Description
Detailed file in relation to the study of the appropriateness of the curriculum for technical and vocational schools.
The study of the appropriateness of the curriculum for technical and vocational schools
with an entrepreneur's skills on technical teachers' view
Jafar Seifi
1
, •Sohrab Yazdani
2
1
Department of Educational Sciences, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
2
Department of Educational Sciences, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
Corresponding Author: Dr. Sohrab Yazdani
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research was to study the appropriateness of the curriculum for technical and vocational
schools with an entrepreneur's skills on technical teachers' view of education District 4 in 2013-14. 158 (female
44 and male 114) of technical teachers were selected by simple random sampling and assessed by the use of a
researcher-made questionnaire of entrepreneur characteristics. The present research was survey. For analyzing
hypotheses, single-case T test were used by SPSS. The results showed that mean of curriculum, curriculum
components, curriculum goals, contents, and executive strategies were 153.70, 38.22, 38.28, 38.65 and 38.53,
respectively. Findings based on T test showed that the comparison level of evaluation strategies of curriculum
for technical and vocational schools with an entrepreneur's skills was higher than average.
Keywords: curriculum, executive strategies, entrepreneur's skills
INTRODUCTION
In the history of education, curriculum development
on a scientific basis is relatively new. In developing
countries- due, principally, to a lack of resources- this
type of activity is carried out only sporadically. In
many of these countries, technical and vocational
education curricula are mere copies of those of
industrialized nations and in most cases even
lack the proper adaptation to the local situation.
The need for continuous development of curricula for
technical and vocational education is even greater than
for general education, due to the rapid and constant
changes in technology to which the curricula must be
adapted. Not only are jobs and job qualifications in
continuous flux, but also the
various social and cultural aspects of society. The
education system as a whole must therefore change
along with technical and vocational education to keep
up with this evolution. In this sense, curriculum
development can be seen as a highly complex and
important activity.
Entrepreneurship is increasingly recognized as an
important generator of economic development and
innovation (Bakotic and Kruzic, 2010). Teachers with
entrepreneurial skills which have the intention to take
over or found learning are needed. To reach this goal,
strategic measures are needed that increase the
entrepreneurial intention (i.e. the number of people
considering self-employment as an occupational
option) of young people. One feasible strategy is to
implement Entrepreneurship Education in secondary
schools (Fuchs, Werner & Wallau, 2008).
Secondary technical and vocational schools enjoy
quite some popularity. And even though education and
training in these schools requires quite a lot of hard
work on the students' side it seems to be worth the
effort for it also provides for a sound education and
high-quality vocational training. By means of not just
offering basic vocational training but also more sound
and specialized courses, technical and vocational
schools provide for training in various fields and for
various occupations. From skilled work to scientific
research - schools for engineering train for a variety of
jobs.
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
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These implications affect the outcomes and
applications of learning and the power balance
between learners, institutions and educators and one of
the difficulties of developing an integrative process
model of entrepreneurship education lies in the fact
that lines between
actor roles are not always clear (Wood, 2001).
Furthermore, as stated by Wood (2001),
entrepreneurship education is not a single event, but
rather a continuous process comprised of a series of
events. In consequence, the role of education and
training in entrepreneurship and in the identification of
endowment of entrepreneurial potential at a young
age, are becoming evident for students, politicians and
educators (Rasheed, 2000).
One of the critics in entrepreneurship courses, pointed
by Neck and Greene (2011), is the fact that they are
focused in the exploitation of opportunities assuming
that the opportunity has been already identified. Thus,
very little time and attention is given to creativity and
idea generation process. Accordingly, Jusoh et al.
(2011) in their analysis about training needs of
education in entrepreneurs found that in
entrepreneurial skills training there is a lack in areas
such as how to enhance creativity and innovation.It
was important to identify the age group that the
curriculum should target. The ideal stage to acquire
basic knowledge about entrepreneurship and to foster
a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship is during
adolescence years. In fact, entrepreneurial potential
should be identified and evaluated at the secondary
school level, during the developmental stage when the
possibility of self-employment as a career option is
still open.
A few researches have, in this manner, been
performed about curriculum and entrepreneurship in
technical and vocational schools. Therefore, the
present study was to investigate the appropriateness of
the curriculum for technical and vocational schools
with an entrepreneur's skills on technical teachers'
view.
Literature Review
The power of any curriculum lies in sustained student
learning (Hiatt-Michael, 2008). Thus, a post-
evaluation study of curriculum will provide educators,
students, parents, and policymakers with the
knowledge of the long-term student learning of a
curriculum (Stufflebeam, 2001; Tyler, 1949).
Entrepreneurs and small businesses are critical to the
nation‘s prosperity (Bygrave, 2004; McDowell, 2007;
U. S. Small Business Administration, 2010).
Research has demonstrated that education in
entrepreneurship can benefit inner-city youth by
increasing their interest in attending schools,
broadening their career aspirations, and enhancing
their belief in their own ability to reach goals.
(Fitzgerald, 1999; Hemmings, 2007; Kuratko, 2003).
Despite these facts, young people are either not aware
of or have been deprived of educational programs that
teach entrepreneurship (Hwang & Murdock,1998).
Without such programs, most inner-city youth may be
deprived of viable prospects for breaking the bonds of
poverty. If the teaching of entrepreneurial skills were
to be integrated in our nation‘s schools' curricula,
especially in low-income areas, not only would the
young adults in these neighborhoods benefit, but also
the city, the state, and even the entire country (Hiatt-
Michael, 2008; Marriotti, 2008; Stufflebeam, 2001).
According to Rae (2010) education is vital in creating
understanding of entrepreneurship, developing
entrepreneurial capabilities, and contributing to
entrepreneurial identities and cultures at individual,
collective and social levels. More, the role of
education is to shape ideas of what it means to be an
entrepreneur, not to promote an ideology of
entrepreneurship, and to create critical alertness that
contributes to the responsibility of entrepreneurs to
society. Several previous studies find a positive impact
of entrepreneurship education courses or programmes
(Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Fayolle et al., 2006;
Raposo, Paço and Ferreira, 2008; Raposo et al. 2008;
Rodrigues et al., 2010). Other studies find evidence
that the effects are negative (Oosterbeek et al., 2010;
von Graevenitz et al., 2010).
There is some evidence that entrepreneurship
education has a positive role to play in student
entrepreneurial intention (Pittaway and Cope, 2007;
Florin et al., 2007; Raposo et al., 2008; Nabi et al.,
2010). Henry et al. (2005) conclude that
entrepreneurship programmes can be effective and
yield significant benefits for aspiring entrepreneurs.
However, the impact of university education on
entrepreneurship has been questioned, especially with
regard to impact on the transition from intentionality
to entrepreneurial behaviour or impact on
entrepreneurial success (Nabi et al., 2010).
In spite of the fact that there are a number of studies
on several aspects of start-up activities, one aspect that
is also not very clear is whether the activities that lead
to the possibility of starting a new business or venture
correspond to the content of course work in
entrepreneurship classes. Because of this it is
necessary to reflect about the relevance of what
educators are teaching in the classroom, and more
particularly, if start-up activities are effectively
reflected in entrepreneurship course content and
delivery (Edelman et al., 2008).
Garavan and Barra (1994) state that the most
commonly referred aims of entrepreneurship
education and training programmes are the following:
i) to get useful knowledge of entrepreneurship; ii) to
acquire skills in the use of techniques, in the analysis
of business atmospheres, and in the synthesis of action
plans; iii) to identify and stimulate entrepreneurial
skills; iv) to develop empathy and support for all
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
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aspects of entrepreneurship; v) to develop attitudes
towards change and uncertainty; and vi) to encourage
new start-ups.
Hisrich and Peter (1998) say that the various skills
required by entrepreneurs can be categorized as:
technical skills, business management skills and
personal entrepreneurial skills. Henry et al. (2005)
refer that the development these personal skills
differentiates an entrepreneur from a manager. Thus,
very different skills, abilities and knowledge may be
required to fulfil these different aims of
entrepreneurship education programmes. Therefore,
while many of the aspects of entrepreneurship can be
taught, it also needs a certain attitude towards taking
risks.
However, some of these programmes only connect the
entrepreneurship to new venture creation and business
management and educate about entrepreneurship and
enterprise, rather than educating for entrepreneurship,
and only rarely the focus is in the development of their
students’ skills, attributes and behaviours (Kirby,
2004).
In fact, some works advance the idea that early formal
entrepreneurship education affects the attitudes of
students, influencing them in the direction of their
future career, and affect their propensity for
entrepreneurship when they become adults. Florin et
al. (2007) stated that the students need to perceive that
the application of the skill is feasible and that an
entrepreneurial approach is desirable and a focus on
developing a positive attitude toward entrepreneurial
behavior appears to be central to entrepreneurship
education. The identification and study of students’
entrepreneurial characteristics assumes special
relevance for the development of adequate educational
programmes related with entrepreneurship and
business creation.
For instance, Bygrave (2004) presented a model that
includes need for achievement, internal locus of
control, tolerance for ambiguity and risk-taking
propensity as determinants of entrepreneurial
intention. Moreover, Robinson et al. (1991), in their
research, find that achievement, innovativeness, locus
of control and self-confidence could be predicting
entrepreneurial attitudes.
Robinson et al. (1991) state that internal control leads
to a positive entrepreneurial attitude and most students
who receive entrepreneurial formation may develop a
higher level of control and self-efficiency. Curriculum
is a training design or plan that defines (D’Hainaut
1981):
• aims, goals and objectives of an educational activity;
• ways, means and activities used to achieve the aims;
and
• methods and instruments needed to evaluate actions.
Wilson (1990) states that the word “curriculum” as it
is defined from its early Latin origins means literally
“to run a course”. She describes the curriculum as: “if
one thinks of a marathon with mile and direction
markers, signposts, water stations, and officials and
coaches along the route, this beginning definition is a
metaphor for what the curriculum development can be
defined as “the process of defining, organizing,
combining, and coordinating content so that it leads
learners to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
attitude (KSA)”( Dunbar-Hall, Rowley, Webb, Bell,
2010).
The curriculum has been based on a knowledge
hierarchy of basic science, followed by applied
science and then the technical skills of day to day
practice (Enkenberg, 2001). Enkenberg (2001) stresses
the importance of learning as being ‘situated’ –
knowledge cannot be separated from its source and
context or environment.
A Rationale for Curriculum Development in
Technical and Vocational Education
A systematically developed technical and vocational
curriculum is data-based, dynamic, explicit in its
outcomes, fully articulated, realistic, student-oriented,
evaluation conscious, future-oriented, and world class-
focused (Finch & Crunkilton, 1999, p. 19). The
evaluation of a curriculum can help to ensure that the
curriculum is of a high quality and that the
deficiencies are identified before they cause major
problems. Because a curriculum has so many
components, evaluating an entire curriculum is quite
complex, time consuming and costly (Kenneke 1995
p. 5; Finch & Crunkilton, 1999).
Thus, an evaluation often tends to focus on
programmes and materials. The techniques used
to evaluate curricula tend to be categorised as being
either quantitative or naturalistic. Quantitative
techniques focus on specific outcomes, criteria, and
objective measures. Naturalistic techniques, on the
other hand, place less emphasis on outcomes and more
emphasis on process (Finch & Crunkilton, 1999, p.
272)
Technical and Vocational Education and Training
The Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) in Bangladesh operates at Cer tificate
(secondary) and Diploma (higher secondary) level. It
is offered in a range of technical specialties, such as
agriculture; business; building and construction
technology; clothing and textiles; electrical,
electronics, computer, information & communication
technology; food and nutrition; mechanical and
automobile, etc. It is, generally, offered through the
technical depart ments of secondary schools, technical
schools and colleges (TSCs), polytechnic institutes
and other non-government/ private training institutes.
It is provided by formal, non-formal andinformal
means.
Methodology
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The present study was a kind of survey research.
Statistic population included 269 technical and
vocational teaches who were taught in 2013-2014 in
the city of Tabriz. The sample was composed by 158
(female 44 and male 114) of technical teachers were
selected by simple random sampling and assessed by
the use of a researcher-made questionnaire of
entrepreneur characteristics. For analyzing hypotheses,
single-case T test were used by SPSS.
To collect data, a researcher-made questionnaire of
entrepreneur characteristics was used. This test
includes 40 items based on 5-point Likert scale, has
entrepreneurship components and the elements of the
curriculum to examine the adaptation level of
curriculum with entrepreneurship components on
technical teachers’ view and attitude toward the
adaptation level.
Validity and reliability: To prepare and validate this
test, scientific texts and related literature, and experts’
viewpoints were used to do required changes
according to the conditions and characteristics of
statistical population. According to a study done
before running original design,its reliability was
investigated by the use of the Cronbach’ Alpha scale
(Table 1).
Table 1. Cronbach’ Alpha coefficients of research
variables
Alpha coefficient Items Variables
0.71 1 -10 Goals
0.75 11-20 Contents
0.77 21-30 Teaching Strategies
0.74 31-40 Evaluation Strategies
0.84 1-40 Total
4. Results
The normalization test of data distribution: To select
the proper statistical tests, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
was used. The level of significance of this test was
larger than 0.05 in all of variables. Therefore, the
dispersion distribution of the scores of these variables
was normal.
Then the used parametric tests are appropriate to the
variables in the study (Table 2
).
Table 2. Normalization test for data distribution
Sig Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test
Number Variables
0.72 0.69 158 Curriculum
goals
0.50 0.82 158 Curriculum
contents
0.40 0.89 158 Curriculum
executive
strategies
0.39 0.89 158 Curriculum
evaluation
procedures
0.30 0.97 158 Curricula
The Research Hypotheses H1. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum of
the technical and vocational schools has an
adaptation with entrepreneurship skills.
Table 3. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of curricula
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curricula 158 153.7 15.58 1.23
Mean and standard deviation of curricula were 153.7 and 15.58, respectively.
Tabl e 4. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of curricula
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curricula 27.18 157 0.000 33.70
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curricula of the technical and vocational
schools with entrepreneurship skills was higher than
average.
H2. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
goals of the technical and vocational schools has an
adaptation with entrepreneurship skills.
Table 5. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of curriculum goals
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
curriculum goals 158 38.22 5.11 0.40
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Mean and standard deviation of curriculum goals were 38.22 and 5.11, respectively.
Table 6. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of curriculum goals
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
curriculum goals 20.23 157 0.000 8.22
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum goals of the technical and
vocational schools with entrepreneurship skills was
higher than average.
H3. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
contents of the technical and vocational schools has
an adaptation with entrepreneurship skills.
Table 7. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum contents
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curriculum contents 158 38.28 5.96 0.47
Mean and standard deviation of the curriculum contents were 38.28 and 5.96, respectively
.
Table 8. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum contents
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curriculum contents 17.45 157 0.000 8.28
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum contents of the technical and
vocational schools with entrepreneurship skills was
higher than average.
H4. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
executive strategies of the technical and vocational
schools has an adaptation with entrepreneurship
skills
.
Table 9. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum executive strategies
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curriculum executive strategies 158 38.65 5.25 0.41
Mean and standard deviation of the curriculum executive strategies were 38.65 and 5.25, respectively.
Table 10. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum executive strategies
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curriculum executive strategies 20.68 157 0.000 8.65
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum executive strategies of the
technical and vocational schools with entrepreneurship
skills was higher than average.
H5. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
evaluation procedures of the technical and vocational
schools has an adaptation with entrepreneurship
skills.
Table 11. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum evaluation procedures
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curriculum evaluation procedures 158 38.53 4.32 0.34
Mean and standard deviation of the curriculum
evaluation procedures were 38.53 and 4.32,
respectively.
Table 12. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum evaluation procedures
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curriculum evaluation procedures 24.82 157 0.000 8.53
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum evaluation procedures of the
technical and vocational schools with entrepreneurship
skills was higher than average.
The grading of elements of curricula
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261
To grade elements of curricula, Friedman test was used, as followed:
Table 13. Grades of variables
Mean of Grades Variables
2.43 Curriculum goals
2.52 Curriculum contents
2.54 Curriculum executive strategies
2.52 Curriculum evaluation procedures
Table 14. Analysis of Friedman Test
Sig df Chi Square Variable
0.86 3 0.73
Based on the results of Friedman test, the
appropriateness of the curriculum elements
hasn’t a significant difference with the
entrepreneurship skills.
Discussion & Conclusion
In the history of technical education, development of
curriculum on scientific basis is relatively new. There
are a few countries in which curriculum development
activity for technical and vocational education is
carried out systematically on regular basis. There is
need to look curriculum development in the context of
socio?economic developments in a particular country,
which keep on changing from time to time. Thus,
curriculum development needs a scientific approach
for taking into account present and future
socio?technological development scenario.
It has been experienced the term 'curriculum' is not
understood properly by majority of teachers and
administrators. Mostly, the term curriculum and
syllabus are used interchangeably. Hence, it is
important to define both the terms, for facilitating
clear understanding between the two. Curriculum of a
programme is an important document based on which
entire teaching?learning process is planned to prepare
suitable technical human resource.
Curriculum is important for the learner to understand
the scope of study; for the teacher to know what and
how to teach and select appropriate learning
experiences to be given to student for developing
desired competencies in them, industry to understand
the type of manpower and competencies possessed by
the pass outs from a programme and to facilitate
technical education for planning physical, human,
informational and financial resources for effective
implementation of the curriculum.
The curriculum for technical education should be
based on long and short range manpower requirement.
Decisions about whether or not to offer a curriculum
should be based upon related data. Curriculum
contents cannot be worked out until the characteristics
of students and the nature of occupation for which
they are trained is clearly known. The curriculum of
technical education has to keep pace with technology
development at work places. Hence, curriculum for
technical programme should be dynamic, making
provisions for bringing modifications from time to
time.
The aim of technical education curriculum is to
develop specific competencies for gainful
employment and hence students are required to learn
by doing practical work in laboratories, workshops
and in the industry. It is therefore, essential that
curriculum should emphasize on student centered
learning approaches. Persons responsible for
contemporary technical curriculum need to ensure that
ongoing curricula are considered in relation to what
will or may occur in the future. As decisions are being
made about curriculum content and structure, thought
should be given to the future results that might come
from those decisions.
The curriculum of pre-vocational schools includes
entrepreneurship education as an educational strategy.
It is therefore integrated as cross-curricular objective
and as part of the compulsory subjects. There are also
separate optional subjects such as the entrepreneur's
skills certificate and others in the areas of
specialization. One of the implementation strategies
for entrepreneurship education is the opening of
schools: School can reach out providing for learning
settings outside the school premises and
complementing instruction by school events.
Companies, public institutions, etc. are useful places
of teaching and/or learning as they provide for hands-
on learning experiences and relate to real-life
situations.
The curriculum aims at professionalizing secondary
school teachers and teachers in adult education on
entrepreneurship and to stimulate their entrepreneurial
mindsets by adopting non-traditional approaches and
teaching methods and by using non-traditional
pedagogical tools in order to increase the efficiency of
the entrepreneurial education.
The action plan entrepreneurship education defines a
learning pathway for entrepreneurship education. It
should, however, be observed that in view of
autonomy of schools in curriculum design and
teaching methods, schools can decide in a fully
autonomous way whether and how they will take the
recommendations of the action plan on board. The two
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
262
basic units of a learning pathway for entrepreneurship
education as suggested by the action plan
entrepreneurship education are 'entrepreneurship'
(starting up a business) and 'a sense of
entrepreneurship' (entrepreneurial behavior).
A good teacher must make use of all potential
resources when planning for and conducting
instruction. It is important to understand that
curriculum materials can make teaching more
effective for a learner. It may not be feasible to
develop entire curriculum material by the curriculum
team due to time, expertise and resource constraints. It
is therefore, essential that curriculum material
available in the market is assessed for its coverage and
quality and be procured/recommended for purchase in
the institute library and by the students.
There are strategies for Improving the Curriculum
with entrepreneurs’ skills, as followed: A strategy is a
comprehensive plan for achieving a result. As
curriculum coordinators think of what should be done
to improve the curriculum and entrepreneurs’ skills
over a period of years, they attempt to find strategies.
The strategies they choose should fit in a particular
situation. One of the strategies of effective
implementation of curriculum is careful planning at a
central place. Curriculum development centers have
been established to plan for the whole state. These
canters monitor curriculum planning and bring about
improvements. A second strategy requires shifting the
focus of attention from large scale, centralized
planning to plan at school. The leaders immediately
involved in this strategy are usually the principals. An
official from curriculum development
centre/coordinator from the State coordinate the
planning in number of institutes, as well as its
implementation. The purpose is to ensure adherence to
norms and standards for promoting uniformity. Many
curriculum leaders prefer to adopt a third strategy.
This is based on the belief that the effective
curriculum implementation cannot take place until the
faculty is well versed with the developments and
possess desired knowledge and skills to be imparted to
students. They emphasize on training and re?training
of faculty. The third strategy is, therefore, involves
comprehensive in entrepreneurs’ skills.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made based on
the finding of this study: Curriculum planners should
integrate entrepreneurship skills acquisition into the
curriculum of vocational and technical education as a
step in curbing unemployment and abject poverty. The
essence of integrating entrepreneurship education into
vocational and technical education is to ensure that
graduates are better equipped with the potentials to
establish private business ventures for their self-
reliance and for creating jobs for others.
Seminars, workshops, conferences and sensitization
campaigns should be organized by government to
expose the need to empower people on
entrepreneurship, vocational and technical skills or
competencies for wealth creation and self-
employment. The appropriate authorities for
educational funding should provide enough funds for
the procurement of necessary technological facilities
and resources entrepreneurship education and
curriculum issues in vocational and technical
education in Iranian vocational and technical schools.
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doc_267790597.pdf
Detailed file in relation to the study of the appropriateness of the curriculum for technical and vocational schools.
The study of the appropriateness of the curriculum for technical and vocational schools
with an entrepreneur's skills on technical teachers' view
Jafar Seifi
1
, •Sohrab Yazdani
2
1
Department of Educational Sciences, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
2
Department of Educational Sciences, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
Corresponding Author: Dr. Sohrab Yazdani
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research was to study the appropriateness of the curriculum for technical and vocational
schools with an entrepreneur's skills on technical teachers' view of education District 4 in 2013-14. 158 (female
44 and male 114) of technical teachers were selected by simple random sampling and assessed by the use of a
researcher-made questionnaire of entrepreneur characteristics. The present research was survey. For analyzing
hypotheses, single-case T test were used by SPSS. The results showed that mean of curriculum, curriculum
components, curriculum goals, contents, and executive strategies were 153.70, 38.22, 38.28, 38.65 and 38.53,
respectively. Findings based on T test showed that the comparison level of evaluation strategies of curriculum
for technical and vocational schools with an entrepreneur's skills was higher than average.
Keywords: curriculum, executive strategies, entrepreneur's skills
INTRODUCTION
In the history of education, curriculum development
on a scientific basis is relatively new. In developing
countries- due, principally, to a lack of resources- this
type of activity is carried out only sporadically. In
many of these countries, technical and vocational
education curricula are mere copies of those of
industrialized nations and in most cases even
lack the proper adaptation to the local situation.
The need for continuous development of curricula for
technical and vocational education is even greater than
for general education, due to the rapid and constant
changes in technology to which the curricula must be
adapted. Not only are jobs and job qualifications in
continuous flux, but also the
various social and cultural aspects of society. The
education system as a whole must therefore change
along with technical and vocational education to keep
up with this evolution. In this sense, curriculum
development can be seen as a highly complex and
important activity.
Entrepreneurship is increasingly recognized as an
important generator of economic development and
innovation (Bakotic and Kruzic, 2010). Teachers with
entrepreneurial skills which have the intention to take
over or found learning are needed. To reach this goal,
strategic measures are needed that increase the
entrepreneurial intention (i.e. the number of people
considering self-employment as an occupational
option) of young people. One feasible strategy is to
implement Entrepreneurship Education in secondary
schools (Fuchs, Werner & Wallau, 2008).
Secondary technical and vocational schools enjoy
quite some popularity. And even though education and
training in these schools requires quite a lot of hard
work on the students' side it seems to be worth the
effort for it also provides for a sound education and
high-quality vocational training. By means of not just
offering basic vocational training but also more sound
and specialized courses, technical and vocational
schools provide for training in various fields and for
various occupations. From skilled work to scientific
research - schools for engineering train for a variety of
jobs.
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
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These implications affect the outcomes and
applications of learning and the power balance
between learners, institutions and educators and one of
the difficulties of developing an integrative process
model of entrepreneurship education lies in the fact
that lines between
actor roles are not always clear (Wood, 2001).
Furthermore, as stated by Wood (2001),
entrepreneurship education is not a single event, but
rather a continuous process comprised of a series of
events. In consequence, the role of education and
training in entrepreneurship and in the identification of
endowment of entrepreneurial potential at a young
age, are becoming evident for students, politicians and
educators (Rasheed, 2000).
One of the critics in entrepreneurship courses, pointed
by Neck and Greene (2011), is the fact that they are
focused in the exploitation of opportunities assuming
that the opportunity has been already identified. Thus,
very little time and attention is given to creativity and
idea generation process. Accordingly, Jusoh et al.
(2011) in their analysis about training needs of
education in entrepreneurs found that in
entrepreneurial skills training there is a lack in areas
such as how to enhance creativity and innovation.It
was important to identify the age group that the
curriculum should target. The ideal stage to acquire
basic knowledge about entrepreneurship and to foster
a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship is during
adolescence years. In fact, entrepreneurial potential
should be identified and evaluated at the secondary
school level, during the developmental stage when the
possibility of self-employment as a career option is
still open.
A few researches have, in this manner, been
performed about curriculum and entrepreneurship in
technical and vocational schools. Therefore, the
present study was to investigate the appropriateness of
the curriculum for technical and vocational schools
with an entrepreneur's skills on technical teachers'
view.
Literature Review
The power of any curriculum lies in sustained student
learning (Hiatt-Michael, 2008). Thus, a post-
evaluation study of curriculum will provide educators,
students, parents, and policymakers with the
knowledge of the long-term student learning of a
curriculum (Stufflebeam, 2001; Tyler, 1949).
Entrepreneurs and small businesses are critical to the
nation‘s prosperity (Bygrave, 2004; McDowell, 2007;
U. S. Small Business Administration, 2010).
Research has demonstrated that education in
entrepreneurship can benefit inner-city youth by
increasing their interest in attending schools,
broadening their career aspirations, and enhancing
their belief in their own ability to reach goals.
(Fitzgerald, 1999; Hemmings, 2007; Kuratko, 2003).
Despite these facts, young people are either not aware
of or have been deprived of educational programs that
teach entrepreneurship (Hwang & Murdock,1998).
Without such programs, most inner-city youth may be
deprived of viable prospects for breaking the bonds of
poverty. If the teaching of entrepreneurial skills were
to be integrated in our nation‘s schools' curricula,
especially in low-income areas, not only would the
young adults in these neighborhoods benefit, but also
the city, the state, and even the entire country (Hiatt-
Michael, 2008; Marriotti, 2008; Stufflebeam, 2001).
According to Rae (2010) education is vital in creating
understanding of entrepreneurship, developing
entrepreneurial capabilities, and contributing to
entrepreneurial identities and cultures at individual,
collective and social levels. More, the role of
education is to shape ideas of what it means to be an
entrepreneur, not to promote an ideology of
entrepreneurship, and to create critical alertness that
contributes to the responsibility of entrepreneurs to
society. Several previous studies find a positive impact
of entrepreneurship education courses or programmes
(Peterman and Kennedy, 2003; Fayolle et al., 2006;
Raposo, Paço and Ferreira, 2008; Raposo et al. 2008;
Rodrigues et al., 2010). Other studies find evidence
that the effects are negative (Oosterbeek et al., 2010;
von Graevenitz et al., 2010).
There is some evidence that entrepreneurship
education has a positive role to play in student
entrepreneurial intention (Pittaway and Cope, 2007;
Florin et al., 2007; Raposo et al., 2008; Nabi et al.,
2010). Henry et al. (2005) conclude that
entrepreneurship programmes can be effective and
yield significant benefits for aspiring entrepreneurs.
However, the impact of university education on
entrepreneurship has been questioned, especially with
regard to impact on the transition from intentionality
to entrepreneurial behaviour or impact on
entrepreneurial success (Nabi et al., 2010).
In spite of the fact that there are a number of studies
on several aspects of start-up activities, one aspect that
is also not very clear is whether the activities that lead
to the possibility of starting a new business or venture
correspond to the content of course work in
entrepreneurship classes. Because of this it is
necessary to reflect about the relevance of what
educators are teaching in the classroom, and more
particularly, if start-up activities are effectively
reflected in entrepreneurship course content and
delivery (Edelman et al., 2008).
Garavan and Barra (1994) state that the most
commonly referred aims of entrepreneurship
education and training programmes are the following:
i) to get useful knowledge of entrepreneurship; ii) to
acquire skills in the use of techniques, in the analysis
of business atmospheres, and in the synthesis of action
plans; iii) to identify and stimulate entrepreneurial
skills; iv) to develop empathy and support for all
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
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aspects of entrepreneurship; v) to develop attitudes
towards change and uncertainty; and vi) to encourage
new start-ups.
Hisrich and Peter (1998) say that the various skills
required by entrepreneurs can be categorized as:
technical skills, business management skills and
personal entrepreneurial skills. Henry et al. (2005)
refer that the development these personal skills
differentiates an entrepreneur from a manager. Thus,
very different skills, abilities and knowledge may be
required to fulfil these different aims of
entrepreneurship education programmes. Therefore,
while many of the aspects of entrepreneurship can be
taught, it also needs a certain attitude towards taking
risks.
However, some of these programmes only connect the
entrepreneurship to new venture creation and business
management and educate about entrepreneurship and
enterprise, rather than educating for entrepreneurship,
and only rarely the focus is in the development of their
students’ skills, attributes and behaviours (Kirby,
2004).
In fact, some works advance the idea that early formal
entrepreneurship education affects the attitudes of
students, influencing them in the direction of their
future career, and affect their propensity for
entrepreneurship when they become adults. Florin et
al. (2007) stated that the students need to perceive that
the application of the skill is feasible and that an
entrepreneurial approach is desirable and a focus on
developing a positive attitude toward entrepreneurial
behavior appears to be central to entrepreneurship
education. The identification and study of students’
entrepreneurial characteristics assumes special
relevance for the development of adequate educational
programmes related with entrepreneurship and
business creation.
For instance, Bygrave (2004) presented a model that
includes need for achievement, internal locus of
control, tolerance for ambiguity and risk-taking
propensity as determinants of entrepreneurial
intention. Moreover, Robinson et al. (1991), in their
research, find that achievement, innovativeness, locus
of control and self-confidence could be predicting
entrepreneurial attitudes.
Robinson et al. (1991) state that internal control leads
to a positive entrepreneurial attitude and most students
who receive entrepreneurial formation may develop a
higher level of control and self-efficiency. Curriculum
is a training design or plan that defines (D’Hainaut
1981):
• aims, goals and objectives of an educational activity;
• ways, means and activities used to achieve the aims;
and
• methods and instruments needed to evaluate actions.
Wilson (1990) states that the word “curriculum” as it
is defined from its early Latin origins means literally
“to run a course”. She describes the curriculum as: “if
one thinks of a marathon with mile and direction
markers, signposts, water stations, and officials and
coaches along the route, this beginning definition is a
metaphor for what the curriculum development can be
defined as “the process of defining, organizing,
combining, and coordinating content so that it leads
learners to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
attitude (KSA)”( Dunbar-Hall, Rowley, Webb, Bell,
2010).
The curriculum has been based on a knowledge
hierarchy of basic science, followed by applied
science and then the technical skills of day to day
practice (Enkenberg, 2001). Enkenberg (2001) stresses
the importance of learning as being ‘situated’ –
knowledge cannot be separated from its source and
context or environment.
A Rationale for Curriculum Development in
Technical and Vocational Education
A systematically developed technical and vocational
curriculum is data-based, dynamic, explicit in its
outcomes, fully articulated, realistic, student-oriented,
evaluation conscious, future-oriented, and world class-
focused (Finch & Crunkilton, 1999, p. 19). The
evaluation of a curriculum can help to ensure that the
curriculum is of a high quality and that the
deficiencies are identified before they cause major
problems. Because a curriculum has so many
components, evaluating an entire curriculum is quite
complex, time consuming and costly (Kenneke 1995
p. 5; Finch & Crunkilton, 1999).
Thus, an evaluation often tends to focus on
programmes and materials. The techniques used
to evaluate curricula tend to be categorised as being
either quantitative or naturalistic. Quantitative
techniques focus on specific outcomes, criteria, and
objective measures. Naturalistic techniques, on the
other hand, place less emphasis on outcomes and more
emphasis on process (Finch & Crunkilton, 1999, p.
272)
Technical and Vocational Education and Training
The Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) in Bangladesh operates at Cer tificate
(secondary) and Diploma (higher secondary) level. It
is offered in a range of technical specialties, such as
agriculture; business; building and construction
technology; clothing and textiles; electrical,
electronics, computer, information & communication
technology; food and nutrition; mechanical and
automobile, etc. It is, generally, offered through the
technical depart ments of secondary schools, technical
schools and colleges (TSCs), polytechnic institutes
and other non-government/ private training institutes.
It is provided by formal, non-formal andinformal
means.
Methodology
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
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The present study was a kind of survey research.
Statistic population included 269 technical and
vocational teaches who were taught in 2013-2014 in
the city of Tabriz. The sample was composed by 158
(female 44 and male 114) of technical teachers were
selected by simple random sampling and assessed by
the use of a researcher-made questionnaire of
entrepreneur characteristics. For analyzing hypotheses,
single-case T test were used by SPSS.
To collect data, a researcher-made questionnaire of
entrepreneur characteristics was used. This test
includes 40 items based on 5-point Likert scale, has
entrepreneurship components and the elements of the
curriculum to examine the adaptation level of
curriculum with entrepreneurship components on
technical teachers’ view and attitude toward the
adaptation level.
Validity and reliability: To prepare and validate this
test, scientific texts and related literature, and experts’
viewpoints were used to do required changes
according to the conditions and characteristics of
statistical population. According to a study done
before running original design,its reliability was
investigated by the use of the Cronbach’ Alpha scale
(Table 1).
Table 1. Cronbach’ Alpha coefficients of research
variables
Alpha coefficient Items Variables
0.71 1 -10 Goals
0.75 11-20 Contents
0.77 21-30 Teaching Strategies
0.74 31-40 Evaluation Strategies
0.84 1-40 Total
4. Results
The normalization test of data distribution: To select
the proper statistical tests, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
was used. The level of significance of this test was
larger than 0.05 in all of variables. Therefore, the
dispersion distribution of the scores of these variables
was normal.
Then the used parametric tests are appropriate to the
variables in the study (Table 2
).
Table 2. Normalization test for data distribution
Sig Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test
Number Variables
0.72 0.69 158 Curriculum
goals
0.50 0.82 158 Curriculum
contents
0.40 0.89 158 Curriculum
executive
strategies
0.39 0.89 158 Curriculum
evaluation
procedures
0.30 0.97 158 Curricula
The Research Hypotheses H1. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum of
the technical and vocational schools has an
adaptation with entrepreneurship skills.
Table 3. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of curricula
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curricula 158 153.7 15.58 1.23
Mean and standard deviation of curricula were 153.7 and 15.58, respectively.
Tabl e 4. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of curricula
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curricula 27.18 157 0.000 33.70
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curricula of the technical and vocational
schools with entrepreneurship skills was higher than
average.
H2. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
goals of the technical and vocational schools has an
adaptation with entrepreneurship skills.
Table 5. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of curriculum goals
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
curriculum goals 158 38.22 5.11 0.40
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
260
Mean and standard deviation of curriculum goals were 38.22 and 5.11, respectively.
Table 6. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of curriculum goals
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
curriculum goals 20.23 157 0.000 8.22
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum goals of the technical and
vocational schools with entrepreneurship skills was
higher than average.
H3. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
contents of the technical and vocational schools has
an adaptation with entrepreneurship skills.
Table 7. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum contents
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curriculum contents 158 38.28 5.96 0.47
Mean and standard deviation of the curriculum contents were 38.28 and 5.96, respectively
.
Table 8. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum contents
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curriculum contents 17.45 157 0.000 8.28
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum contents of the technical and
vocational schools with entrepreneurship skills was
higher than average.
H4. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
executive strategies of the technical and vocational
schools has an adaptation with entrepreneurship
skills
.
Table 9. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum executive strategies
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curriculum executive strategies 158 38.65 5.25 0.41
Mean and standard deviation of the curriculum executive strategies were 38.65 and 5.25, respectively.
Table 10. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum executive strategies
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curriculum executive strategies 20.68 157 0.000 8.65
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum executive strategies of the
technical and vocational schools with entrepreneurship
skills was higher than average.
H5. In technical teachers’ view, the curriculum
evaluation procedures of the technical and vocational
schools has an adaptation with entrepreneurship
skills.
Table 11. Descriptive results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum evaluation procedures
Variable Number Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard error of
Mean
Curriculum evaluation procedures 158 38.53 4.32 0.34
Mean and standard deviation of the curriculum
evaluation procedures were 38.53 and 4.32,
respectively.
Table 12. Inferential results of one-sample T-test of the curriculum evaluation procedures
Variable T df Sig Mean Difference
Curriculum evaluation procedures 24.82 157 0.000 8.53
The results showed that the degree of significance was
0.000 and smaller than 0.05. Therefore, the adaptation
level of the curriculum evaluation procedures of the
technical and vocational schools with entrepreneurship
skills was higher than average.
The grading of elements of curricula
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
261
To grade elements of curricula, Friedman test was used, as followed:
Table 13. Grades of variables
Mean of Grades Variables
2.43 Curriculum goals
2.52 Curriculum contents
2.54 Curriculum executive strategies
2.52 Curriculum evaluation procedures
Table 14. Analysis of Friedman Test
Sig df Chi Square Variable
0.86 3 0.73
Based on the results of Friedman test, the
appropriateness of the curriculum elements
hasn’t a significant difference with the
entrepreneurship skills.
Discussion & Conclusion
In the history of technical education, development of
curriculum on scientific basis is relatively new. There
are a few countries in which curriculum development
activity for technical and vocational education is
carried out systematically on regular basis. There is
need to look curriculum development in the context of
socio?economic developments in a particular country,
which keep on changing from time to time. Thus,
curriculum development needs a scientific approach
for taking into account present and future
socio?technological development scenario.
It has been experienced the term 'curriculum' is not
understood properly by majority of teachers and
administrators. Mostly, the term curriculum and
syllabus are used interchangeably. Hence, it is
important to define both the terms, for facilitating
clear understanding between the two. Curriculum of a
programme is an important document based on which
entire teaching?learning process is planned to prepare
suitable technical human resource.
Curriculum is important for the learner to understand
the scope of study; for the teacher to know what and
how to teach and select appropriate learning
experiences to be given to student for developing
desired competencies in them, industry to understand
the type of manpower and competencies possessed by
the pass outs from a programme and to facilitate
technical education for planning physical, human,
informational and financial resources for effective
implementation of the curriculum.
The curriculum for technical education should be
based on long and short range manpower requirement.
Decisions about whether or not to offer a curriculum
should be based upon related data. Curriculum
contents cannot be worked out until the characteristics
of students and the nature of occupation for which
they are trained is clearly known. The curriculum of
technical education has to keep pace with technology
development at work places. Hence, curriculum for
technical programme should be dynamic, making
provisions for bringing modifications from time to
time.
The aim of technical education curriculum is to
develop specific competencies for gainful
employment and hence students are required to learn
by doing practical work in laboratories, workshops
and in the industry. It is therefore, essential that
curriculum should emphasize on student centered
learning approaches. Persons responsible for
contemporary technical curriculum need to ensure that
ongoing curricula are considered in relation to what
will or may occur in the future. As decisions are being
made about curriculum content and structure, thought
should be given to the future results that might come
from those decisions.
The curriculum of pre-vocational schools includes
entrepreneurship education as an educational strategy.
It is therefore integrated as cross-curricular objective
and as part of the compulsory subjects. There are also
separate optional subjects such as the entrepreneur's
skills certificate and others in the areas of
specialization. One of the implementation strategies
for entrepreneurship education is the opening of
schools: School can reach out providing for learning
settings outside the school premises and
complementing instruction by school events.
Companies, public institutions, etc. are useful places
of teaching and/or learning as they provide for hands-
on learning experiences and relate to real-life
situations.
The curriculum aims at professionalizing secondary
school teachers and teachers in adult education on
entrepreneurship and to stimulate their entrepreneurial
mindsets by adopting non-traditional approaches and
teaching methods and by using non-traditional
pedagogical tools in order to increase the efficiency of
the entrepreneurial education.
The action plan entrepreneurship education defines a
learning pathway for entrepreneurship education. It
should, however, be observed that in view of
autonomy of schools in curriculum design and
teaching methods, schools can decide in a fully
autonomous way whether and how they will take the
recommendations of the action plan on board. The two
GMP Review, 2015; V16(5) Jafar Seifi, •Sohrab Yazdani
262
basic units of a learning pathway for entrepreneurship
education as suggested by the action plan
entrepreneurship education are 'entrepreneurship'
(starting up a business) and 'a sense of
entrepreneurship' (entrepreneurial behavior).
A good teacher must make use of all potential
resources when planning for and conducting
instruction. It is important to understand that
curriculum materials can make teaching more
effective for a learner. It may not be feasible to
develop entire curriculum material by the curriculum
team due to time, expertise and resource constraints. It
is therefore, essential that curriculum material
available in the market is assessed for its coverage and
quality and be procured/recommended for purchase in
the institute library and by the students.
There are strategies for Improving the Curriculum
with entrepreneurs’ skills, as followed: A strategy is a
comprehensive plan for achieving a result. As
curriculum coordinators think of what should be done
to improve the curriculum and entrepreneurs’ skills
over a period of years, they attempt to find strategies.
The strategies they choose should fit in a particular
situation. One of the strategies of effective
implementation of curriculum is careful planning at a
central place. Curriculum development centers have
been established to plan for the whole state. These
canters monitor curriculum planning and bring about
improvements. A second strategy requires shifting the
focus of attention from large scale, centralized
planning to plan at school. The leaders immediately
involved in this strategy are usually the principals. An
official from curriculum development
centre/coordinator from the State coordinate the
planning in number of institutes, as well as its
implementation. The purpose is to ensure adherence to
norms and standards for promoting uniformity. Many
curriculum leaders prefer to adopt a third strategy.
This is based on the belief that the effective
curriculum implementation cannot take place until the
faculty is well versed with the developments and
possess desired knowledge and skills to be imparted to
students. They emphasize on training and re?training
of faculty. The third strategy is, therefore, involves
comprehensive in entrepreneurs’ skills.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made based on
the finding of this study: Curriculum planners should
integrate entrepreneurship skills acquisition into the
curriculum of vocational and technical education as a
step in curbing unemployment and abject poverty. The
essence of integrating entrepreneurship education into
vocational and technical education is to ensure that
graduates are better equipped with the potentials to
establish private business ventures for their self-
reliance and for creating jobs for others.
Seminars, workshops, conferences and sensitization
campaigns should be organized by government to
expose the need to empower people on
entrepreneurship, vocational and technical skills or
competencies for wealth creation and self-
employment. The appropriate authorities for
educational funding should provide enough funds for
the procurement of necessary technological facilities
and resources entrepreneurship education and
curriculum issues in vocational and technical
education in Iranian vocational and technical schools.
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