Tourists dual processing accounts of reasoning judgment and actions

Description
The purpose of this paper is to describe theory building and testing of dual processing of
tourist reasoning, judgment, and actions.

International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Tourists' dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and actions
Drew Martin Arch G. Woodside
Article information:
To cite this document:
Drew Martin Arch G. Woodside, (2011),"Tourists' dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and actions", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 2 pp. 195 - 212
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181111139609
Downloaded on: 24 January 2016, At: 22:13 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 41 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 711 times since 2011*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Kenneth F. Hyde, Alain Decrop, (2011),"New perspectives on vacation decision making", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and
Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 2 pp. 103-111 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181111139537
Karin Teichmann, (2011),"Expertise, experience and self-confidence in consumers' travel information search", International J ournal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 2 pp. 184-194 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181111139591
Fred Bronner, Robert de Hoog, (2011),"A new perspective on tourist information search: discussion in couples as the context", International
J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 2 pp. 128-143 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181111139555
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:115632 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about
how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/
authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than
290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional
customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and
also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Tourists’ dual-processing accounts of
reasoning, judgment, and actions
Drew Martin and Arch G. Woodside
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe theory building and testing of dual processing of
tourist reasoning, judgment, and actions.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper applies micro-tipping point theory and qualitative
comparative analysis, using case study data.
Findings – Maps of the reasoning, judgments, and actions of ?ve parties of tourist buying major
services support dual-processing theory of deciding on destination choices.
Research limitations/implications – This report does not include the attempt to generalize the ?ndings
to large survey samples of informants.
Practical implications – Executives need to go beyond recognizing that what tourists report
consciously may differ substantially fromwhat they think unconsciously and to plan on collecting data on
both dual processing modes of thinking.
Originality/value – This paper breaks new ground in applying dual-processing theory in tourist
behavior of buying major tourist services.
Keywords Tourism management, Thinking, Hawaii
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Almost all cognitive psychologists agree on a distinction between two thinking processes –
one that is unconscious, rapid, automatic and high capacity, and a second that is conscious,
slow and deliberative (Evans, 2008). Micro-tipping point (MTP) theory proposes that
individuals automatically engage in dual processing – combining unconscious and
conscious thoughts. Dual processing theory is based on the premise that the interplay of
automatic and controlled processing in?uences behavior (see Barrett et al., 2004; Evans,
2008 for reviews of dual-processing theory). MTP builds on the work of Bargh (2002) and his
colleagues (e.g. Bargh et al., 1996) in proposing both forms of thinking are relevant when an
individual focuses on a particular task in a speci?c context. McClelland et al. (1992) advance
the related proposition that implicit and explicit motives differ and operate simultaneously in
regards to a given topic and provide empirical evidence supporting this proposition; Brunel
et al. (2004) provide substantial evidence supporting the independence of implicit and
explicit motives and the possibility of disagreement between a person’s simultaneously held
implicit and explicit attitudes toward a topic (see Gladwell, 2005). Woodside and Chebat’s
(2001) case study of ‘‘a Jewish couple buying a German car’’ illustrates the substantial
amount of mental effort and personal communications that sometimes occur to resolve such
implicit-explicit processing con?icts.
MTP theory and research of tourist choices represents a potential parallel stream-of-work in
comparison to modeling tourists’ choices using conjoint analysis (see Dellaert et al., 1996 for
such an application in tourism-related research). Both approaches agree that, ‘‘in many
DOI 10.1108/17506181111139609 VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011, pp. 195-212, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 195
Drew Martin is based at the
University of Hawaii at Hilo,
Hawaii, USA. Arch G.
Woodside is based at
Boston College, Chestnut
Hill, Massachusetts, USA.
Received: April 2009
Revised: May 2009
Accepted: June 2009
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
areas of services marketing, models that adequately describe tourist activity choices can
offer a valuable contribution in developing more effective marketing strategies’’ (Dellaert
et al., 1996, p. 251).
This article introduces MTP theory to research on customers, to show how the method is
useful for explaining tourist decision making behavior. The results are a useful starting point
for developing larger tourism studies and de?ning lifestyle-based segments. While this MTP
presentation is in the context of tourist decision making, the theory has applications in all
consumer decision making studies. The article shows applications of ethnographic decision
tree modeling (EDTM, see Gladwell, 1989) as a data analysis tool within the framework of
MTP theory. EDTM refers to developing binary ?ow diagrams that represent both the explicit
planned thinking processes and their context-generated thoughts and choices in response
to opportunities and problems that occur while making the decision. Here, EDTMbuilds from
the view that tourists ‘‘can not think of everything’’ while planning and bring forth implicit
thoughts in response to contextual nuances that occur while attempting to execute plans.
Why is MTP theory useful for understanding tourists’ leisure-destination
thoughts-to-action processes?
Tourist behavior research’s dominant logic is asking informant questions. Rapaille (2006)
argues that individuals cannot explain their behavior explicitly, so he employs three-hour
discovery sessions focusing on gaining case data on implicit thinking. The session’s ?nal
hour involves ?ve to ten informants relating their ?rst experiences with a focal product or
service while lying horizontally in a room darkened context. Rapaille’s method attempts to
break through consciousness and conscious-editing of automatic retrievals from memory to
learn unconscious associations and processes. Creating methods to achieve such
breakthroughs is worthwhile given the substantial evidence that most thinking occurs
unconsciously (for reviews see Bargh, 2002; Gladwell, 2005; Wegner, 2002; Wilson, 2002;
Woodside, 2006; Zaltman, 2003).
Previous consumer research studies provide evidence that understanding tourist’s
unconscious thinking requires methods other than asking direct questions (Cox, 1967;
Dichter, 1964; McCracken, 1988). For example, Dichter (1964) asks informants to present
themselves as a product or perform a ritual involving a service (e.g. prepare and serve a
meal). To understand grocery shopping behavior, Cox (1967) conducts weekly
conversations with informants over more than 14 weeks. McCracken (1988) suggests
long interviews enable informants to become aware and to report on how cultural and
socio-historical forces affect their thoughts and actions.
The use of long interviews is the primary method of data collection in ecological systems
theory (e.g. Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Brunswik, 1956; Raymore, 2002; also see Mather and
Moschis, 2005). Ecological systems theory proposes that understanding an individual’s
environment is essential to understanding individual’s choices and behavior. Thus, an
ecological perspective of human development recognizes the importance of understanding
the contexts in which an individual ?nds herself. This approach ‘‘incorporates the
interactions between the individual, other individuals, and the social structures of society to
explain human development’’ (Raymore, 2002, pp. 41-42). From an ecological perspective,
individuals interact with the contexts in which they live their lives. Therefore, a researcher
must consider the context in which an individual lives in order to fully understand the
individual’s choices and behavior.
Constructive choice theory and the FLAG model (Allen, 2002) complement ecological
systems theory in being helpful for describing and understanding the travel and leisure
behavior of informants. Using these two theoretical lenses, Allen (2002) describes the
‘‘causal historical wave’’ in informants’ lived experiences. His analysis includes detailed
descriptions of the lives of the informants and how their surroundings and upbringing shape
their current implicit and explicit thoughts about their choices of universities for a four-year
degree-earning experience. The following sections describe the history of various
implicit/explicit choice theories and the background for the theories useful for this analysis.
PAGE 196
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Choice theory and ?ts-like-a-glove (FLAG) model
Early choice theory centers on the idea that choices are deliberate, calculated, and seldom
made unconsciously. Rational choice theory states that humans inherently are rational and
always will look for the best course to achieve their goal. First, a decision maker identi?es the
future consequences of each current choice alternative. Then, the decision maker considers
what his or her future preference will be for the consequences relating to each choice
alternative.
Some scholars identify fundamental ?aws in rational choice theory (e.g. Pitelis, 1991;
Wegner, 2002; Wilson, 2002). This theory assumes that all relevant information is available to
decision makers; decisions are based on knowledge of all possible alternatives. This theory
assumes decision makers are not in?uenced by present and future contexts relating to the
alternatives and goal that they seek. Yet, observation of choice behavior indicates that
decisions are often much more spontaneous and less deliberate than rational choice theory
proposes.
Constructive choice theory (see Bettman et al., 1998; Ladhari, 2007) ?rst and foremost
contends that individuals’ choices are inherently constructive rather than being rational;
individuals seldom have well-de?ned existing preferences but construct them when a
decision situation arises using a variety of strategies contingent on task characteristics.
Constructive choice theory does not assume ‘‘omniscient rationality’’ and instead focuses
on applying choice heuristics, or information processing shortcuts. It af?rms the in?uence
of subconscious information processing although researchers are only beginning to
examine subconscious thinking. Choice making strategies can be complex or simple,
include a wide array of information in cognitive processing, or involve little information and
not much explicit thought. According to constructive choice theory, the decision maker
seeks to maximize the accuracy of the choice while minimizing cognitive effort. In
addition, decision makers base their choice on ease of justifying the resolution to peers.
The decision maker also takes into account the desire to confront or avoid negative
feelings created by choice alternatives possessing attributes that con?ict on important
values (see Oppenhuisen and Sikkel, 2003).
Practice theory forms the basis of the FLAG, or Fits-Like-a-Glove model (Allen, 2002). FLAG
choice theory states that social and historical forces, or habitus (see Bourdieu and Johnson,
1993), shape the human experience. FLAG emphasizes the roles that perception and
comprehension play in underlying the feelings, understandings, and actions of tourists. The
FLAG model describes embodied sensing, where a person’s body functions as an integral
unconscious and conscious sensing organ. A person’s experience is a mixture of the
meanings resulting from the combination of the person’s touching with all things
encountered in the world. This social shaping of practice takes two forms. The ?rst form
of social shaping includes low-involvement socialization of the understandings, feelings,
and actions which make up the habitus of members of a certain group. Because these
members have been exposed to similar social conditions and relations, they share a similar
habitus. For example, people who live in large cities may have different perspectives on rush
hour traf?c gridlock than others who live in rural locations. The second formof social shaping
entails the way in which external factors shape practice. These external factors include
family, peer groups, institutions, and mass media. Low involvement socialization and
external factors combine to shape practice.
FLAGelaborates on practice theory and integrates elements of social context into a model of
choice (Allen, 2002). People make decisions based on what feels right or seems natural
given the conditions and circumstances surrounding them. Therefore, tourists make
decisions that seem to be a predestined, perfect ?t. FLAG choices are present in daily
experience. Choices made for friends, occupation, particular styles of clothing, and even
travel can be explained by the FLAG framework. Re?ecting FLAG model contexts are
problem/opportunity discussions where informant responses express an inability to provide
reasons or explanations beyond simply reporting, ‘‘It just felt right’’ for one option and ‘‘It
didn’t feel right’’ for many rejected options.
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 197
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Micro-tipping point theory
MTP theory proposes conjunctional causation of speci?c levels of multiple features (i.e.
factors) for a given binary outcome (e.g. leisure-only overnight trip of three or more nights
away from home versus no such trip). While MTP theory recognizes that some speci?c
feature-levels are necessary, the instances are rare when a level of one feature is suf?cient to
cause a given outcome. This proposition is a core tenet of MTP theory. Relating to
conjunctional causation is the point that data outliers often are dif?cult to interpret. For
example, a travel-related data set includes a few cases of very low income households
engaging in one or more annual leisure trips away from home of three or more nights and a
few high income households engaging in no leisure trips away from home of three or more
nights (e.g. Woodside et al., 2006). While these data points appear to be counter-intuitive,
conjunctional causation can explain these go/no go outcomes. Constraints such as work
schedules, shopping, or convention participation may affect trip planning decisions (see
Decrop and Snelders, 2004; Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Pan and Fesenmaier, 2006;
Zalatan, 1998). Usually, combinations of four or more binary, demographic variables are
necessary and suf?cient to explain these results.
MTP theory adopts a case-based research orientation that includes the attempt to go
beyond qualitative and quantitative arguments. MTP theory assists in proposing
conjunctive-causal conditional statements that are testable using qualitative comparative
analysis (QCA) methods (see Ragin, 1997). Conjunctive causation modeling recognizes that
a combination (i.e. a causal recipe) of speci?c conditional antecedents is suf?cient but not
necessarily necessary for a speci?c causal outcome to occur.
Ragin (1997) advances the following description of conjunctive causation models. While
standard practice for case-oriented researchers is to search for constants the typical
case-oriented inquiry does not assume or even anticipate causal uniformity across positive
cases.
On the contrary, the usual expectation is that different combinations of causes may produce the
same outcome. That is, case-oriented researchers often pay special attention to the diverse ways
a common outcome may be reached. When examining similarities and differences across cases,
case-oriented researchers usually expect evidence to be causally ‘‘lumpy.’’ That is, they
anticipate ?nding several major causal pathways in a given body of cross-case evidence (Ragin,
1997, p. 38).
MTP theory proposes and focuses on identifying the few (,10) conjunctural causal paths
(also referred to as ‘‘streams of behavior,’’ see Gardner, 1990) that result in a positive
outcome for the majority of cases as well as often reporting conjunctural causal paths
resulting in negative outcomes. MTP adopts the QCA view that multiple conjunctural
causation challenges the very idea of ‘‘relative strengths’’ of independent variables in
affecting a dependent variable. ‘‘It is not possible to assess a variable’s ‘unique’ or separate
contribution to the explanation of variation in some outcome unless the model in question is a
simple additive model’’ (Ragin, 1997, p. 41). MTP theory proposes multiplicative
relationships among several (e.g., four or more) antecedent variables in combinations as
both necessary and suf?cient to lead to acceptance or rejection of a speci?c outcome.
Consequently, MTP theory does not expect to explain all the cases in a study (e.g.
households traveling to Hawaii) with a single model (even when the model incorporates
multiple conjunctural causation).
MTP theory is applicable for explaining both the multiple conjunctural causations leading to
a positive outcome, negative outcome cases, and both positive and negative outcomes.
MTP theory adopts the QCA view that alternative paths of constants lead to an outcome
condition. Thus, individual travelers’ journeys to Hawaii (the Big Island) are classi?able
usefully into ten-to-twenty conjunctive paths of antecedent combinations whereby any given
antecedent condition is crucial in a few of these paths; its absence has no impact on
reaching the destination in other paths. Montgomery (1975) provides an early example of a
MTP model (using the label, ‘‘gatekeeper analysis’’) for a supermarket new-product buying
committee in the context of business-to-business marketing to explain and predict go and
PAGE 198
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
no-go committee decisions. The case study research reports in the present article focus on
explaining positive outcomes only to illustrate the alternative micro-tipping point nature of
conjunctural causal paths resulting in trips to a destination.
The following generalized example illustrates causal explanations in case-oriented research
that MTP theory proposes for a positive-outcome case study. When conditions A, B, and C
are present, X causes Y, however, if any one of these conditions (A, B, or C) is absent, and X
is also absent, then Z causes Y. This argument is multiple and conjunctural in form because
the proposition cites alternate combinations of causal conditions. The hypothetical causal
argument states four combinations of conditions occur that result in outcome Y. Using
Boolean algebra, the causal arguments formulate (see Ragin, 1987) as follows:
Y ¼ ðA· B· C· XÞ þ ðA· B· c · x · ZÞ þ ðA· b· C· x · ZÞ þ ða · B· C· x · ZÞ ð1Þ
In equation (1), the upper-case letters indicate the presence of a condition and lower-case
letters indicate its absence. Also, multiplication (mid-level dots) indicates causal
conjunctures and addition indicates alternative causal pathways. For further discussion,
see Ragin (1997).
Method
The following ?ve case studies serve as examples of inductive theory-building that applies
MTP theory. Data collection includes applying McCracken’s (1988) long interview method in
90-minute face-to-face discussions separately with travel parties visiting Hawaii’s Big Island
(BI) in July 2006. The interview guide was structured to provide latitude for interviewers to
ask probing or follow-up questions when unexpected issues or experiences surfaced during
the interview process.
Informants were tourists visiting BI in July 2006. Both ?rst-time and repeat visitors
participated. In the case of ?rst-time visitors, care was taken to assure informants were
interviewed at the end of their visits. Informant selection was by convenience sampling.
Prospective informants were approached and pre-screened with general questions about
their visit and whether they would be willing to participate in an interview. Most interviews
were conducted at Kailua-Kona (a resort city located on the west side of BI) in hotels, or
at a tourist shopping mall located at the Waikoloa resort area – 20 miles north of
Kailua-Kona. Each informant received US$50 and a Hawaii-themed t-shirt for their
cooperation.
The study includes interviewing informants while in the middle of their trips because they
have lived-the-context of experiencing unplanned opportunities and events that may have
in?uenced the transformation of their plans into realities; collecting interview responses
before the start of the trip or after completing their trips can not account for unknown context
in?uences or present memory and substantial self-editing problems, respectively. Thus,
while all methods include limitations, collecting data from informants on plans-contexts
in?uences while engaging in focal tourism experiences offers unique and valuable
perspectives versus pre and post trip interviews.
The interview guide included general questions about:
B demographic information about members of the traveling party;
B pre-trip planning and sources of information;
B activities and destinations – both planned and unplanned;
B issues surrounding ?ights, (e.g. accommodations);
B eating and dining experiences; and
B overall impressions of the travel experience.
Follow-up prompts encouraged informants to further elaborate on their travel planning
experience. The result was a detailed account of each traveler’s trip planning process.
Informants were told that their compensation was not dependent on answering all the
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 199
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
questions, and they could end the interview at any time. Nearly all questions were
answered by all the informants. Each case study report was read and revised by the
research team.
Findings
Following the presentation of these ?ndings, the discussion shifts to presenting ?ndings from
a comparative analysis of the case studies.
Taeko from Ashiya, Japan
This case study provides responses by Taeko with elaborations during the interview
provided by her husband. The travel party included Taeko and her husband, a couple in their
early forties, and their son and daughter, aged 16 and 12, respectively. Taeko has an
associate’s degree from a Japanese college and she does not work outside the home. Her
husband has a master’s degree and he is employed full-time as a university professor. Prior
to arriving on Hawaii’s Big Island (BI), the family spent about 30 days on Oahu where the
husband attended a training seminar.
Pre-trip planning included talking with friends and reading a guide book, Waurudo Gaido
Hawaii Taiheiyo #2 (World Guide Hawaii, Paci?c Ocean #2). Taeko found the book’s map to
be useful for their trip planning. The primary motivations for visiting BI were visiting friends
and touring a geographically interesting location.
Will Taeko return to paradise? This trip was Taeko’s third visit to Hawaii. Taeko, her husband,
and son also visited Oahu 11 years ago. She has fond memories of Hawaii from her previous
trips. In addition to the attraction of the tropical climate, Taeko has Japanese friends that live
in Hawaii. She enjoys touring, window shopping, and visiting friends. From reading travel
books and talking to friends, she was excited to see BI’s natural beauty including Hawaiian
Volcanoes National Park, Mauna Kea, and Hilton Waikoloa resort.
Will the husband’s employer authorize attending the training seminar? Trip planning began
eight months prior to their arrival. Their trip was going to be both a business/training trip for
Taeko’s husband and a family trip. This trip was contingent on whether or not the husband’s
employer would allow him to attend a one-month training seminar at the University of Hawaii
on Oahu. After the January seminar application was accepted and the employer gave
permission, Taeko and her husband started gathering information for their trip. The employer
took several weeks to give permission for the trip because taking family on a ‘‘business trip’’
was considered irregular. Final approval was received in March 2006, ?ve months prior to
their departure. No other destinations were considered. If the employer declined permission,
the family would have stayed home and saved the money.
Will the total trip costs ?t with family budget? One major decision was purchasing air tickets.
Taeko investigated a number of sources including a domestic travel agent (HIS Travel in
Osaka), an online air ticket broker (Expedia), and airlines that ?y directly from Kansai
International Airport to Oahu (Japan Airlines, Northwest, and United). To Taeko’s surprise,
the travel agent suggested that she could buy the least expensive tickets directly fromthe air
carrier. A second surprise was that the air tickets were less expensive for a 30-day stay than
for a shorter period of time. The ?nal determinant in purchasing the air ticket was the frequent
?ier mileage award from Northwest Airlines.
Does the trip schedule ?t with children’s summer break from school? In Japan, children’s
summer vacation is only ?ve weeks in length. To take an extended trip to Hawaii, the
schedule needed to perfectly match with the school summer holiday. Even a trip overlap of a
few days would have been a deal-breaker for this family. Providing a learning experience for
the children was important as well. The daughter had a school project on volcanoes, and
their plans needed ?t with the school project. Also, the parents wanted their children to learn
about US culture.
Figure 1 is an ethnographic decision tree (EDT) model (Gladwell, 1989) of the questions and
alternative paths the couple considered in their decision to visit BI. EDT modeling across
PAGE 200
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
multiple cases is analogous to Montgomery’s (1975) gatekeeper analysis. An EDT model is
built using the emic (informant) description of self-questioning and answering and re?ecting
on how life experiences resulted in a speci?c outcome (e.g. trip to BI).
Figure 2 diagrams the level of four factors required for a positive trip outcome. The
conjectural causal equation in Figure 2 combines conditions affecting a positive outcome:
S ¼ Success ¼ Trip to BI
A ¼ Dream
B ¼ Employer Approval
C ¼ Family Budget
D ¼ Children" s Needs
S ¼ ðA· B· C· DÞ
ð2Þ
Figure 1 (Un)conscious decision process of Taeko visiting the BI
Figure 2 (Un)conscious feature-level intersection for Taeko
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 201
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Equation (2) implies the trip would not occur in the absence of any one of the four
antecedents. For example:
F ¼ Failure ¼ ða · B· C· DÞ ð3Þ
F ¼ ðA· B· C· dÞ ð4Þ
For example, Taeko’s family would not visit BI if the schedule con?icted with the children’s
summer vacation. Equation (4) shows the case where conditions for factor D are not met.
This proposition applies to the other antecedents as well. All four antecedents are necessary
for the family to visit BI. Using Boolean algebra facilitates generalization of ?ndings across
cases.
Japanese honeymoon couple
A Japanese honeymoon couple in their late 20s provided data for this case study. Aya is a
homemaker and her husband works full-time for an information technology company. The
couple lives in Saitama Prefecture and they are ?rst-time visitors to BI. The six-night
honeymoon was split equally between the Big Island (BI) and Oahu.
Aya’s return to paradise. This trip was Aya’s second visit to Hawaii. Neither Aya nor Hideki
had previously visited BI. Hawaii was the only destination considered for their trip. Trip
pre-planning was in?uenced by Aya’s hula teacher. Learning to hula dance is a popular
activity among Japanese women. Aya’s hula teacher made many trips to Hawaii, so their
conversations often included stories about these previous trips. These conversations
include information about interesting attractions and good restaurants.
Will Aya accept the wedding proposal? Planning for this trip began approximately one year
before departure. At that time, the couple decided to get married. Hawaii is a very popular
destination for Japanese honeymooners, so wedding plans were an important catalyst for
planning the trip.
Can we simplify this trip? The honeymoon couple designed their visit to spend time together
and to relax. On BI, they did not venture far from the hotel. Although the teacher provided
additional information, Aya’s interest in hula dancing suggests a deeper connection with
Hawaii. Aya’s previous trip to Oahu likely in?uenced the decision to take hula lessons as well
as placing the destination at the top of her mind.
To simplify trip planning, the couple decided to use the travel agent. After receiving the travel
booking from the agent, Aya was able to compare tour, hotel, and air travel options. The
travel agent booked air travel, accommodations, and an Oahu tour for the couple. Aya
decided not to rent a car. She had modest sightseeing plans. A free shuttle service was
provided between hotels and the airports. Also, Aya booked a guided island tour and a
dinner cruise for their stay on Oahu.
Will there be stores for shopping? Aya likes to go shopping. A destination without many
shopping options would not be attractive to her. On Oahu, Aya planned to spend as
much time as possible shopping because some of the stores and items are not available
in Japan. The couple had no speci?c plans for their visit to BI. They just wanted to relax
at the Hilton resort. Aya discovered that a free shuttle service is available between the
Hilton and the King’s Shops. King’s Shops is a shopping mall. The couple made several
unplanned visits to King’s Shops for additional shopping because many stores were
holding sales.
Figures 3 and 4 represent an EDT model and a Venn diagram of the four factors required for
a positive trip outcome.
A German couple visits Hawaii (Big Island) for the ?rst time
This case study is of a husband and wife from Bonn, Germany, visiting the State of Hawaii for
three weeks (July 2006). Helmut is in his early 60s and works full-time as a professional
scientist (PhD in physics); the wife is in her late 50s and manages their home full-time which
includes three children (17, 18, and 21 years old). While away on the July 2006 trip to Hawaii,
PAGE 202
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
the couple kept in daily contact by telephone with their children back home in Bonn. This trip
signi?es the ?rst-time that the couple was con?dent that all three children were old-enough
for the couple to travel away from home without the children.
Can Helmut ?nally realize his Big Island dream trip? Helmut reported that he always wanted
to visit the Big Island (BI) because of the volcanoes. He learned about Hawaii and its
volcanoes in the general media over many years. Helmut’s training and work history in
physics likely affected his vigilance toward media reports on the BI over earlier decades in
his life. He reported that his wife was agreeable to visit the destination, but BI was his dream
rather than hers.
Does Helmut have enough Delta frequent ?yer points to ?y ?rst class? Helmut’s accumulation
of frequent ?yer points in Delta Airlines’ loyalty program became an enabling step toward
transforming the dream into reality. The points were accumulated due to business trips over
20 þ years. The couple waited to accumulate enough points for two ?rst-class round-trip
tickets.
Figure 4 (Un)conscious feature-level intersection for Aya
Figure 3 (Un)conscious decision process of Aya visiting the BI
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 203
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Are the children capable of taking care of themselves? The husband and wife were unwilling
to travel away from home as a couple until the children were old enough to manage for
themselves alone and unsupervised at home. The children’s advancing ages became an
enabling trigger for their leisure trip. The couple reported planning their trip with the ?nal four
days away being in Honolulu so that they could cut the trip short a few days if they sensed
the children needed their early return home. Each day, the couple telephoned the children
daily during the three-week trip.
Will Helmut agree to his wife’s request for a San Diego stopover? The wife was reluctant to ?y
directly to BI. She wanted to visit a place on the US mainland during the trip. Helmut
suggested a visit to San Diego – which included a half-day visit to Tijuana, Mexico. They
both reported enjoyed visiting the old town area of San Diego. The San Diego stopover also
served the couple by partially overcoming jet lag before visiting Hawaii.
Can we visit the other islands in Hawaii? Even though coming to the Big Island and
seeing volcano-related sights was a key driver for the trip, the couple included overnight
stays to each of the four major islands in the State of Hawaii. This ?nding supports the
proposition that while the BI may be a stand-alone destination, multiple-island
locations/sights are likely to in?uence ?rst-time visitors in planning their visits to the
State of Hawaii. Consequently, marketing BI as a stand-alone destination may be less
effective than promoting the complementarily ful?lling bene?ts that visits to several Hawaii
Islands provide.
Figures 5 and 6 represent an EDT model and a Venn diagram of the four factors required for
a positive trip outcome.
Dave from Georgia
Dave and his wife are in their mid-50s. He is a banker from a small town in Georgia. He
visited BI in July 2006 with his wife for six days. The trip’s purpose was to attend the annual
convention for the Community Bankers Association of Georgia. Neither Dave nor his wife had
Figure 5 (Un)conscious decision process of Helmut
PAGE 204
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
previously visited Hawaii. The couple extended their stay an extra two days in order to see as
much of the island as possible, and so the wife could shop. Trip pre-planning was
coordinated by the association’s of?cial travel agent. Dave’s only pre-trip decisions included
the length of stay, and whether or not to rent a car. This visit was work-related, so most
expenses were paid by Dave’s employer.
Should Dave attend the banking convention? Dave’s primary decision was whether or not to
attend the convention. The Community Bankers Association of Georgia decided the
convention’s time and location. Air transportation and lodging were scheduled by the
association’s travel agent. Once Dave decided to attend the convention, he had decisions to
make concerning the length of his stay and whether or not to rent an automobile. If Dave did
not attend the convention, he would wait until next year’s event.
Will Dave and his wife be comfortable? Dave was a reluctant tourist for a number of reasons.
First, he was not happy about the 12-hour ?ight fromAtlanta. Also, the ?ights were scheduled
for evening departures. Dave did not look forward to all-night ?ights. Finally, he is an
outdoorsman that enjoys hunting, ?shing, and golf. Dave perceived that BI does not offer
these leisure activities. The convention hotel brochures did look nice, so Dave had the
impression that the accommodations were up to his standards. Dave remarked that he was
very pleased with the hotel.
Can we extend the trip so there will be time for shopping? Dave’s wife insisted that their stay
be extended so that she could go shopping. Fortunately, he had a choice of an earlier
chartered ?ight that arrived two days earlier. According to Dave, his wife was not interested
in taking the trip without the extra days. Dave would have waited until next year’s convention
because he does not like to travel without his wife.
Dave was very impressed with his BI travel experience. He expressed a desire to return
again the future. Figures 7 and 8 represent an EDT model and a Venn diagram for the four
factors required for Dave’s positive trip outcome.
An older American couple visits the Big Island for the ?rst time
The ?fth case study is Bill and Diane’s ?rst visit to the BI. This couple lives in Long Island,
New York. The couple’s long interview data includes information on one prior group-tour visit
to the state of Hawaii that included three islands – but not the BI. Their son’s decade-long
Figure 6 (Un)conscious feature-level intersection for Helmut
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 205
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
conversations about his two visits to the BI created a high level of tension in this couple’s
minds – they needed to get back to Hawaii to experience the son’s reported BI experiences
that they missed on their prior trip.
Can we trade the time share for a unit on BI? One main concern about the visit was the cost of
accommodations. The ability to trade their time-share unit for a time-share unit on the BI was
relevant as a conjunctural causal factor (factor B in Figure 9) – a necessary but not suf?cient
condition in enabling the visit. See Figures 9 and 10.
Do we have enough frequent ?ier mileage for a free trip? Diane had saved enough mileage
points for one free air ticket on American Airlines. Like the German couple, Bill reported
frequent-?yer airline mileage award as a requirement – an enabling contingency – for the
trip to the BI. Since the mileage award could only be redeemed on American Airlines, the
couple’s internet search for ?ights was limited to one carrier.
Figure 7 (Un)conscious decision process of Dave visiting the BI
Figure 8 (Un)conscious feature-level intersection for Dave
PAGE 206
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Will Diane buy Bill’s ticket? Similar to the German couple, husband and wife negotiated
between themselves to ful?ll the additional enabling requirement – with Diane offering to buy
the husband’s round-trip ?ight tickets.
Using inductive model building likely will result in a few stories that are highly similar for the
majority of visitors to a speci?c destination. A story is the narrative presentation of a
conjunctural causation equation of three or more antecedents. Storytelling by an informant
often results in thick descriptions that include relevant surfacing of unconscious thinking and
conscious elaborations (see Rapaille, 2006).
Implications for theory
Figure 11 is a model synthesis of the ?ndings from the ?ve case studies. This integration
supports FLAG and MTP theoretical propositions. The ?rst node in the synthesis in Figure 11
Figure 9 (Un)conscious feature-level intersection for Bill
Figure 10 (Un)conscious decision process of Bill visiting the BI
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 207
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
depicts the socio-historical forces shaping the informant’s life that the informant is only partly
able to retrieve (and likely only partly willing to report) consciously. The automatic,
top-of-mind, retrievals of the informants relating to their trip destinations provide clues to
these forces. Helmut’s early training in natural forces occurring in physics (Figure 5) is a
representative gist of one such force. Because most brief interviews concerning travelers’
destination choices do not include explications of informants’ early life experiences, such
studies fail to identify the mostly unconscious forces that have a substantial directional
in?uence on the choices the informant makes.
Note that Figure 11 includes delays from node 1 to nodes 2, 4, and 5. Part of the reason for
the lack of attention in travel research on socio-historical forces shaping informants’ trip
decisions is that these delays may extend over decades.
Node 2 indicates conversations with oneself and others about leisure activities including trip
destination choices. Tenants of subjective personal introspection (SPI) research is that
introspection occurs prior and post implementation of decisions and that SPI processes
represent combinations of conscious and unconscious thinking (see Woodside, 2006).
Conversations that the informant has with family members and friends occur partly to enable
the informant to ?nd out what she/he thinks (such talk represents an unconscious to
conscious mechanism) as well as to gain information/approval from others relating to leisure
activities. Bill talking with his son about his son’s honeymoon trip a decade ago is illustrative
of such talk (Figure 10).
Figure 11 includes a triggering event as node 3 to re?ect that some triggering event is
usually identi?able in conscious/unconscious major trip planning. Such triggering events
appear in each of the prior case discussions. For example, Aya’s marriage engagement is a
triggering event that ?ts naturally with a FLAG process, her prior experiences with a hula
instructor (Figure 3).
Figure 11 shows three principal forces affecting conscious awareness of a near-term
opportunity relating to planning a major trip to a given destination (node 4). This
dual-processing view includes the proposition that the triggering cue alone is insuf?cient to
trigger serious consideration of a near-term opportunity for visiting a given destination. The
conjunction of nodes 1, 2, and 4 is suf?cient for such conscious awareness of a near-term
opportunity (e.g. visiting the Big Island for a second-honeymoon trip).
Figure 11 Unconscious and conscious processing of major trip decision
PAGE 208
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
In Figure 11 node 5 represents the conscious and unconscious processing of necessary
steps to building an implementable plan to transform opportunity into reality. The
visualization of node 5 includes the generation of automatic, unconscious-to-conscious
thoughts of how to organize all the steps necessary for achieving such an opportunity-reality
transformation. Note that node 6 re?ects the identi?cation and solving of personal and world
blocks relating to such a trip decision. Personal blocks relate to having the will, means, and
expertise for constructing an implementable plan. World blocks relate to natural and family
member forces that often stand-in-the-way from reaching an objective. For Bill, his wife
being unwilling to buy an air ticket for him would represent a world block. Examples of
processing of node 6 processing appear in each of the ?ve case studies.
Figure 11 shows node 7 to indicate that the informant is not consciously aware of all steps
that she/he takes in implementing the plan to visit the destination. In Figure 1 Taeko
automatically ?ts all major summer-time leisure activities around her children’s summer
vacation period. Consciously planning to interrupt her children’s schedule is not an option.
The tipping point proposition receives strong support in case study research. Satisfaction of
a single factor is insuf?cient (e.g. accumulation of frequent ?yer points), but speci?c
outcomes of several factors must occur at the same instance (e.g. children old enough to be
home alone and unsupervised, the accumulation of the necessary frequent ?yer miles, and a
successful husband-wife negotiation of a stopover visit to a secondary destination).
The results highlight the bene?ts of using an ecological approach to study tourism behavior.
The case studies show that trip decisions are complex and dependent on the individual’s
environment. Even two demographically similar families may have very different objectives
and constraints when deciding to plan a vacation to Hawaii. For example, both Dave and Bill
had grown children. The son’s ten years of describing a previous trip to BI caused the
destination to be top of mind for Dave. Bill’s children had not visited Hawaii. Clearly, Dave
and Bill have different life experiences that affected their decisions to visit BI.
The interviews provide evidence that both unconscious-to-partly-conscious thinking
affecting travel decisions and interpretations of travel experiences. Initially, Dave was
disappointed when he arrived at the Kona airport and saw miles of black lava rock in every
direction he looked. Dave was a ?rst-time visitor to Hawaii and he expected to see white
sand beaches and palm trees. Dave’s comment suggests that an unconscious desire to
experience the postcard image of Hawaii probably in?uenced his decision to visit. Aya
visited Hawaii previously. She takes hula dancing lessons because the activity ful?lls both
conscious social and unconscious fantasy needs. These rich insights unlikely would surface
using traditional methods of asking informants questions.
Examining Figure 11 calls attention to the usefulness for explicating the socio-historical
behavior in informants’ lived experiences and life themes. The core propositions fromsuch a
FLAG and MTP view informs the view that early-life experiences affect the informant’s
decisions and interpretations of visiting of a major destination and that informants are only
partially aware of such in?uences.
The delay icons in Figure 11 represent a key proposition in this dual-processing view
regarding planning major trips. The combinations of unconscious and conscious thinking
relating to a given destination and trip to that destination often extends across decades.
Long forgotten thoughts occurring during the informant’s youth (e.g. generated by reading
books or seeing movies relating to a given destination) serve as a platform for future
conscious thinking about the destination. Both travel theory and destination management
practice will likely bene?t by considering the content and storytelling structure of such
early-life thinking and experiences (see Woodside et al., 2008).
Implications for strategy
Several implications for effective marketing visits to the Big Island follow from analyzing this
case-study long-interview report. For example, rather than using only speci?c campaign
advertising and promotions programs, general media reports, novels, movies, and prior
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 209
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
conversations have a delayed long-term in?uence on trips – such as the one taken by the
couple from Germany. Having a continual presence in news media and popular press,
movies, short stories, and novels has a long-time future impact on trips to a leisure
destination. Consequently, such case studies support the proposition that public relations
programs encouraging such story-reporting are effective. Advertising using storytelling
scenarios may effectively express such tipping point scenarios that case study research
uncovers – ‘‘The kids can manage without us, we have the mileage points, we can stop-off in
San Diego and Mexico, and we’re still young enough to enjoy it! If not now, when?’’
Second, the ?ndings fromthis case study support the effectiveness of destination-marketing
special offers made in cooperation with airline frequent-?yer programs. The key is that some
speci?c tipping point must be reached involving one or more factors – such as an
accumulation of suf?cient frequent ?yer points in combination with a dream to visit the
destination – to transform the travel dreams into realities.
Third, while visitors to Hawaii from some countries are known to shop for clothing and other
products for themselves and to give to others (e.g. Rosenbaum and Spears, 2006), a
substantial share of visitors (and likely many Europeans) are likely to be motivated to visit
Hawaii for nature-related experiences and not to shop. Promoting shopping may be a
turn-off for such visitors.
Fourth, the Big Island is unlikely to be a stand-alone destination magnet for ?rst-time or
repeat visitors to the State of Hawaii. Both Helmut (?rst time visitor) and the two Japanese
tour parties (repeat visitors) traveled to at least one other Hawaiian island. Cooperative
marketing programs across several islands and state-wide information brochures likely are
likely to be more effective in in?uencing ?rst-time visits.
Conclusions
MTP theory is valuable in response to recognizing that tourists have limited ability and
willingness to explain their own behavior. MTP theoretical tenants include a combination of
the following points. First, most thinking occurs unconsciously. Second, direct questioning of
informants to learn the reasons and perceived causes (see Malle, 1999, 2004) of their own
behavior is unlikely to explicate unconscious thinking (see Zaltman, 2003). Third,
face-to-face methods that go beyond direct questioning are necessary for uncovering
unconscious thinking – such methods include applying McCracken’s (1988) long interview
method and Rapaille’s (2006) discovery sessions. Fourth, combinations of antecedent
conditions are necessary and suf?cient for explaining and predicting behavior – the issue is
not the relative importance of independent variables but rather on identifying alternative
conjunctural causal paths leading to go and no-go outcomes (see Ragin, 1997). Fifth, the
seemingly opposing goals of capturing/reporting complexity and achieving generality are
achievable by collecting thick descriptions of several cases in each of several theoretically
interesting combinations of antecedent factors. Sixth, a researcher should seek to
empirically examine seemingly outlier factor-level combinations – such combinations
provide data for theoretically rich information. Seventh, QCA tools are useful for building and
generalizing MTP models relevant for speci?c topics including describing and explaining
destination choice behavior.
Limitations
This article does not describe the several alternative conjunctural causal paths relevant for
trips to the BI. Certainly, different additional paths exist among American, German, and
Japanese tourists visiting the BI. The objective is to stimulate thinking, use, and justi?cation
of alternative theory and methods in comparison to the dominant logic of covariance among
variables.
Suggestions for future research
Future applications of MTP theory in travel and tourist research likely will achieve substantial
success in reporting the complexity found in case study research and the generality
PAGE 210
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
necessary for applied research. Such research studies should uncover the additional
unconscious factor levels in combinations of causal paths leading to outcomes that the
destination-brand executive seeks or seeks to avoid. Embracing such theory and tools is
helpful for travel researchers to think beyond identifying the relative importance of
antecedents and simply expressing this as a linear combination of variables.
References
Allen, D.E. (2002), ‘‘Toward a theory of tourist choice as sociohistorically shaped practical experience:
the ?ts-like-a-glove (FLAG) framework’’, Journal of Tourist Research, Vol. 28 No. 4, pp. 515-32.
Bargh, J. (2002), ‘‘Losing consciousness: automatic in?uences on tourist judgment, behavior, and
motivation’’, Journal of Tourist Research, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 280-5.
Bargh, J., Chen, M. and Burrows, L. (1996), ‘‘Automaticity of social behavior: direct effects of trait
construct and stereotype activation on action’’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 71
No. 2, pp. 230-44.
Barrett, L.F., Tugade, M.M. and Engle, R.W. (2004), ‘‘Individual differences in working memory capacity
and dual-process theories of the mind’’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 130 No. 4, pp. 553-73.
Bettman, J.R., Luce, M.F. and Payne, J.W. (1998), ‘‘Constructive tourist choice processes’’, Journal of
Tourist Research, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 187-217.
Bourdieu, P. and Johnson, R. (1993), The Field of Cultural Production, Columbia University Press, New
York, NY.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986), ‘‘Recent advances in research on the ecology of human development’’, in
Silbereisen, R.K., Eyferth, K. and Rudinger, G. (Eds), Development as Action in Context: Problem
Behavior and Normal Youth Development, Springer, New York, NY, pp. 287-309).
Brunel, F.F., Tietje, B.C. and Greenwald, A.G. (2004), ‘‘Is the implicit association test a valid and valuable
measure of implicit social cognition?’’, Journal of Tourist Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 385-404.
Brunswik, E. (1956), Perception and the Representation Design of Psychological Experiments,
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Cox, D.F. (1967), ‘‘Risk handling in tourist behavior – an intensive study of two cases’’, in Cox, D.F. (Ed.),
Risk Taking and Information Handling in Tourist Behavior, Harvard University, Graduate School of
Business Administration, Boston, MA, pp. 34-81.
Decrop, A. and Snelders, D. (2004), ‘‘Planning the summer vacation’’, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 1008-30.
Dellaert, B., Borgers, A. and Timmermans, H. (1996), ‘‘Conjoint analysis of joint participation and activity
choice’’, International Journal of Research in Marketing, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 251-64.
Dichter, E. (1964), Handbook of Tourist Motivations: The Psychology of the World of Objects,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Evans, J.S. (2008), ‘‘Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment and social recognition’’, Annual
Review of Psychology, Vol. 59, pp. 255-78.
Gardner, W. (1990), ‘‘CONTIME: continuous-time analysis of parallel streams of behavior’’, Multivariate
Behavioral Research, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 205-6.
Gladwell, C. (1989), Ethnographic Decision Tree Modeling, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Gladwell, M. (2005), Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking, Back Bay Books, New York, NY.
Ladhari, R. (2007), ‘‘The effects of consumption emotions on satisfaction of word-of-mouth
communications’’, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 24 No. 12, pp. 1085-108.
McClelland, D.C., Koestner, R. and Weinberger, J. (1992), ‘‘How do self-attributed and implicit motives
differ?’’, in Smith, C.P. (Ed.), Motivation and Personality: Handbook of Thematic Content Analysis,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 49-72.
McCracken, G. (1988), The Long Interview, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
PAGE 211
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
Malle, B.F. (1999), ‘‘How people explain behavior: a new theoretical framework’’, Personality and Social
Psychology Review, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 23-48.
Malle, B.F. (2004), How the Mind Explains Behavior, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Mather, A. and Moschis, G.P. (2005), ‘‘Antecedents of cognitive and age: a replication and extension’’,
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 22 No. 12, pp. 969-94.
Montgomery, D. (1975), ‘‘Newproduct distribution: analysis of supermarket buyer decisions’’, Journal of
Marketing Research, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 255-64.
Oppenhuisen, J. and Sikkel, D. (2003), ‘‘A values inventory: methods, results and marketing
applications’’, Journal of Customer Behaviour, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 55-73.
Oppermann, M. and Chon, K. (1997), ‘‘Convention participation decision-making process’’, Annals of
Tourism Research, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 178-91.
Pan, B. and Fesenmaier, D.R. (2006), ‘‘Online information search: vacation planning process’’, Annals of
Tourism Research, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 809-32.
Pitelis, C. (1991), Market and Non-market Hierarchies: Theory of Institutional Failure, Blackwell, Oxford.
Ragin, C.C. (1987), The Comparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies,
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Ragin, C.C. (1997), ‘‘Turning the tables: how case-oriented research challenges variable-oriented
research’’, Comparative Social Research, Vol. 16, pp. 27-42.
Rapaille, C. (2006), The Culture Code: An Ingenious Way to Understand why People Around the World
Live and Buy as they do, Broadway, New York, NY.
Raymore, L. (2002), ‘‘Facilitators to leisure’’, Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 37-51.
Rosenbaum, M.S. and Spears, D.L. (2006), ‘‘Who buys what? Who does that? The case of golden week
in Hawaii’’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 246-55.
Wegner, D. (2002), The Illusion of Conscious Will, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Wilson, T. (2002), Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious, Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Woodside, A.G. (2006), ‘‘Overcoming the illusion of will and self-fabrication: going beyond na? ¨ve
subjective personal introspection to an unconscious /conscious theory of behavior explanation’’,
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 257-72.
Woodside, A.G. and Chebat, J.C. (2001), ‘‘Updating Heider’s balance theory in tourist behavior: a
Jewish couple buys a German car and additional buying-consuming transformation stories’’,
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 18, pp. 475-95, available at: www2.bc.edu/,woodsiar/sep%
2021heider%20balance%20theory.pdf
Woodside, A.G., Caldwell, M. and Spurr, R. (2006), ‘‘Advancing ecological systems theory in lifestyle,
leisure, and travel research’’, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp. 259-72.
Woodside, A.G., Sood, S. and Miller, K. (2008), ‘‘When consumers and brands talk: storytelling theory
and research in psychology and marketing’’, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 25, pp. 97-145.
Zalatan, A. (1998), ‘‘Wives’ involvement in tourism decision processes’’, Annals of Tourism Research,
Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 890-903.
Zaltman, G. (2003), How Customers Think, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Corresponding author
Drew Martin can be contacted at: [email protected]
PAGE 212
j
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH
j
VOL. 5 NO. 2 2011
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)
This article has been cited by:
1. Angelo Camillo, Antonio Minguzzi, Angelo Presenza, Svetlana HoltNATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY AND MICROTOURISM DESTINATIONS: THE CASE OF SOUTHERN ITALY 267-298.
[CrossRef]
2. Drew Martin, Arch G. Woodside. 2012. Structure and process modeling of seemingly unstructured leisure?travel decisions
and behavior. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 24:6, 855-872. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

b
y

P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

A
t

2
2
:
1
3

2
4

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
6

(
P
T
)

doc_614377322.pdf