Description
In this paper environmental impact assessment (EIA) is taken to mean the systematic examination of the likely environmental consequences of proposed projects.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
1
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND
MANAGEMENT
Edited by P. Fouracre, TRL Limited
Objectives of the paper
Abstract
In this paper environmental impact assessment (EIA) is taken to mean the systematic
examination of the likely environmental consequences of proposed projects. The
results of the assessment - which are assembled in a document known as an
Environmental Statement - are intended to provide decision-makers with a balanced
assessment of the environmental implications of the proposed action and the
alternative examined. The ES is then used by decision-makers as a contribution to the
information base upon which a decision is made. The overall goal of an EIA is to
achieve better developmental interventions through protecting the environment
(human, physical and biotic).
EIA is just one component in the environmental planning and management of
projects, in that it focuses upon consent stage. Increasingly EIA is being linked to
Environmental Management Systems (ISO14001) through the use of Environmental
Management Plans or Environmental Action Plans and to environmental auditing to
confirm that the project conformed to the ES forecasts and requirements of the
International Funding Institution.
Key issues
! Environmental planning and management are an integral part of project planning,
implementation and operation. Thus:
! International funding institutions require at least an environmental appraisal of
projects prior to the granting of funds;
! Environmental issues must be addressed at the project identification stage;
! Screening is a key activity to determine whether an EIA, an environmental
appraisal or no assessment is required;
! Scoping is the term given to the process of developing and selecting alternatives to
the proposed action and identifying the issues to be considered in the EIA it aims
to identify opportunities and constraints, determine the level of detail in the
assessment; to make the EIA process efficient and to save time and money.
! The environmental impacts of rural transport development are likely to be:
! Direct effects - due to construction and operation (e.g. land take, erosion) and
additional traffic (e.g. pollution)
! Indirect effects - due to transport-induced changes (e.g. health, land use, energy
consumption)
! Socio-environmental effects - due, for example, to policies which favour a
particular mode of transport.
Key topic areas
! Donor requirements for the environmental screening of projects as part of the
project planning process.
! Checklists for impact identification
! Environmental impacts associated with rural transport.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
2
1. INTRODUCTION
'For all the positive aspects of road projects, they may also have significant negative
impacts on nearby communities and the natural environment. People and properties
may be in the direct path of road works and affected in a major way. ...Disturbances
to the natural environment may include soil erosion, changes to streams and
underground water, and interference with animal and plant life....New roads may
induce development in previously undeveloped areas, sometimes significantly
affecting sensitive environments and the lifestyles of indigenous people. Roads are
agents of change, and can be responsible for both benefits and damage to the existing
balance between people and the environment' (Tsunokawa and Hoban, 1997).
Environmental Impact Assessment is an integral part of the consent process for major
development projects with most International Finance Institutions (IFIs) requiring
applicants to submit an ES in support of applications for funds. Most IFIs have
developed guidelines on what they expect of an EIA, and recipients are required to
comply with these. The various guidelines are broadly similar in their content and
advice, and all stress the continuing and contributory nature of environmental impact
assessment with other components of project appraisal as part of a comprehensive
process of project preparation implementation and operation.
This paper presents an overview of the process of EIA, and its place in the project
cycle. Using the DFID guidelines (DFID, 1997) as a model, it identifies the various
procedures, outputs and actions of the process. The paper also describes the use of
checklists. Finally the paper looks at the types of environmental impact that might be
involved in rural transport development. To begin, the paper briefly addresses the
nature of donor requirements for EIA.
2. INTERNATIONAL FINANCE INSTITUTION REQUIREMENTS
Most of the industrialised nations have established procedures in EIA, to which
project developments must conform. This framework is finding increasing application
in the developing world, as national governments, spurred on by Earth Summits and
evolving local concerns, create fledgling Environmental Protection Agencies and
introduce their own environmental standards. This process is being encouraged by all
the major multi-lateral and bi-lateral lending agencies, who have prepared guidelines
for EIA, and make compliance (at least for the larger projects) with these guidelines a
conditionality for lending.
In many instances, recipient nations have adopted the guidelines on EIA and
environmental standards used by the principal donors.
3. THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
PROCESS
The DFID model is used to describe the typical environmental assessment activities. It
is broadly similar, in approach, to other donor guidelines, though screening is less
prescriptive in the sense that projects are not referenced against pre-published
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
3
categories (of size), but against a series of checklists which seek to determine the
nature of the proposed development, the sensitivity/importance of the local
environment, and the likely environmental effects and their scale.
Various activities are completed during the project cycle, which are identified in the
Table. The main activities are described in more detail below.
Stage of Project Cycle Environmental Appraisal
Activity
Output
Project Development
• Identification Preliminary review of base
documentation
• Preparation (Project
Concept Note)
Screening Environmental Screening
Summary Note (ESSN)
• Design and appraisal Environmental appraisal/
EIA
Design Mitigation
Measures
• Approval Environmental Annex of
project Memorandum
Environmental Monitoring
Plan (EMP)
Project Implementation
• Initiation/monitoring Activate EMP Monitoring Reports
• Operation/monitoring Environmental monitoring Review Reports
• Evaluation Environmental
Evaluation/Audit
Evaluation Reports
3.1 The EIA Process
Within EIA there are several tasks that are fundamental to the successful delivery of
an EIA. EIA can be thought of as a data management process with three components.
First, the appropriate information necessary for a particular decision must be
identified and collated. Secondly, changes in environmental parameters resulting
from the proposed project must be forecast and compared with the situation without
the proposal. Finally, the actual change must be assessed and communicated to the
decision makers. Figure 1 provides a schematic representation of this process.
3.2 Screening and Scoping
The process of screening usually involves the review of the project proposal against a
checklist of projects to determine whether an EIA is a mandatory requirement. Often
there is some uncertainty and an environmental assessment specialist may be required
to help advise on which of the following is applied:
• Environmental Appraisal - a 'low-level' investigation which focuses on individual
issues and environmental inputs to design activities
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
4
• Environmental Impact Assessment - a 'high-level' investigation which involves a
multi-disciplinary, comprehensive and detailed study of proposed development,
and the environment within which it is to be developed.
• Environmental Audit - is similar in scope to an EIA, but it is applied to existing
projects rather than new developments.
The Screening Process results in the production of the Environmental Screening
Summary Note (ESSN), which should contain the following information:
• Brief project description
• Environmental issues apparent at screening (scope of environmental impacts, risks
and/or benefits).
• Significance of environmental impacts, risks and/or benefits and likely mitigation
measures required.
• Environmental investigation proposed (Environmental Appraisal, EIA,
Environmental Audit, etc.) and/or any other special information required
• Other issues
• Actions to be taken (and by whom)
Allied to the screening process is scoping which commences early in the project
cycle, so that it can be influential in project design and provide the platform for
continuing dialogue on the environmental constraints and opportunities. The specific
objectives of the process are:
• To enhance the environmental benefits of the proposed project or programme.
• To ensure compliance with relevant UK, EC and local legislation, as well as
commitment to Multilateral Environmental Agreements, international best practice
and DFID's own objectives set out in the White Paper (DFID, 1997).
• To consider the alternatives to the proposal that should be examined;
• To identify any significant adverse environmental effects, and identify action
(possibly further studies)
• To provide for public consultation and input to the identification of issues to be
examined;
• To define the data assembly needs and field survey activities;
• To determine the predictive techniques and environmental objectives that are to be
employed;
• To provide a timetable for undertaking the EIA alongside the project design
process.
3.3 Impact Identification
The process of impact identification is based upon an appreciation of how the
proposed project might interact with its receiving environment. As such, this requires
an appreciation of what are considered to be the valued environmental and community
resources within the vicinity of the proposal. A projection is then required of the
future state of these resources without the proposed project. From this a series of
environmental design objectives can be established to aid both the EIA and project
design process.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
5
The manner in which the proposal interacts with the future environmental setting must
be examined in terms of its construction, operational and decommissioning phase
taking into account of any important maintenance activities. A wealth of checklists
and guidance documentation exists on the broad effect that different types of project
may cause. Such aids are no more than this and there is no substitute for an expert
understanding of the potential interactions between the project and its environment.
The public should be involved in this process.
3.4 Impact Prediction
Once potential impacts are identified, the project design should be examined to
attempt to minimise those which are adverse and maximise those that are beneficial.
Once optimised, the process continues with the forecasting of the effects in the
following terms:
• Magnitude;
• The affected feature/resource/population;
• Action causing the effect;
• Timescale and duration of the effect;
• Level of uncertainty in the forecast;
• Proposed mitigation/enhancement measures
• Significance.
The effects must be recorded in terms of whether they are short term, long term,
direct, indirect, synergistic, cumulative, increase or reduce with time. This is
generally undertaken with the use of expert opinion and is to be presented in a
transparent way stating all the assumptions employed.
3.5 Mitigation and Enhancement
Environmental mitigation can often result in reduced project costs and lower
community costs when incorporated as a fundamental part of project design rather
than as an add-on exercise. Often simple design changes such as the type of bridging
strategy or the time of year that major earth moving activities take place can have a
dramatic effect upon improving environmental performance. The mitigation and
enhancement measures identified should be capable of being delivered in a cost
effective manner and be fully justified. Mitigation measures that have not been
thought through generally don't happen.
3.6 Reporting
The purpose of the exercise is to improve the project design prior to its submission for
consent and then to report the findings to the decision makers and the affected public
in a manner that they can understand. An EIS is not a long academic thesis on the
effects of a proposal, but is to be focused upon the key issues that the decision maker
should appreciate.
While guidance exists on the content of Environmental Statement from the various
IFIs, as a minimum, the EIS should report the following:
• Environmental objectives and policy context;
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
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• Existing environmental situation
• Future do minimum situation
• A description of the project
• An assessment of the effects of the project
• An environmental action plan or management plan
• A summary of the effects and recommendations
A summary of the EIS is often required for communication with the general public.
3.7 Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
As well as providing an input to design and appraisal, environmental issues are
incorporated into the implementation phase of the project cycle. An Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) should be prepared, which sets out the actions for
monitoring and evaluation of the project during implementation or construction and
operation. This should form a fundamental part of the project specifications. Its
content will include:
• Mitigation measures to minimise adverse impacts
• Measures to enhance environmental benefits
• Identified risks and uncertainties
• Institutional support required for effective monitoring
• Monitoring and auditing programme details
• Environmental legislation and standards which apply
• Resources, funds, contractual and management arrangements
3.8 Environmental Audit/Evaluation
When the project is in existence, then an environmental audit may be required in order
to satisfy IFIs that it is operating to an appropriate environmental standard. The audit
seeks to confirm the operational practices and to highlight any deviation from the
accepted norm.
An environmental evaluation is increasingly undertaken to confirm that the
performance of the project, once constructed and operational, conforms to the
specification and environmental performance standards specified as part of the
consent or funding arrangements. Frequently, the environmental evaluation seeks to
examine the EMP and review the monitoring data in order to reveal aspects where
improved practice is possible and where future EIAs can be enhanced.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
7
Figure 1: Flow diagram showing the main components of an EIA system
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
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4. CHECKLISTS
DFID use two sets of checklists to help in the process of environmental appraisal. As
part of the Screening Process, checklists are available which cover environmental
features, development features, potential adverse and beneficial impacts, and impact
characterisation. At the project approval stage, checklists are available to decision
makers to determine the nature and scale of potential environmental constraints and
opportunities, and the extent to which these have been adequately addressed in project
design. Examples of the content of the checklists are shown in the Table.
Screening Checklists
• Environmental Features
Areas containing rare or endangered species
National parks, nature reserves, Etc.
Habitats providing important resources for vulnerable groups
Moist or dry tropical and sub-tropical forest
• Development Features
Important policy changes likely to affect the environment
Major changes in land tenure or use
Substantial changes in water use
Large infrastructure projects
• Potential adverse and beneficial effects
Livelihoods
Culture
Land management
Water quality and quantity
Local air quality
Global impacts
Conservation
• I mpact characterisation
Is the impact beneficial, benign or harmful?
What is the scale and intensity of impact?
Are effects irreversible?
Are the effects due to construction and/or operations?
Are the effects likely to be politically or socially controversial?
Will there be different effects on different members of society?
What are the timescales of impact?
Checklists for Policy Approvers and Decision-makers
• Project setting
Have underlying causes of environmental damage been considered?
Would these underlying causes be better addressed by other means?
• I mpact identification
Is there any effect on environmentally sensitive or important areas?
Have the environmental and social risks been evaluated?
Have indirect effects been addressed?
• Mitigation measures
What mitigation measures are proposed?
What measures will be taken to enhance environmental benefits?
What consultation was there with concerned stakeholders?
• Procedures
Have appropriate guidelines been followed?
Have the beneficial and adverse environmental effects been integrated into the economic analysis?
Have the appropriate authorities been consulted?
• I mplementation
Do local institutions need strengthening in order to effect the environmental measures?
Who will monitor the environmental impact?
Have environmental measures been costed, and funds allocated?
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
9
5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RURAL TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
The Asian Development Bank (1993) provides a useful listing and brief description of
the main environmental problems commonly associated with rural roads projects.
These are:
• Encroachment into precious ecological resources, including forests and swamps.
• Encroachment into historical areas and cultural monuments.
• Impairment of fisheries, aquatic ecology and other beneficial water uses, due to
changes in surface hydrology.
• Erosion and silt runoff from exposed areas, which may also cause impairment of
downstream water quality and damage to land values.
• Dust nuisances caused by both the road usage and during construction.
Of these, erosion is thought to have the major environmental impact. 'Construction in
the rainy season, or improper construction methods which leave soils exposed
unnecessarily, can cause significant erosion. Improper drainage from roads in areas
of high precipitation can ruin roads and have adverse impacts on adjacent lands,
most pronounced in steep areas. Even in low rainfall areas, if the drainage system is
improperly designed, a short but intense rain can erode large swathes downslope of
the drainage ditches. Large-scale destruction can also occur through slips and
landslides in steep areas. Damaging to land and vegetation resources, erosion also
causes serious sedimentation and siltation problems in nearby surface waters. With
their greater potential for causing environmental problems, roads built in steep humid
zones will require higher standards and costs than roads on plains.' (The World
Bank, 1991.)
Mitigation measures to control erosion can be include in the designs (e.g. appropriate
drainage channels and culverts) as well as in the implementation (e.g. quickly
establishing vegetation on exposed slopes). The method of implementation may also
contribute to reduced environmental damage; thus labour-based operations may be
better deployed (as opposed to heavy machinery) due to the greater precision and
sensitivity of application that is possible (McCormick, 1990).
Some schemes may present positive environmental effects, which can help in
justification. As an example, a benefit of the construction of an all-weather road in the
Mongolian steppeland was the associated reduction in the amount of 'off-road' travel
by vehicles. The latter was encouraging the proliferation of multiple-tracks across the
steppe which was considered to be causing serious environmental damage (Hearn,
1999).
The indirect environmental impacts of rural transport development are much less easy
to predict, because they are likely to be of a long-term nature. Changes in land-use
may result from the greater accessibility due to improved roads and services. Roads
which have been used to 'open up' the tropical rain forests of Brazil, have encouraged
the development of settled farming communities, but at the expense of the indigenous
peoples' livelihoods, and at the expense of the natural ecology. In the same way, roads
constructed to give logging companies greater access to the African rain forests may
have had a similar damaging impact.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
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6. CONCLUSION
It is clear that the environmental impacts of projects and policies are no longer
considered as inconsequential or secondary to decision-making for development. EIA
is now recognised as an integral part of the project cycle, and donor-funded transport
projects will invariably require that environmental issues are properly addressed using
this or a related technique. The identification at an early stage of environmental
impacts contributes not only to project appraisal, but also project design, which
incorporates necessary mitigation, and counter measures. Equally important, as part of
the EIA, is the development of an Environmental Management Plan (incorporating a
monitoring scheme), by which the project implementation can be tracked against
planned benchmarks and expectations, with appropriate design changes being
considered where warranted. Donor project evaluations now include an examination
of the environmental outcomes, and compare actual performance with plans.
In this context, not only must the planning for environmental impacts be robust, but
the proposed countermeasures must be soundly conceived and properly effected. As
with any such development, this requires the identification and commitment of
resources for the project life-span. In developing economies, these resources may be
difficult to sustain, given that they are not obviously 'productively' used (in the sense
of providing a clear and measurable return on investment). However, the evidence of
environmental damage caused by such short-sighted approaches is now too
overwhelming to be ignored. Clearly, EIA’s should be provided for from the outset in
the budget of all road projects, and environmental assessment units in road agencies
of developing countries advocated as standard practice.
KEY REFERENCES
AfDB (1992). Environmental assessment guidelines. Abidjan: African Development
Bank.
AsDB (1993). Environmental guidelines for selected infrastructural projects. Office of
the Environnement. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
DFID (1999). Environmental Guide. London: Department for International
Development (DFID).
OECD (1994). Impact environmental assessment of roads. Paris: Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development.
TRL (1997). Principles of low cost road engineering in mountainous regions. TRL
Overseas Road Note 16. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
Tsunokawa K and C Hoban (1997). Roads and the environment - a handbook. World
Bank Technical Paper No. 376. Washington, D.C: World Bank
World Bank (1991). Environmental assessment sourcebook. Volume II, Sectoral
Guidelines. World Bank Technical Paper No. 40. Washington, D.C: World Bank
doc_230791254.pdf
In this paper environmental impact assessment (EIA) is taken to mean the systematic examination of the likely environmental consequences of proposed projects.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
1
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND
MANAGEMENT
Edited by P. Fouracre, TRL Limited
Objectives of the paper
Abstract
In this paper environmental impact assessment (EIA) is taken to mean the systematic
examination of the likely environmental consequences of proposed projects. The
results of the assessment - which are assembled in a document known as an
Environmental Statement - are intended to provide decision-makers with a balanced
assessment of the environmental implications of the proposed action and the
alternative examined. The ES is then used by decision-makers as a contribution to the
information base upon which a decision is made. The overall goal of an EIA is to
achieve better developmental interventions through protecting the environment
(human, physical and biotic).
EIA is just one component in the environmental planning and management of
projects, in that it focuses upon consent stage. Increasingly EIA is being linked to
Environmental Management Systems (ISO14001) through the use of Environmental
Management Plans or Environmental Action Plans and to environmental auditing to
confirm that the project conformed to the ES forecasts and requirements of the
International Funding Institution.
Key issues
! Environmental planning and management are an integral part of project planning,
implementation and operation. Thus:
! International funding institutions require at least an environmental appraisal of
projects prior to the granting of funds;
! Environmental issues must be addressed at the project identification stage;
! Screening is a key activity to determine whether an EIA, an environmental
appraisal or no assessment is required;
! Scoping is the term given to the process of developing and selecting alternatives to
the proposed action and identifying the issues to be considered in the EIA it aims
to identify opportunities and constraints, determine the level of detail in the
assessment; to make the EIA process efficient and to save time and money.
! The environmental impacts of rural transport development are likely to be:
! Direct effects - due to construction and operation (e.g. land take, erosion) and
additional traffic (e.g. pollution)
! Indirect effects - due to transport-induced changes (e.g. health, land use, energy
consumption)
! Socio-environmental effects - due, for example, to policies which favour a
particular mode of transport.
Key topic areas
! Donor requirements for the environmental screening of projects as part of the
project planning process.
! Checklists for impact identification
! Environmental impacts associated with rural transport.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
2
1. INTRODUCTION
'For all the positive aspects of road projects, they may also have significant negative
impacts on nearby communities and the natural environment. People and properties
may be in the direct path of road works and affected in a major way. ...Disturbances
to the natural environment may include soil erosion, changes to streams and
underground water, and interference with animal and plant life....New roads may
induce development in previously undeveloped areas, sometimes significantly
affecting sensitive environments and the lifestyles of indigenous people. Roads are
agents of change, and can be responsible for both benefits and damage to the existing
balance between people and the environment' (Tsunokawa and Hoban, 1997).
Environmental Impact Assessment is an integral part of the consent process for major
development projects with most International Finance Institutions (IFIs) requiring
applicants to submit an ES in support of applications for funds. Most IFIs have
developed guidelines on what they expect of an EIA, and recipients are required to
comply with these. The various guidelines are broadly similar in their content and
advice, and all stress the continuing and contributory nature of environmental impact
assessment with other components of project appraisal as part of a comprehensive
process of project preparation implementation and operation.
This paper presents an overview of the process of EIA, and its place in the project
cycle. Using the DFID guidelines (DFID, 1997) as a model, it identifies the various
procedures, outputs and actions of the process. The paper also describes the use of
checklists. Finally the paper looks at the types of environmental impact that might be
involved in rural transport development. To begin, the paper briefly addresses the
nature of donor requirements for EIA.
2. INTERNATIONAL FINANCE INSTITUTION REQUIREMENTS
Most of the industrialised nations have established procedures in EIA, to which
project developments must conform. This framework is finding increasing application
in the developing world, as national governments, spurred on by Earth Summits and
evolving local concerns, create fledgling Environmental Protection Agencies and
introduce their own environmental standards. This process is being encouraged by all
the major multi-lateral and bi-lateral lending agencies, who have prepared guidelines
for EIA, and make compliance (at least for the larger projects) with these guidelines a
conditionality for lending.
In many instances, recipient nations have adopted the guidelines on EIA and
environmental standards used by the principal donors.
3. THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
PROCESS
The DFID model is used to describe the typical environmental assessment activities. It
is broadly similar, in approach, to other donor guidelines, though screening is less
prescriptive in the sense that projects are not referenced against pre-published
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
3
categories (of size), but against a series of checklists which seek to determine the
nature of the proposed development, the sensitivity/importance of the local
environment, and the likely environmental effects and their scale.
Various activities are completed during the project cycle, which are identified in the
Table. The main activities are described in more detail below.
Stage of Project Cycle Environmental Appraisal
Activity
Output
Project Development
• Identification Preliminary review of base
documentation
• Preparation (Project
Concept Note)
Screening Environmental Screening
Summary Note (ESSN)
• Design and appraisal Environmental appraisal/
EIA
Design Mitigation
Measures
• Approval Environmental Annex of
project Memorandum
Environmental Monitoring
Plan (EMP)
Project Implementation
• Initiation/monitoring Activate EMP Monitoring Reports
• Operation/monitoring Environmental monitoring Review Reports
• Evaluation Environmental
Evaluation/Audit
Evaluation Reports
3.1 The EIA Process
Within EIA there are several tasks that are fundamental to the successful delivery of
an EIA. EIA can be thought of as a data management process with three components.
First, the appropriate information necessary for a particular decision must be
identified and collated. Secondly, changes in environmental parameters resulting
from the proposed project must be forecast and compared with the situation without
the proposal. Finally, the actual change must be assessed and communicated to the
decision makers. Figure 1 provides a schematic representation of this process.
3.2 Screening and Scoping
The process of screening usually involves the review of the project proposal against a
checklist of projects to determine whether an EIA is a mandatory requirement. Often
there is some uncertainty and an environmental assessment specialist may be required
to help advise on which of the following is applied:
• Environmental Appraisal - a 'low-level' investigation which focuses on individual
issues and environmental inputs to design activities
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
4
• Environmental Impact Assessment - a 'high-level' investigation which involves a
multi-disciplinary, comprehensive and detailed study of proposed development,
and the environment within which it is to be developed.
• Environmental Audit - is similar in scope to an EIA, but it is applied to existing
projects rather than new developments.
The Screening Process results in the production of the Environmental Screening
Summary Note (ESSN), which should contain the following information:
• Brief project description
• Environmental issues apparent at screening (scope of environmental impacts, risks
and/or benefits).
• Significance of environmental impacts, risks and/or benefits and likely mitigation
measures required.
• Environmental investigation proposed (Environmental Appraisal, EIA,
Environmental Audit, etc.) and/or any other special information required
• Other issues
• Actions to be taken (and by whom)
Allied to the screening process is scoping which commences early in the project
cycle, so that it can be influential in project design and provide the platform for
continuing dialogue on the environmental constraints and opportunities. The specific
objectives of the process are:
• To enhance the environmental benefits of the proposed project or programme.
• To ensure compliance with relevant UK, EC and local legislation, as well as
commitment to Multilateral Environmental Agreements, international best practice
and DFID's own objectives set out in the White Paper (DFID, 1997).
• To consider the alternatives to the proposal that should be examined;
• To identify any significant adverse environmental effects, and identify action
(possibly further studies)
• To provide for public consultation and input to the identification of issues to be
examined;
• To define the data assembly needs and field survey activities;
• To determine the predictive techniques and environmental objectives that are to be
employed;
• To provide a timetable for undertaking the EIA alongside the project design
process.
3.3 Impact Identification
The process of impact identification is based upon an appreciation of how the
proposed project might interact with its receiving environment. As such, this requires
an appreciation of what are considered to be the valued environmental and community
resources within the vicinity of the proposal. A projection is then required of the
future state of these resources without the proposed project. From this a series of
environmental design objectives can be established to aid both the EIA and project
design process.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Management 5:4:a
Rural Transport Knowledge Base Rural Travel and Transport Program 2001
5
The manner in which the proposal interacts with the future environmental setting must
be examined in terms of its construction, operational and decommissioning phase
taking into account of any important maintenance activities. A wealth of checklists
and guidance documentation exists on the broad effect that different types of project
may cause. Such aids are no more than this and there is no substitute for an expert
understanding of the potential interactions between the project and its environment.
The public should be involved in this process.
3.4 Impact Prediction
Once potential impacts are identified, the project design should be examined to
attempt to minimise those which are adverse and maximise those that are beneficial.
Once optimised, the process continues with the forecasting of the effects in the
following terms:
• Magnitude;
• The affected feature/resource/population;
• Action causing the effect;
• Timescale and duration of the effect;
• Level of uncertainty in the forecast;
• Proposed mitigation/enhancement measures
• Significance.
The effects must be recorded in terms of whether they are short term, long term,
direct, indirect, synergistic, cumulative, increase or reduce with time. This is
generally undertaken with the use of expert opinion and is to be presented in a
transparent way stating all the assumptions employed.
3.5 Mitigation and Enhancement
Environmental mitigation can often result in reduced project costs and lower
community costs when incorporated as a fundamental part of project design rather
than as an add-on exercise. Often simple design changes such as the type of bridging
strategy or the time of year that major earth moving activities take place can have a
dramatic effect upon improving environmental performance. The mitigation and
enhancement measures identified should be capable of being delivered in a cost
effective manner and be fully justified. Mitigation measures that have not been
thought through generally don't happen.
3.6 Reporting
The purpose of the exercise is to improve the project design prior to its submission for
consent and then to report the findings to the decision makers and the affected public
in a manner that they can understand. An EIS is not a long academic thesis on the
effects of a proposal, but is to be focused upon the key issues that the decision maker
should appreciate.
While guidance exists on the content of Environmental Statement from the various
IFIs, as a minimum, the EIS should report the following:
• Environmental objectives and policy context;
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• Existing environmental situation
• Future do minimum situation
• A description of the project
• An assessment of the effects of the project
• An environmental action plan or management plan
• A summary of the effects and recommendations
A summary of the EIS is often required for communication with the general public.
3.7 Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
As well as providing an input to design and appraisal, environmental issues are
incorporated into the implementation phase of the project cycle. An Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) should be prepared, which sets out the actions for
monitoring and evaluation of the project during implementation or construction and
operation. This should form a fundamental part of the project specifications. Its
content will include:
• Mitigation measures to minimise adverse impacts
• Measures to enhance environmental benefits
• Identified risks and uncertainties
• Institutional support required for effective monitoring
• Monitoring and auditing programme details
• Environmental legislation and standards which apply
• Resources, funds, contractual and management arrangements
3.8 Environmental Audit/Evaluation
When the project is in existence, then an environmental audit may be required in order
to satisfy IFIs that it is operating to an appropriate environmental standard. The audit
seeks to confirm the operational practices and to highlight any deviation from the
accepted norm.
An environmental evaluation is increasingly undertaken to confirm that the
performance of the project, once constructed and operational, conforms to the
specification and environmental performance standards specified as part of the
consent or funding arrangements. Frequently, the environmental evaluation seeks to
examine the EMP and review the monitoring data in order to reveal aspects where
improved practice is possible and where future EIAs can be enhanced.
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Figure 1: Flow diagram showing the main components of an EIA system
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4. CHECKLISTS
DFID use two sets of checklists to help in the process of environmental appraisal. As
part of the Screening Process, checklists are available which cover environmental
features, development features, potential adverse and beneficial impacts, and impact
characterisation. At the project approval stage, checklists are available to decision
makers to determine the nature and scale of potential environmental constraints and
opportunities, and the extent to which these have been adequately addressed in project
design. Examples of the content of the checklists are shown in the Table.
Screening Checklists
• Environmental Features
Areas containing rare or endangered species
National parks, nature reserves, Etc.
Habitats providing important resources for vulnerable groups
Moist or dry tropical and sub-tropical forest
• Development Features
Important policy changes likely to affect the environment
Major changes in land tenure or use
Substantial changes in water use
Large infrastructure projects
• Potential adverse and beneficial effects
Livelihoods
Culture
Land management
Water quality and quantity
Local air quality
Global impacts
Conservation
• I mpact characterisation
Is the impact beneficial, benign or harmful?
What is the scale and intensity of impact?
Are effects irreversible?
Are the effects due to construction and/or operations?
Are the effects likely to be politically or socially controversial?
Will there be different effects on different members of society?
What are the timescales of impact?
Checklists for Policy Approvers and Decision-makers
• Project setting
Have underlying causes of environmental damage been considered?
Would these underlying causes be better addressed by other means?
• I mpact identification
Is there any effect on environmentally sensitive or important areas?
Have the environmental and social risks been evaluated?
Have indirect effects been addressed?
• Mitigation measures
What mitigation measures are proposed?
What measures will be taken to enhance environmental benefits?
What consultation was there with concerned stakeholders?
• Procedures
Have appropriate guidelines been followed?
Have the beneficial and adverse environmental effects been integrated into the economic analysis?
Have the appropriate authorities been consulted?
• I mplementation
Do local institutions need strengthening in order to effect the environmental measures?
Who will monitor the environmental impact?
Have environmental measures been costed, and funds allocated?
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5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RURAL TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
The Asian Development Bank (1993) provides a useful listing and brief description of
the main environmental problems commonly associated with rural roads projects.
These are:
• Encroachment into precious ecological resources, including forests and swamps.
• Encroachment into historical areas and cultural monuments.
• Impairment of fisheries, aquatic ecology and other beneficial water uses, due to
changes in surface hydrology.
• Erosion and silt runoff from exposed areas, which may also cause impairment of
downstream water quality and damage to land values.
• Dust nuisances caused by both the road usage and during construction.
Of these, erosion is thought to have the major environmental impact. 'Construction in
the rainy season, or improper construction methods which leave soils exposed
unnecessarily, can cause significant erosion. Improper drainage from roads in areas
of high precipitation can ruin roads and have adverse impacts on adjacent lands,
most pronounced in steep areas. Even in low rainfall areas, if the drainage system is
improperly designed, a short but intense rain can erode large swathes downslope of
the drainage ditches. Large-scale destruction can also occur through slips and
landslides in steep areas. Damaging to land and vegetation resources, erosion also
causes serious sedimentation and siltation problems in nearby surface waters. With
their greater potential for causing environmental problems, roads built in steep humid
zones will require higher standards and costs than roads on plains.' (The World
Bank, 1991.)
Mitigation measures to control erosion can be include in the designs (e.g. appropriate
drainage channels and culverts) as well as in the implementation (e.g. quickly
establishing vegetation on exposed slopes). The method of implementation may also
contribute to reduced environmental damage; thus labour-based operations may be
better deployed (as opposed to heavy machinery) due to the greater precision and
sensitivity of application that is possible (McCormick, 1990).
Some schemes may present positive environmental effects, which can help in
justification. As an example, a benefit of the construction of an all-weather road in the
Mongolian steppeland was the associated reduction in the amount of 'off-road' travel
by vehicles. The latter was encouraging the proliferation of multiple-tracks across the
steppe which was considered to be causing serious environmental damage (Hearn,
1999).
The indirect environmental impacts of rural transport development are much less easy
to predict, because they are likely to be of a long-term nature. Changes in land-use
may result from the greater accessibility due to improved roads and services. Roads
which have been used to 'open up' the tropical rain forests of Brazil, have encouraged
the development of settled farming communities, but at the expense of the indigenous
peoples' livelihoods, and at the expense of the natural ecology. In the same way, roads
constructed to give logging companies greater access to the African rain forests may
have had a similar damaging impact.
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6. CONCLUSION
It is clear that the environmental impacts of projects and policies are no longer
considered as inconsequential or secondary to decision-making for development. EIA
is now recognised as an integral part of the project cycle, and donor-funded transport
projects will invariably require that environmental issues are properly addressed using
this or a related technique. The identification at an early stage of environmental
impacts contributes not only to project appraisal, but also project design, which
incorporates necessary mitigation, and counter measures. Equally important, as part of
the EIA, is the development of an Environmental Management Plan (incorporating a
monitoring scheme), by which the project implementation can be tracked against
planned benchmarks and expectations, with appropriate design changes being
considered where warranted. Donor project evaluations now include an examination
of the environmental outcomes, and compare actual performance with plans.
In this context, not only must the planning for environmental impacts be robust, but
the proposed countermeasures must be soundly conceived and properly effected. As
with any such development, this requires the identification and commitment of
resources for the project life-span. In developing economies, these resources may be
difficult to sustain, given that they are not obviously 'productively' used (in the sense
of providing a clear and measurable return on investment). However, the evidence of
environmental damage caused by such short-sighted approaches is now too
overwhelming to be ignored. Clearly, EIA’s should be provided for from the outset in
the budget of all road projects, and environmental assessment units in road agencies
of developing countries advocated as standard practice.
KEY REFERENCES
AfDB (1992). Environmental assessment guidelines. Abidjan: African Development
Bank.
AsDB (1993). Environmental guidelines for selected infrastructural projects. Office of
the Environnement. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
DFID (1999). Environmental Guide. London: Department for International
Development (DFID).
OECD (1994). Impact environmental assessment of roads. Paris: Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development.
TRL (1997). Principles of low cost road engineering in mountainous regions. TRL
Overseas Road Note 16. Crowthorne: Transport Research Laboratory.
Tsunokawa K and C Hoban (1997). Roads and the environment - a handbook. World
Bank Technical Paper No. 376. Washington, D.C: World Bank
World Bank (1991). Environmental assessment sourcebook. Volume II, Sectoral
Guidelines. World Bank Technical Paper No. 40. Washington, D.C: World Bank
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