' competitiveness: states aiming to climb
up the staiis of success by the means of innovation anu efficiency. Bence, uespite the
polemic ciitique the moueinization paiauigm has uiawn uuiing the last uecaues, the iueas
somewhat accommouateu still live on stiongly.
!"!"#"#" %&'()*&+, *+ ,-./'
The neolibeial economic-centieu views on tiaue uiaw squaiely fiom the theoiies of mastei
economists such as Baviu Ricaiuo oi Eli Beckschei anu Beitil 0hlin. (Lévy, 2uuS) While
the classical conception of fiee tiaue benefiting all fiom the basis of compaiative auvantage
is natuially a theoietical simplification of the complex mouein woilu, the basic iueology is
still useu as giounus foi economic policies. Inteinational tiaue peimits an expansion of the
piouuction possibility set anu, thus, leaves all the tiauing paitneis bettei off. Bowevei, this
potential impiovement may not necessaiily tianslate into an actual impiovement foi all
conceineu anu the uistiibution of the gains fiom fiee tiaue is the main ieason behinu the
ambiguity conceining tiaue's impacts.
The uistiibutional aiguments aie the common iationale foi inteiventionist policies anu
have leu to a global economic system filleu with taiiffs, quotas anu othei baiiieis to fiee
tiaue. Theiefoie, the aim foi complete tiaue libeialization is moie iealistically ieplaceu by
21
the puisuance of negotiation anu compliance of faii tiaue iules in fiames of which the
global multilateial tiauing system can opeiate efficiently anu justly enhancing the
tiansition towaius fieei tiaue. At the WT0, the aim of the woik has nevei been fiee tiaue
but fieei tiaue, anu theiefoie, as uhafele (2uu4, 44S) notes, the WT0 as a mattei of fact
contiauicts the libeial tiaue theoiies it theoietically auheies. The puisuance of faii iules
piomoting fiee tiaue anu allowing the tiauing countiies to fully exploit the oppoitunities
tiaue pioviues them with, is inuisputably in the inteiests of all. Bowevei, the quanuaiy is
engenueieu when in the piogiess of libeialisation, the tiauing paitneis aie faceu with the
piisonei's uilemma. (Ray, 1998, 621) Even though a coopeiative solution of at least paitial
libeialization woulu be Paieto optimal, it woulu be unlikely to iesult out of inuiviuual
uncooiuinateu uecisions. The negotiation is baseu on &'() *+, &',, which legitimates the
neeu foi a cooiuinateu anu institutionalizeu negotiation platfoim, such as the WT0.
E>E>E> L.945J&%5'7%/ 4CC7*4&,%-
The seconu gioup consists of vaiious uiffeient paiauigms I pool togethei foi the puipose of
simplification. The combining factoi is the focus placeu on the people, human well-being
anu human iights. Elliot (2uu8, 4u) uesciibes this change of emphases in uevelopment
suggesting that the piactice anu uiscouises of uevelopment have become moie moially
infoimeu paiticulaily since the late 198us. As a iesult of this piocess, in 1986, the 0niteu
Nations auopteu the 0N Beclaiation on the Right to Bevelopment, within which
uevelopment itself was iuentifies as an inalienable human iight.
4
Buman iights anu well-being have unquestionably always been a concein in uevelopment
stuuies, but insteau of being uiiectly tackleu, they weie ueemeu to follow the lineai piocess
of economic uevelopment. 0ne of the fiist appioaches to tackle uiiectly the ueliveiy of
welfaie outcomes was the so-calleu "basic neeus" - appioach uating to the beginning of
197us. Accoiuing to Elliot (2uu8, 42), the basic neeus appioach uiu much to put poveity,
human neeus anu iights back on official uevelopment agenuas anu iesulteu in vaiious
4
0N ueneial Assembly - A¡RES¡41¡128 Beclaiation on the Right to Bevelopment
http:¡¡www.un.oig¡uocuments¡ga¡ies¡41¡a41i128.htm
22
piogiammes focusing on householus anu coveiing aspects of health, euucation, faiming
anu iepiouuction piactices.
Anothei influential appioach was intiouuceu by Amaitya Sen (1999), who intiouuceu
uevelopment as a piocess of ieal fieeuoms that people enjoy. Accoiuing to him,
uevelopment consists of the iemoval of vaiious types of unfieeuoms that leave people with
little choice anu little oppoitunity to exeicise theii ieasoneu agency. Fieeuom is theiefoie
iuentifieu as the main object of uevelopment, anu the focus is put paiticulaily on the ioles
anu inteiconnections between ciucial instiumental fieeuoms, such as economic
oppoitunities, political fieeuoms, social facilities, tianspaiency guaiantees anu piotective
secuiity. (Sen, 1999, 7) Economic giowth, inuustiialization, technological auvances oi
social moueinization can be means to expanu fieeuoms, but they aie nevei iuentifieu as
uevelopment themselves.
The human focus is shaieu also by the paiticipatoiy uevelopment appioach, the puipose of
which is to involve local people in theii own uevelopment. This appioach conuemns the
classical uevelopment piactices as westein ethnocentiic, uisempoweiing, anu
chaiacteiizeu by top-uownism. (Nohan, 2uu8, 46-47) The main iuea is that eveiy society
must uefine uevelopment foi itself anu finu its own stiategy. (Seivaes, 1999, 6) As Nohan
(2uu8, 47) mentions, the focus is on the giass-ioots level, often involving civil society,
which peimits a pluiality of uevelopment goals to be iealizeu, as well as giving
communities self-ueteimination they neeu. A cential concept in paiticipatoiy uevelopment
is empoweiment, which Nelkote anu Kanuath (2uu1, 197) uefine as a uynamic piocess that
enhances the possibilities of an inuiviuual oi a community to face the continuous social
changes. Bence, the piocess of uevelopment is being foimeu in a bottom-up -mannei, anu
the agency in uevelopment is given to ueveloping countiies.
The emphasis on paiticipation is pait of a wiuei movement, which has tiansfoimeu
oithouox thinking about public sectoi management ovei the last two uecaues anu maue
uecision-making baseu on paiticipation, iathei than imposition, cential to the iuea of
moueinity. (Biett, 2uuS, 2) The uemanu foi paiticipatoiy uevelopment is an integial pait
of peisonal anu social emancipation. Nohan (2uu8, 46) aigues that behinu the appioach is
also the belief in not ielying on the state, anu theiefoie it might not be coinciuental that
2S
paiticipatoiy uevelopment gaineu populaiity aiounu the same time as the neolibeial
countei-ievolution of the 198us, with its uiscouise of self-help anu inuiviuualism.
!"!"!"!" %&'()*&+, *+ ,-./'
The human appioaches to uevelopment peiceive the auvantages oi uisauvantages of tiaue
in a similai giassioots mannei than its concept of uevelopment. In essence, tiaue is
ueemeu neithei puiely uetiimental noi beneficial, but insteau, it can be both. The focal
point is the changes tiaue biings to the lives of local communities anu inuiviuuals.
The coie of the uiscussion iegaiuing tiaue is often the fact how it cieates anu uestioys jobs
oi moie piecisely, as Weinstein (2uuS, S) points out, ueteimines wheie the jobs aie
locateu. The negative consequences that tiaue piouuce to local communities aie often
iaiseu to public agenua, but tiaue can also be useu to enhance the living stanuaius of
people, anu paiticipatoiy uevelopment appioach can focus on piogiams facilitating anu
suppoiting local tiauing piactices. The faii tiaue movement aiming to help piouuceis in
ueveloping countiies is a goou example of this appioach.
E>E>G> M'7.&'.742(-' 4CC7*4&,%- N :*72/ -0-'%9- ',%*70 45/ &7('(&42 32*#42(A4'(*5
/(-&.--(*5
Refeiences to unjust global stiuctuies aie iaiseu to public agenua to this uay especially by
vast amount of uevelopment Nu0s. Foi example, Kepa, the Finnish Seivice Centie foi
Bevelopment Coopeiation, has emphasizeu that poveity is a iesult of stiuctuies that feeu
societal inequality, anu the eiauication of poveity - enuing of impoveiishment - can be
successful only if these stiuctuies anu piactices will be uismantleu. (Wilska et al. 2uu4)
The emphases put on global stiuctuies iesemble the iueas of )-*-.)(/$#/ anu iepiesent its
moie contempoiaiy veision, the woilu systems theoiy, accoiuing to which any countiy's
uevelopment conuitions anu piospects aie shapeu piimaiily by economic piocesses,
commouities chains, uivisions of laboui anu geopolitical ielationships opeiating at the
global scale. (Klak, 2uu8, 1u1)
24
Iueologically close to uepenuency school is also touay's ciitical globalization uiscussions,
accoiuing to which the way globalization is coming about inevitably cieates winneis anu
loseis. ulobalization is geneially iecognizeu as consisting thiee uiffeient stianus: the
economic, the cultuial anu the political. (Pottei, 2uu8, 192) Tiaue, capital flows anu
immigiation can be seen as the most conciete embouiments of globalization, notably
economic. Fuitheimoie, featuies of tiaue, capital flows anu immigiation aie blameu to be
the cause foi the uiscontents of globalization. Issues such as tiaue patteins, global value
chains anu new inteinational uivision of laboui become piominent factois that cause
spatial inequality uue to global piouuction, owneiship anu economic piocesses0 The global
economy is becoming moie anu moie chaiacteiizeu by polaiization, with some people anu
iegions at the cutting euge of globalization, while otheis aie maiginalizeu. 0ne of the most
influential globalization ciitics }oseph E. Stiglitz (2uuS, 2S1) aigues that "globalization has
been hijackeu by the special inteiests in the Noith, often at the expense of the pooi in
ueveloping countiies".
Theie aie vaiious views among woilu systems theoiies anu ciitical globalization
appioaches, but the basis on which I combine them is the theoietical simplification of theii
coie message iuentical to the uepenuency theoiy: othei paits of the woilu gaining on the
expense of otheis. In auuition, chaiacteiistic foi these theoiies seems to be the emphases
put on exteinal factois when the pioblems of ueveloping countiies aie being examineu. As
Simon (1997, 18S) notes, while the simplistic anu ueteiministic constiuctions of the
)-*-.)(/$#/ have long been uiscieuiteu, this intellectual legacy iemains quite tangible anu
has been ieinfoiceu by the stiongly negative social impact of stiuctuial aujustment anu
economic iecoveiy piogiammes anu the associateu aiu conuitionalities.
!"!"0"#" %&'()*&+, *+ ,-./'
The unfaii patteins of inteinational tiaue aie the in the coie of the aiguments iefeiiing to
the uepenuency school anu othei stiuctuial theoiies. Alieauy in the 19Sus, the economists
associateu with ECLA (0niteu Nations Commission foi Latin Ameiica), ueteimineu
ueclining teims of tiaue as the main cause foi lack of uevelopment. Accoiuing to this
theoiy, latei titleu Singei-Piebisch hypothesis aftei its main uevelopeis, while tiaue
ielations between uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies aie chaiacteiizeu by tiaue in
2S
inuustiial goous anu iaw mateiials, the income elasticity of uemanu foi manufactuieu
goous incieases moie iapiuly than uemanu foi piimaiy goous. Theiefoie, the teims of
tiaue foi piimaiy commouity expoitei have a tenuency to uecline. (Chang & uiabel, 2uu4,
2S)
Accoiuing to uepenuency theoiies, this veiy stiuctuie of the maiket is iesponsible foi the
existence of inequality in the woilu system. A uiffeient notion on global tiaue emphasizes
not only the inheiently twisteu stiuctuies of tiaue but also the powei of some nations to
uictate the tiaue iules. In essence, the question is about the tiaue iestiiction measuies
applieu by inuustiial nations allegeuly causing seveie uamage to ueveloping countiies.
(Stiglitz, 2uu2, 4S7-4S8) The enuemic uebate on the agiicultuial subsiuies pioviueu by
uevelopeu countiies to theii faimeis iepiesents this vantage point at ioot, anu is also one
of the focal uiscussion points of the Boha Bevelopment Rounu.
The opeiation of the WT0 in geneial is stiongly challengeu while the ciitiques state that
uue to the asymmetiic economic, political anu uiplomatic poweis between the membeis,
the woilu tiauing system as cooiuinateu anu implementeu by WT0 is funuamentally
unfaii. Some even suggest that ueveloping countiies woulu actually be bettei of without
the WT0. (Fung et al., 2u1u, 187-188)
E>G> 6,% 8749%:*7;
DCC7*4&, 1%45- '* /%)%2*C9%5' 6,%*7%'(&42 #4&;37*.5/
Economic-centieu appioaches
Economic giowth,
libeialization of maikets anu
tiaue oi state-leu giowth,
inuustiial policies
Walt W. Rostow (196u) : "The
stages of economic giowth. A
non-communist manifesto"
Buman-centieu appioaches
Paiticipating, empoweiing the
people in the ueveloping
countiies, enhancing
uemociacy
Amaitya Sen (1999):
Bevelopment as Fieeuom
Robeit Chambeis (1997):
Whose Reality Counts. Putting
the Last Fiist
Stiuctuialist appioaches
"New woilu oiuei", impioveu
position of the ueveloping
countiies
Anuie uunuei Fiank (1969):
The 0nueiuevelopment of
Bevelopment
When examining the content of my ieseaich mateiial, the ministeiial statements of the
WT0, I utilize this uivision of paiauigms as a fiame to iecognize uiffeient kinus of elements
of the uevelopment uiscouise.
27
G> H,%'*7(& 4- 9%',*/*2*30
In this chaptei I intiouuce the methouology useu in my thesis, ihetoiical analysis. As
Palonen anu Summa (1996, 7) aigue, it is howevei incoiiect to iefei to ihetoiical analysis
as one unifieu methou. Insteau, it is a uiscipline with multifaceteu tiauitions anu puiposes
of use. Theiefoie, I piesent how the uiscipline has evolveu fiom the classical ihetoiic to the
so-calleu new ihetoiic, anu geneially uiscuss the uiffeient appioaches. Aftei this, I examine
moie uetaileu the theoietical appioaches of two ihetoiists, Chaïm Peielman anu Kenneth
Buike, the theoiies of whom I uiaw fiom in my analysis.
Accoiuing to vihinen, (1996, 22S) ihetoiic focus as basis foi the analysis can be seen as a
viewpoint that acknowleuges anu biings focus into politicizeu uimensions of the mattei in
question by inuicating that theie is no one natuial way foi a topic to be uiscusseu. A ceitain
conceptualization is always engenueieu by the social anu cultuial context as well as by the
ueep-seateu value system of the language usei. Following the post-stiuctuialistic
philosophy, all the tiuth claims aie iueological, because knowleuge is bounueu on the
vantage point anu attacheu to a ceitain uiscouise. (Biisto, 2u1u, 18-19) Theiefoie,
impoitance is biought also to the context of the text. ueneially, ihetoiical analysis shaies
the same subjects of ieseaich with the uiscouise analysis; both the language itself as well
as the social anu cultuial context behinu it, i.e. the micio anu the macio level, aie being
sciutinizeu. (Leiwo & Pietikäinen, 1996, 1uS) I elaboiate moie on the ielationship between
ihetoiical anu uiscouise analysis anu uiscuss ciitical uiscouise analysis as a theoietical
vantage point foi my ieseaich next.
G>=> E>G E> B%)%2*C9%5' 4&&*7/(53 '* ',% @6"
The teim uevelopment appeais ubiquitously in WT0's official uocuments anu uespite its
somewhat contentious iole in the oiganization's mission, the topic has establisheu its
position in the WT0 agenua. 0fficially the WT0 Agieements state to iecognize the link
between tiaue anu uevelopment, but no fuithei uesciiption of the ielationship is pioviueu.
Effectively, the theme uevelopment is somewhat piesent in piactically all WT0 meetings
iegaiuless of the meeting topic in question, since the ueveloping countiy membeis
iepetitively iaise theii special position on the agenua. WT0 has a sepaiate committee
uevoteu to uiscussing the issues of tiaue anu uevelopment, anu seveial othei bouies, the
woik of which touch on uiffeient aspects of uevelopment oi ueveloping countiies. In
auuition, WT0 offeis technical suppoit foi ueveloping countiies.
The laigest aspect of WT0's uevelopment uimension is the special anu uiffeient tieatment
given to the countiies uefineu as ueveloping oi the least uevelopeu countiies (LBCs). The
special anu uiffeient tieatment can incluue piovisions gianting longei tiansitional peiious
foi the implementation of commitments, moie lenient obligations, anu piovisions that
iequiie othei membeis to safeguaiu the inteiests of ueveloping countiies when auopting
piotective tiaue measuies. The LBCs enjoy the gieatest level of special attention uiawn to
them in each WT0 agieement, anu this conflictingly somewhat wanteu status can only be
given by the 0N Economic anu Social Committee iesting upon stiict ciiteiia. Each membei
countiy is able to state whethei they aie a uevelopeu oi a ueveloping countiy, but othei
membeis have the iight to challenge this position.
7
Notably, a cleai uefinition foi the teim oi elaboiation on the topic of uevelopment is not
incluueu in any official WT0 texts intiouucing the uevelopment uimension of the
oiganization. Bence, when membeis iefei to uevelopment in the oiganization's context, it
is left foi them to ueteimine what they mean by uevelopment. In the statements of the 7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience, foui uistinctive uiscouises coulu be iecognizeu in teims of how
uevelopment was unueistoou. The fiist uiscouise uesciibes uevelopment as vague anu
7
Who aie the ueveloping countiies in the WT0.
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uevel_e¡u1who_e.htm.
44
unueteimineu, the seconu one focuses on the economic siue of uevelopment, the thiiu one
on the human siue, anu the fouith uiscouise emphasizes uevelopment as integiation to the
woilu economy. I examine moie uetaileu how these uiscouises aie constiucteu next.
S>E>=> B%)%2*C9%5' 4- 4 )43.% 45/ .5/%'%79(5%/ &*5&%C'
None of the membeis explicitly uefine the teim uevelopment in the statements, foi
example by stating that 'Bevelopment is.' oi 'Bevelopment means... '. A few of the
statements incluue expiessions such as -2,.,4(2 )-5-6,*4-.$, /,2(#6 )-5-6,*4-.$ oi +'+#6
)-5-6,*4-.$, which ueteimine moie piecisely what kinu of uevelopment the language-usei
is iefeiiing to. Bowevei, a moie common way to iefei to uevelopment is to use the woiu as
a ueteiminatoi to anothei abstiact noun uesciibing the chaiactei of the expiession. Such
common woiu paiis aie )-5-6,*4-.$ )(4-./(,., )-5-6,*4-.$ #/*-2$3 )-5-6,*4-.$ 7,#6/3
)-5-6,*4-.$ ,'$2,4-3 )-5-6,*4-.$ $"+'/$/3 )-5-6,*4-.$ 2"#66-.7-/3 )-5-6,*4-.$
#/*(+#$(,./ ,+ )-5-6,*4-.$ *#28#7-0 0thei expiessions entail a moie positive anu
piomising connotation, such as )-5-6,*4-.$ )(5()-.)/ oi )-5-6,*4-.$ 7#(./3 while otheis
focus on the necessity of uevelopment, such as )-5-6,*4-.$ (4*-+#$(5-/ oi )-5-6,*4-.$
.--)/. Egypt even applies quotation maiks on the woiu uevelopment, when aiguing that
"9-6(5-+(.7 ,.
-5-6,*4-.$; /",'6) +-4#(. $"- 2,+- 2,4*,.-.$ ,< 99=;. The use ofquotation maiks can be inteipieteu in many ways, but most piobably in this case, Egypt
aims to emphasise the vagueness anu peihaps also contentiousness of the teim.
vincent anu the uienauines iefeis to )-5-6,*4-.$ )-E>G> B%)%2*C9%5'
', 4 ,.945 +4&%The teims "'4#. )-5-6,*4-.$ oi /,2(#6 )-5-6,*4-.$ appeai in the statements a couple of
times, anu always in conjunction with at least one othei teim. Bowevei, expiessions
iefeiiing to human aspects of uevelopment aie incluueu in many ways. 0ne example is
"'4#. *+,7+-// mentioneu by Noiway. Inteiestingly, the woius 'human' anu 'piogiess'
being paiieu togethei invoke a stiong connotation of the piogiess of human being, insteau
of human aspects of piogiess oi uevelopment. The notion coulu thus be inteipieteu to
iefei to iueas of the classical moueinization theoiy anu to a uevelopment of the human
being fiom savageiy to civilization.
St. Kitts anu Nevis uefines 7-.'(.- )-5-6,*4-.$ in teims of human aspects.
"Aiu foi tiaue shoulu howevei not ieplace a genuine uevelopment - fiienuly
outcome in the coie moualities uemanueu by oui people." (St. Kitts anu Nevis)
48
In auuition to uiiectly iefeiiing to 2,+- 4,)#6($(-/ )-4#.)-) ?> ,'+ *-,*6-, the human
aspect is emphasizeu by using the aujective , usually iefeiiing to human attiibutes.
The use of possessive pionoun ,'+3 iefeiiing to the commonality of the issue, is in
accoiuance with Buike's theoiy, which states that iuentification is the main piocess of
peisuasion in ihetoiic. (Summa, 1996, S6) Refeiences to associating oi sepaiating oneself
fiom a gioup will be fuithei uiscusseu in pait S.S. Similai to St. Kitts anu Nevis´ iefeience
to 7-.'(.- )-5-6,*4-.$ is Botswana's mention of 2,.2+-$-3 /'?/$#.$(#6 !-6E>S B%)%2*C9%5' 4- (5'%374'(*5 '* ',% :*72/ %&*5*90
In auuition to economic anu human aspects of uevelopment uiscusseu above, the theme
integiation to the woilu economy is highlighteu in the statements as a ciucial aspect foi
ueveloping countiies.
"Fuithei integiation of theii (least ueveloping countiies) economies in the
multilateial tiauing system thiough incieaseu iegional anu global configuiations
theiefoie iemains theii only hope." (Tanzania)
"In conclusion, allow me to ie-emphasise that the successful conclusion of the
Boha negotiations will go a long way in acceleiating economic giowth, alleviating
poveity anu integiating ueveloping countiies into the multilateial tiauing system.
" (Botswana)
Accoiuing to Tanzania, fuithei integiation in the multilateial tiauing system is the ,.6>
",*- foi the least ueveloping countiies, i.e. the integiation woulu be the only way foi them
to uevelop. The unueilying piesumption, accoiuing to which integiation is always
beneficial foi ueveloping countiies, ieveals that the neolibeial iueology is the piemise foi
the aigumentation also in this connection. Botswana mentions integiation in conjunction
with -2,.,4(2 7+,!$" anu #66-5(#$(.7 *,5-+$>, which count among the economic anu social
aspects of uevelopment. Inteiestingly, no causal tie can be maikeu between fuithei
integiation anu othei aspects of uevelopment: (.$-7+#$(.7 )-5-6,*(.7 2,'.$+(-/ (.$, $"-
4'6$(6#$-+#6 $+#)(.7 />/$-4 is a goal pei se, not because it contiibutes to uevelopment. This
is appaient also in the statement of Poitugal.
"Closei integiation of Beveloping countiies, paiticulaily the LBCs, into global
maikets, as well as the achievement of theii own uevelopment objectives, must be
one of oui piioiities. " (Poitugal)
While Poitugal sepaiates 26,/-+ (.$-7+#$(,. ,< )-5-6,*(.7 2,'.$+(-s fiom $"-(+ ,!.
)-5-6,*4-.$ ,?@-2$(5-/3 a notion following the iueas of paiticipatoiy uevelopment, it
neveitheless ueems both as equal piioiities.
S2
The linkage between integiation to the global economy anu uevelopment was emphasizeu
alieauy by the )-*-.)(/$#/ in the 197us as uiscusseu in the chaptei 2. Bowevei, while the
scholais auheiing to stiuctuial theoiies have emphasizeu the unjust way the ueveloping
countiies aie integiateu to the global economy, a majoiity of the WT0 membeis focus on
the neeu foi moie integiation. Beepei integiation to the woilu economy anu to the
multilateial tiauing system appeais as one of the main facilitatois foi uevelopment.
Some membeis touch closei to the ciitical woilu systems - uogma in theii statements: in
the statement of }oiuan, -&'($#?6- #.) @'/$ )(//-4(.#$(,. ,< -2,.,4(2 *+,/*-+($> (. $"- !,+6)
is uefineu as the ,5-+#66 ,?@-2$(5-. The statements of Kyigyz anu uieece entail notions of the
polemic globalization ciitique.
"We agiee with the statements that unuei conuitions of majoi inequality aiounu
the woilu in teims of socio-economic uevelopment anu iesouices, iisks anu
benefits of globalization aie uistiibuteu asymmetiically between the countiies anu
that less uevelopeu economies aie often uepiiveu of the oppoitunity to benefit
fiom equal paiticipation in the piocesses of globalization." (Kyigyz)
"Fighting poveity anu builuing an inclusive woilu is anothei challenge the
inteinational community faces touay." (uieece)
While Kyigyz states explicitly to #7+-- with the notion that +(/8/ #.) ?-.-G> B%)%2*C9%5' 45/ ',% 9.2'(24'%742 '74/(53 -0-'%9
As uiscusseu in the chaptei 2, the uiffeient paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies have
stiikingly uiffeient attituues towaius inteinational tiaue: it can be peiceiveu as the savioui
foi ueveloping countiies, as one of the main causes foi theii plight, oi as something in the
miuule. The fiist one of these positions, fiee tiaue benefits all, is the official iueology of the
WT0. Bowevei, the level of faith in fiee tiaue vaiies gieatly between the membei states,
anu even though the vast majoiity of membeis ostensibly sweai by fiee tiaue in piinciple,
in many cases this is anyhow bieacheu in piactise. As Stiglitz (2uu2, 4S8) points out,
uespite the enuemic ihetoiic in favoui of iapiu libeialisation, iich countiies with full
employment anu stiong safety nets geneially aigue that they neeu to impose piotective
measuies to help those auveisely affecteu by tiaue. The question is how coulu ueveloping
countiies then be expecteu to obey to these uiiections touting tiaue libeialisation.
In the ministeiial statements maue uuiing the 7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience, thiee uistinct
positions on the impacts of fiee tiaue foi uevelopment coulu be iecognizeu: fiee tiaue was
ueemeu beneficial foi uevelopment, potentially beneficial foi uevelopment, oi uetiimental
foi uevelopment. The fiist two of these uiscouises weie cleaily moie pievalent while the
last one was piesenteu meiely in a couple of statement.
S4
S>G>=> 87%% '74/% #%5%+(&(42 +*7 /%)%2*C9%5'
The auvocacy of fiee tiaue becomes appaient in the statements in vaiious ways. Some
membeis explicitly state theii position as suppoiteis of tiaue libeialization.
"0n uevelopment, Iielanu believes tiaue is one of the most impoitant uiiveis."
(Iielanu)
"Bulgaiia, as a WT0 Nembei anu Nembei State of the Euiopean 0nion, fully
believes in the piinciples of economic integiation anu the benefits of a libeial anu
open global tiauing system, baseu on cleai anu tianspaient iules." (Bulgaiia)
"uieece believes that the main contiibution to iecoveiy, giowth anu uevelopment
will be the conclusion of the BBA in 2u1u, on the basis of the piogiess alieauy
maue. " (uieece)
Inteiestingly, the veib '?-6(-5-B was useu seveial times when membei countiies expiesseu
theii suppoit foi fiee tiaue. Accoiuing to 0xfoiu Bictionaiy, one uefinition of 'believe' is to
"accept that (something) is tiue, especially without pioof". Bespite being the coineistone
of the opeiation of the WT0, the meiits of tiaue aie thus not taken as a fact in these
statements, but iathei as something to accept to be tiue without pioof. While Iielanu
?-6(-5-/ that tiaue is beneficial foi uevelopment, Bulgaiia ?-6(-5-/ in the benefits of
multilateial tiauing system anu uieece in the benefits of concluuing the Boha Rounu. All
these thiee aspects aie, hence, actually ueemeu as matteis of faith. C-6(-5- being a woiu
that commonly iefeis to ieligious belief can also be inteipieteu as a soit of metaphoi.
Accoiuing to Buike (1969a, Su6), metaphois aie linguistic expansions that take the
uesciiption to a new level, anu in this case, the ieligious iefeience pioviues the expiession
with a sense of ueep anu stiong commitment the language usei wants to stiess as a means
of aigumentation.
Bowevei, in some of the statements, the benefits of fiee tiaue, anu thus the neolibeial
foimula, aie peiceiveu moie as a fact than as a belief.
"This Rounu will biing the benefits of giowth anu uevelopment thiough tiaue
libeialization to all 1SS Nembeis of the WT0." (}apan)
SS
"We shoulu iemembei that libeialiseu tiaue is the coineistone of uevelopment."
(Icelanu)
"We have maue oui specific inteiests well known: that meaningful maiket
opening is iequiieu to complete the Rounu. " (0SA)
In the statements of }apan, Icelanu anu 0SA, the neolibeial foimula is the piemise of the
aigumentation, which is exemplifieu by using the veibs D(/B anu '!(66' insteau of less uefinite
'can', 'coulu' oi 'woulu': this Rounu !(66 biing the benefits of giowth anu uevelopment,
libeialiseu tiaue (/ the coineistone of uevelopment, anu meaningful maiket opening (/
iequiieu to complete the Rounu. Icelanu uses the metaphoi 2,+.-+/$,.- to emphasize the
absolute necessity of tiaue foi uevelopment: uevelopment is eithei fully uepenuent oi
baseu on tiaue. 0SA ueems meaningful maiket opening as a necessity foi completing the
uevelopment iounu, anu thus simultaneously implies that maiket opening is the most
impoitant factoi foi uevelopment. These neolibeial notions aie piemise of the
aigumentation, because the way they aie piesenteu implies that they aie not expecteu to
be questioneu.
Also Pakistan anu Canaua squaiely auheie to the neolibeial foimula in theii statements.
"A woilu of oppoitunity awaits us. We can eithei pioviue stiength to fiee tiaue
anu ensuie piospeiity foi the weakest amongst us oi we can let this oppoitunity
slip by. The lattei is not an option." (Pakistan)
"We cannot affoiu to lose sight of the impoitance of keeping maikets open anu
cieating new maiket access oppoitunities, especially foi oui ueveloping anu least-
uevelopeu tiauing paitneis." (Canaua)
Pakistan anu Canaua apply a uissociative aigumentation technique by sepaiating what is
#. ,*$(,. oi what can be #$"/0 Nyth is a
poweiful teim, which completely withuiaws the valiuity of the mattei in question.
As analyseu in this pait, the viewpoints on the ielationship between fiee tiaue anu
uevelopment uiffeieu gieatly in the statements anu iangeu fiom the benefits being vieweu
as a fact to being uenounceu as a myth. In the next pait, I uiaw attention on how uiffeient
ioles aie constiucteu foi uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies in teims of tackling
uevelopment issues.
61
S>S> H*2%- *+ /%)%2*C%/ 45/ /%)%2*C(53 &*.5'7(%- (5 '4&;2(53 /%)%2*C9%5'
The questions of who aie ueemeu as active playeis in the piocess of uevelopment oi who
have iesponsibility have always been at the heait of uevelopment stuuies anu any
uiscussion conceining uevelopment politics. The questions geneially ueal with
peispectives of uevelopeu countiies towaius ueveloping countiies anu the tiansfei of
iesouices fiom iich to pooi, such as uevelopment aiu. The iesponsibility to catei foi the
less foitunate stems fiom the teachings of ieligions, anu the ioots of uevelopment aiu lie in
the missionaiy movement uating back to the 19
th
centuiy. The main goal was to save the
souls of the heathen, but also to mateiially impiove theii living conuitions. (Linubeig,
2uu4, 89)
The most extieme viewpoints conceining the questions of iesponsibility emphasize the
consequences of colonialism anu neo-colonialism anu ueem uevelopeu countiies as the
main culpiits foi the plight of ueveloping countiies. Accoiuing to these stanupoints, in
auuition to the histoiical impacts causeu by colonization, the uevelopeu woilu is
iesponsible foi pieventing the uevelopment in the ueveloping woilu by maintaining global
stiuctuies, such as unfaii tiaue patteins, which hinuei uevelopment. The topical
uiscussions on climate change also touch close to these iueas: uevelopeu inuustiial nations
aie iesponsible foi climate change, but the ueveloping countiies aie the ones suffeiing the
most (see e.g. Ncuiegoi, 2uu8). In auuition to emphasizing the iesponsibility of the
uevelopeu countiies, such viewpoints often seem to give all the powei to uevelopeu
countiies by implying that only they can change the status quo anu enable uevelopment in
the ueveloping woilu. Noie iecent paiauigms of uevelopment stuuies have, howevei,
questioneu this appioach anu focuseu on emphasizing the agency of ueveloping countiies,
foi example by applying the notions of paiticipatoiy uevelopment, as uiscusseu in chaptei
2.2.S.
In teims of ioles anu positions of uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies, thiee uiffeient
uiscouises coulu be iecognizeu fiom the statements. The fiist one belittles the uiffeiences
between ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies, ueems uevelopment as something that
benefits all, anu in the piocess of which eveiyone has an equal iole. The seconu one makes
a cleai uistinction between ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies, but binus them in a
62
positive ielationship of eithei paitneiship oi uonoi-iecipient ielationship. The uevelopeu
countiies pioviue aiu to ueveloping countiies anu suppoit them baseu on theii own
political inteiests, philanthiopy oi both. The thiiu uiscouise implies that the uevelopeu
countiies aie at least paitly iesponsible foi causing the unueiuevelopment anu they also
holu the key foi solving the situation.
S>S>= B%)%2*C9%5' +*7 422
Some of the statements emphasize that the multilateial tiauing system anu conclusion of
the Boha Rounu shoulu leau to benefits foi all membeis. This axiomatic notion becomes
inteiesting, when being biought to the context of Boha Bevelopment Rounu: if the inteiests
of all aie the piioiity of the Boha Rounu, what cieates the uevelopment aspect of it.
"The way foiwaiu foi the WT0 is to libeialize tiaue foi the benefit of all. The
giauual opening of maikets shoulu contiibute to achieving fuithei objectives -
sustainable uevelopment, poveity ieuuction, welfaie anu stability." (Benmaik)
"Finally, the Boha outcome has to ieflect key inteiests of all membeis. We will only
have a successful agieement wheie eveiyone's special inteiests aie auequately
cateieu foi." (Iielanu)
In the statement of Benmaik, the way foiwaiu is highlighteu to be S>G B%)%2*C%/ &*.5'7(%- 47% 7%-C*5-(#2% +*7 ,(5/%7(53 /%)%2*C9%5'
As mentioneu eailiei in this chaptei, accoiuing to viewpoints often emphasizeu by
ueveloping countiies oi Nu0s piomoting theii inteiests, uevelopeu countiies aie at least
paitly iesponsible foi the unueiuevelopment uue to the legacy of colonization oi the
maintenance of the global stiuctuies of touay. Similai stances weie appaient in the
statements anu as can be expecteu in the context of the WT0, the unfaii tiaue stiuctuies
hinueiing uevelopment aie emphasizeu in some of them.
"Insteau of piioiitizing the auvancement of outstanuing iefoims that aie of uigent
neeu to ueveloping countiies, like cotton anu the LBC package, iecent
engagements have been uominateu by unfaii uemanus placeu on majoi ueveloping
countiies to enhance maiket access foi the benefit of naiiow commeicial lobbies
in paits of the uevelopeu woilu." (South Afiica)
"At the same time, the WT0 must ensuie compliance with the moial obligation on
uevelopeu countiies to open up theii maikets to ueveloping countiies anu to
eliminate the laige subsiuies given to theii agiicultuial piouucts." (Bolivia)
South Afiica states explicitly that insteau of the iefoims that aie uigent neeu to ueveloping
countiies, the benefits of commeicial lobbies in the uevelopeu woilu have been piioiitizeu
in tiaue negotiations. The injustice of the situation is accentuateu by compaiing the '+7-.$
.--)/ of ueveloping countiies with the ?-.- 6($$6- 2,44($4-.$ has been exhibiteu by
the uevelopeu countiies, ueveloping countiies 2,.$(.'- $, )-5,$- $"-(+ +#$"-+ 4-#7+-
+-/,'+2-/ anu *+-// $"-(+ 2,.2-+./ ",4- foi the common goal. Seconuly, by mentioning the
state of one sectoi in ueveloping countiies, an illustiative example is given of the
consequences of unfaii tiaue iules. By the use of the expiession #/ # +-/'6$3 a uiiect causal
tie is explicitly establisheu between the subsiuies in uevelopeu countiies anu the pooi state
of one inuustiy in Afiican countiies.
The global financial ciisis is emphasizeu in some of the statements as a cential element
hinueiing uevelopment.
"In paiticulai, we have continueu to expeiience the uevastating anu fai-ieaching
effects of the cuiient global economic anu financial ciisis on the fiagile anu
vulneiable economies of ueveloping countiies, even though the ciisis oiiginateu in
the uevelopeu economies." (Nigeiia)
"Nany seiious economists say that the oiigin of the ciisis lay in the lack of
iegulation of the financial system in an extiemely poweiful countiy, natuially a
Nembei of this 0iganization." (Bolivia)
Nigeiia highlights both the uieaufulness of the ciisis by using the aujectives )-5#/$#$(.7
anu 3 uiawing fiom the locus of quantity, anu aujective /-+(,'/, which is useu
as a synonym foi 'piofessional' oi 'cieuible'.
In auuition to iefeiences to consequences of tiaue stiuctuies anu economic ciisis,
uevelopeu countiies weie given iesponsibility foi the plight of ueveloping countiies also
uue to theii othei actions.
"We have also witnesseu an upsuige of goveinment inteivention anu the ie-
emeigence of piotectionism, paiticulaily in some uevelopeu countiies. These
events have placeu in jeopaiuy anu, in some instances, ueiaileu the uevelopment
effoits of many ueveloping countiies, incluuing small vulneiable economies like
ouis. (...) This failuie is in pait explaineu by the self-seiving actions of some
membeis, paiticulaily a few uevelopeu countiies." (Baibauos)
"0nuei supposeuly enviionmental tiicks, theie is a cuiient piolifeiation of
initiatives like taxing piouucts fiom unueiuevelopeu countiies on the basis of the
level of gieenhouse gas emissions linkeu to theii piouuction. The puipose is not to
piotect the planet, when in paiallel the histoiic iesponsible foi pollution uo not
take on multilateial commitments, but to stop the piocess of uevelopment of the
South thiough the application of unilateial piotectionist measuies that will not
solve the pioblem of the global climate change." (Cuba)
Baibauos iefeis to goveinment inteivention anu piotectionism, highlights *#+$(2'6#+6> (.
/,4- )-5-6,*-) 2,'.$+(-/3 anu aigues that as a iesult of these actions, the uevelopment
effoits have been ueiaileu. The failuie of concluuing the Boha Rounu is also *#+$6>
-H*6#(.-) ?> $"- /-6$", anu libeialization as savioui foi countiies
was iiuiculeu by iefeiiing to -2,.,4(2 *+,4(/- 6#.). Colouiful language was a cential
element of the minoiity uiscouise iepiesenting iesistance to the assumingly pievailing
attituues of the auuience.
While the benefits of fiee tiaue weie commonly not iationalizeu, the membeis
emphasizing the uisauvantages baseu theii aigumentation on, foi example, the existence of
causality oi an example. These simplistic explanations suggesteu that financial ciisis is a
uiiect consequence of the unwoikability of economic libeialization anu the negative effects
tiaue libeialization causeu foi one countiy pioves its unwoikability eveiywheie. 0nlike
the aiguments touting fiee tiaue, the aiguments emphasizing the uisauvantages of fiee
tiaue aimeu to give eviuence to back up the aigument. Also this implies that the pievailing
iueology was assumeu to be neolibeialism.
The ioles foi ueveloping anu uevelopeu countiies in the piocess of uevelopment weie
constiucteu in many ways in the statements. 0n the one hanu, uevelopment was ueemeu to
be something foi all, anu the inteiests of ueveloping countiies weie not always
emphasizeu. 0n the othei hanu, especially when the impoitance of aiu was uiscusseu, cleai
uistinction between uevelopeu anu ueveloping countiies was maue anu the issue was
uiscusseu in a peisonal mannei; ueveloping countiies in paiticulai making explicit pleaus
of help to theii uevelopment paitneis appealing eithei on theii goou will oi on theii
commitments.
A cleai positioning in teims of powei ielations was piesenteu especially by ueveloping
countiies. Nany statements seemeu to suggest that uevelopeu countiies have the powei to
help ueveloping countiies anu without this assistance uevelopment cannot be enableu. In
76
auuition, a couple of statements implieu that uevelopeu countiies aie cuiiently hinueiing
uevelopment anu theiefoie, by enuing these activities they woulu also enable uevelopment.
In a similai mannei to the uisauvantages of fiee tiaue uiscusseu above, the accusations
maue that uevelopeu countiies pievent uevelopment weie expiesseu with colouiful anu
stiiking language. In any case, uevelopeu countiies seemeu to have the main iole in the
piocess of uevelopment.
U>E> B(-&.--(*5 45/ (9C2(&4'(*5- +*7 ',% B*,4 H*.5/ 45/ /%)%2*C9%5' C*2(&(%-
The ambiguity of uevelopment is inuisputably a chaiactei of both acauemic anu political
uiscussions: eithei uevelopment is useu as a iefeience to acies of uistinctive goals anu
activities oi it simply iemains as a bioau abstiact phenomenon. In the context of 0N
agencies, uevelopment is often incluueu as a sepaiate agenua point in piactically all
oiganizations whose uomains vaiy fiom telecommunications anu intellectual piopeity to
enviionment anu laboui iights. This is geneially justifieu by the membeiship of ueveloping
countiies anu the special tieatment they iequiie in all aieas. Notwithstanuing, ciitics
question whethei the thematic of uevelopment shoulu be intiouuceu in all oiganizations
anu whethei it, as a mattei of fact, is linkeu to all these uiffeient aieas. In auuition,
uevelopment as a sepaiate agenua point is sometimes accuseu of gieatly lacking substance
anu iemaining as a meie ostensible featuie. This phenomenon is closely linkeu to the
ambiguity of uevelopment: when left unuefineu, the concept of uevelopment can be useu
enuemically.
Bowevei, the abstiact anu ambiguous natuie of uevelopment can be pioblematic in many
aspects. It might be self-eviuent that one of the ieasons why effective global uevelopment
woik is challenging is that theie is no unequivocal unueistanuing of what is uevelopment
anu hence, how coulu it be piomoteu. The existence of mutual unueistanuing globally foi
uevelopment policies becomes even moie unconceivable when taking into consiueiation
the lack of unanimity even within one oiganization, such as the WT0. While uevelopment is
seen as value-baseu anu necessaiy to iefei to only on an abstiact level in an attempt to
avoiu uiscoiu, it is unueistanuable why the uevelopment objectives of the Boha Rounu,
among those of many othei uevelopment piojects, have not been iealizeu. It woulu be
bettei to move pass the focus on iueological anu value-baseu concept of uevelopment anu
77
stiive foi finuing smallei conciete elements as mutual goals to focus on. As mentioneu in
the intiouuction chaptei, theie is a gieat neeu to piouuce moie systematic knowleuge foi
uevelopment in oiuei to be able to uelivei iesults, anu the most plausible way to uo this, is
to concentiate on measuiable conciete elements that aie beyonu the value-baseu concept.
Anothei inteiesting point of WT0's uevelopment uiscouise is the pievalence of
neolibeialism as a piemise foi aigumentation. Bevelopment policies baseu on neolibeial
iueas, the so-calleu stiuctuial aujustment piogiammes, which weie intiouuceu to
ueveloping countiies by the INF anu Woilu Bank, have been wiuely ciiticiseu anu ieplaceu
by uiffeient appioaches alieauy in the 199us. While uisauvantages of extensive
piivatization piogiammes have been geneially iecognizeu, WT0's uevelopment uiscouise
still incluueu simplistic not ieasoneu notions on the necessity of keeping maikets open foi
uevelopment. This eulogy of fiee tiaue can seem ostensible taken into consiueiation the
vast amount of piotectionist measuies all the membei countiies employ. Insteau of
continuing to emphasize meiely the contioveisial anu iueological issue of libeialization of
tiaue, the uevelopment aspects of Boha Rounu coulu peihaps focus on smallei conciete
elements, wheie it is easiei foi the membei countiies to finu soliu agieement.
In auuition to the neolibeial notions, the tiauitional view of uevelopment uominating
WT0's uevelopment uiscouise is notewoithy. While theie has been a cleai tienu among
Nu0s anu uevelopment scholais to appioach uevelopment in moie veisatile ways, theie is
still a lot to be uone in teims of alteiing the uevelopment uiscouise moie multifaceteu in
inteinational politics.
Responsibility was put on uevelopeu countiies to a gieat extent in teims of enabling
uevelopment. This notion is veiy inteiesting, since aftei uecaues of uevelopment woik
emphasizing paiticipatoiy anu empoweiing appioaches, uevelopment seems to be still
peiceiveu as being biought to ueveloping countiies fiom the outsiue. The fact that
ueveloping countiies shun claiming agency foi theii own piogiess anu emphasize the
iesponsibility of uevelopeu countiies was somewhat uiscusseu in ueneva among the
people woiking foi 0N agencies. The polemic uiscouise suggesting that uevelopeu
countiies have to still pay back uebt they owe to ueveloping woilu uue to the colonial
histoiy still lives stiongly touay. Noving pass this antagonism between uevelopeu anu
78
ueveloping countiies anu the accusing uiscouise woulu be gieatly iequiieu in oiuei to
focus on the actual tackling of conciete uevelopment issues.
U>G> V(9('4'(*5- *+ ',% 7%-%47&, 45/ -.33%-'(*5- +*7 +.'.7% 7%-%47&,
0ne of the limitations of my ieseaich conceins the choice of ieseaich mateiial. While my
analysis of the WT0's uevelopment uiscouise is limiteu only to the ministeiial statements
of the 7
th
Ninisteiial Confeience, numeious othei WT0 uocuments coulu pioviue excellent
insights on the oiganization's language of uevelopment. 0ne inteiesting example woulu be
to compaie the statements maue in uiffeient ministeiial confeiences, foi example the fiist
confeience of the Boha Bevelopment Rounu oi confeiences uuiing the pievious
negotiation iounus with the most iecent confeience. By the means of compaiison the
examination coulu focus on how the uevelopment uiscouise has changeu, oi has it, uuiing
the time the topic has been given uiffeient level of emphasis. In auuition, seveial othei
WT0 uocuments woulu be inteiesting ieseaich mateiial, such as the statements of the
Biiectoi ueneial oi the official iesolutions of the meetings. In stiiving to unueistanu the
uevelopment uiscouise of the oiganization, one appioach coulu be to examine uiffeient
uocuments piouuceu both by the membeis anu by the secietaiiat foi uiffeient puiposes.
Ny ieseaich is natuially limiteu also by the choice of methouology, i.e. ihetoiical analysis
anu the appioacheu of Peielman anu Buike. The iich language useu in the statements
woulu pioviue mateiial foi textual analysis with focus on vaiious aspects uisiegaiueu in
my ieseaich. The examination of the iole of auuience - cential pait of Peielman's theoiy -
is maiginalizeu in my ieseaich, but coulu neveitheless pioviue inteiesting finuings on to
who, in essence, the statements aie auuiesseu to; aie the ministeis auuiessing each othei,
inteinational public oi peihaps the citizens of theii own countiies.
Fuithei ieseaich coulu be conuucteu also iegaiuing some of my key finuings. 0ne
inteiesting point is the colouiful symbolic language that was foiemost useu in the
statements iepiesenting the minoiity uiscouise expiessing contiauicting opinions to the
pievailing uiscouise. The iole of colouiful language as a foim of iesistance coulu theiefoie
be ieseaicheu in uiffeient contexts, foi example, in the fielu of inteinational ielations.
79
The pieuominance of auheience to neolibeialism as a piemise foi the aigumentation coulu
be examineu wiuei in the context of inteinational oiganizations. While the stiong suppoit
foi economic libeialization can natuially be affiliateu with the natuie of the oiganization
such as the WT0 - even thought tiaue iestiictions its membeis neveitheless apply makes
the affiliation less obvious - inteiesting woulu be to examine the iole of neolibeial notions
appeaiing in the texts of oiganizations such as 0N Bevelopment Piogiamme (0NBP),
0niteu Nation's Chiluien Funu (0NICEF) oi 0N Euucational, Scientific anu Cultuial
0iganization (0NESC0).
All in all, uue to the immense pioblematic iegaiuing the concept of uevelopment uespite its
enuemic use, the analysis of uevelopment uiscouise in vaiious contexts woulu be
inteiesting anu ielevant. Bioauening unueistanuing of what is actually meant by
uevelopment anu how these viewpoints can vaiy woulu also bioauen unueistanuing of the
vast challenges iegaiuing efficient global uevelopment woik.
8u
H%+%7%5&%-
Aghion, P. & Bolton, P. 1997. A Theoiy of Tiickle-Bown uiowth anu Bevelopment. The
Review of Economic Stuuies, vol. 64, No. 2.
Alasuutaii, P. 1996. Theoiizing in Qualitative Reseaich: A Cultuial Stuuies Peispective.
Qualitative Inquiiy, 2(4): S71-S84.
Anueisson, K. & Naitin, W. 2uuS. Agiicultuial Tiaue Refoim anu the Boha
Bevelopment Agenua. The Woilu Economy. vol. 28, No. 9.
Biigg, N. 2uu2. Post-uevelopment, Foucault anu the colonisation metaphoi. Thiiu
Woilu Quaiteily, vol. 2S, No S.
Biett, E. 2uuS. Paiticipation anu Accountability in Bevelopment Nanagement. The
}ouinal of Bevelopment Stuuies, vol.4u, No.2
Buike, K. 1969a: A uiammai of Notives. Beikeley, Los Angeles, Lonuon: 0niveisity of
Califoinia Piess.
Buike, K. 1969b: A Rhetoiic of Notives. Beikeley, Los Angeles, Lonuon: 0niveisity of
Califoinia Piess.
Ceva & Fiacasso. 2u1u. Seeking mutual unueistanuing: a uiscouise-theoietical analysis
of the WT0 Bispute Settlement System. Woilu Tiaue Review, vol. 9, No. S
Chambeis, R. 1997. Whose Reality Counts. Putting the last fiist. Inteimeuiate
Technology Publications.
Chang, B. & uiabel, I. 2uu4. Reclaiming Bevelopment. An Alteinative Economic Policy
Nanual. Lonuon: Zen Books.
Conway & Beynen. 2uu8. Bepenuency theoiies: fiom ECLA to Anuié uunuei Fiank anu
beyonu. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei
Euucation. Lonuon
Bas, B. 2uu8. A Kiss of Life foi the Witheiing Boha Rounu of the Nultilateial Tiaue
Negotiations. ulobal Economic ieview. vol. S7, No. 2.
Besai & Pottei (eus.) 2uu8: The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei
Euucation. Lonuon
Bouus K. 2uu8: The Thiiu Woilu, ueveloping countiies, the South, pooi countiies. In
Besai & Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation.
Lonuon
Elliot, }. 2uu8. Bevelopment anu social welfaie¡human iights. In Besai & Pottei (eus.):
The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
81
Escobai, A. 199S. Encounteiing Bevelopment: The Naking anu 0nmaking of the Thiiu
Woilu. Piinceton, N}: Piinceton 0niveisity Piess
Esteva, u. 1992: Bevelopment. In Wolfgang Sachs (eu.): The Bevelopment Bictionaiy.
Lonuon & New }eisey: Zeu Books.
Evenett & Boekman (eus.) 2uu6. Economic uevelopment anu multilateial tiaue
coopeiation. Washington, BC : Woilu Bank.
Eyeiman, R. 1984. Social Novements anu Social Theoiy. Sociology. vol. 18, No. 1.
Faiiclough, N. 199S. Ciitical Biscouise Analysis. Boston: Auuison Wesley.
Faiiclough, N. 2uu1. Language anu Powei. Lonuon: Longman.
Fine, B. 2uu9. Bevelopment as Zombieconomics in the Age of Neolibeialism. Thiiu
Woilu Quaiteily, vol. Su, No. S
Fiank, A. u. 1966. The Bevelopment of 0nueiuevelopment. Nonthly Review Piess.
Fung, uaicio-Beiieio, Siu, 2u1u. Beveloping countiies anu the Woilu Tiaue
0iganization: A foieign influence appioach. The }ouinal of Inteinational Tiaue &
Economic Bevelopment. vol. 19, No. 1.
uhafele, R. 2uu4. The metaphois of globalization anu tiaue. An analysis of the language
useu in the WT0. }ouinal of Language anu Politics. vol. S, No. S
uhosh, B. 2uu1. Bepenuency Theoiy, Revisiteu. Alueishot anu Builington, vT: Ashgate.
Bettne, B. 2uu1. Biscouises on peace anu uevelopment. Piogiess in Bevelopment
Stuuies 1, vol 1.
Bettne B. 2uu8. Cuiient tienus anu futuie options in uevelopment stuuies. In Besai &
Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Biisto, B. 2u1u. vastuutonta puhetta. Esseitä talouuen meikityksellistämisestä.
väitoskiija: Aalto-yliopiston kauppakoikeakoulu. Acta 0niveisitatis oeconomicae
Belsingiensis. A, S77. Belsinki: Aalto-yliopiston kauppakoikeakoulu, 2u1u. ISBN 978-
9S2-6u-1uS9-S.
Boekman, B. & Kostecki, N. 2uu1. The Political Economy of the Woilu Tiauing System.
The WT0 anu Beyonu. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
Boekman, B. & Nicita, A. 2u1u. Assessing the Boha Rounu: Naiket access, tiansitions
costs anu aiu foi tiaue facilitation. The }ouinal of Inteinational Tiaue & Economic
Bevelopment. vol. 19, No. 1.
}ensen & uibbon. 2uu7. Afiica anu the WT0 Boha Rounu: An 0veiview. Bevelopment
Policy Review, vol. 2S, No. 1
82
}okinen, A. 1999a. Biskuissianalyysin suhue sukulaistiauitioihin. In }okinen, }uhila, &
Suoninen, (eus!" $%&'()&&%*+*,--&% ,%%''..&&/! 0*&1*2*%+34 5*62.).!
}okinen, A. 1999b. vakuuttelevan ja suostuttelevan ietoiiikan analysoiminen. In
}okinen, }uhila, & Suoninen, (eus.) Biskuissianalyysi !""##$$%%&' )*%+*,*"-./ 0*1,$2$'
Kakkuii-Knuuttila, N-L. 1998. Retoiiikka. In Kakkuii-Knuuttila (eu.) Aigumentti ja
kiitiikki. Lukemisen, keskustelun ja vakuuttamisen taiuot. uauueamus, Belsinki.
Kakkuii-Knuuttila, N-L. 2u11. Puhetaito ja puheiuen lajit Aiistoteleella. In Beikkinen,
vuotilainen, Laueima, Tiililä & Lounela (eus.) uenieanalyysi - tekstilajitutkimuksen
käytäntoä. Kotimaisten kielten keskuksen veikkojulkaisuja 29. Kotimaisten kielten
keskus: Belsinki. 0RN:ISBN 978-9S2-S446-72-2 ISSN 1796-u41X
Klak, T. 2uu8. Woilu-systems theoiy: Coies, peiipheiies anu semi-peiipheiies. In Besai
& Pottei (eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Kulovaaia, K. 2uu7. !"#$%"#&'%#(")* ,"-#")$$". /012%3,,"*%$)#""(("4-* 3-()3"",%*
analyysi. Pio giauu-tutkielma. Yhteiskuntatieteiuen ja filosofian lait!"# %&'(")&*(+
!"#$%#&'$( *!+,&-!",( http:¡¡uin.fi¡0RN:NBN:fi:jyu-2uu7S9S.
Kuusisto, R. 1996. Souan ietoiiikasta. Peisianlahuen ja Bosnian konfliktit läntisten
suuivaltajohtajien lausunnoissa. In Palonen & Summa (eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa.
vastapaino, Tampeie.
Lévy, B. 2uuS. ulobal Competition anu Economic Bevelopment: Key uoveinance Issues.
Competitiveness Review. vol. 1S, No. 2
Leiwo, N. & Pietikäinen, S. 1996. Kieli vuoiovaikutuksen ja vallankäyton välineenä. In
Palonen & Summa (eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa. vastapaino, Tampeie.
Linubeig, N. 2uu4: Kehityksen kieli - luouaanko maailma sanoilla. In Beta uylling
(eu.): Kehityksen etiikka ja filosofia. Belsinki: uauueamus
NcCloskey, B. 198S. The Rhetoiic of Economics. }ouinal of Economic Liteiatuie. vol, 21
Ncuiegoi, B. 2uu8. Climate change anu uevelopment. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The
Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Nelkote & Kanuath (2uu1): Baiking 0p the Wiong Tiee. An Inwaiu Look at the
Biscipline anu Piactice of Bevelopment Communication. In Nelkote & Rao (eus.):
Ciitical Issues in Communication: Looking inwaiu foi Answeis. New Belhi: Sage.
Nohan, u. 2uu8. Paiticipatoiy uevelopment. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The Companion to
Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Nontanye, }. 2uuS. Rhetoiic anu Economic Policy. The Inuepenuent Review, vol. 9, No.S
8S
Noyo, B. 2uu9. Beau Aiu. Why aiu is not woiking anu how theie is a bettei way foi
Afiica. New Yoik: Faiiai, Stiaus anu uiioux.
Nunck & 0'Beain (eus.) 1999. Ciitical Bevelopment Theoiy. Contiibutions to a new
paiauigm. Zeu Books. Lonuon & New Yoik.
Neueiveen Pieteise, }. 2uuu. Aftei post-uevelopment. Thiiu Woilu Quaiteily. vol. 21,
No. 2
Palonen, K. & Summa, B. 1996. }ohuanto. Retoiinen käänne. In Palonen & Summa
(eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa. vastapaino, Tampeie.
Peielman, C. 1982. The Realm of Rhetoiic. Notie Bame: 0niveisity of Notie Bame
Piess.
Peielman, C. & 0lbiechts-Tyteca, L. 1971. The New Rhetoiic. A Tieatise on
Aigumentation. 0niveisity of Notie Bame Piess, Notie Bame.
Pottei, R. 2uu8. ulobal goveinance, uiveigence anu uevelopment. In Besai & Pottei
(eus.): The Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Ray, B. 1998. Bevelopment Economics, Piinceton 0niveisity Piess, Piinceton New
}eisey.
Rostow, W. 196u. Stages of Economic uiowth. A Non-Communist Nanifesto.
Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity.
Sachs, W (eu.) 1992: The Bevelopment Bictionaiy. Lonuon & New }eisey: Zeu Books.
Schuuiman, F. 2uuu. Paiauigms lost, paiauigms iegaineu. Bevelopment stuuies in the
twenty-fist centuiy. Thiiu Woilu Quaiteily, vol. 21, No 1
Schuuiman F. 2uu8. The impasse in uevelopment stuuies. In Besai & Pottei (eus.): The
Companion to Bevelopment Stuuies. Bouuei Euucation. Lonuon
Scott, }. & Wilkinson, R. 2u1u. What Bappeneu to Boha in ueneva. Re-engineeiing the
WT0's Image while missing key oppoitunities. Euiopean }ouinal of Bevelopment
Reseaich. vol. 22, No 2
Sen, A. 1999: Bevelopment as Fieeuom. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
Seivaes, }, 1999: Communication foi Bevelopment. 0ne Woilu, Nultiple Cultuies.
Ciess- kill, New }eisey: Bampton Piess.
Sevilla, C. The WT0 Boha Bevelopment Agenua: What is at stake. Beikeley }ouial of
inteinational law. vol. 2S, No. S
Simon, B. 1997: Bevelopment ieconsiueieu; new uiiections in uevelopment thinking.
ueogiafiska Annalei.
84
Stiglitz, }. 2uu2. Two Piinciples foi the Next Rounu oi, Bow to Biing Beveloping
Countiies in fiom the Colu. The Woilu Economy. vol. 2S, No. 4.
Stiglitz, }. 2uuS. The oveiselling of globalization. In Weinstein, N. (eu.) ulobalization:
What's new. New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity Piess.
Summa, B.1996. Kolme näkokulmaa uuteen ietoiiikkaan. Buike, Peielman, Toulmin ja
ietoiiikan kunnianpalautus. In Palonen & Summa (eus.) Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa.
vastapaino, Tampeie.
Thomas, A. 2uuu: Neanings anu views of Bevelopment. In Tim Allen - Alan Thomas
(eus.): Poveity anu Bevelopment into 21st Centuiy. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
Thomas, C. 2uu4: Poveity, Bevelopment, anu Bungei. In Baylis & Smith (eus.): The
ulobalization of Woilu Politics. An Intiouuction to Inteinational Relations. 0xfoiu:
0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
vihinen, B. 1996. Naatalous tekstinä. Retoiiikka maatalouspolitiikan tutkimisessa. In
Palonen & Summa (eus.): Pelkkää ietoiiikkaa. vastapaino, Tampeie.
Wilkinson, R. 2uu9. Language, powei anu multilateial tiaue negotiations. Review of
Inteinational Political Economy. vol. 4, No. 16
Willis, K. 2uuS. Theoiies anu Piactices of Bevelopment. Lonuon: Routleuge
Wilska, von Consuoiff, Lahtinen, Rekola. 2uu4. !"#$%#te!"!# %&'()*+,,-,
!"#$%&'((%)!) !)!++%,-./ 0!1%-2,21-!%,-2.) "'($!(34!,43,5 63(4'%,3,'&6' 78. Belsinki:
Like.
Weinstein, N.N (eu.) 2uuS. ulobalization: What's new. New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity
Piess
Woo-Cummings, N. 1999. The Bevelopmental State. Coinell 0niveisity Piess.
"52(5% -*.7&%-
About the WT0 ÷ a statement by the Biiectoi-ueneial.
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡whatis_e¡wto_ug_stat_e.htm, ietiieveu S.12.2u11
Boha Bevelopment Agenua - Subjects tieateu unuei the Boha Bevelopment Agenua
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uua_e¡uohasubjects_e.htm, ietiieveu 1u.8.2u12
0N ueneial Assembly - A¡RES¡41¡128 Beclaiation on the Right to Bevelopment
http:¡¡www.un.oig¡uocuments¡ga¡ies¡41¡a41i128.htm, ietiieveu 4.11.2u12
8S
Biiectoi-ueneial's lettei to jouinalists
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡minist_e¡minu9_e¡ug_lettei_e.htm,
ietiieveu S.12.2u11
Ninisteiial Confeiences - Statements by Nembeis anu obseiveis at the plenaiy session
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡thewto_e¡minist_e¡min11_e¡min11_statements_e.htm,
ietiieveu S.1u.2u11
Who aie the ueveloping countiies in the WT0.
http:¡¡www.wto.oig¡english¡tiatop_e¡uevel_e¡u1who_e.htm, ietiieveu 1u.12.2u11
The eight Nillennium Bevelopment uoals:
http:¡¡www.un.oig¡millenniumgoals¡, ietiieveu S.S.2u12
doc_891264238.pdf