Description
The purpose of this study is to investigate how geography (distance from the host country,
i.e. Mexico) mediates individuals’ perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ ethnic-themed restaurants and to identify
which information sources influence their beliefs
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
A recipe for success: understanding regional perceptions of authenticity in themed restaurants
Caroline Lego Muñoz Natalie T. Wood
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To cite this document:
Caroline Lego Muñoz Natalie T. Wood, (2009),"A recipe for success: understanding regional perceptions of authenticity in themed
restaurants", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 3 Iss 3 pp. 269 - 280
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SooCheong (Shawn) J ang, Yinghua Liu, Young Namkung, (2011),"Effects of authentic atmospherics in ethnic restaurants:
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dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111111143395
Kisang Ryu, Hye-Rin Lee, Woo Gon Kim, (2012),"The influence of the quality of the physical environment, food, and service on restaurant
image, customer perceived value, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions", International J ournal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, Vol. 24 Iss 2 pp. 200-223http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111211206141
Milos Bujisic, J oe Hutchinson, H.G. Parsa, (2014),"The effects of restaurant quality attributes on customer behavioral intentions",
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A recipe for success: understanding
regional perceptions of authenticity in
themed restaurants
Caroline Lego Mun˜ oz and Natalie T. Wood
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate how geography (distance from the host country,
i.e. Mexico) mediates individuals’ perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ ethnic-themed restaurants and to identify
which information sources in?uence their beliefs.
Design/methodology/approach – To explore these issues, a two-part (qualitative and quantitative)
study was undertaken with informants recruited from two regions of the USA (Northeast and Southwest),
each with differing proximity to Mexico.
Findings – Findings of the study reveal that, despite the fact that all informants reside within the same
country, perceptions and expectations of what constitutes an authentic Mexican restaurant varies
depending upon geographic location. The further an individual resides from the host country, the more
stereotypical their cultural expectations and the greater the emphasis they place on various atmospheric
components when selecting an appealing authentic environment at which to dine. Atmospheric and
design elements that de?ne an ‘‘authentic’’ Mexican restaurant are provided. Finally, the study shows
that signi?cant regional differences are relevant to the frame of reference used for determining the
authenticity of a Mexican restaurant.
Practical implications – The selection of atmospheric and tangible design elements needs to be
carefully considered in the construction of ethnic-themed restaurants. Findings suggest that marketers
utilizing an ethnic theme need to research the cultural expectations of their target audience, their source,
and to take into consideration geographic distances between the host country and the restaurant’s
location.
Originality/value – This paper advances scholarship about the mediating role that geography and
informational sources play in an individual’s perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ ethnically-themed environments.
Keywords Mexico, Ethnic groups, Restaurants, Brand image
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Theming, the process by which an environment is given a distinct character, is a common
strategy adopted by the service industry, particularly those in hospitality and tourism.
Whether it is the Aladdin shopping mall in Las Vegas or the Rainforest Cafe´ in Kansas, these
(often idealized) narratives are fast becoming a part of consumers’ daily lives. While the
consumer landscapes offers myriad themes (e.g., place or time), many of them revolve
around depicting a speci?c culture (Bailey and Tian, 2002; Bell et al., 1994; Josiam and
Monteiro, 2004; Munoz et al., 2006; Lego et al., 2002; Salamone, 1997; Tian, 2001; Wood
and Munoz, 2007). These cultural encounters often afford consumers the ability to connect
with their heritage, create a sense of ‘‘travel’’ to the exotic, or simply experience something
new without leaving their neighborhood.
Constructing these spaces mandates not only an understanding of the culture being
depicted, but also consumer expectations, particularly in relation to authenticity. Previous
research explores the de?nitions of authenticity and its role within ethnic restaurants (Ebster
and Guist, 2004; Germann-Molz, 2003, Lego et al., 2002; Munoz et al., 2006; Salamone,
DOI 10.1108/17506180910980564 VOL. 3 NO. 3 2009, pp. 269-280, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
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PAGE 269
Caroline Lego Mun˜ oz is
Assistant Professor of
Marketing, Department of
Marketing and
Entrepreneurial Studies,
Silberman College of
Business, Fairleigh
Dickinson University,
Madison, New Jersey, USA.
Natalie T. Wood is Assistant
Professor of Marketing,
Department of Marketing,
Erivan K. Haub School of
Business, St Joseph’s
University, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA.
Received: September 2007
Revised: December 2007
Accepted: January 2008
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1997). Yet, little research addresses how consumers form their sets of expectations for
authentic spaces (for notable exception see Ebster and Guist (2004)), and how geography
(i.e. distance from the host culture) mediates their perceptions, and what this means for
those embracing theming as a business strategy (for notable exception see Wood and
Munoz (2007)).
This study investigates whether, and how, geography (distance from the host country)
mediates individuals’ consumption and perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ Mexican restaurants and
the extent to which various information sources in?uence their view of these restaurants.
Prior research (see Rivenburgh et al., 2004) has acknowledged that foreign cultures are
perceived differently between countries. This paper takes the approach of examining
regional perceptions – how consumer perceptions vary within the same country with
differing proximity to Mexico (Southwest and Northeast regions of the USA).
This article begins with a brief introduction to theme restaurants and the growing popularity
of ethnic-themed restaurants. Next, this article examines the role of reality engineers, as
producers of these environments, and the role of image formation agents as a frame of
reference for their creation, consumption, and evaluation. The article presents ?ndings of a
study exploring perceptions of authenticity in Mexican restaurants based on geographic
location, and concludes by highlighting implications and recommendations from a
marketing and hospitality perspective.
Theme restaurants
For consumers, perhaps the most common and frequent exposure to theming is by way of
restaurants, speci?cally ethnic-themed restaurants. Ethnic theming makes use of ‘‘ethnic art,
decor, music, external fac¸ ade, name, and various stereotyped signals to create a distinctive
setting which lays claim to being a re?ection of some exotic but recognizable culture’’
(Beardsworth and Bryman, 1999, p. 242). Consumers are drawn to ethnic-themed
restaurants for a variety of reasons. For some, themed restaurants are a novelty, for others, a
way to connect to their ethnicity (Negra, 2002) and interact with a different culture and
gastronomy (Bailey and Tian, 2002; Barbas, 2003; Germann-Molz, 2003; Long, 2003; Tian,
2001). As such, the demand of ethnic cuisine and theme restaurants has been on the rise
(Dundleston, 2003; Lewis, 2007; Wahlgren, 2005).
Mexican restaurants have experienced a surge in popularity in the ?rst decade of the
twenty-?rst century (Van Houten, 2004; Wahlgren, 2005). This trend points, in part, to an
increasing Hispanic population, a more sophisticated palette, and the improving availability
of authentic spices, peppers, and produce (Ruggless, 2005). While some restaurant chains
have heeded this call by providing a wider variety of authentic regional dishes and ?avors,
others have not fully capitalized on this notion of authenticity and continue to offer patrons
standardized Americanized menu items while overlooking the importance that ‘‘production’’
plays as a cultural arbiter.
Whereas the majority of Mexican restaurants are seemingly thrown together in an eclectic
manner, in reality they are carefully and strategically constructed by ‘‘reality engineers’’
(designers and marketers who create theme environments) (Solomon and Englis, 1994).
These reality engineers often focus on speci?c structural and aesthetic elements (including
sounds, smells, and textures) to create an appealing and successful environment (Solomon
and Englis, 1994). Ingredients for success often include elements such as restaurant
design, employees, cultural artifacts, food, drink, and entertainment music (Guinness,
2002).
Image formation agents
When selecting design atmospheric and aesthetic cues, reality engineers rely heavily on
socially constructed, yet often inaccurate themes offered by destination image formation
agents (Gottdiener, 2001; Solomon and Englis, 1994, Wood and Munoz, 2007). In turn,
consumers utilize the information they glean from destination image information agents to
help themlearn the authenticity of an ethnic restaurant. Gartner (1993) constructs a typology
that consists of eight destination image formation agents: Overt Induced I (i.e. traditional
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advertising); Overt Induced II (i.e. travel agents, tour operators and organizations); Covert
Induced I (i.e. a recognizable spokesperson); Covert Induced II (i.e. unbiased media),
Autonomous (i.e. news and popular culture); Unsolicited Organic (i.e. unsolicited
information from individuals that have destination knowledge); Solicited Organic (i.e.
solicited destination information from friends and relatives) and Organic (i.e. direct
experience with an area). The cumulative knowledge assembled from these various agents
is what formulates consumers’ ‘‘image’’ of a cultural destination. Omitted from Gartner’s
typology is the commercialism of cultural products such as ethnic restaurants. For many
consumers, ethnically themed restaurants may serve as their sole or primary contact with a
foreign culture. Thus, these environments function as a ‘‘cultural ambassador,’’ providing, for
some, an initial exposure and means to evaluate a county’s food and people (Bailey and
Tian, 2002; Tian, 2001), a ‘‘stand-in for travel, or an enticement to it’’ (Grew, 1999, p. 80).
Furthermore, experiences within these environments may serve to create or reinforce
cultural stereotypes (Wood and Munoz, 2007). At the very least, frequenting ethnic
restaurants creates a frame of reference that may impact consumers’ future interactions with
the host culture and as a means of evaluating the authenticity of other venues attempting to
adopt a similar cultural theme.
Depending on the individual, each of these agents carries varying degrees of in?uence and
can be used separately or in concert to create an image of a destination (Gartner, 1993).
Presumably, individuals with closer geographical proximity to a culture have had more
exposure to speci?c image information agents. For example, direct experience, solicited
and unsolicited information from others should be greater for those in close proximity to the
foreign culture. Whereas individuals geographically removed may rely more on induced
sources such as media and autonomous agents (popular culture).
Unfortunately, the cultural representations and images presented by these agents are not
always an accurate re?ection; often ‘‘they are based on genuine ethnic markers that have
become distorted and simpli?ed in the translation process’’ (Adams, 1984, p. 472). These
images are often stereotypical and commonly accepted generalizations. For example,
rather than providing consumers with an accurate portrayal of a culture, the media often
reiterates consumers’ cultural expectations (Rivenburgh et al., 2004; Santos, 2004, Wood
and Munoz, 2007). We pose the question:
RQ1. Who or what is the most in?uential information source impacting consumers’
perceptions of what constitutes an authentic Mexican restaurant?
The perception of authenticity
Consumer researchers’ interest in the concept of ‘‘authenticity’’ can, in part, be attributed to
Western consumers’ desire to seek out experiences and products that are truthful and
sincere (Kozinets, 2001; MacCannell, 1976; Penaloza, 2001). Yet, de?ning authenticity and
applying the concept to the tourism and hospitality industry has proven to be an arduous
task (Wang, 1999). For instance, is authenticity a ?xed or ?uid concept? Where some view
authenticity as a ?xed, objective entity (MacCannell, 1976; Boorstin, 1964), others see the
concept as a collaborative, subjective practice that is dependent on the individual, situation,
and cultural context (Cohen, 1988; Grayson and Martinec, 2004; Lu and Fine, 1995;
Richards, 2001; Salamone, 1997). Others argue that authenticity does not exist; instead one
can only consider degrees of in-authenticity (Brown and Patterson, 2000). Whereas
postmodernists suggest that it is not authenticity, but the ‘‘illusion of authenticity’’ that
satis?es many consumers (Cohen, 1988; Eco, 1986; Lego et al., 2002; Lu and Fine, 1995).
The concept of authenticity has been en vogue within the foodservice industry for a number
of years now (Cobe, 2004; Boyle, 2004; Halter, 2000; Negra, 2002). Despite being an
attractive descriptor, these ethnic restaurants are often more of a re?ection of consumers’
own expectations than an accurate cultural portrayal (Germann-Molz, 2003, Wood and
Munoz, 2007). Within these environments, consumers often ascertain authenticity based on
a personal set of expectations that is derived from their ‘‘own social experience’’ with the
culture (Ebster and Guist, 2004; Germann-Molz, 2003; Lu and Fine, 1995). As a result, the
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ability to produce ‘‘authentic’’ or authentically perceived environments mandates that we
both understand consumer’s expectations and are able to identify the source of their cultural
knowledge.
Lego et al. (2002) demonstrate how perceptions of authenticity vary between two or more
countries. Their research reveals that residents of Ireland do not value the authenticity of Irish
pubs as much as those respondents that reside in other countries. Further research by
Ebster and Guist (2004) demonstrates that respondents fromthe same country, who posses
cultural experience (via language familiarity, and visitation to an Italian restaurant in Italy)
value authenticity less and are, in fact, better able to distinguish the real from the fake.
Unfortunately, to the authors’ knowledge no research explores what, if any,
geographically-based differences exist within the same country. We pose the following
question:
RQ2. What, if any, regional differences exist (within the USA) of consumers’ perception of
what constitutes an authentic Mexican Restaurant?
Method
The method includes a two-part study in order to learn US regional differences. Part one
includes a qualitative data collection method (collage and reports). Increasingly
psychoanalytical methodologies, such as collages, are being used in consumer research
(Romell, 2008). Most notably, the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), a
patented research methodology using interviews and digitally created image collages, is
used in academic and corporate research (Coulter et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2003; Zaltman and
Coulter, 1995) and is an effective cross-cultural comparative research tool (Sugai, 2005).
Beyond the speci?c ZMET technique, numerous researchers have adopted comparable
visual methodologies as data collection tools (see Belk et al., 2003; Chaplin et al., 2005;
Coskuner and Sandikci, 2004; Hofstede et al., 2007; Wood and Munoz, 2007). There are
several justifying reasons behind employing visual methodologies: individuals think in
images and not words, metaphors are part of our thinking processes, and social
communication is conveyed primarily through nonverbal means (Zaltman and Coulter,
1995). The second part of the study, using a quantitative approach (online survey), sought to
validate the ?ndings from part one.
Using a convenience sampling method, we recruit respondents from two regions with
differing proximity to Mexico – Southwestern California and Northern New Jersey.
Southwestern California (San Diego County) borders the country of Mexico and has a
population of approximately 2.9 million of which 29.5 percent are of Hispanic or Latino origin
(US Census Bureau, 2007). As a result of the warmMediterranean-like climate, access to the
sea and wide variety of fresh produce, San Diego County is known for a wide selection of
cuisines. One of their local specialties is Mexican food (US Census Bureau, 2007). In
contrast, North New Jersey (speci?cally Essex, Middlesex, Morris, Union, and Somerset
counties) is located in the Northeast of the continental USA approximately 2,000 miles north
of the US and Mexican border. These counties have a population of 2.4 million of which
approximately 19.5 percent are of Hispanic or Latino origin. One of the most ethnically
diverse states in the country, New Jersey enjoys the cuisines of many different cultures (US
Census Bureau, 2005).
Part one
Part one of this study seeks to learn consumers’ perceptions of what constitutes an authentic
Mexican restaurant and to identify whether any regional differences exist. A total of 26
individuals (13 per geographic location) were recruited through two classes at local
universities to prepare a collage depicting what in, their minds, represented an authentic
Mexican restaurant. The sample comprises both males (35 percent) and females (65
percent) aged 19-55. The average age of informants is 28. To begin, informants attend a
brie?ng session conducted by a researcher during which the purpose of the exercise and
basic parameters for completing the task is explained. Parameters include: an approximate
size of the collage; participants are informed that this was an individual exercise and they
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should not seek the input of friends or family, they are also informed no ‘‘correct’’
answer/design to the exercise exists, researchers are interested in their own interpretation
and opinion.
Informants are instructed that they have complete latitude in the source and selection of
images to create their collage. However, they are prompted to include images that depict
what the restaurant looks like, interior elements, and menu options. In the event that they are
unable to locate an image that accurately represents the image they have in their mind, then
they are permitted to draw the item themselves or include words and phrases on the collage
that re?ected the image they want to include and then to describe in detail the missing item
in the accompanying report. Upon completion of the collage, they are requested to complete
a detailed written report explaining each of the images selected, including those that they
want to include, but are unable to locate, their contribution and relative importance in relation
to authenticity. A written summary of the brie?ng session is also provided to each informant
for their future reference.
The collages and reports are ?rst independently analyzed by each researcher. Both
researchers’ separately catalogue the collage images and then categorize them into
common areas/themes. To ensure accurate interpretation and categorization of the images
each collage is analyzed separately in consultation with the accompanying written report. In
some cases, as revealed by the reports, some images hold multiple meanings, for example,
beverages such as Tequila serve a functional purpose – to satisfy thirst, as well as an
expressive purpose – representing a festive environment. In such cases the image is
categorized into two areas – food and atmosphere. Results are then jointly discussed
resulting in an agreed on set of common themes (based on frequency of inclusion/mention),
as well as noticeable differences between both regions. Both researchers have had training
and experience in qualitative data collection methods and completed numerous successful
research studies employing similar data collection methods.
Findings
The dominant theme in both regions is the importance placed on food and beverages. This
is depicted through numerous images of salsa, seafood, peppers, and margaritas. However,
the Southwest collages (see Figure 1) depicts a simpler fresh cuisine (fresh ingredients
including unprepared ?sh and vegetables) compared to the Northeast sample which
focuses on prepared dishes (tacos and burrito dishes with rice, beans, sauces pico de gallo,
and guacamole) (see Figure 2). Whereas alcohol is mentioned by both groups of informants,
greater emphasis was evident with the Northeast sample. In particular, the stereotypical
Mexican drink, tequila is the primary beverage selected by those in the Northeast.
From a design perspective both samples view authentic Mexican restaurants as vibrant and
festive spaces. Pictures of smiling faces and group gatherings are found in both regions.
Both samples offer interior elements (including cultural artifacts); however, the Northeast
region offers more detail on the restaurant aesthetics and design. The Southwestern
collages largely limit interior elements to four main items: furniture, rugs, pottery, and art. In
addition to these items, the Northeast collages also include clocks, cruci?xes, national ?ags,
and dining utensils.
Overall, the Northeast sample appears to have a more tropical and romanticized image of
Mexican restaurants, as one would expect to see in tourism advertising. Unlike respondents
from the Southwest who, largely focused on what they think the interior (walls, ceilings, and
?oors) and exterior (building size and shape) of the restaurant should look like, respondents
from the northeast focus more on creating a non-restaurant image (e.g. beaches, ocean,
dolphins, tiki huts, coupled dining). Colors depicted in both sets of collages, through
landscapes, furniture, food, cultural artifacts, and sometimes just the color itself, are
primarily bright, festive hues. Speci?cally, blue, red, yellow, and green are used with the
most frequency. Earth tones are also used to accent some collages. However, earth tones
are used more frequently in the Southwest sample, whereas bright colors are used more
often in the Northeast sample.
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Figure 1 Southwest consumer’s interpretation of an authentic Mexican restaurant
Figure 2 Northeast consumer’s interpretation of an authentic Mexican restaurant
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Furthermore, the Northeast collages have a heightened sense of commercialism that is not
present in the Southwest. For example, those informants geographically removed from the
host country display an abundant use of brand name consumer products, particularly those
that are found in typical convenience or grocery stores (e.g., Tabasco, Ortega, and Jose
Cuervo). As a result, the average person would have little dif?culty identifying the Northeast
collages as representing Mexico. The absence of branded products in the Southwest
collages makes the cultural identi?cation more dif?cult. These collages potentially could be
interpreted as being from one of a number of Latin locations and not Mexico speci?cally. An
argument could be made that this as a result of the image forming agents to which
informants are commonly exposed to, speci?cally the Mexican restaurants that exist within
their region. As a result of the Southwest’s proximity to the border informants’ potentially have
greater access to small owner operated restaurants (on both sides of the border). Whereas
Northeast informants may have to rely more on commercial chains for their Mexican dining
experiences.
Part two
In part two of the study, researchers utilize the collages to create an online survey that is
distributed using a convenience sample of consumers at universities in the both locations.
Utilizing a series of multiple choice and (?ve-point) Likert scale questions, the survey
measures consumers’ experiences with, and patronage of, Mexican restaurants. In addition,
researchers ask the survey respondents a series of questions identifying those factors from
eight separate categories (interior design and structural elements, food, drinks, furniture,
employees, ambiance, de´ cor, and cultural artifacts) that form a barometer for measuring
authenticity. Researchers use the collage data to construct eight categories, and
subsequent choices within each category. Anonymous participation hallmarks the study.
Findings
The study includes 338 usable responses, of which 180 (54 percent) are fromthe Southwest
and 158 (46 percent) from the Northeast. The researchers characterize the survey
respondents as single (75 percent), Caucasian (73 percent), male (46 percent), and females
(64 percent) with an average age of 26 years. A total of 68 percent of all respondents have
visited Mexico with the majority of them (70.6 percent n ¼ 123) being those residing in the
Southwest of the USA. Respondents from the Southwest eat Mexican food more often than
those from the Northeast, with 52.8 percent claiming they eat it at least once a week.
Whereas those from the Northeast are more likely to eat Mexican cuisine less than once a
month (48.7 percent) (x
2
ð338Þ ¼ 158:73, p , 0:001). Data analysis fails to reveal any
signi?cant differences based on gender, age, or ethnicity and, as such, these variables will
not be discussed in the analysis below.
Cultural information sources
The set of expectations regarding what constituted an authentic Mexican restaurant is
mediated by different cultural informational sources for each region. Respondents are asked
(on a Likert scale of 1-5) the extent to which they rely on other restaurants, family and friends,
and the media as a frame of reference for determining the authenticity of a Mexican
restaurant. Overall, the most in?uential appears to be family and friends (M ¼ 3:7) and least
in?uential, television programming (M ¼ 2:4). Respondents in the Northeast are more likely
to rely on television programming (M
NE
¼ 2:6 M
SW
¼ 2:2, tð324Þ ¼ 5:807, p , 0:001),
movies (M
NE
¼ 2:7 M
SW
¼ 2:3, t ð333Þ ¼ 2:981, p , 0:01), and advertising (M
NE
¼ 3:0
M
SW
¼ 2:5, t ð332Þ ¼ 3:868, p , 0:001) when compared to the Southwest.
Perceptions of authenticity (design elements)
Respondents are asked to indicate (from a provided list drawn from the collage data) which
speci?c elements best signi?ed those that would be found in an authentic Mexican
restaurant. Table I reports the most popular exemplars (fromboth regions combined) in each
of eight categories.
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The researchers use a chi-square analysis to explore regional differences of Mexican
exemplars. Signi?cant differences exist in the categories of furniture and drinks. When asked
to identify the type of authentic restaurant furniture, those geographically distant to Mexico
offer the general description of ‘‘wooden furniture,’’ while those located closer to the border
select the more speci?c ‘‘home-style furniture’’ (x
2
ð337Þ ¼ 13:42, p , 0:01). In contrast,
when it comes to the selection of beverages, Northeast consumers select the stereotypical
responses of tequila and sangria, compared with Southwest informants who show a greater
acceptance of beer (x
2
ð338Þ ¼ 16:92, p , 0:01).
The researchers ask the respondents to indicate the level of importance that each of the
eight categories played in creating an authentic Mexican restaurant. Overall, both samples
respond that the most important element contributing to perceived authenticity is food
(M ¼ 4:7), whereas artifacts (i.e. ?ags, sombreros, etc.) are the least important (M ¼ 3:2). A
regional comparison of restaurant attributes ?nds numerous signi?cant differences. For
example, Northeast restaurant patrons are more likely to consider the interior design as
being important for creating an authentic environment (M
NE
¼ 4:0 M
SW
¼ 3:5, t ð332Þ ¼ 4:33,
p , 0:001). More speci?cally, they believe that the furniture (M
NE
¼ 3:6 M
SW
¼ 3:2,
t ð332Þ ¼ 3:95, p , 0:01), de´ cor (M
NE
¼ 3:8 M
SW
¼ 3:5, t ð330Þ ¼ 3:42, p , 0:01), artifacts
(M
NE
¼ 3:4 M
SW
¼ 3:1 tð333Þ ¼ 2:36, p , 0:03), and ambience (M
NE
¼ 4:0 M
SW
¼ 3:7,
t ð331Þ ¼ 2:75, p , 0:01) are more important elements compared with the Southwest
sample.
When asked to select those elements that in?uenced their choice of Mexican restaurant to
dine at overall, respondents indicate that food is the most important factor (M ¼ 4:7). From a
regional perspective, those in the Northeast value the interior design more (M
NE
¼ 3:2
M
SW
¼ 2:7, t ð335Þ ¼ 3:76, p , 0:01). Restaurant de´ cor is also more important for the
Northeast than for those from the Southwest (M
NE
¼ 3:3 M
SW
¼ 2:9, tð330Þ ¼ 3:56,
p , 0:01).
In two open-ended questions, respondents are asked to indicate which elements signi?ed
both an authentic and inauthentic Mexican restaurant. For both questions, food best
signi?es the authenticity of the restaurant as well as in-authenticity. In particular, examples of
inappropriate menu items include ‘‘Americanized’’ food such as hamburgers, ground beef,
chicken nuggets, and mash potatoes. These ?ndings were consistent in both regions.
Finally, respondents from both regions consider authenticity ‘‘somewhat important’’ when
selecting a Mexican restaurant to dine at (M ¼ 3:6). There exists no signi?cant difference
based on geographic location.
General discussion
From the results of this research a marketer or restaurateur can infer that the concept of
authenticity is somewhat appealing to consumers, regardless of geographic location.
However, regional differences in perceptions and expectations of what constitutes a
desirable authentic Mexican restaurant do exist. As re?ected in the collage, and then
supported by the survey data, the Northeast region’s perceptions of what is authentically
Mexican includes more stereotypical and commercialized elements than the Southwest
Table I Exemplars of authentic Mexican restaurants (n ¼ 338)
Category Most popular exemplar Frequency (%)
Interior design/structural elements Clay/tiled ?oors 81
Food Salsa/spicy foods 81
Furniture Wooden furniture 50
Employees Hispanic/Latino descent 46
Ambiance Bright color scheme 33
Decor Pottery (dishes and bowls) 63
Drinks Margaritas 39
Cultural artifacts Sombrero 46
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region – with those consumers in the Northeast favoring the inclusion of popular and
stereotypical food and beverages.
The interior design elements of the restaurants further illustrate regional differences.
However, this time consumers from the Southwest are more speci?c, or perhaps detailed,
about what the restaurant interior should be like – expressing a desire for home-styled
furniture (those items that one would ?nd in a typical home, as opposed to commercially
manufactured restaurant furniture). In contrast, the Northeast expresses a preference for the
more general selection of wooden furniture. Despite this ?nding, the Northeast sample value
the interior design and de´ cor signi?cantly more than the Southwest sample when
determining authenticity and deciding whether to patronize a restaurant.
Regardless of geographic location, family and friends are the primary source of information
about what constitutes an authentic restaurant. However, the reliance upon the mass media
(e.g., movies, television shows, and advertising) is greater the further the distance from the
foreign culture. Intuitively, this ?nding is not that surprising. Given the geographic proximity
to Mexico, large Hispanic population, and the overall integration of the Mexican culture in the
Southwest, these respondents presumably have had more direct contact with the culture
and a lesser need to rely on mediated agents. Conversely, the Northeast sample has fewer
avenues to learn about the Mexican culture and, as a result, relies more on mediated
images. Furthermore, the potential for ample exposure to a variety of image formation agents
in the Southwest suggests that perhaps, for these respondents, Mexican restaurant
patronage is more about the culinary experience as opposed to the cultural experience that
they can amply experience outside the con?nes of a restaurant.
Method limitations
Given that informants are recruited using a convenience sample reduces the generalizability
of the research ?ndings. In addition, the collages serve as the primary source of information
for the creation of the survey. As a result the questions asked, categories created, and
response options available in the survey may not be mutually exclusive or selectively
exhaustive. Furthermore, because of our dependence on a visual methodology for one part
of the study, the role of some atmospheric elements (such as music) is arti?cially
downplayed. Finally, omitted from the online survey are questions regarding dining
experiences at chain and independently-owned restaurants. In hindsight such questions
may offer some additional insight into impressions of authenticity.
Implications and conclusions
Prior research acknowledges that foreign cultures are perceived differently between
countries. Yet geographic differences that exist within a country also need to be examined.
This is especially true when borders and immigrant populations vary regionally within a
country. The ‘‘think global act local’’ concept, which is largely applied for international
marketing, also needs to be considered when marketing a foreign culture nationally. What
consumers expect to encounter and what they consider important within a restaurant differs,
in this research, between the Northeast and the Southwest USA.
Whereas, all informants thought that authenticity is somewhat important, the extent to which
various elements contribute to the illusion of authenticity varies by geographic location. This
conclusion has direct implications for those in the hospitality industry. To begin, although our
?ndings stress the importance of food as markers of both authenticity and in-authenticity,
regional differences do exist. For restaurants located in close proximity to Mexico (the
Southwest) emphasis should be placed on offering and accentuating the use of fresh, high
quality produce and seafood items. To appeal to those consumers geographically removed
(the Northeast) from Mexico the focus should be on incorporating and emphasizing brand
names and some stereotypical products associated with Mexico (e.g., Tequila).
Furthermore, both locations should refrain from incorporating too many host country
(USA) food items on the menu as this detracts from perceived authenticity.
From a structural and interior design perspective, those restaurants that are further away
from the host country should bene?t from increased attention to atmospheric components
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and should perhaps create a more elaborate environment. Greater attention is required for
the selection of restaurant de´ cor, ambience and cultural artifacts. More speci?cally,
restaurants close to the host country could bene?t from including furniture that resembles
that found in homes (i.e. dining room tables, china cabinets, and kitchen accoutrements)
whereas those geographically removed could rely on more commercial styled furnishings
and some stereotypical artifacts (e.g. national ?ags, sombreros).
The increased reliance on mass media in areas away from the host culture, necessities a
greater understanding of where/how consumers construct their set of cultural expectations
and what speci?cally those cultural expectations entail. In the end, Mexican restaurants
positioning themselves as ‘‘authentic’’ need to address their proximity to Mexico and alter
their interior design and food offerings to match their consumers’ criteria.
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Corresponding author
Caroline Lego Mun˜ oz can be contacted at: [email protected]
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doc_866447859.pdf
The purpose of this study is to investigate how geography (distance from the host country,
i.e. Mexico) mediates individuals’ perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ ethnic-themed restaurants and to identify
which information sources influence their beliefs
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
A recipe for success: understanding regional perceptions of authenticity in themed restaurants
Caroline Lego Muñoz Natalie T. Wood
Article information:
To cite this document:
Caroline Lego Muñoz Natalie T. Wood, (2009),"A recipe for success: understanding regional perceptions of authenticity in themed
restaurants", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 3 Iss 3 pp. 269 - 280
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A recipe for success: understanding
regional perceptions of authenticity in
themed restaurants
Caroline Lego Mun˜ oz and Natalie T. Wood
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate how geography (distance from the host country,
i.e. Mexico) mediates individuals’ perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ ethnic-themed restaurants and to identify
which information sources in?uence their beliefs.
Design/methodology/approach – To explore these issues, a two-part (qualitative and quantitative)
study was undertaken with informants recruited from two regions of the USA (Northeast and Southwest),
each with differing proximity to Mexico.
Findings – Findings of the study reveal that, despite the fact that all informants reside within the same
country, perceptions and expectations of what constitutes an authentic Mexican restaurant varies
depending upon geographic location. The further an individual resides from the host country, the more
stereotypical their cultural expectations and the greater the emphasis they place on various atmospheric
components when selecting an appealing authentic environment at which to dine. Atmospheric and
design elements that de?ne an ‘‘authentic’’ Mexican restaurant are provided. Finally, the study shows
that signi?cant regional differences are relevant to the frame of reference used for determining the
authenticity of a Mexican restaurant.
Practical implications – The selection of atmospheric and tangible design elements needs to be
carefully considered in the construction of ethnic-themed restaurants. Findings suggest that marketers
utilizing an ethnic theme need to research the cultural expectations of their target audience, their source,
and to take into consideration geographic distances between the host country and the restaurant’s
location.
Originality/value – This paper advances scholarship about the mediating role that geography and
informational sources play in an individual’s perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ ethnically-themed environments.
Keywords Mexico, Ethnic groups, Restaurants, Brand image
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Theming, the process by which an environment is given a distinct character, is a common
strategy adopted by the service industry, particularly those in hospitality and tourism.
Whether it is the Aladdin shopping mall in Las Vegas or the Rainforest Cafe´ in Kansas, these
(often idealized) narratives are fast becoming a part of consumers’ daily lives. While the
consumer landscapes offers myriad themes (e.g., place or time), many of them revolve
around depicting a speci?c culture (Bailey and Tian, 2002; Bell et al., 1994; Josiam and
Monteiro, 2004; Munoz et al., 2006; Lego et al., 2002; Salamone, 1997; Tian, 2001; Wood
and Munoz, 2007). These cultural encounters often afford consumers the ability to connect
with their heritage, create a sense of ‘‘travel’’ to the exotic, or simply experience something
new without leaving their neighborhood.
Constructing these spaces mandates not only an understanding of the culture being
depicted, but also consumer expectations, particularly in relation to authenticity. Previous
research explores the de?nitions of authenticity and its role within ethnic restaurants (Ebster
and Guist, 2004; Germann-Molz, 2003, Lego et al., 2002; Munoz et al., 2006; Salamone,
DOI 10.1108/17506180910980564 VOL. 3 NO. 3 2009, pp. 269-280, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
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Caroline Lego Mun˜ oz is
Assistant Professor of
Marketing, Department of
Marketing and
Entrepreneurial Studies,
Silberman College of
Business, Fairleigh
Dickinson University,
Madison, New Jersey, USA.
Natalie T. Wood is Assistant
Professor of Marketing,
Department of Marketing,
Erivan K. Haub School of
Business, St Joseph’s
University, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA.
Received: September 2007
Revised: December 2007
Accepted: January 2008
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1997). Yet, little research addresses how consumers form their sets of expectations for
authentic spaces (for notable exception see Ebster and Guist (2004)), and how geography
(i.e. distance from the host culture) mediates their perceptions, and what this means for
those embracing theming as a business strategy (for notable exception see Wood and
Munoz (2007)).
This study investigates whether, and how, geography (distance from the host country)
mediates individuals’ consumption and perceptions of ‘‘authentic’’ Mexican restaurants and
the extent to which various information sources in?uence their view of these restaurants.
Prior research (see Rivenburgh et al., 2004) has acknowledged that foreign cultures are
perceived differently between countries. This paper takes the approach of examining
regional perceptions – how consumer perceptions vary within the same country with
differing proximity to Mexico (Southwest and Northeast regions of the USA).
This article begins with a brief introduction to theme restaurants and the growing popularity
of ethnic-themed restaurants. Next, this article examines the role of reality engineers, as
producers of these environments, and the role of image formation agents as a frame of
reference for their creation, consumption, and evaluation. The article presents ?ndings of a
study exploring perceptions of authenticity in Mexican restaurants based on geographic
location, and concludes by highlighting implications and recommendations from a
marketing and hospitality perspective.
Theme restaurants
For consumers, perhaps the most common and frequent exposure to theming is by way of
restaurants, speci?cally ethnic-themed restaurants. Ethnic theming makes use of ‘‘ethnic art,
decor, music, external fac¸ ade, name, and various stereotyped signals to create a distinctive
setting which lays claim to being a re?ection of some exotic but recognizable culture’’
(Beardsworth and Bryman, 1999, p. 242). Consumers are drawn to ethnic-themed
restaurants for a variety of reasons. For some, themed restaurants are a novelty, for others, a
way to connect to their ethnicity (Negra, 2002) and interact with a different culture and
gastronomy (Bailey and Tian, 2002; Barbas, 2003; Germann-Molz, 2003; Long, 2003; Tian,
2001). As such, the demand of ethnic cuisine and theme restaurants has been on the rise
(Dundleston, 2003; Lewis, 2007; Wahlgren, 2005).
Mexican restaurants have experienced a surge in popularity in the ?rst decade of the
twenty-?rst century (Van Houten, 2004; Wahlgren, 2005). This trend points, in part, to an
increasing Hispanic population, a more sophisticated palette, and the improving availability
of authentic spices, peppers, and produce (Ruggless, 2005). While some restaurant chains
have heeded this call by providing a wider variety of authentic regional dishes and ?avors,
others have not fully capitalized on this notion of authenticity and continue to offer patrons
standardized Americanized menu items while overlooking the importance that ‘‘production’’
plays as a cultural arbiter.
Whereas the majority of Mexican restaurants are seemingly thrown together in an eclectic
manner, in reality they are carefully and strategically constructed by ‘‘reality engineers’’
(designers and marketers who create theme environments) (Solomon and Englis, 1994).
These reality engineers often focus on speci?c structural and aesthetic elements (including
sounds, smells, and textures) to create an appealing and successful environment (Solomon
and Englis, 1994). Ingredients for success often include elements such as restaurant
design, employees, cultural artifacts, food, drink, and entertainment music (Guinness,
2002).
Image formation agents
When selecting design atmospheric and aesthetic cues, reality engineers rely heavily on
socially constructed, yet often inaccurate themes offered by destination image formation
agents (Gottdiener, 2001; Solomon and Englis, 1994, Wood and Munoz, 2007). In turn,
consumers utilize the information they glean from destination image information agents to
help themlearn the authenticity of an ethnic restaurant. Gartner (1993) constructs a typology
that consists of eight destination image formation agents: Overt Induced I (i.e. traditional
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advertising); Overt Induced II (i.e. travel agents, tour operators and organizations); Covert
Induced I (i.e. a recognizable spokesperson); Covert Induced II (i.e. unbiased media),
Autonomous (i.e. news and popular culture); Unsolicited Organic (i.e. unsolicited
information from individuals that have destination knowledge); Solicited Organic (i.e.
solicited destination information from friends and relatives) and Organic (i.e. direct
experience with an area). The cumulative knowledge assembled from these various agents
is what formulates consumers’ ‘‘image’’ of a cultural destination. Omitted from Gartner’s
typology is the commercialism of cultural products such as ethnic restaurants. For many
consumers, ethnically themed restaurants may serve as their sole or primary contact with a
foreign culture. Thus, these environments function as a ‘‘cultural ambassador,’’ providing, for
some, an initial exposure and means to evaluate a county’s food and people (Bailey and
Tian, 2002; Tian, 2001), a ‘‘stand-in for travel, or an enticement to it’’ (Grew, 1999, p. 80).
Furthermore, experiences within these environments may serve to create or reinforce
cultural stereotypes (Wood and Munoz, 2007). At the very least, frequenting ethnic
restaurants creates a frame of reference that may impact consumers’ future interactions with
the host culture and as a means of evaluating the authenticity of other venues attempting to
adopt a similar cultural theme.
Depending on the individual, each of these agents carries varying degrees of in?uence and
can be used separately or in concert to create an image of a destination (Gartner, 1993).
Presumably, individuals with closer geographical proximity to a culture have had more
exposure to speci?c image information agents. For example, direct experience, solicited
and unsolicited information from others should be greater for those in close proximity to the
foreign culture. Whereas individuals geographically removed may rely more on induced
sources such as media and autonomous agents (popular culture).
Unfortunately, the cultural representations and images presented by these agents are not
always an accurate re?ection; often ‘‘they are based on genuine ethnic markers that have
become distorted and simpli?ed in the translation process’’ (Adams, 1984, p. 472). These
images are often stereotypical and commonly accepted generalizations. For example,
rather than providing consumers with an accurate portrayal of a culture, the media often
reiterates consumers’ cultural expectations (Rivenburgh et al., 2004; Santos, 2004, Wood
and Munoz, 2007). We pose the question:
RQ1. Who or what is the most in?uential information source impacting consumers’
perceptions of what constitutes an authentic Mexican restaurant?
The perception of authenticity
Consumer researchers’ interest in the concept of ‘‘authenticity’’ can, in part, be attributed to
Western consumers’ desire to seek out experiences and products that are truthful and
sincere (Kozinets, 2001; MacCannell, 1976; Penaloza, 2001). Yet, de?ning authenticity and
applying the concept to the tourism and hospitality industry has proven to be an arduous
task (Wang, 1999). For instance, is authenticity a ?xed or ?uid concept? Where some view
authenticity as a ?xed, objective entity (MacCannell, 1976; Boorstin, 1964), others see the
concept as a collaborative, subjective practice that is dependent on the individual, situation,
and cultural context (Cohen, 1988; Grayson and Martinec, 2004; Lu and Fine, 1995;
Richards, 2001; Salamone, 1997). Others argue that authenticity does not exist; instead one
can only consider degrees of in-authenticity (Brown and Patterson, 2000). Whereas
postmodernists suggest that it is not authenticity, but the ‘‘illusion of authenticity’’ that
satis?es many consumers (Cohen, 1988; Eco, 1986; Lego et al., 2002; Lu and Fine, 1995).
The concept of authenticity has been en vogue within the foodservice industry for a number
of years now (Cobe, 2004; Boyle, 2004; Halter, 2000; Negra, 2002). Despite being an
attractive descriptor, these ethnic restaurants are often more of a re?ection of consumers’
own expectations than an accurate cultural portrayal (Germann-Molz, 2003, Wood and
Munoz, 2007). Within these environments, consumers often ascertain authenticity based on
a personal set of expectations that is derived from their ‘‘own social experience’’ with the
culture (Ebster and Guist, 2004; Germann-Molz, 2003; Lu and Fine, 1995). As a result, the
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ability to produce ‘‘authentic’’ or authentically perceived environments mandates that we
both understand consumer’s expectations and are able to identify the source of their cultural
knowledge.
Lego et al. (2002) demonstrate how perceptions of authenticity vary between two or more
countries. Their research reveals that residents of Ireland do not value the authenticity of Irish
pubs as much as those respondents that reside in other countries. Further research by
Ebster and Guist (2004) demonstrates that respondents fromthe same country, who posses
cultural experience (via language familiarity, and visitation to an Italian restaurant in Italy)
value authenticity less and are, in fact, better able to distinguish the real from the fake.
Unfortunately, to the authors’ knowledge no research explores what, if any,
geographically-based differences exist within the same country. We pose the following
question:
RQ2. What, if any, regional differences exist (within the USA) of consumers’ perception of
what constitutes an authentic Mexican Restaurant?
Method
The method includes a two-part study in order to learn US regional differences. Part one
includes a qualitative data collection method (collage and reports). Increasingly
psychoanalytical methodologies, such as collages, are being used in consumer research
(Romell, 2008). Most notably, the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), a
patented research methodology using interviews and digitally created image collages, is
used in academic and corporate research (Coulter et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2003; Zaltman and
Coulter, 1995) and is an effective cross-cultural comparative research tool (Sugai, 2005).
Beyond the speci?c ZMET technique, numerous researchers have adopted comparable
visual methodologies as data collection tools (see Belk et al., 2003; Chaplin et al., 2005;
Coskuner and Sandikci, 2004; Hofstede et al., 2007; Wood and Munoz, 2007). There are
several justifying reasons behind employing visual methodologies: individuals think in
images and not words, metaphors are part of our thinking processes, and social
communication is conveyed primarily through nonverbal means (Zaltman and Coulter,
1995). The second part of the study, using a quantitative approach (online survey), sought to
validate the ?ndings from part one.
Using a convenience sampling method, we recruit respondents from two regions with
differing proximity to Mexico – Southwestern California and Northern New Jersey.
Southwestern California (San Diego County) borders the country of Mexico and has a
population of approximately 2.9 million of which 29.5 percent are of Hispanic or Latino origin
(US Census Bureau, 2007). As a result of the warmMediterranean-like climate, access to the
sea and wide variety of fresh produce, San Diego County is known for a wide selection of
cuisines. One of their local specialties is Mexican food (US Census Bureau, 2007). In
contrast, North New Jersey (speci?cally Essex, Middlesex, Morris, Union, and Somerset
counties) is located in the Northeast of the continental USA approximately 2,000 miles north
of the US and Mexican border. These counties have a population of 2.4 million of which
approximately 19.5 percent are of Hispanic or Latino origin. One of the most ethnically
diverse states in the country, New Jersey enjoys the cuisines of many different cultures (US
Census Bureau, 2005).
Part one
Part one of this study seeks to learn consumers’ perceptions of what constitutes an authentic
Mexican restaurant and to identify whether any regional differences exist. A total of 26
individuals (13 per geographic location) were recruited through two classes at local
universities to prepare a collage depicting what in, their minds, represented an authentic
Mexican restaurant. The sample comprises both males (35 percent) and females (65
percent) aged 19-55. The average age of informants is 28. To begin, informants attend a
brie?ng session conducted by a researcher during which the purpose of the exercise and
basic parameters for completing the task is explained. Parameters include: an approximate
size of the collage; participants are informed that this was an individual exercise and they
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should not seek the input of friends or family, they are also informed no ‘‘correct’’
answer/design to the exercise exists, researchers are interested in their own interpretation
and opinion.
Informants are instructed that they have complete latitude in the source and selection of
images to create their collage. However, they are prompted to include images that depict
what the restaurant looks like, interior elements, and menu options. In the event that they are
unable to locate an image that accurately represents the image they have in their mind, then
they are permitted to draw the item themselves or include words and phrases on the collage
that re?ected the image they want to include and then to describe in detail the missing item
in the accompanying report. Upon completion of the collage, they are requested to complete
a detailed written report explaining each of the images selected, including those that they
want to include, but are unable to locate, their contribution and relative importance in relation
to authenticity. A written summary of the brie?ng session is also provided to each informant
for their future reference.
The collages and reports are ?rst independently analyzed by each researcher. Both
researchers’ separately catalogue the collage images and then categorize them into
common areas/themes. To ensure accurate interpretation and categorization of the images
each collage is analyzed separately in consultation with the accompanying written report. In
some cases, as revealed by the reports, some images hold multiple meanings, for example,
beverages such as Tequila serve a functional purpose – to satisfy thirst, as well as an
expressive purpose – representing a festive environment. In such cases the image is
categorized into two areas – food and atmosphere. Results are then jointly discussed
resulting in an agreed on set of common themes (based on frequency of inclusion/mention),
as well as noticeable differences between both regions. Both researchers have had training
and experience in qualitative data collection methods and completed numerous successful
research studies employing similar data collection methods.
Findings
The dominant theme in both regions is the importance placed on food and beverages. This
is depicted through numerous images of salsa, seafood, peppers, and margaritas. However,
the Southwest collages (see Figure 1) depicts a simpler fresh cuisine (fresh ingredients
including unprepared ?sh and vegetables) compared to the Northeast sample which
focuses on prepared dishes (tacos and burrito dishes with rice, beans, sauces pico de gallo,
and guacamole) (see Figure 2). Whereas alcohol is mentioned by both groups of informants,
greater emphasis was evident with the Northeast sample. In particular, the stereotypical
Mexican drink, tequila is the primary beverage selected by those in the Northeast.
From a design perspective both samples view authentic Mexican restaurants as vibrant and
festive spaces. Pictures of smiling faces and group gatherings are found in both regions.
Both samples offer interior elements (including cultural artifacts); however, the Northeast
region offers more detail on the restaurant aesthetics and design. The Southwestern
collages largely limit interior elements to four main items: furniture, rugs, pottery, and art. In
addition to these items, the Northeast collages also include clocks, cruci?xes, national ?ags,
and dining utensils.
Overall, the Northeast sample appears to have a more tropical and romanticized image of
Mexican restaurants, as one would expect to see in tourism advertising. Unlike respondents
from the Southwest who, largely focused on what they think the interior (walls, ceilings, and
?oors) and exterior (building size and shape) of the restaurant should look like, respondents
from the northeast focus more on creating a non-restaurant image (e.g. beaches, ocean,
dolphins, tiki huts, coupled dining). Colors depicted in both sets of collages, through
landscapes, furniture, food, cultural artifacts, and sometimes just the color itself, are
primarily bright, festive hues. Speci?cally, blue, red, yellow, and green are used with the
most frequency. Earth tones are also used to accent some collages. However, earth tones
are used more frequently in the Southwest sample, whereas bright colors are used more
often in the Northeast sample.
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Figure 1 Southwest consumer’s interpretation of an authentic Mexican restaurant
Figure 2 Northeast consumer’s interpretation of an authentic Mexican restaurant
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Furthermore, the Northeast collages have a heightened sense of commercialism that is not
present in the Southwest. For example, those informants geographically removed from the
host country display an abundant use of brand name consumer products, particularly those
that are found in typical convenience or grocery stores (e.g., Tabasco, Ortega, and Jose
Cuervo). As a result, the average person would have little dif?culty identifying the Northeast
collages as representing Mexico. The absence of branded products in the Southwest
collages makes the cultural identi?cation more dif?cult. These collages potentially could be
interpreted as being from one of a number of Latin locations and not Mexico speci?cally. An
argument could be made that this as a result of the image forming agents to which
informants are commonly exposed to, speci?cally the Mexican restaurants that exist within
their region. As a result of the Southwest’s proximity to the border informants’ potentially have
greater access to small owner operated restaurants (on both sides of the border). Whereas
Northeast informants may have to rely more on commercial chains for their Mexican dining
experiences.
Part two
In part two of the study, researchers utilize the collages to create an online survey that is
distributed using a convenience sample of consumers at universities in the both locations.
Utilizing a series of multiple choice and (?ve-point) Likert scale questions, the survey
measures consumers’ experiences with, and patronage of, Mexican restaurants. In addition,
researchers ask the survey respondents a series of questions identifying those factors from
eight separate categories (interior design and structural elements, food, drinks, furniture,
employees, ambiance, de´ cor, and cultural artifacts) that form a barometer for measuring
authenticity. Researchers use the collage data to construct eight categories, and
subsequent choices within each category. Anonymous participation hallmarks the study.
Findings
The study includes 338 usable responses, of which 180 (54 percent) are fromthe Southwest
and 158 (46 percent) from the Northeast. The researchers characterize the survey
respondents as single (75 percent), Caucasian (73 percent), male (46 percent), and females
(64 percent) with an average age of 26 years. A total of 68 percent of all respondents have
visited Mexico with the majority of them (70.6 percent n ¼ 123) being those residing in the
Southwest of the USA. Respondents from the Southwest eat Mexican food more often than
those from the Northeast, with 52.8 percent claiming they eat it at least once a week.
Whereas those from the Northeast are more likely to eat Mexican cuisine less than once a
month (48.7 percent) (x
2
ð338Þ ¼ 158:73, p , 0:001). Data analysis fails to reveal any
signi?cant differences based on gender, age, or ethnicity and, as such, these variables will
not be discussed in the analysis below.
Cultural information sources
The set of expectations regarding what constituted an authentic Mexican restaurant is
mediated by different cultural informational sources for each region. Respondents are asked
(on a Likert scale of 1-5) the extent to which they rely on other restaurants, family and friends,
and the media as a frame of reference for determining the authenticity of a Mexican
restaurant. Overall, the most in?uential appears to be family and friends (M ¼ 3:7) and least
in?uential, television programming (M ¼ 2:4). Respondents in the Northeast are more likely
to rely on television programming (M
NE
¼ 2:6 M
SW
¼ 2:2, tð324Þ ¼ 5:807, p , 0:001),
movies (M
NE
¼ 2:7 M
SW
¼ 2:3, t ð333Þ ¼ 2:981, p , 0:01), and advertising (M
NE
¼ 3:0
M
SW
¼ 2:5, t ð332Þ ¼ 3:868, p , 0:001) when compared to the Southwest.
Perceptions of authenticity (design elements)
Respondents are asked to indicate (from a provided list drawn from the collage data) which
speci?c elements best signi?ed those that would be found in an authentic Mexican
restaurant. Table I reports the most popular exemplars (fromboth regions combined) in each
of eight categories.
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The researchers use a chi-square analysis to explore regional differences of Mexican
exemplars. Signi?cant differences exist in the categories of furniture and drinks. When asked
to identify the type of authentic restaurant furniture, those geographically distant to Mexico
offer the general description of ‘‘wooden furniture,’’ while those located closer to the border
select the more speci?c ‘‘home-style furniture’’ (x
2
ð337Þ ¼ 13:42, p , 0:01). In contrast,
when it comes to the selection of beverages, Northeast consumers select the stereotypical
responses of tequila and sangria, compared with Southwest informants who show a greater
acceptance of beer (x
2
ð338Þ ¼ 16:92, p , 0:01).
The researchers ask the respondents to indicate the level of importance that each of the
eight categories played in creating an authentic Mexican restaurant. Overall, both samples
respond that the most important element contributing to perceived authenticity is food
(M ¼ 4:7), whereas artifacts (i.e. ?ags, sombreros, etc.) are the least important (M ¼ 3:2). A
regional comparison of restaurant attributes ?nds numerous signi?cant differences. For
example, Northeast restaurant patrons are more likely to consider the interior design as
being important for creating an authentic environment (M
NE
¼ 4:0 M
SW
¼ 3:5, t ð332Þ ¼ 4:33,
p , 0:001). More speci?cally, they believe that the furniture (M
NE
¼ 3:6 M
SW
¼ 3:2,
t ð332Þ ¼ 3:95, p , 0:01), de´ cor (M
NE
¼ 3:8 M
SW
¼ 3:5, t ð330Þ ¼ 3:42, p , 0:01), artifacts
(M
NE
¼ 3:4 M
SW
¼ 3:1 tð333Þ ¼ 2:36, p , 0:03), and ambience (M
NE
¼ 4:0 M
SW
¼ 3:7,
t ð331Þ ¼ 2:75, p , 0:01) are more important elements compared with the Southwest
sample.
When asked to select those elements that in?uenced their choice of Mexican restaurant to
dine at overall, respondents indicate that food is the most important factor (M ¼ 4:7). From a
regional perspective, those in the Northeast value the interior design more (M
NE
¼ 3:2
M
SW
¼ 2:7, t ð335Þ ¼ 3:76, p , 0:01). Restaurant de´ cor is also more important for the
Northeast than for those from the Southwest (M
NE
¼ 3:3 M
SW
¼ 2:9, tð330Þ ¼ 3:56,
p , 0:01).
In two open-ended questions, respondents are asked to indicate which elements signi?ed
both an authentic and inauthentic Mexican restaurant. For both questions, food best
signi?es the authenticity of the restaurant as well as in-authenticity. In particular, examples of
inappropriate menu items include ‘‘Americanized’’ food such as hamburgers, ground beef,
chicken nuggets, and mash potatoes. These ?ndings were consistent in both regions.
Finally, respondents from both regions consider authenticity ‘‘somewhat important’’ when
selecting a Mexican restaurant to dine at (M ¼ 3:6). There exists no signi?cant difference
based on geographic location.
General discussion
From the results of this research a marketer or restaurateur can infer that the concept of
authenticity is somewhat appealing to consumers, regardless of geographic location.
However, regional differences in perceptions and expectations of what constitutes a
desirable authentic Mexican restaurant do exist. As re?ected in the collage, and then
supported by the survey data, the Northeast region’s perceptions of what is authentically
Mexican includes more stereotypical and commercialized elements than the Southwest
Table I Exemplars of authentic Mexican restaurants (n ¼ 338)
Category Most popular exemplar Frequency (%)
Interior design/structural elements Clay/tiled ?oors 81
Food Salsa/spicy foods 81
Furniture Wooden furniture 50
Employees Hispanic/Latino descent 46
Ambiance Bright color scheme 33
Decor Pottery (dishes and bowls) 63
Drinks Margaritas 39
Cultural artifacts Sombrero 46
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region – with those consumers in the Northeast favoring the inclusion of popular and
stereotypical food and beverages.
The interior design elements of the restaurants further illustrate regional differences.
However, this time consumers from the Southwest are more speci?c, or perhaps detailed,
about what the restaurant interior should be like – expressing a desire for home-styled
furniture (those items that one would ?nd in a typical home, as opposed to commercially
manufactured restaurant furniture). In contrast, the Northeast expresses a preference for the
more general selection of wooden furniture. Despite this ?nding, the Northeast sample value
the interior design and de´ cor signi?cantly more than the Southwest sample when
determining authenticity and deciding whether to patronize a restaurant.
Regardless of geographic location, family and friends are the primary source of information
about what constitutes an authentic restaurant. However, the reliance upon the mass media
(e.g., movies, television shows, and advertising) is greater the further the distance from the
foreign culture. Intuitively, this ?nding is not that surprising. Given the geographic proximity
to Mexico, large Hispanic population, and the overall integration of the Mexican culture in the
Southwest, these respondents presumably have had more direct contact with the culture
and a lesser need to rely on mediated agents. Conversely, the Northeast sample has fewer
avenues to learn about the Mexican culture and, as a result, relies more on mediated
images. Furthermore, the potential for ample exposure to a variety of image formation agents
in the Southwest suggests that perhaps, for these respondents, Mexican restaurant
patronage is more about the culinary experience as opposed to the cultural experience that
they can amply experience outside the con?nes of a restaurant.
Method limitations
Given that informants are recruited using a convenience sample reduces the generalizability
of the research ?ndings. In addition, the collages serve as the primary source of information
for the creation of the survey. As a result the questions asked, categories created, and
response options available in the survey may not be mutually exclusive or selectively
exhaustive. Furthermore, because of our dependence on a visual methodology for one part
of the study, the role of some atmospheric elements (such as music) is arti?cially
downplayed. Finally, omitted from the online survey are questions regarding dining
experiences at chain and independently-owned restaurants. In hindsight such questions
may offer some additional insight into impressions of authenticity.
Implications and conclusions
Prior research acknowledges that foreign cultures are perceived differently between
countries. Yet geographic differences that exist within a country also need to be examined.
This is especially true when borders and immigrant populations vary regionally within a
country. The ‘‘think global act local’’ concept, which is largely applied for international
marketing, also needs to be considered when marketing a foreign culture nationally. What
consumers expect to encounter and what they consider important within a restaurant differs,
in this research, between the Northeast and the Southwest USA.
Whereas, all informants thought that authenticity is somewhat important, the extent to which
various elements contribute to the illusion of authenticity varies by geographic location. This
conclusion has direct implications for those in the hospitality industry. To begin, although our
?ndings stress the importance of food as markers of both authenticity and in-authenticity,
regional differences do exist. For restaurants located in close proximity to Mexico (the
Southwest) emphasis should be placed on offering and accentuating the use of fresh, high
quality produce and seafood items. To appeal to those consumers geographically removed
(the Northeast) from Mexico the focus should be on incorporating and emphasizing brand
names and some stereotypical products associated with Mexico (e.g., Tequila).
Furthermore, both locations should refrain from incorporating too many host country
(USA) food items on the menu as this detracts from perceived authenticity.
From a structural and interior design perspective, those restaurants that are further away
from the host country should bene?t from increased attention to atmospheric components
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and should perhaps create a more elaborate environment. Greater attention is required for
the selection of restaurant de´ cor, ambience and cultural artifacts. More speci?cally,
restaurants close to the host country could bene?t from including furniture that resembles
that found in homes (i.e. dining room tables, china cabinets, and kitchen accoutrements)
whereas those geographically removed could rely on more commercial styled furnishings
and some stereotypical artifacts (e.g. national ?ags, sombreros).
The increased reliance on mass media in areas away from the host culture, necessities a
greater understanding of where/how consumers construct their set of cultural expectations
and what speci?cally those cultural expectations entail. In the end, Mexican restaurants
positioning themselves as ‘‘authentic’’ need to address their proximity to Mexico and alter
their interior design and food offerings to match their consumers’ criteria.
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Corresponding author
Caroline Lego Mun˜ oz can be contacted at: [email protected]
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