Description
agricultural marketing
Sources & Methods of Data collection
Collection of Primary Data
y
Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in character and known as Primary data. There are several methods of collecting primary data: Observation Interview Through Questionnaire Through Schedules
y
Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner.
Observation
Observational methods may be: Structured or unstructured y In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the information needed is specified.
y
In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses.
Observation
Disguised or undisguised y In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as shoppers.
y
In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect ± people behave differently when being observed.
Observation
Uncontrolled or controlled y Uncontrolled observation involves observing behavior as it takes place in the environment, for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet. y In controlled observation, the respondents¶ behavior is observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food tasting session. Non-participant or Participant y The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He or she does not participate. y In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated.
Interview
Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reason and motivation for people¶s attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be personal as well as telephonic interview.
Interview
Personal interview Personal interview is a face to face discussion between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Interview
Personal interview Advantages:
y
Disadvantages:
y y y y y y
Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information. Good response rate. Completed and immediate. Possible in-depth questions. Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem. Can investigate motives and feelings. Can use recording equipment. Characteristics of respondent assessed ± tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc. If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
Need to set up interviews. Time consuming. Geographic limitations. Can be expensive. Normally need a set of questions. Respondent bias ± tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly. Embarrassment questions. possible if personal
y y y y
y y y
y
y
If many interviewers, training required.
y
Interview
Types of Personal interview: Structured y Based on a carefully worded interview schedule. y Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off. y Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly thought provoking. Semi-structured y The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length. Unstructured y This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent¶s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration ± µWhy do you say that?¶ or, µThat¶s interesting, tell me more¶ or, µWould you like to add anything else?¶ being typical probes.
Interview
Telephone interview
y
This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview. This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.
y
Interview
Telephone interview Advantages: Disadvantages: y Relatively cheap. y Questionnaire required. y Quick. y Not everyone has a telephone. y Can cover reasonably large y Repeat calls are inevitable ± numbers of people or average 2.5 calls to get someone. organizations. y Time is wasted. y Wide geographic coverage. y Straightforward questions are y High response rate ± keep going required. till the required number. y Respondent has little time to think. y No waiting. y Cannot use visual aids. y Spontaneous response. y Can cause irritation. y Help can be given to the y Good telephone manner is respondent. required. y Can tape answers.
Questionnaire
y
A questionnaire is a document that contains a set of questions printed or typed in a proper sequence. The questionnaire is sent to each individual who is supposed to answer it. Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.
y
y
Questionnaire
Advantages: y Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed. y Can cover a large number of people or organizations. y Wide geographic coverage. y Relatively cheap. y No prior arrangements are needed. y Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent. y As respondents are allowed to answer the questions according to their own views and understanding, the technique of data collection is non-partial. y Enough time to answer the questions. Disadvantages: y Time consuming. y Questions have to be relatively simple. y Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned. y Assumes no literacy problems. y No control over who completes it. y Not possible to give assistance if required. y Problems with incomplete questionnaires. y Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.
Questionnaire
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE: Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire: General form, Question Sequence, Question formulation and wording. Types the Questions : A) Open ended Questions B) Closed ended Questions ? Fill in the blank questions ? Dichotomous Questions ? Ranking scale questions ? Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) ? Rating scale questions
Schedule Method
y
A Schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required to be answered to collect the data about a particular item. A schedule generally takes place face- to ±face manner.
y
Schedule Method
Disadvantages Advantages y Response rate is high. y Costly y Researcher is always there to y Time- consuming method. help the respondents y This method requires welly Personal contact between the trained and experienced field researcher and the workers to take the interview of respondents. the respondents. y Easy for the researcher to y Sometimes, the respondents detect and rectify the defects in may not be able to tell certain the schedule. facts due to the personal presence of some researchers at the work.
Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule.
y y y y y y y y y y
Questionnaire is generally sent through mail to the informants. Relatively cheaper, no field staff required. Non- response is usually high. Respondent is unknown. Slow process . Personal contact is not possible. Respondent needs to be literate. Wide geographic coverage. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is higher. Success of Questionnaire lies more on the quality of the Questionnaire.
y y y y y y y y y y
The schedule is generally filled out by the research workers/ enumerators Relatively expensive, required to appoint enumerators and train them. Non- response is generally very low. Respondent is known. Collected well in time. Personal contact is established. Respondent need not be literate. Difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area. Information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate. Success of Questionnaire lies more on the honesty and competence of enumerators.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
y
These are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data. Published data is available in Publications of the central, state and local governments, trade journals, books, newspapers, reports etc. Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because the data available may be sometimes unsuitable.
y
y
y
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Analysis of Data
Editing
Unwanted or insignificant data is filtered out & only the necessary or important information is retained. Two- levels: ?Micro- editing- filter errors in data by checking individual entries. ?Macro- editing- detect errors in data but by analysis of aggregate data. (calculated through mean, median etc. Comparison of the analysis with secondary data, ensures consistency in data.)
Coding
Process of aligning data by grouping it into a particular category so that the researchers can understand and analyze it easily before storing it in the computer. Entering of data onto the software that does tabulation.
Data Entry
Validation
Also called as data cleaning. Purpose is to ensure its validity.
Tabulation
Data tabulation can be done with the help of the software like SPSS, wincross etc. Final result is produced which is ready for analysis.
Interpretation of Data
y
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inference from the collected facts after an analytical study. It is only through interpretation the researcher can expose relations and processes that underline his findings. If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e. to build a theory. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further research.
y
y
y
REPORT WRITING
RESEARCH REPORT
A research report is: a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a research project to others.
24
RESEARCH REPORT
y y y
y
y
The last stage of a marketing research process. It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the research process. The researcher has to convince the client [and others who may read the report] that the research findings can be acted on for their own benefit. Any research report contains: descriptions on methodology, results obtained, and recommendations made. The basic orientation of a research report depends on its audience. Before writing the report the researcher must know his or her audience; he/she may have to make assumptions about the composition, background and interests of the target readers.
25
Importance of Reports
y y y
They are the tangible products of the research effort. Management decisions are guided by the report. The involvement of many marketing managers in the project is limited to the written report. Management's decision to undertake marketing research in the future or to use the particular research supplier again will be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the report.
y
Importance of Reports
y
Reports are like another form to communicate effectively. They are also a way to analyze ones knowledge and skills. It facilitates in decision making in future references. The report plays the great role in the planning and organization of the business house. But it is not the planning and organization of the business alone which come under the review of a report; it is the whole of business which benefits by it. When the industry is to be expanded, scores of reports have to be prepared and gone through before the board of directors can arrive at a safe decision. Often, even the routine direction of administrative and manufacturing units; require the assistance of reports whenever serious problems crop up.
y y
Steps in report writing
Logical Analysis of the subject matter Preparation of the final outline Preparation of the rough draft Rewriting & polishing of the rough draft Preparation of the final bibliography Writing the final draft
Report Layout
The Letter of Transmittal: The letter of transmittal introduces the purpose and content of the report to the principal reader, usually (but not always) the person who requested the report. The letter is attached to the report or simply placed on top of it. Some organizations prefer a memo format if the report is intra-organizational. Title Page: Briefly introduces the reader to the report. It consists of:
Name of report (all caps) Name, title, organization of receiver Author¶s name, title, organization Date submitted
Report Layout
The Abstract: An abstract is a brief technical summary (200 words) of the report. The abstract of a report is directed primarily to readers who are familiar with the technical subject and need to know whether to read the full report. Table of Contents: Shows page numbers where each report heading appears. Page numbers are connected with leaders (spaced dots). No matter how well organized the report itself may be, a table of contents that does not make the structure clear will be ineffective.
Report Layout
The APPENDIX: Appendixes provide a convenient way to convey information that is too bulky to be presented in the body or that will be of interest to only a small number of the report¶s readers. Maps, large technical diagrams or charts, computations, computer printouts, test data, and texts of supporting documents are usually found in appendixes. The List of Illustrations: A list of illustrations is a table of contents for the figures and tables of a report.
Report Layout
Introduction: Prepares the reader for easier comprehension. Helps the reader understand the purpose of the report. The introduction:
Explains problems motivating report Describes its background and significance Clarifies scope and limitations of report Describes data sources, methods, key terms loses by previewing report¶s organization
Body- Design work / Final design of the report: The body:
Discusses, analyzes, interprets research findings Arranges findings in logical segments following outline Uses clear, descriptive headings
Report Layout
Conclusion:
Explains findings in relation to original problem Summarizes the entire work Recommendations [if any]
Executive Summary:
One of most important parts of report Synopsis (overview) of report
References:
Lists all references in section called ³Works Cited´ or ³References´ Include all text, online, and live sources
Types of Research Report
Two types of reports:Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and interested in the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details etc., Popular Report: suitable for: a more general audience, interested mainly in the research findings as it is nontechnical in nature. The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid reading and understanding of the research findings and recommendations.
34
doc_823918156.pptx
agricultural marketing
Sources & Methods of Data collection
Collection of Primary Data
y
Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in character and known as Primary data. There are several methods of collecting primary data: Observation Interview Through Questionnaire Through Schedules
y
Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner.
Observation
Observational methods may be: Structured or unstructured y In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the information needed is specified.
y
In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses.
Observation
Disguised or undisguised y In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as shoppers.
y
In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect ± people behave differently when being observed.
Observation
Uncontrolled or controlled y Uncontrolled observation involves observing behavior as it takes place in the environment, for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet. y In controlled observation, the respondents¶ behavior is observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food tasting session. Non-participant or Participant y The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He or she does not participate. y In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated.
Interview
Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reason and motivation for people¶s attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be personal as well as telephonic interview.
Interview
Personal interview Personal interview is a face to face discussion between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Interview
Personal interview Advantages:
y
Disadvantages:
y y y y y y
Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information. Good response rate. Completed and immediate. Possible in-depth questions. Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem. Can investigate motives and feelings. Can use recording equipment. Characteristics of respondent assessed ± tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc. If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
Need to set up interviews. Time consuming. Geographic limitations. Can be expensive. Normally need a set of questions. Respondent bias ± tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly. Embarrassment questions. possible if personal
y y y y
y y y
y
y
If many interviewers, training required.
y
Interview
Types of Personal interview: Structured y Based on a carefully worded interview schedule. y Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off. y Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly thought provoking. Semi-structured y The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length. Unstructured y This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent¶s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration ± µWhy do you say that?¶ or, µThat¶s interesting, tell me more¶ or, µWould you like to add anything else?¶ being typical probes.
Interview
Telephone interview
y
This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview. This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.
y
Interview
Telephone interview Advantages: Disadvantages: y Relatively cheap. y Questionnaire required. y Quick. y Not everyone has a telephone. y Can cover reasonably large y Repeat calls are inevitable ± numbers of people or average 2.5 calls to get someone. organizations. y Time is wasted. y Wide geographic coverage. y Straightforward questions are y High response rate ± keep going required. till the required number. y Respondent has little time to think. y No waiting. y Cannot use visual aids. y Spontaneous response. y Can cause irritation. y Help can be given to the y Good telephone manner is respondent. required. y Can tape answers.
Questionnaire
y
A questionnaire is a document that contains a set of questions printed or typed in a proper sequence. The questionnaire is sent to each individual who is supposed to answer it. Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.
y
y
Questionnaire
Advantages: y Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed. y Can cover a large number of people or organizations. y Wide geographic coverage. y Relatively cheap. y No prior arrangements are needed. y Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent. y As respondents are allowed to answer the questions according to their own views and understanding, the technique of data collection is non-partial. y Enough time to answer the questions. Disadvantages: y Time consuming. y Questions have to be relatively simple. y Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned. y Assumes no literacy problems. y No control over who completes it. y Not possible to give assistance if required. y Problems with incomplete questionnaires. y Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.
Questionnaire
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE: Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire: General form, Question Sequence, Question formulation and wording. Types the Questions : A) Open ended Questions B) Closed ended Questions ? Fill in the blank questions ? Dichotomous Questions ? Ranking scale questions ? Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) ? Rating scale questions
Schedule Method
y
A Schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required to be answered to collect the data about a particular item. A schedule generally takes place face- to ±face manner.
y
Schedule Method
Disadvantages Advantages y Response rate is high. y Costly y Researcher is always there to y Time- consuming method. help the respondents y This method requires welly Personal contact between the trained and experienced field researcher and the workers to take the interview of respondents. the respondents. y Easy for the researcher to y Sometimes, the respondents detect and rectify the defects in may not be able to tell certain the schedule. facts due to the personal presence of some researchers at the work.
Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule.
y y y y y y y y y y
Questionnaire is generally sent through mail to the informants. Relatively cheaper, no field staff required. Non- response is usually high. Respondent is unknown. Slow process . Personal contact is not possible. Respondent needs to be literate. Wide geographic coverage. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is higher. Success of Questionnaire lies more on the quality of the Questionnaire.
y y y y y y y y y y
The schedule is generally filled out by the research workers/ enumerators Relatively expensive, required to appoint enumerators and train them. Non- response is generally very low. Respondent is known. Collected well in time. Personal contact is established. Respondent need not be literate. Difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area. Information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate. Success of Questionnaire lies more on the honesty and competence of enumerators.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
y
These are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data. Published data is available in Publications of the central, state and local governments, trade journals, books, newspapers, reports etc. Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because the data available may be sometimes unsuitable.
y
y
y
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Analysis of Data
Editing
Unwanted or insignificant data is filtered out & only the necessary or important information is retained. Two- levels: ?Micro- editing- filter errors in data by checking individual entries. ?Macro- editing- detect errors in data but by analysis of aggregate data. (calculated through mean, median etc. Comparison of the analysis with secondary data, ensures consistency in data.)
Coding
Process of aligning data by grouping it into a particular category so that the researchers can understand and analyze it easily before storing it in the computer. Entering of data onto the software that does tabulation.
Data Entry
Validation
Also called as data cleaning. Purpose is to ensure its validity.
Tabulation
Data tabulation can be done with the help of the software like SPSS, wincross etc. Final result is produced which is ready for analysis.
Interpretation of Data
y
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inference from the collected facts after an analytical study. It is only through interpretation the researcher can expose relations and processes that underline his findings. If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e. to build a theory. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further research.
y
y
y
REPORT WRITING
RESEARCH REPORT
A research report is: a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a research project to others.
24
RESEARCH REPORT
y y y
y
y
The last stage of a marketing research process. It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the research process. The researcher has to convince the client [and others who may read the report] that the research findings can be acted on for their own benefit. Any research report contains: descriptions on methodology, results obtained, and recommendations made. The basic orientation of a research report depends on its audience. Before writing the report the researcher must know his or her audience; he/she may have to make assumptions about the composition, background and interests of the target readers.
25
Importance of Reports
y y y
They are the tangible products of the research effort. Management decisions are guided by the report. The involvement of many marketing managers in the project is limited to the written report. Management's decision to undertake marketing research in the future or to use the particular research supplier again will be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the report.
y
Importance of Reports
y
Reports are like another form to communicate effectively. They are also a way to analyze ones knowledge and skills. It facilitates in decision making in future references. The report plays the great role in the planning and organization of the business house. But it is not the planning and organization of the business alone which come under the review of a report; it is the whole of business which benefits by it. When the industry is to be expanded, scores of reports have to be prepared and gone through before the board of directors can arrive at a safe decision. Often, even the routine direction of administrative and manufacturing units; require the assistance of reports whenever serious problems crop up.
y y
Steps in report writing
Logical Analysis of the subject matter Preparation of the final outline Preparation of the rough draft Rewriting & polishing of the rough draft Preparation of the final bibliography Writing the final draft
Report Layout
The Letter of Transmittal: The letter of transmittal introduces the purpose and content of the report to the principal reader, usually (but not always) the person who requested the report. The letter is attached to the report or simply placed on top of it. Some organizations prefer a memo format if the report is intra-organizational. Title Page: Briefly introduces the reader to the report. It consists of:
Name of report (all caps) Name, title, organization of receiver Author¶s name, title, organization Date submitted
Report Layout
The Abstract: An abstract is a brief technical summary (200 words) of the report. The abstract of a report is directed primarily to readers who are familiar with the technical subject and need to know whether to read the full report. Table of Contents: Shows page numbers where each report heading appears. Page numbers are connected with leaders (spaced dots). No matter how well organized the report itself may be, a table of contents that does not make the structure clear will be ineffective.
Report Layout
The APPENDIX: Appendixes provide a convenient way to convey information that is too bulky to be presented in the body or that will be of interest to only a small number of the report¶s readers. Maps, large technical diagrams or charts, computations, computer printouts, test data, and texts of supporting documents are usually found in appendixes. The List of Illustrations: A list of illustrations is a table of contents for the figures and tables of a report.
Report Layout
Introduction: Prepares the reader for easier comprehension. Helps the reader understand the purpose of the report. The introduction:
Explains problems motivating report Describes its background and significance Clarifies scope and limitations of report Describes data sources, methods, key terms loses by previewing report¶s organization
Body- Design work / Final design of the report: The body:
Discusses, analyzes, interprets research findings Arranges findings in logical segments following outline Uses clear, descriptive headings
Report Layout
Conclusion:
Explains findings in relation to original problem Summarizes the entire work Recommendations [if any]
Executive Summary:
One of most important parts of report Synopsis (overview) of report
References:
Lists all references in section called ³Works Cited´ or ³References´ Include all text, online, and live sources
Types of Research Report
Two types of reports:Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and interested in the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details etc., Popular Report: suitable for: a more general audience, interested mainly in the research findings as it is nontechnical in nature. The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid reading and understanding of the research findings and recommendations.
34
doc_823918156.pptx