Description
With this brief information pertaining to the entrepreneurial revolution.
vii
Contents
List of figures xv
List of tables xvii
Acknowledgements xviii
Preface to the third edition xix
How to use the book and website xxi
Guided tour of the book xxvi
Part 1 Entrepreneurship 1
1 The entrepreneurial revolution 3
Te new age of uncertainty ¸
From opportunity to austerity 6
Te entrepreneurial revolution ,
Economic, technological and societal in?uences ¡¡
Big companies ¡a
Entrepreneurs ¡¡
Innovation, entrepreneurship and economic growth ¡;
Corporate entrepreneurship ¡,
Entrepreneurial transformation a¡
Te entrepreneurial organization a¡
Summary a6
Case insights
AirAsia – Entrepreneurial opportunity ¡¡
TutorVista – Entrepreneurial opportunity ¡6
Entrepreneurial leaders – Michael Dell, Richard Branson,
Bill Gates and Kiran Mazumdar Shaw a¡
2 Entrepreneurial DNA 31
Te DNA of entrepreneurship ¡¡
Personal character traits ¡¡
Character traints of owner-managers ¡6
Character traits of entrepreneurs ¡8
Antecedent in?uences ¡¸
Cognitive theory ¡8
Contents viii
Relationships and networks ¡,
Organization structure ¸¡
Decision-making and strategy development ¸¡
E?ectual reasoning ¸¸
Te challenges of growth ¸;
Summary 6¡
Case insights
Kenyan Asians – Entrepreneurial immigrants ¡;
Cases with questions
Duncan Bannatyne, Dragon – Entrepreneurial character traits ¡¡
Steve Jobs and Apple – Entrepreneurial character traits 6o
Executive insights
General Enterprise Tendency (GET) test 6¡
Part 2 Organizational architecture 69
3 Entrepreneurial architecture 71
Architecture ;¡
Te learning organization ;¸
Dominant logic and mental models ;8
Complexity theory 8a
Creating architecture 8¡
Building entrepreneurial DNA into architecture 8¡
Internal environment: entrepreneurial intensity 86
External environment 88
Summary ,¡
Case insights
Zipcar (Streetcar) – Paradigm shifts: changing dominant logic 8o
Case with questions
¡M – Corporate entrepreneurship ,o
Executive insights
Service-dominant logic in marketing ;,
4 Becoming an entrepreneurial leader 97
Leadership and management ,,
De?ning the role of leader ¡oo
Building a shared vision ¡oa
Strategic intent ¡o¡
Personal attributes of leaders ¡o¸
Leadership style and contingency theory ¡o;
Leaders in a learning organization ¡¡¡
Leadership paradigms ¡¡¡
Leadership in the context of our time ¡¡;
Entrepreneurial leaders ¡¡8
Building the management team ¡ao
Summary ¡a8
Case insights
Gary Redman and Now Recruitment – Leadership style ¡a¡
ix Contents
Case with questions
Michael Dell – Entrepreneurial leaders ¡a¸
Executive insights
Seven principles of successfully communicating a vision ¡o¡
Leadership style questionnaire ¡¡o
How do you behave in situations involving con?ict° ¡¡a
Are you a visionary leader° ¡¡¸
What sort of team player are you° ¡a¡
5 Constructing the entrepreneurial culture 133
Culture ¡¡¸
Dimensions of culture ¡¡6
International in?uences on culture ¡¡,
Organizational culture ¡¡¡
Culture in the entrepreneurial organization ¡¡¡
Mapping the dimensions of entrepreneurial culture ¡¡6
Constructing culture ¡¸o
Reconstructing culture ¡¸8
Culture and leadership style ¡6o
Summary ¡66
Case insights
AirAsia – Management style and culture ¡¡6
Google – Corporate culture ¡¸¡
Wilkin & Sons and J. Cadbury & Sons – Ethics and culture ¡¸¡
Louis Gerstner and IBM – Changing culture ¡¸,
Cases with questions
Apple – Organizational culture ¡¸¸
David Hall and HFL Sport Science – Changing culture ¡6a
Executive insights
Five ways to destroy a rich culture ¡6o
Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) ¡6¸
6 Building the organization structure 171
Size ¡;¡
Hierarchy ¡;6
Change and complexity ¡;8
Organic structures ¡8o
New forms of organizing ¡8¡
Networks and socially embedded ?rms ¡8¸
Te knowledge ?rm in the knowledge economy ¡86
Te globalizing ?rm and its changing boundaries ¡8;
Strategic alliancesipartnerships and joint ventures ¡8,
Developing partnerships ¡,¡
Leadership, culture and structures ¡,¡
Hybrid organic structures and the multi-business organization ¡,¡
Summary ¡,,
Case insights
JaguariWilliams, BBCiIBM and Sun MicrosystemsiIntel –
Strategic alliances ¡,o
Love?lm – Strategic partnerships ¡,a
Contents x
Cases with questions
Apple – Organizational structures ¡8a
Tata Consultancy Services – Structures to encourage innovation ¡88
Richard Branson and Virgin – Brand, culture and structure ¡,¸
Part 3 Management 205
7 Managing the entrepreneurial organization 207
Barriers to corporate entrepreneurship ao,
Reactions to change a¡¡
Implementing change a¡¸
Cementing change a¡,
Management style aa¸
Managing autonomy aa6
Open book management a¡¡
Managing risk a¡a
Monitoring and mitigating risk a¡6
Summary a¡8
Case insights
Enron – Autonomy vs control aa,
Eurostar – Risk management a¡;
Cases with questions
Starbucks – Turnaround a¡a
Marks & Spencer (M&S) – Turnaround aao
BP and Deepwater Horizon – Autonomy vs control a¡o
Specsavers – Mitigating ?nancial risk a¡¡
Executive insghts
Toolkit for managing change a¡,
8 Encouraging intrapreneurship and corporate
venturing 241
Corporate venturing, venture teams and intrapreneurship a¡¡
Personal characteristics of intrapreneurs a¡¡
Motivating intrapreneurs a¡6
Encouraging intrapreneurship a¡8
How intrapreneurs work a¸o
New venture teams a¸¡
Organizing new venture developments a¸a
New venture divisions a¸¸
Research and development a¸;
Successful corporate venturing a¸,
Summary a6¡
Case insights
Apple’s App Store – Involving outsiders in intrapreneurship a¡8
Boeing – Encouraging intrapreneurship a¸o
Xerox Technology Ventures – New venture divisions a¸6
Cases with questions
GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) – Organizing R&D a¸8
xi Contents
Nokia – Encouraging organizational innovation a6¡
Nokia and Microsoft – Strategic partnerships a6¡
Executive insights
Could you be an intrapreneur° a¡¸
Part 4 Strategy 267
9 Developing strategy 269
Distributed strategizing a;¡
Vision and mission a;¡
Values and ethics a;;
Developing strategic intent a;,
Developing strategic options a8o
Developing strategy a8¸
Strategic analysis a8;
Ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) a,o
Building CSR into strategic planning a,;
Corporate governance and the board of directors ¡oo
Summary ¡o¡
Case insights
Lush and Dell – Corporate values a;8
Monorail – Company of the future a8a
Novo Nordisk – Diabetes and Obesity aoa¸ – Scenario planning a8¡
Jordans – Ethics and market positioning a,a
Rolls-Royce and TotalCare – Te environment and business
model innovation a,¡
Ecotricity – Environmental sustainability a,¸
Richard Branson and Virgin Unite – Philanthropy a,6
Starbucks – Environmental mission statement a,8
Cases with questions
easyJet, Starbucks, Dell and Google – Mission statements a;¸
Abel and Cole – CSR and competitive advantage a,8
Marks & Spencer (M&S) – CSR in a public company a,,
Executive insights
Ten guidelines for reducing waste a,¡
10 Creating competitive advantage in mature markets 307
Competitive advantage ¡o,
Cost advantage ¡¡¡
Di?erentiation advantage ¡¡¸
Value drivers ¡ao
Sustainable di?erential advantage ¡aa
Productiservice life cycles ¡a¡
Product portfolios ¡a,
Marketing strategy and product portfolios ¡¡¡
Finance and product portfolios ¡¡¡
Product modi?cation, extension and expansion ¡¡¸
Finding new markets ¡¡6
Penetrating foreign markets ¡¡,
Contents xii
Industry life cycles ¡¡a
Organizational structure and product portfolios ¡¡¡
Summary ¡¡6
Case insights
Quanta Computers – Di?erential advantage ¡¡;
Quad Electroaccoustics – Niche strategy ¡¡,
Morgan Motor Company – Niche strategy ¡ao
Hewlett Packard Pavilion 8ooo laptop – Global supply chains ¡aa
Heineken – International brands and market positioning ¡¡a
Rolls-Royce Aerospace – Expanding overseas ¡¡o
Case with questions
easyJet – Low price strategy ¡¡¡
Crocs™ – Niche product life cycles ¡a8
B&Q in China – Establishing operations in an overseas market ¡¡¡
Barbie` and Mattel Corporation – Extending the product
life cycle ¡¡¸
11 Building value through acquisitions and diversi?cation 351
Acquisitions, diversi?cation and conglomerates ¡¸¡
Strategic acquisitions ¡¸¡
External corporate venturing ¡¸6
Diversi?cation ¡6o
Conglomerates ¡6¸
Economies of scope and synergy ¡6;
Reasons why acquisitions fail ¡6,
Multi-businesses and value creation ¡;a
Summary ¡;¸
Case insights
eBay and PayPal – Acquiring complementary companies ¡¸¸
Pret a Manger – Corporate venturing ¡¸,
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) – Aggressive acquisition ¡6o
Reliance Industries – Family-owned conglomerates ¡6;
Cases with questions
AmazoniAppleiFacebookiGoogleiMicrosoft – Cyber-wars:
incremental diversi?cation ¡6¡
Cadbury – Managing a global product portfolio ¡;o
BAE Systems – Strategic acquisitions ¡;¡
Part 5 Creativity and innovation 379
12 Exploiting innovation 381
Innovation, invention and creativity ¡8¡
Encouraging innovation ¡88
New productiservice development model ¡,o
Parallel development model ¡,a
Disruptive innovation ¡,¡
Sources of disruptive innovation ¡,6
Challenging marketing paradigms: Blue Ocean strategy ¡,8
Innovation and risk ¡o¡
xiii Contents
A portfolio approach to innovation risk ¡o;
Risk and time taken to innovate ¡o8
Mitigating the risks of disruptive innovation ¡¡o
Summary ¡¡8
Case insights
Charles Babbage – Inventor ¡8¡
James Dyson – Inventor and entrepreneur ¡8;
Levi jeans – Disorderly development processes ¡,¡
Swatch – Paradigm shift ¡,8
OnMobile – Timing ¡o,
Case with questions
Nintendo Wii – Paradigm shift ¡oa
Google – Entrepreneurial architecture ¡¡a
Executive insights
Ten ways to sti?e innovation ¡,o
Innovative Tinker Test ¡¡;
13 Generating creative ideas 423
Discovery skills ¡a¸
Creativity and the search for innovation ¡a8
Te creative mind ¡¡o
Generating new ideas ¡¡a
Connectivity ¡¡¡
Open innovation and crowdsourcing ¡¡;
Creative environments ¡¡,
National creativity ¡¡¡
Knowledge and learning ¡¡¡
Techniques for generating new ideas ¡¡6
Blocks to creativity ¡¸a
Encouraging creativity and innovation ¡¸¡
Summary ¡6a
Case insights
Swarfega – Re-using ideas ¡a6
Google – Experimentation ¡a;
HFL Sport Science – Stimulating new ideas ¡¡¡
Great Ormond Street Hospital – Connecting ideas ¡¡¸
Starbucks – Crowdsourcing ¡¡8
Linux – Open innovation ¡¡,
Googleplex – Creative environments ¡¡o
Cases with questions
LG and Hallmark – Encouraging creativity and innovation ¡¡¸
Lego` – Driving corporate transformation ¡¸6
Lego` – Focused open innovation ¡¸8
Executive insights
Six principles of open innovation ¡¡8
How to run a brainstorming session ¡¡;
Personal Construct Teory and the Repertory Grid ¡¸¡
CREAX creativity resources and creativity test ¡6¡
Contents xiv
14 The architecture of corporate entrepreneurship 467
Context ¡6,
Leadership ¡6,
Culture ¡;¡
Structure ¡;a
Strategies ¡;¡
Environment ¡;¸
Corporate Entrepreneurship Audit (CEA) ¡;6
Strategic direction ¡8o
Case reviews
¡M, Apple, Dell Corporation, HFL Sport Sciences, Google
and Virgin ¡8¡
Further reading and journals 485
Subject index 489
Author index 495
Quotes index 499
3
Chapter 1
The entrepreneurial revolution
> The new age of uncertainty
> From opportunity to austerity
> The entrepreneurial revolution
> Economic, technological
and societal in?uences
> Big companies
> Entrepreneurs
> Innovation, entrepreneurship
and economic growth
> Corporate entrepreneurship
> Entrepreneurial transformation
> The entrepreneurial organization
> Summary
Case insights
> AirAsia – Entrepreneurial opportunity
> TutorVista – Entrepreneurial opportunity
> Entrepreneurial leaders – Michael
Dell, Richard Branson, Bill Gates
and Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw
Entrepreneurship 4
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
> Critically analyze the changing commercial environment;
> Explain why entrepreneurs and small ?rms are so important to the
economies of modern countries and the particular importance of a
small number of rapidly growing ?rms called ‘gazelles’;
> Critically analyze the problems large ?rms have in coping with
the new age of uncertainty and the advantages enjoyed by small,
entrepreneurial ?rms;
> De?ne an entrepreneur, what they do and why they are so important;
> Critically analyze the link between innovation, entrepreneurship and
economic growth;
> De?ne ‘corporate entrepreneurship’ and critically analyze the
‘schools’ of literature that have delineated the discipline;
> Explain what is meant by, and what the bene?ts are, of corporate
entrepreneurship;
> Critically analyze the different schools of corporate entrepreneurship
literature.
5 The entrepreneurial revolution
The new age of uncertainty
Te old world order has changed and continues to change. Economic
power is moving east from the USA and Europe to China and India. If the
most startling evidence of this was the ?nancial crisis of aoo8i,, followed
by the recession that engulfed the mature western economies, the seeds
of the change were sown much earlier. Te twenty-?rst century has seen
enormous turbulence and disruption. Tere have been unpredictable
shocks such as the terrorist attack on the twin towers in New York in aoo¡
followed by attacks in London, Bali, Madrid and Mumbai and the wars in
Afghanistan and Iraq. Te upheavals caused by the so-called ‘Arab spring’
of ao¡¡ have continued to a?ect the Middle East. Tere have been natural
disasters like the Icelandic volcano in ao¡o and the earthquake and tsunami
in Japan in ao¡¡. Tere have been enormous shocks to the international
monetary system precipitated by the ?nancial crisis of aoo8i, which
particularly a?ected Iceland in aoo8 and then Portugal, Ireland, Greece and
Italy in ao¡oi¡¡ and subsequently the entire Eurozone. Tere have also been
some spectacular corporate failures from Lehman Brothers in the USA to
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) in the UK. Corporate integrity has come to
be questioned. In the USA the unexpected failure of Enron, one of the most
admired ?rms of the ¡,,os, in aoo¡ became a benchmark for management
greed and lack of integrity. But such scandals were not con?ned to the USA.
Parmalat in Italy became the largest bankruptcy in Europe in aoo¡. Te
Olympus scandal of ao¡a in Japan led to prosecutions. Alongside this the
twenty-?rst century has seen unprecedented volatility in just about every
market from commodities to exchange rates, from stock markets to bond
markets. And underpinning this volatility is the uncertainty surrounding
climate change and whether we have reached a ‘tipping point’ in global
warming.
Te major themes running through this new age of uncertainty are
complexity and change. We are living in an increasingly complex world,
full of interconnections formed by a truly global market place linked by
technology which allows instant communication. Small changes tend to be
ampli?ed in highly connected systems. Actions in one part of the market
place can have unexpected and rapid consequences in another part of it.
And nobody, not even sovereign states, seems able to control this. And
the pace of change has accelerated. Change itself has changed to become a
continuous process of often-discontinuous steps, abrupt but all-pervasive.
Te idea that change has become endemic, continuous and, above all,
unpredictable, sometimes resulting in discontinuous or revolutionary
shifts that can create chaos has powerful implications for us all, but it is
not new. Te ancient Chinese saw change as an endless and essential
feature of our universe – a pattern of cyclical coming and going, growth
and decay, winter and summer, the yin of night and yang of day. Somehow
the west had forgotten this, believing instead that it could create stability
Entrepreneurship 6
and certainty, that change was a series of discrete events that moved socie-
ties from one stable state to another. Economists based theories on it. And
economists, politicians and managers focused on the ways that change
could be controlled in a systematic way. Managers turned to rational tech-
niques of long-term planning and tight control
systems. But this new age of uncertainty has
powerful implications for all organizations.
Planning becomes problematic if you cannot
predict the future and strategic management
faces completely new challenges as the linear
models based on knowledge and information
that have been used for decades seem increas-
ingly unrealistic. Centralized control seems
increasingly unable to cope and traditional
views of leadership need to be reconsidered as
people increasingly show they also have power.
McMillan (aoo¡) characterized what she
called the ‘traditional, classical, mechanistic’
view of change as abnormal, potentially
calamitous, an incremental linear event that
is disruptive but that can be controlled. She
contrasted this to what she called the ‘new,
modern dynamic’ view that change is normal,
continuous, turbulent, both revolutionary and
incremental, uncontrollable and non-linear
but full of opportunities. Tese two views are
contrasted in Figure ¡.¡. McMillan went on to
question traditional approaches to leadership and strategy development
and to cast the net wide in searching for ideas about how to deal with
change by saying that we need to look at quantum physics and complexity
theory – to which we shall indeed return in Chapter ¡.
From opportunity to austerity
Te economic boom at the end of the twentieth century came to an end in
the twenty-?rst. Te banking crisis of aoo8i, led to recession and stagna-
tion, particularly in western markets. Te age of opportunity gave way to a
new age of austerity to accompany the age of uncertainty. Te shift simply
made us realize our vulnerability in this new era. Commercial opportuni-
ties remain but competition is now as much about survival as growth. And,
as global competition continues to increase, sources of competitive advan-
tage are proving increasingly di?cult to sustain over any period of time.
Indeed, it is the ability to create new sources of competitive advantage
quickly, again and again, that is proving to be the only sustainable source
of real competitive advantage. At the same time as seeking new sources
‘We now stand on the threshold of a new age – the age
of revolution. In our minds, we know the new age has
already arrived: in our bellies, we’re not sure we like
it. For we know it is going to be an age of upheaval, of
tumult, of fortunes made and unmade at head-snapping
speed. For change has changed. No longer is it additive.
No longer does it move in a straight line. In the twenty
?rst century, change is discontinuous, abrupt, seditious.’
Gary Hamel, author, 2000
‘We need to nurture future business leaders … to shape
the vision of the world to come. It is not possible to
draw a picture of this universe, but we know it and how
fast it is moving and developing. It is like describing
the shape of a large cloud in the sky, blown o? by a
strong wind. Yet we know its shape and where it is
because we see it and sense it. Although it is not entirely
possible to describe it in a static way, a world-class
entrepreneur can describe it and even capture a large
chunk of it, converting it into raindrops or pro?t.’
Kenichi Ohmae, author, 2005
7 The entrepreneurial revolution
F 1.1 Views of change
Traditional, classical, mechanistic views of change
Change
is…
An event
Linear
Controllable
Cause and
effect
Abnormal Disruptive
Calamitous Incremental
New, modern, dynamic views of change
Change
is…
About
learning
Normal
Uncontrollable
Revolutionary
and
incremental
Creative
Full of
opportunities
Turbulent
Continuous
Non-linear
Adapted from E. McMillan (2004) Complexity, Organisations and Change,
London: Routledge.
Entrepreneurship 8
of competitive advantage companies must continue to manage existing
businesses. Tey must ?nd ways of managing to achieve cost e?ciencies
whilst at the same time di?erentiating themselves from the competition.
Tey must ?nd ways to innovate at the same time as managing products at
the mature stage of their life cycle. Tey must ?nd ways of understanding
and reconciling customer needs in both India and the USA, of reconciling
global integration with local di?erentiation. And, despite their size, they
must respond to changes in these needs quickly just as they must react
quickly to the actions of competitors. All these pressures and paradoxes
have caused large ?rms to reconsider how they are structured and how
they manage their diverse operations. Tey need to manage for survival
today but plan for growth when an upturn comes.
Tis new imperative of survival has led to some reappraisal of how
shareholder value is maximized. Certainly the previous focus on short-
term pro?ts has shifted to liquidity and cash ?ow. But also there is a focus
on risk minimization and a realization that companies
need to maximize their ?exibility if they are to survive in
this new, unpredictable age. And that means they need to
maximize the number of commercial options they face at
any time, even if that comes at the expense of short-term
pro?ts. Strategic options are valuable when you face either
an unexpected downturn or upturn and are essential in
the age of uncertainty. Flexibility increases shareholder value. Tis all has
implications, not only for how strategy is developed, but also for deciding
which sectors are attractive.
Te age of austerity has coincided with a shift in sources of value being
in physical assets to virtual assets – a shift from assets that are purchased
and restrict ?exibility to those that can be built up and can increase
?exibility. We have moved from an industrial economy to a knowledge
economy driven by new digital technologies. And with this new economy
commercial opportunities continue to emerge both from technological and
market innovation, sometimes breaking down established industry barriers
and creating new and unexpected sources of competition. For example, the
internet has caused many high street retailers to radically reappraise their
customer o?ering and will probably lead to the high street looking very
di?erent in the future. It has caused the music, video and print industries
to reappraise how their products are distributed. It has caused disruption,
generating as many opportunities as threats.
Te new age has also seen companies face new social pressures.
Corporate scandals such as Enron and Parmalat have led to cries for
improved corporate governance and board room accountability. Excessive
executive salaries and bonuses that bore no relationship to the performance
of the organization, exempli?ed in RBS and Merrill Lynch, have redoubled
these cries. At the same time companies have been pressurized to take a
more socially responsible role. Tis pressure comes from many sources.
‘Today’s businesses, especially the large
ones, simply will not survive in this period
of rapid change and innovation unless
they acquire entrepreneurial competence.’
Peter Drucker, author, 1985
9 The entrepreneurial revolution
Environmentalists want companies to reduce their ‘carbon footprint’,
espouse ‘green’ issues and become more sustainable. Social reformers
want them to change some of their behaviours, for example exploitation
of child labour in developing economies. Social activists want them to
espouse ‘corporate citizenship’ programmes and undertake charity work
in the community. Finally ethical activists see companies such as Enron
and Parmalat behaving in unacceptable ways and want business ethics to
be re-established in the board room. All these issues have become bundled
together under the umbrella of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). CSR
is seen as increasingly important for large companies for both ethical and
commercial reasons. CSR stock market indices have been developed and
there is increasing pressure from customers and shareholders to imple-
ment CSR.
The entrepreneurial revolution
While we have moved from the age of opportunity to an age of auster-
ity there has been a quiet revolution taking place. Entrepreneurs have
emerged as the species most able to cope with the turbulence caused by
both opportunity and austerity. Over the last three decades entrepreneurs
establishing new ?rms have done more to create wealth than ?rms at any
time before them – ever! Ninety-?ve per cent of the wealth of the USA
has been created since ¡,8o. Bill Gates started Microsoft in ¡,;¸, Steve
Jobs started Apple in ¡,;6, Michael Dell set up Dell Corporation in ¡,8¡,
Pierre Omidyar launched eBay in ¡,,¸ and Larry Page and Sergy Brin set
up Google in ¡,,6. And this was not just happening in the USA. In the
UK Alan Sugar launched Amstrad in ¡,68, Richard Branson started what
has become his Virgin empire in ¡,;a, James Dyson started selling his now
ubiquitous Dyson vacuum cleaners in ¡,;6, Anita Roddick opened the ?rst
Body Shop in ¡,;6 and Julian Metcalfe and Sinclair Beecham opened their
?rst Pret A Manger sandwich bar in ¡,86. In
India Sunil Mittal started his ?rst business, later
to become Bhati Enterprises, in ¡,;6 and Kiran
Mazumdar-Shaw started Biocon in ¡,;8. Tese
are now gigantic corporations that made their
founders into millionaires.
People have begun to appreciate the contri-
bution all small ?rms make to the economies of
their countries. It was David Birch (¡,;,) who,
arguably, started this process with his seminal
research which showed that 8aºof new jobs in
the USA created between ¡,6, and ¡,;6 were
in small ?rms (under ¸oo employees). Although
the detailed statistics have been disputed, this
general pattern has been repeated every year.
‘Te Entrepreneurial Revolution is here to stay, having
set the genetic code of the US and global economy
for the ??st century, and having sounded the death
knell for Brontosaurus Capitalism of yesteryear.
Entrepreneurs are the creators, the innovators, and the
leaders who give back to society, as philanthropists,
directors and trustees, and who, more than any
others, change the way people live, work, learn, play,
and lead. Entrepreneurs create new technologies,
products, processes, and services that become the next
wave of new industries. Entrepreneurs create value
with high potential, high growth companies which
are the job creation engines of the US economy.’
Jeffrey Timmons, author, 1999
Entrepreneurship 10
Small, growing ?rms have outstripped large ones in terms of job genera-
tion, year after year. At times when larger companies retrenched, smaller
?rms continued to o?er job opportunities. It has been estimated that in the
USA small ?rms now generate ¸oº of GDP, and over ¸oº of exports now
come from ?rms employing fewer than ao people.
Europe lags a little behind the USA, but the pattern is similar. Small
?rms, virtually no matter how they are de?ned, now make up over ,¸º
of enterprises in the European Community. Overall, they generate 6;º of
employment and ¸8º of value added (Eurostat, aoo8). In Italy the propor-
tion of value added is ;,º, in France it is 6¡º and in Germany it is 6oº.
In the UK they generate 6aº of employment and over a¸º of GDP. With
¡.; million small ?rms in aoo; (an increase of almost ,6º in a8 years), the
UK has one of the highest business start-up rates in Europe. By just about
any measure the contribution small ?rms make to the economy of any
country is increasing and their importance is now fully recognized.
But the focus is not just on small ?rms. It is also on high-growth ?rms.
Despite being few in number, young, high-growth businesses – often
called ‘gazelles’ – are disproportionately important to national economies.
De?nitions of gazelles vary. Te OECD proposed de?nition is enterprises
with ¡o or more employees, with an average employment growth of over
aoº for three consecutive years (Ahmad, aoo6). In the USA it has been
estimated that gazelles, although they comprise less than ¡º of all compa-
nies, generate about ¡oº of new jobs in any given year. Indeed the top-
performing ¡º of all ?rms generate about ¡oº of all new jobs (Strangler,
ao¡o). Te pattern is replicated in other countries. In the UK, a government
survey of the literature concluded that gazelles, although they represent
just a to ¡º of all ?rms, were responsible for the majority of employment
growth (BERR, aoo8). And, although medium-sized businesses (turnover
rao–r8oo million) represent ¡º of businesses they generate over ¡oº of
GDP and employ more than one-third of the workforce (GE Capital, ao¡a).
But again Europe lags somewhat behind the USA. An EU survey found US
SMEs were on average larger and expanded more rapidly than EU ?rms
(European Commission, aoo8) and, whilst a higher percentage of UK ?rms
achieve high growth than European ?rms, the UK still lags behind the USA
(BERR, op. cit).
As the pace of change in just about every aspect of our life accelerates,
small ?rms seem more able to cope than large. Start-ups are on the increase
across the world. While the number of small ?rms is increasing, big ?rms
are struggling to survive. In the UK there are only around ;ooo ?rms
employing over a¸o employees. Many large ?rms are slimming down or
deconstructing – becoming many small ?rms – because this is the only way
they can cope with the pace of change and remain responsive to changes
in the market. Te entrepreneur has been recognized as a vital part of the
process of economic wealth generation. But large organizations are desper-
ate to learn from the entrepreneur and become more entrepreneurial
11 The entrepreneurial revolution
themselves. After all, increasing size is a natural consequence of businesses
being successfully started by entrepreneurs. Te trick is to learn the lessons
of that success and not allow the organization to fossilize and die. However,
according to Arie de Geus (¡,,
large organizations have proved amaz-
ingly inept at survival. He quoted a Dutch survey showing the average
corporate life expectancy in Japan and Europe was ¡a.¸ years. ‘Te average
life expectancy of a multinational corporation – the Fortune ¸oo or equiva-
lent – is between ¡o and ¸o years.’ Te reality is that large companies often
die young or at least their ownership changes fairly quickly. But the other
side of the coin is that most small ?rms remain very small and do not grow.
In the UK ;¡º have no employees and ,6º have fewer than ¡o employees
(www.statistics.gov.uk). What is more, almost ¸oº of businesses will cease
trading within the ?rst three years of their existence.
Economic, technological and societal
in?uences
A number of other in?uences have accelerated the trend towards smaller
?rms. Firstly there has been the shift in most economies away from
manufacturing towards the service sectors where small ?rms often ?our-
ish because of their ability to deliver a personalized, ?exible, tailor-made
service at a local level. Te move to a knowledge economy has meant that
economies of scale become less important as a form of competitive advan-
tage. For example, a high proportion of innovations in the pharmaceutical
industry now come from small ?rms set up speci?cally to undertake R&D.
A high proportion of our gazelles hold intellectual property and intangible
jCase insight AirAsia
Entrepreneurial opportunity
Former Time Warner executive Tony Fernandes set up Asia’s ?rst low-cost
airline, AirAsia, in 2001, buying the heavily indebted state-owned company
from the Malaysian government for only 25p. He set about remodelling it as
a short-haul, low-cost operator ?ying around Asia. Being ?rst in the Asian
market with an idea copied from the West from companies such as easyJet,
the company expanded rapidly from a ?eet of only two planes in 2002 to 86
planes ?ying 30 million people around the world by 2010. It created a new
Asian market in low-cost air travel. By 2007, UBS research showed it to be
the lowest-cost airline in the world. Now with hubs in Kuala Lumpur and
Singapore, it has won the Skytrax World’s best low-cost airline award in 2007,
2009, 2010 and 2011. It has also established associate airlines in Thailand and
Indonesia.
Entrepreneurship 12
assets such as trademarks and patents (BERR, op. cit.). SMEs can build
value in the knowledge economy rather than having to buy it in the form of
physical assets – and they often seem better at doing that than large ?rms.
Technology has played its part. It has in?uenced the trend in three ways.
Firstly, the new technologies that swept the late twentieth century business
world were pioneered by new, rapidly growing ?rms. Small ?rms pioneered
innovation in computers, the internet and digital communications, creat-
ing new markets for these innovations. Tese markets are starting to
consolidate and amalgamate into larger units now, as they mature. We look
at the ‘cyber-wars’ this process has spawned in Chapter ¡¡. Secondly, these
technologies have actually facilitated the growth of self-employment and
small business by easing communication, encouraging working from home
and allowing smaller and smaller market segments to be serviced. Indeed
information has become a product in its own right and one that can be
generated anywhere around the world and transported at the touch of a
button. Finally, many new technologies, for example digital printing, have
reduced ?xed costs so that production can be pro?table in smaller, more
?exible units. Tey have also simpli?ed the routes to market so that small
?rms can sell to larger ?rms or direct to customers around the world, with-
out the expense of putting in place a distribution network. And as large
?rms increasingly outsource non-core activities, the bene?ciaries are often
small ?rms.
Social and market trends have also accelerated the growth of small ?rms.
Firstly, customers increasingly expect ?rms to address their particular
needs. Market niches are becoming slimmer and markets more competi-
tive – better served by smaller ?rms who can get close to their customers.
Secondly, people want to control their own destiny more. After periods
of high unemployment, they see self-employment as more attractive and
more secure than employment. Redundancy has pushed many people into
self-employment at the same time as the new ‘enterprise culture’ has given
it political and social respectability. And, in an age of uncertainty people
seek to control as many aspects of their economic security as possible. Te
growth of the ‘new-age’ culture and ‘alternative’ life styles, encouraged by
worries about climate change, have also led to the development of a whole
range of new self-employment and sustainable opportunities, albeit often
at the periphery of the economy.
Big companies
Big companies are struggling with these challenges – and seem not to
be winning. Tey cut budgets, close plants, downsize, rightsize, decon-
struct – and go out of business. Te ‘deconstruction’ of larger ?rms into
smaller, more responsive units concentrating on their core activities, often
sub-contracting many of their other activities to smaller ?rms has also
contributed to the trend towards SMEs. Large ?rms and even the public
13 The entrepreneurial revolution
sector became leaner and ?tter in the ¡,8os in a bid to reduce ?xed costs
and reduce risks, a process that continues to the present day. Small ?rms
have bene?ted, although they may be seen as dependent on large ones.
But the core of the problem is that traditional
management practices focus on e?ciency and
e?ectiveness rather than creativity and innovation
– control rather than empowerment. Tey look for
cost savings through scale e?ciencies rather than
di?erentiation through economies of small scale.
Tey look for uniformity rather than diversity and
stress discipline rather than motivation. And they
often discourage what they see as the risk-taking
associated with a market opportunity without the
information to evaluate it. By the time they get that the opportunity will
have been seized by a small ?rm. Add all this to the danger that bureau-
cracy will swamp the organizations that practise this traditional form of
management, that they will ossify, and you have the makings of disaster. No
wonder big is no longer beautiful.
And yet big business comes with signi?cant advantages – ?nancial
resources, credibility with stakeholders, established routes to market,
trusted brands and, most valuable of all, large work-forces. Indeed up to
the middle of the twentieth century big companies were thought of as
the route to economic plenty. If only more organizations can continue to
be entrepreneurial as they grow and, just perhaps, others can turn from
being bureaucratic to become entrepreneurial. Te Holy Grail they seek is
sustainable competitive advantage through the ability to change and adapt
to suit a constantly changing environment where continuous innovation
yields substantial rewards – and increases longevity. But most big business
remains typically risk averse. Whether this comes from size or age is di?-
cult to discern. And this creates the culture of bureaucracy which in turn
sti?es entrepreneurship and all it represents – particularly innovation.
And with this, entrepreneurship has become something that society,
governments and organizations of all sizes and forms wish to encourage
and promote. Whether it be creating a new venture or breathing life into an
old one, whether it is creating new products or ?nding new ways to market
old ones, whether it is doing new things or ?nding new ways of doing old
things, entrepreneurial management – whatever that is – has become a
highly valued skill to be nurtured, developed and encouraged. Fostering
entrepreneurship in all aspects of their teaching is probably one of the
major challenges facing Business Schools in the twenty-?rst century.
However, whilst the boards of larger companies are often criticized for
the marked absence of entrepreneurs, there is a pervading suspicion that,
whilst entrepreneurs might be good at that ‘vision thing’ and launching
new ventures, they can become a dangerous liability once a company is
established. And too many entrepreneurs in one organization is bound to
‘Te guiding principles in a traditional corporate
culture are: follow the instructions given; do
not make any mistakes; do not fail; do not take
initiatives but wait for instructions; stay within
your turf; and protect your backside. Te restrictive
environment is of course not conducive to creativity,
?exibility, independence, and risk taking.’
Robert Hisrich and Michael Peters, authors, 1992
Entrepreneurship 14
lead to con?ict, disagreement and disaster as they move o?, often at speed,
in di?erent directions. Tere is some truth in this and it is a real danger.
But it is a predictable danger and one, therefore, that can be avoided with
proper management. What is more, to be e?ective within an organization,
entrepreneurial behaviour needs to be encouraged and focused at all levels
within it, not just at the top. It needs to be institutionalized, ingrained
in the culture of the organization. But equally it needs to be focused and
directed. Finally it needs to be the appropriate response to the environment
the organization faces. Not all industrial sectors or tasks face turbulence
and change – these were broad generalizations. Not all ?rms need to
encourage innovation. Outside of an appropri-
ate context, entrepreneurial actions may be
inappropriate and reckless. For example, in
the early twenty-?rst century RBS was seen as
one of the most entrepreneurial banks in the
world, but its entrepreneurial risk-taking led
to its nationalization and precipitated the UK
?nancial crisis of aoo8i,. However, at the risk
of generalizing, entrepreneurial management
has by and large proved more successful than
traditional management at coping with the
new age of uncertainty.
By looking at both successful and unsuccess-
ful entrepreneurs and their businesses we can
start to understand what it takes to build and
sustain a truly entrepreneurial organization.
And the lessons are valuable to organizations
of any size that need to make the most of the
opportunities and threats generated by rapid change. Te challenge, then,
is to isolate the very DNA of entrepreneurship and, through genetic engi-
neering, replicate it within and throughout a larger organization using all
the skills of systematic management. Te challenge is to develop ‘corporate
entrepreneurship’.
Entrepreneurs
Most owner-managers of small ?rms are, in fact, not at all entrepreneurial.
Tey prefer to manage businesses that will not grow but rather deliver a
life style that they enjoy. Te real driving force behind this entrepreneurial
revolution are those ‘super-heroes’ called entrepreneurs who lead our
gazelles. Tey have become the stu? of legends, increasingly held in high
esteem and held up as role models to be emulated. Tey are often held out
as embodying many ephemeral qualities – freedom of spirit, creativity,
vision, zeal. Tey have the courage, self-belief and commitment to turn
their dreams into realities. Tey are the catalysts for economic change.
‘In the years ahead all big companies will ?nd it
increasingly di?cult to compete with – and in general
will perform more poorly than – smaller, speedier,
more innovative companies. Te mindset that in a huge
global economy the multinationals dominate world
business couldn’t have been more wrong. Te bigger
and more open the world economy becomes, the more
small and middle-sized companies will dominate.
In one of the major turnarounds of my lifetime, we
have moved from economies of scale to “diseconomies
of scale”; from bigger is better to bigger is ine?cient,
costly, wastefully bureaucratic, in?exible, and, now,
disastrous. And the paradox is that that has occurred as
we move to a global context: Te smaller and speedier
players will prevail on a much expanded ?eld.’
John Naisbitt, entrepreneur and author, 1994
15 The entrepreneurial revolution
Tey see an opportunity, commercialize it and in the process create jobs
from which the rest of society bene?ts. Entrepreneurs can be described in
terms of their character traits and by their actions. And we shall explore
this in detail in the next chapter, where we attempt to isolate their very
DNA.
Interestingly for something so popular, there is no universally accepted
de?nition of the term ‘entrepreneur’. Te Oxford English Dictionary de?nes
an entrepreneur as ‘a person who attempts to pro?t by risk and initiative’.
Tis de?nition emphasizes that entrepreneurs exercise a high degree of
initiative and are willing to take a high degree of risk. But it covers a wide
range of occupations, including that of a paid assassin. No wonder there
is an old adage that if you scratch an entrepreneur you will ?nd a ‘spiv’ or
a ‘con-man’ – somebody who will try to get you to part with your money
by deception. However, the di?erence is more than just one of legality.
Terefore a question you might ask is ‘How do they do these things°’
Back in ¡8oo, Jean-Baptiste Say, the French economist usually credited
with inventing the word, said: ‘entrepreneurs shift economic resources from
an area of lower productivity into an area of higher productivity and greater
yield’. In other words entrepreneurs create value by exploiting some form of
change, for example in technology, materials, prices or demographics. We
call this process ‘innovation’ and this is an essential tool for entrepreneurs.
Entrepreneurs, therefore, create new demand or ?nd new ways of exploit-
ing existing markets. Tey identify a commercial opportunity and then
exploit it. Indeed, these two factors – the ability to spot opportunities and
to innovate – are probably the major factors de?ning true entrepreneurs.
Central to all of this is change. Change causes disequilibrium in markets
out of which come the commercial opportunities that entrepreneurs thrive
upon. To them change creates opportunities that they can
exploit. Sometimes they initiate the change themselves – they
innovate in some disruptive way and do things di?erently
from how they have been done in the past. Tey question the
‘dominant logic’ and create new market paradigms. At other
times entrepreneurs exploit a change created by the external
environment. Often, in doing so, they destroy the established
order and complacency of existing social and economic
systems. How entrepreneurs manage and deal with change
is central to their character and essential if they are to be
successful. Most ‘ordinary people’ ?nd change threatening.
Entrepreneurs welcome it because it creates opportunities that
can be exploited and they often create it through innovation.
Another key feature of entrepreneurs is their willingness to accept risk
and uncertainty. In part this is simply the consequence of their eager-
ness to exploit change. However, the scale of uncertainty they are willing
to accept is altogether di?erent from that of ordinary owner-managers.
Tis high degree of uncertainty re?ects itself in the risks they take for the
‘I am often asked what it is to be an
entrepreneur and there is no simple
answer. It is clear that successful
entrepreneurs are vital for a healthy,
vibrant and competitive economy.
If you look around you, most of
the largest companies have their
foundations in one or two individuals
who have the determination to
turn a vision into reality.’
Richard Branson, from Anderson, 1995
Entrepreneurship 16
business and for themselves. And for some this can become so addictive
that they become ‘serial entrepreneurs’, best suited to continually starting
up businesses and unwilling to face the tedium of day-to-day management.
But just because entrepreneurs accept risk does not mean that they like it,
because they have ways of mitigating its e?ects on them. All these charac-
ter traits and approaches to business and management will be analyzed in
the next chapter.
It is no wonder that entrepreneurship has been described as ‘a slippery
concept … not easy to work into a formal analysis because it is so closely
associated with the temperament or personal qualities of individuals’
(Penrose, ¡,¸,). But notice in these de?nitions that there is no mention
of small ?rms. Te point is that entrepreneurs are de?ned by their actions,
not by the size of organization they happen to work within. Any manager
in any organization in the private or public sectors can be entrepreneurial.
Te manager of a small ?rm may not be an entrepreneur – an important
distinction that is often missed in the literature. Equally entrepreneurs
can exist within large organizations, even ones that they did not set up
themselves, and how large organizations encourage and deal with this is an
important issue for them.
jCase insight TutorVista
Entrepreneurial opportunity
Based in India, Krishnan Ganesh launched TutorVista in 2006. It offers a
very twenty-?rst century service. The company uses the internet to connect
students in high-wage cost countries like the USA and Britain with private
tutors from low-wage cost countries like India. It is completely dependent on
the internet and the widespread availability of home computers. TutorVista
is an intermediary. The part-time tutors are mainly employed full-time as
teachers in schools and work from home for TutorVista – a remote business
model that allows the company to keep capital and running costs to a mini-
mum and minimize risks. Teachers are vetted and quality is monitored. The
company markets the service directly using Google search advertisements.
When somebody searches for tutor support in any subject an advertisement
for TutorVista comes up. When they click on the website they can talk to staff
about the service. By 2011 the company had over 2000 students in the USA
alone and Pearson had acquired a controlling stake in the business.
And yet Krishnan had no experience of the education sector. He got the
idea when he was travelling around the USA and was shocked to hear a media
debate about ‘the crisis in the US school education system’. He investigated
and realized that personal tutors in the USA were charging $40–$60 an hour
and were regarded by most people as unaffordable. That got him thinking
about how he could link teachers from his home country, India, to the market
demand in the USA.
17 The entrepreneurial revolution
Innovation, entrepreneurship and economic
growth
It was the work of Joseph Schumpeter, an Austrian economist, which most
strongly linked entrepreneurship to innovation. He was the ?rst economist
to challenge classical economics and the way it sought to optimize existing
resources within a stable environment and to treat disruptions as a ‘god
sent’ external force. In his primary work, Schumpeter (¡,¡¡) set out his
overall theory of economic development – an endogenous process within
capitalism of wrenching the economy out of its tendency towards one
equilibrium position and directing it towards a di?erent one – a process
of ‘creative destruction’. Tis fundamental phenomenon entailed carrying
out new combinations of the means of production – which Schumpeter
labelled ‘enterprise’ but we could equally call ‘innovation’ – by individuals
called ‘entrepreneurs’. Tese new combinations ‘as a rule … must draw the
necessary means of production from some old combinations’.
Schumpeter was arguing against traditional economic theory which
presumed that the economy was always tending towards equilibrium
and that changes in that equilibrium could only occur through changes
in underlying conditions of the economy, such as population growth or
changes in savings ratios, or through external shocks such as wars or natu-
ral disasters. Te former were thought to change only slowly and the latter
only unpredictably. Schumpeter sought to explain the process of economic
development as a process caused by enterprise – or innovation – and
carried out by entrepreneurs.
For Schumpeter a normal healthy economy was one that was continually
being ‘disrupted’ by technological innovation producing the ¸o-year cycles
of economic activity noticed earlier by the Russian economist, Nikolai
Kondratie?. Using data on prices, wages and interest rates in France, Britain
and the USA, Kondratie? ?rst noticed these ‘long waves’ of economic
activity in ¡,a¸. Unfortunately he was executed by Stalin some ten years
later because he predicted (accurately as it turned out) that Russian farm
collectivization would lead to a decline in agricultural production. It was
therefore left to Schumpeter to study these waves in depth.
Schumpeter said that each of these cycles was unique, driven by di?erent
clusters of industries. Te upswing in a cycle started when new innovations
came into general use:
> Water power, textiles and iron in the late eighteenth century.
> Steam, rail and steel in the mid nineteenth century.
> Electricity, chemicals and the internal combustion engine in the early
twentieth century.
Tese booms eventually petered out as the technologies matured and the
market opportunities were fully exploited, only to start again when a new
set of innovations changed the way things were done. For the last twenty
Entrepreneurship 18
years of the cycle the growth industries of the last technological wave
might be doing exceptionally well. However, they are in fact just repaying
capital that is no longer needed for investment. Tis situation never lasts
longer than twenty years and returns to investors then start to decline with
the dwindling number of opportunities. Often this is precipitated by some
form of crisis. After the twenty years of stagnation new technologies will
emerge and the cycle will start again.
Te other factor at work is that innovation – particularly technological
innovation – also seems to generate growth that cannot be accounted for
by changes in labour and capital. Although the return on investment may
decline as more capital is introduced to an economy, any deceleration in
growth is more than o?set by the leverage e?ects of innovation. Because
of this the rich western countries have seen their return on investment
increasing, while the poorer countries have not caught up.
By the time Schumpeter died in ¡,¸o the next cycle of boom was start-
ing, based upon oil, electronics, aviation and mass production. Since then
we have seen booms based upon software, digital networks and new media.
Te internet created e-commerce and made information and knowledge a
commodity that can be traded. And we have seen frequent booms followed
by the inevitable downturns across a wide range of these new industries.
One reason for these shortening cycles may be the more systematic
approach entrepreneurs now have towards exploiting innovation.
But innovation does not happen as a random event. Central to the
process are the entrepreneurs. It is they who introduce and then exploit
the new innovations. For Schumpeter, ‘the entrepreneur initiates change
and generates new opportunities. Until imitators force prices and costs into
conformity, the innovator is able to reap pro?ts and disturb equilibrium’.
By way of contrast, early classical economists such as Adam Smith saw
entrepreneurs as having a rather minor role in overall economic activity.
He thought that they provided real capital, but did not play a leading or
direct part in how the pattern of supply and demand was determined.
Aghion and Howitt (¡,,a) have produced a formal restatement of
Schumpeter’s theories whereby new entrants replace existing ine?cient
?rms. Other economists have emphasized the Schumpeterian assumption
that innovation-based growth needs entrepreneurs and e?ective selection
among entrepreneurs (Acemoglu et al., aoo6, Michelacci, aoo¡). Building
on Schumpeter’s work, recent theories of ‘industrial evolution’ have
linked entrepreneurship and economic growth directly (Audretsch, ¡,,¸,
Ericson and Pakes, ¡,,¸, Hopenhayn, ¡,,a, Jovanovic, ¡,8a, Klepper, ¡,,6,
Lambson, ¡,,¡). Tese theories focus on change as the central phenomenon
and emphasize the role knowledge plays in charting a way through this.
Innovation is seen as the key to entry, growth and survival for an enterprise
and the way entire industries change over time. But the information they
need in order to innovate is crucial – being inherently uncertain, asym-
metric (one party may have more than another) and associated with high
19 The entrepreneurial revolution
transaction costs. As a result there are di?erences in the expected value
of new ideas which encourages their exploitation. Acs et al. (aoo¸) and
Audretsch et al. (aoo6) expanded on this notion that the important feature
of entrepreneurs – and entrepreneurial ?rms – is that they act as ‘knowl-
edge ?lters’, facilitating ‘knowledge spillovers’ or ‘knowledge transfers’.
However, underpinning all this is a realization that change has changed.
Change is increasingly seen as a continuous ?ow. Rather than change
taking us from one ‘equilibrium state’ to another, it is now seen as a
continuous phenomenon, with occasional disruptive large-scale changes.
And continuous innovation is driving this change. Large ?rms need to be
able to innovate continuously, just to survive the tide of change.
Corporate entrepreneurship
Corporate entrepreneurship is a loose term used to describe entrepre-
neurial behaviour in established, larger organizations. Te objective of this
is simple – to gain competitive advantage by encouraging innovation at
all levels in the organization – corporate, divisional, business unit, func-
tional or project team levels. Even as late as the ¡,8os some academics still
believed it was di?cult, if not impossible, for entrepreneurial activity to
take place in larger, bureaucratic organizations (Morse, ¡,86). Nevertheless
there is a large literature on the general phenomenon stretching back over
¡o years. Despite this there has been no real consensus on what the term
means (Sharma and Chrisman, ¡,,,). Vesper (¡,8¡) suggested it was char-
acterized by three very broad sorts of activities:
> creation of new business units by an established ?rm,
> development and implementation of entrepreneurial strategic thrusts,
> emergence of new ideas from various levels in the organization.
Notwithstanding this, Zahra (¡,,¡) still de?ned corporate entrepreneur-
ship narrowly as ‘activities aimed at creating new businesses in established
companies’. Guth and Ginsberg (¡,,o) expanded the de?nition to include
‘transformation of organizations through strategic renewal’ – in e?ect
turn-arounds of ailing companies. Zahra et al. (¡,,,) added further dimen-
sions suggesting that there are many facets to entrepreneurship at ?rm
level which re?ect di?erent combinations of:
> content of entrepreneurship – corporate venturing, innovation,
proactivity,
> sources of entrepreneurship – both internal and external,
> focus of entrepreneurship – formal or informal.
Views about what constitutes corporate entrepreneurship are diverse
and cover a wide range. Trying to pull them together into some order,
Birkinshaw (aoo¡) identi?ed four strands of the literature that he called
‘basic schools of thought’: corporate venturing, intrapreneurship, bringing
the market inside, entrepreneurial transformation.
Entrepreneurship 20
Corporate venturing
Tis is concerned with larger businesses needing to manage new, entre-
preneurial businesses separately from the mainstream activity (internal
corporate venturing) and how they might eventually be ‘spun o?’. It is
also concerned with the organizational structures needed to encourage
new businesses whilst aligning them to the company’s existing activities
(Burgelman, ¡,8¡, Drucker, ¡,8¸, Galbraith, ¡,8a). It also deals with how
companies can manage disruptive technologies (Christensen, ¡,,
. Tese
aspects are dealt with in Chapter 8. However, the term is also concerned
with investment by larger ?rms in strategically important smaller ?rms
(external corporate venturing) and the di?erent forms of corporate ventur-
ing units needed to undertake both roles (Chesbrough, aooa). Tis is dealt
with in Chapter ¡¡.
Intrapreneurship
Tis is concerned with individual employees and how they might be
encouraged to act in an entrepreneurial way within a larger organization.
It is part of how internal corporate venturing can take place and is covered
in Chapter 8. Te literature is concerned with the systems, structures and
cultures that inhibit this activity and how they might be circumvented or
even challenged. It is concerned with the character and personality of this
strange hybrid of entrepreneur and ‘company-man’. Te term was intro-
duced and popularized by Gi?ord Pinchot (¡,8¸) building on the earlier
work of Ross Kanter (¡,8a). In many ways it was this school that launched
the idea that large organizations could change and be something di?erent
from what, all too often, they had become.
Bringing the market inside
Tis focuses mainly on the structural changes needed to encourage
entrepreneurial behaviour and argues for a market approach to resource
allocation and people management systems using market-based techniques
such as spin-o?s and venture capital operations (Foster and Kaplan, aoo¡,
Hamel, ¡,,,). Structural issues are covered in Chapter 6 but other issues
emerging from this school are covered throughout the book.
Entrepreneurial transformation
Te premise behind this strand of literature is that large ?rms need to adapt
to an ever-changing environment if they are to survive, and to do so they
need to adapt their structures and cultures so as to encourage entrepre-
neurial activity in individual employees (Ghoshal and Bartlett, ¡,,;, Kanter,
¡,8,, Peters and Waterman, ¡,8a, Tushman and O’Reilly, ¡,,6). According
to this school individual behaviour is fashioned by various elements in
21 The entrepreneurial revolution
the organization – its leadership, strategies,
systems, structures and culture. One aspect of
this school – the identi?cation and exploita-
tion of opportunities by creating and sustain-
ing competitive advantage – has also been
called ‘strategic entrepreneurship’ (Ireland
et al., aoo¡, Kuratko and Audretsch, aoo,,
Morris et al., aoo8). Another term associated
with this school is ‘strategic renewal’ (Sharma
and Chrisman, op. cit.), and combinations
of the words ‘strategic’, ‘organizational’ and
‘corporate’ with the words ‘renewal’, ‘rejuvena-
tion’ and ‘rede?nition’ are often used in the
literature associated with corporate entrepre-
neurship. For example, Covin and Miles (¡,,,)
say that corporate entrepreneurship generates
competitive superiority in four ways:
> Organizational regeneration – by altering the organization itself, its
internal processes, structures and capabilities – an aspect covered in
Chapters 6 and ;.
> Sustained regeneration – by regularly entering new markets or intro-
ducing new products – an aspect covered in Chapters ¡o, ¡¡ and ¡a.
> Domain rede?nition – by developing a completely new productimarket
arena and, e?ectively, creating a new industry (disruptive innovation
and paradigm shift) – an aspect covered in Chapters ¡¡ and ¡a.
> Strategic renewal – by fundamentally altering how it competes and
rede?ning its relationship with the market place and competitors. Te
most e?ective form of strategic renewal is entrepreneurial transforma-
tion because it creates the capacity for continuous renewal. It is also
likely to lead to organizational regeneration, sustained rede?nition and
domain rede?nition. How to go about creating this entrepreneurial
transformation is outlined in the next section.
Entrepreneurial transformation
Tis book is about corporate entrepreneurship as transformation – a trans-
formation that is continuous and sustainable. However, it is also about
all the other schools mentioned in the previous section, regarding them
simply as tools that help the transformation. Te book is written from the
viewpoint that, in order to be truly entrepreneurial, the whole organization
must be transformed – but also that transformation must be sustainable.
Te very DNA of the entrepreneur must, somehow, be replicated in the
larger corporate entity. As Drucker (op. cit.) says: ‘Entrepreneurship is
based upon the same principles, whether the entrepreneur is an existing
‘Tere is a real need for corporate entrepreneurs at the
moment. For too long the prevailing consensus has been
if it ain’t broke, don’t ?x it but entrepreneurs recognize
that action and change are crucial for maximizing
potential and taking advantage of opportunities. You
have to be tough and outgoing and not afraid of leaving
calm waters to ride the waves of a storm. I consider
myself to be a corporate entrepreneur. I have not created
the company I am in charge of, but I have changed the
way it is run and have made a real di?erence. I think
times have changed and entrepreneurs don’t have to be
totally out on a limb. Tere are plenty of opportunities
for entrepreneurialism in large companies too.’
Diane Thompson, Chief Executive, Camelot
(also founder of an advertising agency)
Sunday Times 17 March 2002
Entrepreneurship 22
large institution or an individual starting his or her new venture single-
handed. It makes little or no di?erence whether the entrepreneur is a busi-
ness or a non-business public-service organization, nor even whether the
entrepreneur is a government or non-government institution. Te rules are
pretty much the same, and so are the kinds of innovation and where to look
for them.’ So we need to unpick the character traits and the approaches
to business, management and strategy development of successful entre-
preneurs. And when Mintzberg et al. (¡,,8) said that the entrepreneurial
school of strategy (yes, there is one) ‘presents strategy formation as all
wrapped up in the behavior of a single individual, yet never really says
much about what the process is’, the challenge is to start to delineate what
those processes are and the principles on which they are based. We shall
isolate the DNA of entrepreneurship in Chapter a.
Tis process of entrepreneurial transformation can be achieved by
building what I call ‘entrepreneurial architecture’. Tis entrepreneurial
architecture creates within the organization the knowledge and routines
that allow it to respond ?exibly to change and opportunity in the way the
entrepreneur does. It is better suited to survive in the age of uncertainty.
It is a very real and valuable asset. It creates competitive advantage in its
own right and is sustainable. Tis architecture is based upon relationships,
but it is built on the three pillars of leadership, culture and structure and
underpinned by appropriate strategies, as shown in Figure ¡.a. It can be
constructed and this book provides a blueprint for that – a blueprint we
outline in Chapter ¡. One of the paradoxes of entrepreneurial architecture
is that it cannot be too prescriptive as it must be able to evolve and develop
as people in the organization direct it. However it needs some degree of
prescription to ensure this can happen. And to build this architecture
requires a holistic, multidisciplinary approach to managing an organiza-
tion. It needs a renaissance leader who is able to use all the management
levers and techniques at their disposal and is willing to take leadership
by giving it away. It is not easy. But entrepreneurs like Bill Gates, Michael
Dell, Richard Branson and Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw have managed it and in
so doing transformed themselves from entrepreneurs into entrepreneurial
leaders.
F 1.2 Pillars of
entrepreneurial architecture
Architecture
Culture Leadership Structure
Strategies
23 The entrepreneurial revolution
The entrepreneurial organization
So, if you are successful in constructing this entrepreneurial architecture
what will the organization look like° What will it do that is di?erent from
other organizations° What is corporate entrepreneurship about°
Corporate entrepreneurship is about encouraging opportunity-seeking
and innovation in a systematic manner throughout the organization,
always questioning the established order, seeking ways to improve and
create competitive advantage. It is about encouraging the qualities enjoyed
by successful entrepreneurs such as vision and drive, empowering sta? to
do the right things for the organization on their own initiative. It is about
learning new ways to manage organizations involving relationships and
culture rather than discipline and control. It is about new ways of dealing
with risk, uncertainty and ambiguity so as to maintain ?exibility – and
allowing failure but mitigating and learning from its consequences. It is
about institutionalizing a process of continuous strategizing, learning from
customers, competitors and the environment. It is about remaining ?ex-
ible, encouraging change and managing rapid growth. And it is about doing
these things throughout an organization so that it re?ects the entrepre-
neurial characteristics of its managers – responding quickly and e?ectively
to opportunities or changes in the market place. Successfully implemented,
corporate entrepreneurship provides competitive superiority and is a blue-
print for survival and even growth in the age of uncertainty.
jCase insights Entrepreneurial leaders
Michael Dell
Born in 1965, Michael Dell is one of the rich-
est men in the world with a fortune in excess
of $17 billion. He started Dell Computers
in 1984 with just $620. Today the company
is worth billions and employs some 76,500
people, globally.
Michael’s entrepreneurial career started
early. At the age of 12 he made $1200 by
selling his stamp collection. At the age of 14
he devised a marketing scheme to sell news-
papers which earned him over $11,000. From
the age of 15 his interest in calculators and
then computers started to grow. He started
buying microchips and other bits of computer
hardware in order to build systems because
he realized that he could buy, say, a disk drive
for $500 which would sell in the shops for
$1800. In 1983 he began a pre-med degree at
the University of Texas but dropped out fairly
quickly to set up his own business selling
computers direct to end-users.
From the start Michael Dell knew the criti-
cal success factor for his business. He used
an expert to build prototype computers whilst
he concentrated on ?nding cheap compo-
nents so he could keep prices low. The ?rm
grew at an incredible pace, notching up sales
of $3.7 million in the ?rst nine months. The
company went on to pioneer direct marketing
in the industry and integrated supply chain
management, linking customers’ orders and
suppliers through the internet – both strate-
gies helping to keep prices low. At all times
the focus on a low-cost/low-price marketing
strategy has been maintained.
Entrepreneurship 24
Michael Dell has moved from being an en-
trepreneur, wheeling and dealing, to become
an entrepreneurial leader; understanding
where his competitive advantage lies and
then putting into place the systems and pro-
cesses to keep his company two steps ahead
of the competition.
Richard Branson
Richard Branson is probably the best known
entrepreneur in Britain today and his name
is closely associated with the many busi-
nesses that carry the Virgin brand name.
He is outward-going and an excellent self-
publicist. He has been called an ‘adventurer’,
taking risks that few others would contem-
plate. This shows itself in his personal life,
with his transatlantic power boating and
round-the-world ballooning exploits, as well
as in his business life where he has chal-
lenged established ?rms like British Airways
and Coca-Cola. He is a multimillionaire with
what has been described as a charismatic
leadership style.
Born in 1950, Richard comes from a well-
off background. His father was a barrister
and he went to school at Stowe, a leading
private school (called ‘public’ in Britain,
just to confuse). However, he was never
academic and suffered from dyslexia. He left
school at the age of sixteen. Famously his
head teacher commented; ‘Congratulations,
Branson. I predict that you will either go to
prison or become a millionaire.’ Needless to
say, leaving school at sixteen did not dent his
self-con?dence. His mother encouraged this.
She commented that ‘bringing him up was
like riding a thoroughbred horse. He needed
guiding but you were afraid to pull the reins
too hard in case you stamped out the adven-
ture and wildness.’
Now in his sixties, Richard Branson’s busi-
ness life started as an 18-year-old schoolboy
when he launched Student magazine, sell-
ing advertising space from a phone booth.
He wrote to well-known personalities and
celebrities – pop and ?lm stars and politi-
cians – and persuaded many to contribute
articles or agree to interviews. He persuaded
a designer to work for no fee, negotiated a
printing contract for 50,000 copies and got
Peter Blake, the designer of The Beatles’
Sgt Pepper album cover, to draw the cover
picture of a student. The magazine made
money by selling advertising space. It was
so successful that the BBC featured Richard
in a documentary called ‘The People of
Tomorrow’. And that is probably how the
Richard Branson legend started and how he
realized the importance of self-publicity – a
lesson he has never forgotten. Since then he
has become known for his, often outrageous,
publicity stunts, such as dressing up as a
bride for the launch of Virgin Bride.
After Student magazine he started Virgin
Records, originally selling discounted, mail-
order records but soon decided he needed
a retail site. In 1972 he got his ?rst store,
above a shoe shop on London’s Oxford Street,
rent-free on the grounds that it could not be
let and would generate more customers for
the shoe shop. It was a great success and
Richard earned enough money from it to
buy a country estate, in which he installed a
recording studio. Mike Old?eld’s enormous
hit Tubular Bells was recorded in Virgin’s ?rst
recording studio – an Oxfordshire barn – and
released in 1973. Other star names signed by
Virgin Records included The Rolling Stones,
Genesis, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, Bryan
Ferry, Janet Jackson, Culture Club, Simple
Minds and The Sex Pistols.
Since those early days the Virgin brand
has found its way onto aircraft, trains, cola,
vodka, mobile phones, cinemas, a radio
station, ?nancial services, ?tness studios
and the internet. Virgin Atlantic Airways was
launched in 1984. In 1986 Virgin was ?oated
but later re-privatized because Richard did
not like to be accountable for his actions to
institutional shareholders. In 1992, to keep
his airline company a?oat, he sold the Virgin
record label to EMI for $1 billion. In 1999 a
49% stake in the airline was sold to Singapore
Airlines. In the same year Virgin Mobile was
launched.
25 The entrepreneurial revolution
Virgin is now one of the best known brands
in Britain with 96% recognition and is well-
known worldwide. It is strongly associated
with its founder, Sir Richard Branson – 95%
can name him as the founder.
Bill Gates
Bill Gates and Microsoft is probably the
outstanding business success story of a
generation. Born in 1955 in Seattle, he and
his friend Paul Allen, ’begged, borrowed and
bootlegged’ time on their school’s computer
to undertake software commissions. The two
went to Harvard University together, using
the University’s computer to start their own
business. Bill’s big break came when he
approached Altair, a computer company in
Albuquerque, New Mexico, trying to sell it a
customized version of the BASIC program-
ming language for the PC it produced. The
only problem was that, at the time, he and his
partner, Paul Allen, had not ?nished writing
it. He had a vision of what it would look like
and how it would operate, but no software.
That was not ?nished until some weeks later
and with it Microsoft came about. The pack-
age was later licensed to Apple, Commodore
and IBM. IBM later commissioned Microsoft
to develop its own operating system and that
was how Microsoft Disk Operating System
(MS DOS) was born.
Founded in 1975, Microsoft’s growth has
been amazing. It is now the world’s largest
software company producing a range of prod-
ucts and services, including the Windows
operating systems and Of?ce software suite.
And its ambitions are still anything but small.
The company has expanded into markets
such as video game consoles, interactive
television and internet access. With its core
markets maturing, it is targeting services
for growth, looking to transform its software
applications into web-based services and
looking to establish itself in the fast growing
digital communications market. In 2008 it
entered the cloud computing market. Since
2010 it has also partnered with Nokia to
secure market share for its Windows Phone
OS smartphone operating system and other
digital services, competing with the Google
Android system and the Apple iPhone. In
2011 Microsoft founded the Open Networking
Foundation which is meant to speed innova-
tion through simple software changes in
telecommunications and wireless networks,
data centres and other networking areas.
Now a billionaire, Bill Gates stepped down
as CEO of Microsoft in 2000 and retired as
Chief Software Architect in 2008 while still
retaining other positions in the company,
including non-executive chairman. Although
criticized for his anti-competitive business
tactics at Microsoft, he has become a gener-
ous philanthropist and now works full time
for the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw
Born in 1953 in Bangalore, India, Kiran
Mazumdar-Shaw is one of the richest women
in India. She is the founder of Biocon, a bio-
tech company and India’s largest producer of
insulin. With a degree in zoology, she went
on to take a postgraduate course and trained
as a brewer in Australia, ahead of returning
to India hoping to follow in her father’s foot-
steps as a brew-master. Despite working in
the brewing industry in India for a couple of
years, she never achieved her ambition, ?nd-
ing her career blocked by sexism. Instead,
in 1978, she was persuaded to set up a joint
venture making enzymes in India.
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw started Biocon
India with Irishman Les Auchincloss in 1978 in
the garage of her rented house in Bangalore
with seed capital of only Rs 10,000. It was a joint
venture with Biocon Biochemicals, Ireland.
Eventually she found a banker prepared to
loan the company $45,000 and, from a facility
in Bangalore making enzymes for the brew-
ing industry, started to diversify. It became
the ?rst Indian company to manufacture and
export enzymes to the USA and Europe. This
gave her a ?ow of cash that she used to fund
research and to start producing pharmaceuti-
cal drugs. The early years were hard.
Entrepreneurship 26
Summary
3 We are living in an age of uncertainty
characterized by continuing, unpredictable
and rapid change – change that is both
incremental and discontinuous. It is
an increasingly complex world full of
interconnections formed by a global market
place linked by technology allowing instant
communication.
3 Whilst large ?rms ?nd this environment
challenging, small, entrepreneurial ?rms have
thrived and entrepreneurs like Michael Dell,
Richard Branson, Bill Gates and
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw have become
millionaires.
3 Small, entrepreneurial ?rms are a vital part
of the economies of most Western countries.
,¸º of the wealth of the USA was created
since ¡,8o. SMEs generate ¸oº of GDP in the
USA, and over a¸º in the UK. In the EU they
generate 6;º of employment. Fast growing
‘gazelles’ – like AirAsia – generate most of
this employment growth.
‘I was young, I was twenty ?ve years old
… banks were very nervous about lend-
ing to young entrepreneurs because
they felt we didn’t have the business
experience … and then I had … this
strange business called biotechnology
which no one understood … Banks were
very fearful of lending to a woman be-
cause I was considered high risk.’
BBC News Business 11 April 2011
In 1989, Kiran met the chairman of ICICI
Bank, which had just launched a venture
fund. The fund took a 20% stake in the com-
pany and helped ?nance its move into bio-
pharmaceuticals. Shortly after this Unilever
took over Biocon Biochemicals, and bought
ICICI’s stake in Biocon India, at the same
time increasing it to 50%. In 1996 it entered
the bio-pharmaceuticals and statins mar-
kets. One year later Unilever sold its share in
Biocon Biochemicals, and Mazumdar-Shaw
bought out Unilever and was able to start
preparing Biocon India to ?oat on the stock
market, which it did in 2004, with a market
value of $1.1bn.
In 2003 it became the ?rst company to
develop human insulin on a Pichia expression
system. Since then it has obtained a listing
on the stock exchange and entered into
thousands of R&D licensing agreements with
other pharmaceutical companies around the
world. Today Biocon has a turnover in excess
of Rs 24,000 million. It has Asia’s largest
insulin and statin production facilities and its
largest perfusion-based antibody production
facility. It produces drugs for cancer, diabetes
and auto-immune diseases and is developing
the world’s ?rst oral insulin, currently under-
going Phase III clinical trials.
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw has enjoyed many
awards and honours. In 2010 TIME magazine
included her in their 100 most powerful
people in the world, in the same year the
Financial Times had her in their list of the top
50 women in business and in 2009 Forbes
included her in their list of the 100 most pow-
erful women. Passionate about providing af-
fordable health care in India, she has funded
the 1400-bed Mazumdar-Shaw Cancer
Centre, a free cancer hospital in Bangalore.
Every year, she donates $2 million to support
health insurance coverage for some 100,000
Indian villagers.
She remains involved in breaking gender
barriers:
‘We see many women entrepreneurs
today when it comes to small busi-
nesses. But where we do not see many
success stories is in large businesses.
I think it stems from lack of self con?-
dence. Most women feel that they have
limitations and they are not cut out to
hold such large businesses. That has
to change. It is heartening to see fam-
ily businesses are encouraging their
daughters which was not so in the past.
That is a good sign.’
Rediff Business, 10 August, 2011
27 The entrepreneurial revolution
3 Entrepreneurs are de?ned primarily by their
actions. As with Krishnan Ganesh and
TutorVista, they identify and capitalize upon
commercial opportunities in the market.
Tey have certain identi?able character traits
and approaches to business and management
that set them apart – their DNA.
3 Corporate entrepreneurship is the term used
to describe entrepreneurial behaviour in an
established, larger organization. Te views on
what constitutes corporate entrepreneurship
are diverse, however there are four
identi?able strands of literature or schools of
thought:
> Corporate venturing,
> Intrapreneurship,
> Bringing the market inside,
> Entrepreneurial transformation.
3 Entrepreneurial transformation is about
adapting the whole organization so that
it is better able to cope with the new age
of uncertainty. Corporate venturing,
intrapreneurship and bringing the market
inside are simply techniques to help achieve
this.
3 Tis transformation is achieved by building
an entrepreneurial architecture. Although
based on relationships it can be constructed
through leadership, culture and structures,
and is underpinned by appropriate strategies.
3 Tis entrepreneurial architecture creates
within the organization the knowledge and
routines that allow it to respond ?exibly to
change and opportunity in the same way as
entrepreneurs.
Essays and discussion topics
1 What do you understand by the term ‘age of
uncertainty’° Does it accurately describe the
environment of today°
2 How are the challenges posed by the age of
opportunity di?erentithe same as those posed
by the age of austerity°
3 Why do you think small ?rms have prospered
rather than large ?rms over the last ¸o years°
4 In a turbulent, changing environment what
advantagesidisadvantages do small ?rms
have°
5 In a turbulent, changing environment what
advantagesidisadvantages do large ?rms have°
6 Were Enron and RBS entrepreneurial
organizations° If so, what are the dangers
facing an entrepreneurial organizations° How
might they be mitigated°
7 How important are CSR issues° How
responsive to them are large ?rms° How
might this be increased°
8 Why is there more entrepreneurial activity in
the USA than anywhere else°
9 Why are owner-managers not all
entrepreneurs°
10 Have you ever thought about setting up your
own business° What attracts you to do so
and what blocks you from doing so° In what
circumstances might you actually do it°
11 Can large ?rms also be entrepreneurial° Is it
in their interests to be so° What pressures are
there for them not to be entrepreneurial°
12 If large ?rms were more entrepreneurial
what would be the individual, economic and
societal advantages°
13 What do you understand by the term
corporate entrepreneurship° Do you
agree that it is the same as entrepreneurial
transformation°
14 How are the three other schools of thought
related to entrepreneurial transformation°
15 Using the description of an entrepreneurial
organization outlined in the ?nal section,
speculate how architecture – leadership,
culture and structures underpinned by
appropriate strategies – might build this.
Exercises and assignments
1 Identify two large organizations that you
would describe as entrepreneurial and explain
why you would describe them this way.
Are they commercially successful° Can you
identify any clues as to why they might be
successful°
Entrepreneurship 28
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Subject index
¡M 8;, 88, ,o–¡, ¡o6, ¡¡,, ¡,¡,
aa¸, aa;, aa8, a¡6, a¡;, a¸6,
¡¡¡, ¡¸,, ¡86, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a
;-Up ¡66
A
ABC analysis ¡¡¡
Abel & Cole a,¡, a,6, a,8–,
acquisitions and mergers ¡¸¡–;6
action plans a¡,, a¡,, ¡,a
a?ordable loss ¸6
AirAsia ¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
Altria Group (Philip Morris) ¡66
American Airlines ¡,¡
analogy a;;, ¡a;, ¡¡a, ¡¡,
Anso? matrix see producti
market matrix
antecedent in?uences see
entrepreneurial, antecedent
in?uences
AOL Time Warner ¡¸8, ¡¡¸
Apple a¸, ¡¡, 6o–¡, ¡¡8, ¡¸¸–;,
¡¸8, ¡;¸, ¡8a–¡, ¡8,, a¡o, a¡;,
a¡8, a¸6, a¸;, a6¡, ¡¡o, ¡¡6,
¡¡;, ¡¡,, ¡a¡, ¡a¡, ¡a;, ¡¡6,
¡¡¡, ¡¸;, ¡¸,, ¡6¡–¸, ¡86, ¡8;,
¡o¸, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡6, ¡a¸,
¡a6, ¡¡¸, ¡¡,
architecture (entrepreneuriali
organizational) aa, ;¡–,¡
Astra Zenica a¸8, a¸,
AT&T ¡¸8, ¡68, ¡6,
attribute analysis ¡¸o
B
BA see British Airways
Babbage, Charles ¡8¡
BAE Systems ¡;¡–¸, ¡,;
B&Q ¡¡¡
Bang & Olufson ¡¡6
Bannatyne, Duncan ¡¡–¡
Barbie` ¡¡¸–6
Barclays Bank ¡o6, ¡¡;
barriers to
change a¡¡, a¡6, a8¡
corporate
entrepreneurship ao,–¡¡
market entryiexit ;¡, a¸;, ¡o,,
¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡;6
BBC ¡,o
benchmarking ¡o¸, a8o
Bezos, Je? ¡a¸
Bhati Enterprises ,
Biocon ,
Blue Ocean strategy a8o, ¡,8–,,
¡o¸
BMW ¡¡;
board of directors ¡¡a, a¡;,
¡oo–¡
Body Shop, Te ,, ¡¡,, ¡6a, ¡oo
Boeing a¸o, ¡¡¡, ¡;¸
Boston matrix ¡a,–¡6
see also product portfolio
BP aa6–;, aa,, a¡o, a,a, ¡¡¡
brainstorming ¡¡;–8, ¡¡,, ¡¸¡
brainwriting ¡¡8
brandibranding ¡¡, ¡¡8, ¡,¸,
a¡6, a;;, a8;, a,o, a,¡,
a,6–;, a,8, ¡¡o, ¡¡6–;, ¡¡,,
¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡a¡, ¡a¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸–8,
¡¡¸, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡68, ¡;¡, ¡o¡,
¡¡;, ¡;¡
Branson, Richard ,, aa, a¡–¸, ¡¸,
,,, ¡,o, ¡,¸–,, ¡¡;, ¡¡¸, ¡;¡
Brin, Sergy ,, ¡¡a–;
bringing the market
inside ¡,–ao
British Airways a¡, ¡,¡, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡
BT ¡¡;
C
Cadbury ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, a,6, ¡66,
¡;o–a
capabilities
alliancesinetworksi
partners ¡8¸, ¡,a, a6¡
coreicorporatei
organizational a¡, ;6, 86,
¡8¡, a¸a, a6¡, a;;, a8¸, a8;,
a88, ¡o,, ¡¡8, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡6¸,
¡68, ¡6,, ¡;¡, ¡,¡, ¡,¸, ¡oo,
¡o¡, ¡¡o, ¡;¡, ¡;¡
personal ;¡, ;6, 8¡, ,,, aa¸
product ¡,¡, ¡¸¡
technological ¡¡a
Capital Asset Pricing Model
(CAPM) ¡66
cash cow ¡;8, ao,, ¡¡o–6, ¡¡¡
cash ?ow 8, ¡6, ¸¡, a¸6, ¡¡o, ¡¡a,
¡¡¡–¸, ¡66, ¡o8, ¡¸¡
change
agent ¡¡8, a¡;, a¡¡
cube a¡,–ao
management a¸¡, ¡;¸
Cisco ¡¸;
cognitive theory ¡¡, ¡8–,
cognitive processes ¡¸a, ¡¸¡–¡,
a;;, ¡¡o
competitive advantage a;¡, a;;,
a;,, a8;–8, a,o, ¡o,–¡¡, ¡¡8,
¡ao–¡, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6¸, ¡6,, ¡8¡,
¡8¸–6, ¡,¡, ¡,¡, ¡,¸, ¡,8, ¡,,,
¡o¸, ¡¡¸, ¡¸¡, ¡;¡
Subject index 490
complexity theory 6, ¸¡, 8a, ¡8¡,
a;a
con?icticon?ict resolution ¡¡,
¡¡¡–¡¡, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡a¸,
¡¸o, ¡6o, a¡¡, a¸a, ¡o¡, ¡6,,
¡¸¸, ¡;o
conglomerates a¸¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¸¡,
¡6¸–6, ¡;¡
contingency theory ¡o;–¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8–¡,, ¡;;–8
Co-op Bank a,¡, a,6, ¡¡6
core competences ¡o¸, ¡8;, a¸a,
a¸¡, a¸¸, a¸;, a6o, a6¡, a8o,
a8;, a88, ¡aa, ¡¡¸, ¡¸;, ¡6a,
¡6,, ¡,o, ¡,¡, ¡oo, ¡o¡, ¡o8,
¡;¡
corporate entrepreneurship
(de?nition) ¡,–a¡
Corporate Entrepreneurship
Audit (CEA) ¡;6–8o, ¡8a
corporate governance 8, ¡oo–¡
corporate social responsibility
(CSR) ,, a,o–8, ¡,;, ¡;6
corporate venturing ¡,, ao, ,o,
¡;¡, a¡¡–¡, a¡,, a¸;, a¸,–6¡,
¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡¸6–,, ¡6o, ¡6a, ¡6¡,
¡;a, ¡o¸, ¡o6, ¡¡8, ¡;¡, ¡;¸,
¡8a
cost advantage ¡¡¡–¡¡
cost of capital a8¡, ¡o,
Coutts Bank ¡¡6
creativeicreativity
blocks ¡¸a–¡
de?nition of ¡86–;
destruction of ¡;, ¡¡¡
national ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–¡
process ¡¡o, ¡¡,, ¡¡;
resources and test
(CREAX) ¡6¡–a
tension ¡o¡, ¡o¡, a86
see also discovery skills
CREAX ¡6¡–a
critical success factors
(CSFs) a8,
Crocs` ¡a8–,
crowdsourcing see innovation,
open
culture
dimensions of (Hostede’s) ¡¡,,
¡¡6–¸o
nationaliinternational ¡¡, ¡¡¡,
¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¡,–¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡8,
¡¡,, ¡¸o, ¡6¡, ¡6a
organizational ¡¡, 8a, 8¡,
¡¡¡, ¡aa, ¡¡,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–¡¸,
¡¸¡–6a, ¡,¡, ¡,¸, aa¸,
a¡;, ¡o¡, ¡6,, ¡¸¡,
¡;¡–a
Organizational Culture
Assessment Instrument
(OCAI) ¡6¸–6
web ¡¡a, ¡¡;, ¡6¡, ¡86, ¡;a
customer focus ¡o¡, ¡¡o, ¡;¡
customer loyalty ladder ¡¡;
D
deconstruction ¡a, ¡;¸
delayeringidecentralizing 8¸,
¡o¡, ¡¸¡, ¡;¡, ¡;,, ¡8o, ¡8a, a;a,
a;,, ¡68, ¡;¡, ¡;¡
delegation ¸8, ¸,, 8¸
Dell, CorporationiMichael ,,
aa, a¡–¡, ¡¸, ¡¸, 8o, 8¡, ¡a¸–8,
¡;¡, ¡8¸, a;¡, a;6, a;8, a8a,
a8,, a,o, ¡¡o, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¸;,
¡a¸
Delphi method ¡¸a
design
organizational ¡¡¡, ¡;;, ¡;8,
¡8a, ¡8,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
product ¡¡8, ¡8o, a¡o, aao,
a,¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6–¡;, ¡¡,, ¡ao,
¡aa, ¡a¡, ¡a6, ¡8¡, ¡8¸, ¡8;,
¡,o, ¡,a, ¡oo, ¡o¸
Deutsche Telecom ¡,o
di?erentiation 8, ¡¡, ¡66,
¡o,–¡o, ¡¡¸–¡,, ¡ao–¡,
¡aa–¡, ¡¸¡, ¡6¸, ¡8,
Direct Line ¡,,
discovery skills ¡a¸–8, ¡¡a, ¡;o,
¡;¸
diversi?cation a¸,, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸6,
¡6o–¡, ¡6¸, ¡6¡, ¡6;, ¡68, ¡;a,
¡oa, ¡o¸
dominant logic ¡¸, ;8–8o, 8a,
8¸, 88, 8,, ¡o¸, ¡¡¸, a;;, a8a,
¡,¸, ¡,6, ¡,,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡;,
¡;o
Dom Perignon ¡¡¸
double loop learning ;;, 8o
downscopingi
outsourcing ¡;¡–¸, ¡8;, a¡¡,
a¸;, a¸8, ¡¡¡, ¡¸8, ¡;¡
Dupont ¡¡a, ¡¸;
Dyson ,, a8,, ¡¡¡–¸, ¡86, ¡8;–8,
¡¡¡
E
early adopters ¡a¡–¸, ¡¡¸, ¡,a
easyJet ¡¡, a;¡, a;¸, ¡¡o, ¡,,, ¡oo
eBay ,, ¡¸¸, ¡a¸
economies of
scale ¡¡, ¡;¸, ¡,¡, ¡¡¡–¡¡, ¡¡;,
¡¸¡, ¡,,, ¡o¡, ¡;6
scope ¡;¸, ¡6;–8, ¡;¡
small scale ¡¡, ¡¡¡–¡a
Ecotricity a,¡, a,¸
e?ectual reasoning ¸¸–;, a;¡
e?ciency ¡¡, ,,, ¡¡¡, ¡;;, ¡;8,
ao,, aa¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡o, ¡8,, ¡,,,
¡o¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
emergent strategy see strategy
empoweriempowerment ¡¡, a¡,
;¡, ;6, 8¸, ¡o¡, ¡o¸, ¡o;, ¡¡¡,
¡¡;, ¡ao, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸–¸o,
¡¸a–¡, ¡8a, a¡;, a¡8, aa6,
a¡¡–a, a¡6, a¡;, ¡;¡–¡
Engineer, Navin ¡;
Enron ¸, 8, ,, aa,, a,¡, ¡oa
entrepreneur (de?nition) ¡¡–¡6
entrepreneurial
antecedent in?uences ¡¡, ¡¸–8
architecture see architecture
character traits a¡, ¡¡–¡, ¸a,
¸;, ¡¡6
intensity 86–8, ¡8¸, ¡;¸
leadersileadership aa, ¸;, ¡oa,
¡o¡, ¡o¸, ¡o6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8–ao, ¡8a, ¡,¡
management ¡¡, ¡¡, ¡;¡, ¡8o,
a¡,
marketing planning ¡oo–¡
transformation ¡,, ao–a, ;¡
Entrepreneurial School of
strategy aa, ¸¡, a;¡
environment
external ¡¸, 88–,o, ¡¡a, ¡¸¸,
¡8o, ¡o¡, ¡¸¡
internal 86–8, ¡¡6
sustainability ,, a,o–¡, a,¡–6,
a,8, ¡,;
ethics ,, ¡¡¡, ¡¸a, ¡¸¡, a;;–8,
a,o–;, a,8
experience curve ¡¡¡–a
exporting ¡¡,–¡o
ExxonMobil ¡,¡
F
Facebook ¡¡6, ¡6¡, ¡o¸
failure, corporate ¸, a8a
491 Subject index
?nancial
controlimanagement a,¡, ¡¸¡
gearingileverage 8;, a8¡
performanceireturn a8o, a,¸,
¡a¡, ¡¸6, ¡¸¡
reportingiinformation a¡¡,
¡o¡
services ¡6a, ¡66
theory ¡66
Fisher Price a¸¡
Ford ¡8¡, ¡8¸, ¡,¡
Fox TV ¡;¸
franchiseifranchisee ¡¡,, ¡¡o,
¡6a
futures thinking a8a–¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8, ¡¸¡
G
gap analysis ¡¸o–¡
Gates, Bill ,, aa, a¸, ¡¸
gazelles ¡o, ¡¡, ¡¡
General Electric ¡;¡, a,¡, ¡¡a,
¡¸;
General Enterprise Tendency
(GET) test 6¡–¡
generic marketing strategies ¡¡o,
¡¡a, ¡,,
GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) a¸8–,
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
(GEM) ¡6, ¡8
Google ,, ¡o6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡,, ¡¸¡, ¡¸6,
¡;¸, ¡;;, ¡;,, ¡8,, aa6, aa;,
a¡;, a¸a, a¸;, a6¡, a;¡, a;6,
¡¡6, ¡¡¡, ¡6¡, ¡6¡, ¡;a, ¡,a,
¡,¸, ¡o¸, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a–¡;, ¡a6,
¡a;, ¡¡a, ¡¡o, ¡¡¸
Gore-Tex ¡8o
Great Ormond Street
Hospital ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
gross domestic product
(GDP) ¡o
growth models ¸;–,, 86
growth strategies a,8, ¡¡¸–¡o,
¡¸8, ¡6a, ¡66, ¡6,, ¡;a, ¡8¡,
¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡8¡
H
Hallmark ¡¡¡, ¡,o, ¡¡¸, ¡¡6
Heineken ¡¡a
Hewlett Packard (HP) 6o, ¡a;,
¡¡;, ¡aa
HFL Sport Science ¡¡¡, ¡¡,,
¡6a–¸, ¡,;, ¡¡¡–¡, ¡¡¸
hierarchical organizationsi
structures ¡¡¸, ¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¸a,
¡6¸, ¡;6–8, ¡;,, ¡8¡, ¡8¡, ¡8¸,
¡8;, ¡,¡, a¡o, a¸o
human capital a¸¡
Hyundai ¡,¡
I
IBM a¸, 6o, 6¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡,, ¡¡o, ¡¸8,
¡¸,, ¡,o, a¡;, a,6, ¡¸;, ¡8¡,
¡,¡, ¡¡o, ¡¡,
in-group ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6¸,
a¸¡, a¸a, ¡;¡, ¡;a
innovation
blocks ao,
continuous 8¡, ¡8¡, a¸¸, a¸6,
a8;, ¡a¡, ¡o6, ¡¡o, ¡;¡
de?nition 88, ¡8¡i¸
discontinuousiradical ¡8¡,
a6o, ¡8¸, ¡8,, ¡,o, ¡,,,
¡oo, ¡oa, ¡o6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡;¡, ¡;¸
disruptive ¡o¸, a8o, a,o,
¡6¡, ¡,o, ¡,¡–8, ¡oo, ¡o¸,
¡¡o–¡a, ¡a¸, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¸¡,
¡¸¡, ¡;¸
distributed see open
incremental a¸a, a6o, ¡8¸, ¡8,,
¡,o, ¡oa, ¡o6, ¡¡o, ¡¡6, ¡¸¡,
¡;¡
networks ¡¡6
open ¡¡6, ¡¡;–,, ¡;¡
outsourcingibuy-in ¡¸6, ¡¸8
risk ¡o¡–¡a
small ?rms (contribution) ¡;¡,
a¸;–8, ¡¸6–8
Innovative Potential Indicator
(IPI) ¡¡;–8
Intel 6o, ¡,o, ¡aa, ¡¸;, ¡¸8, ¡,¡
intellectual property ¡¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸8,
¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¡,
intrapreneurship ¡,, ao,
a¡¡–a¸¡, a6¡, ¡o6, ¡;¡
invention ¡8¡, ¡86–;
J
Jaguar ¡88, ¡,o, ¡¡;
Jardine Matteson ¡,¡
Jobs, Steve ,, ¡¸, ¡¡, ¡¸, 6o–¡,
,,, ¡8a–¡, ¡8;, ¡¡o, ¡a¸, ¡¡¸
John Lewis ¡¡6, a¡;, a,6, ¡68
Johnson and Johnson ¡¸;
joint ventures ¡8¸, ¡8,–,o, a¸¸,
a6o, a6¡, ¡¡o, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡o,,
¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡;¡, ¡;¸, ¡8a
Jordans a,a
K
Karla, Ravi ¡;
keiretsu ¡,6
key risk indicator a¡6
Kirton Adapter-Innovator (KAI)
scale ¡¡o
knowledge
economy 8, ¡¡, ¡a, ¡8¡, ¡86–;
management ¡86, a¡¸, ¡o¡, ¡¡¸
organizational ;¡, ;¸, ¡o¡,
¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
spilloveritransfer ¡,, ¡6, ¡8¡,
¡8¸, aa8, a¡6, a¸¸, a¸;, a¸8
tacit ;,, ¡86, ¡a¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
Kodak ¡¡a, ¡,;
kosoryoku a;,
Kraft ¡66
Kyocera ¡¸;
L
laggards ¡a¸, ¡a6, ¡¡¡
Lastminute ¡¸¡
leadersileadership
authentic ¡o6
charismatic ¡o¡
competences ,,
de?nition ,,–¡o¡
delegatedidispersedi
distributediteam-
based 88, ¡o8, ¡o,, ¡¡;,
¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡ao, ¡¡8, ¡¸a, a;¡,
¡6,
entrepreneurial ¡o¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡;,
¡¡8–ao, ¡8a, ¡,¡, ¡6,–;¡
paradigms ¡¡¡–;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,
style 8,, ¡o;–¡¡, ¡a¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¸a,
¡6o–a, ¡;¸, ¡,¡–¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¸¸,
¡;¡
transformational ¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡;,
¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6,
transactional ¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¡,,
¡6,
visionary ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6,
learning organization ;¸–8, ;,,
8o, ¡oa, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡¡¡–¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡6¡, ¡86, ¡,a,
a¡¸, a¡¡, a;¡, a;a, ¡8,, ¡a,,
¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
Subject index 492
Lego` a8¡, ¡¡;, ¡¸6–6¡
Lehman Brothers ¸
Level ¡ Communication 8;
Levi ¡,¡
LG ¡¡¡, ¡aa, ¡¡¸, ¡¡¸
life cycle ¡¡6
productiservice 8, 8,, ¡¡6, ¡;8,
¡,¡, a¸¡, a¸6, a,¸, ¡¡¡, ¡a¡,
¡a¡–;, ¡a,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–a, ¡¡¸,
¡¡¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡8¸, ¡,a,
¡o¡, ¡o8, ¡¸o, ¡¸¡, ¡6,, ¡;¡,
¡;6, ¡8¡
industry ¡¡a–¡
Linux ¡¡;, ¡¡,
locus of control ¡¡, ¡¸, ¡;, ¡,, ¸a,
¸¡, ¸6, ¸8, ¡o¡, ¡¡8, a¡6
Love?lm ¡,a
Lush a;8, a8,, a,¡, ¡¡6
LVMH (Moet Hennessey Louis
Vuitton) ¡;¡
M
machine bureaucracy ¡;8, ¡;,
management
buy-insibuy-outs a¸¡
team ¸8, ¸,, ¡o,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a, ¡¡,,
¡ao–¡, ¡¡¸, ¡6a, a¡;, ¡;o, see
also team buildingiworking
style see leadership style
market
development a6o, a6¡, ¡¡;,
¡o¡, ¡o8
disruption ¡,¸, ¡,6
penetration ¡¡¸, ¡oa, ¡o¡, ¡o8,
¡8a
research ¸6, a¡¸, ¡,¡, ¡,¡, ¡¡o,
¡¡¡, ¡¸o
segmentisegmentation ¡a, a¸¡,
a¸¡, a88, ¡¡o, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡a¡,
¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¸;
marketing paradigms ¡¸, ¡o¸,
a;,, a8o, a,o, ¡,8–¡oa, ¡;¸
marketing strategy see strategy
M&S ¡¸8, aao–¡, a¡;, a,¡, a,6,
a,,–¡oo, ¡,;
Mattel ¡¡¸–6
matrix structures
(organization) ¡;;, ¡;8, ¡;,,
¡,¡
Mazumdar-Shaw, Kiran ,, aa,
a¸–6
McDonald’s ¡;8, ¡;,, a¸¡, a88,
a8,, ¡¡6, ¡a;, ¡a,, ¡¡6
mental models ¡8, ;;, ;8–8o,
¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, a8a, ¡¡¡, ¡,¸, ¡¡¡, ¡;o
Mercedes Benz ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡6;
mergers and acquisitions ¡¡a,
¡¡¡, ¡¸¡–;a, ¡¡¡, ¡;6
Merrill Lynch 8
Metcalfe, Julian ,, ¡¸,
Microsoft ,, a¸, 6¡, ¡¡,, a6¡–¡,
¡¡6, ¡6¡–¸, ¡;a, ¡,¸, ¡,6, ¡o¸,
¡¡6
middle and late majority ¡a¸–6
mission ¡8,, aa;, a¡;, a;a,
a;¡–6, a;;, a,;–8, ¡8¡
Mitsubishi ¡,¡
Mitsui ¡,¡
Mittal, Sunil ,
Monorail a8a
Monsanto ¡¸;, ¡¸,
Morgan Motor Company ¡ao
motivation
intrinsiciextrinsic ¡¡, ¡,, a¡6
theory ¡6o, a¡6–8
Motorola ¡¸8, ¡6¡
multi-business
organizations ¡,¡–¸, a8¸,
¡oa, ¡o,, ¡a¡, ¡¸¡, ¡;a–¡, ¡6,,
¡;¡, ¡;¡
multinational ¡¡, ¡¸o, ¡6a, ¡;;,
¡8¡, ¡a;, ¡¡¸
N
NCR ¡¸8, ¡68
networksinetworking ¡¡, ¡,–¸¡,
;¡, ;¡, 8¡, ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8,
¡¡,, ¡6o, ¡;¸, ¡8¡, ¡8¸–6,
¡8;–,, ¡,¡, a¡,, ¡¸;, ¡¸8, ¡68,
¡,;, ¡¡¡–;, ¡;o, ¡;¡–¡
new venture divisioniteam see
venture divisioniteam
niche marketsistrategies ¡a, a,¡,
¡¡o, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡a¡, ¡a;, ¡¡a, ¡¡¡,
¡¡6, ¡¸¡, ¡,6, ¡o;, ¡¸¡
Nintendo (Wii) ¡,6, ¡oa–¡
Nokia a¸, a6¡–¡, ¡6¸, ¡¡6
non-metric mapping ¡¸¡
norms ¡¡¡, ¡a¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡o, ¡¡8, ¡¸o,
¡¸a, ¡¸¡, ¡8¡, ¡¡¡, ¡;¡–a
Novo Nordisk a8¡, a8¡
Now Recruitment ¡a¡
Nucor Steel 8;, 88
O
Olympus ¸
Omidyar, Pierre ,, ¡a¸
OnMobile ¡o,
open book management a¡¡–a
organic (organizational
structure) ¡¡6, ¡¸a, ¡;,,
¡8o–a, ¡,¡, ¡,¡–¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡,
¡¸¡, ¡;¡, ¡;a–¡
organizational architecture see
architecture
Organizational Culture
Assessment Instrument
(OCAI) ¡6¸–6
Oticon ¡8¡
out-group ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡;¡,
¡;a
outsourcing ¡;¡–¸
P
Page, Larry ,
paradigm shift (markets) a¡, 8o,
¡8¡–¸, ¡8,, ¡,o, ¡,¡, ¡,6, ¡oa,
¡¡o
Parmalat ¸, 8, ,
PayPal ¡¸¸–6, ¡a¸
penetration see market
penetration
perceptual mapping ¡¸o
personal construct theory ¡¸¡
philanthropy ¡¸¡, a,6–;, ¡oo,
¡¡a
Polaroid ¡86
Porter’s Five Forces 88, ¡¡;–,
portfolio
product a¸6, ¡¡,, ¡a,–¡6,
¡¡¡–¸, ¡;¡, ¡;¡–6, ¡8¡–a
risk ¡o;–8, ¡¡o
Positioning School of
strategy a;¡, a;a
Pret A Manger ,, ¡¸,
price competitivenessisetting
a8¡, a,¡, ¡o,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–,, ¡a¡,
¡a¡, ¡a¸, ¡a6–;, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a,
¡¡;–8, ¡¸¡, ¡8,, ¡oo, ¡a6, ¡a,,
¡;6
pricing ¡¡¡, ¡a6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡;¡
Process School of strategy a;¡,
a;a
product
development ¡8o, ¡,¡, ¡,¡, a¸a,
a¸¡, a,¡, ¡,¡–a, ¡a¸, ¡a6,
¡;¡
expansion ¡¡¸–6
extension a¸¡, ¡a¸–6
493 Subject index
innovation see innovation,
product
modi?cation ¡¡¸–6
life cycle see life cycle
portfolio see portfolio
productimarket matrix ¡¸¡–6
productivity ¡¸, a¸¡, a¸;, a,¡,
¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
Q
Quaker Oats a¸¡
Quanta Computers ¡¡;–¡8, ¡aa
Quad Electroaccoustics ¡¡,
R
R&D ¡¡, ¡;6, ¡,o, a¸;–8, ¡ao,
¡¸¸, ¡68, ¡8,, ¡,¸, ¡¡8, ¡¡a
recession ¸, 6, 8,, ¡¡;, ¡;¡, ¡8,,
a8¡, a8¡, ¡¡¡
Redman, Gary ¡a¡
relationship marketing ¸o
Reliance GroupiIndustries ¡66,
¡6;, ¡68
repertory grid ¡¸¡
risk
classi?cation a¡a–¸
?nancial a¡¡, a8¡
innovation see innovation risk
managementimitigationi
minimization ¸6, 88, ¡o¡,
¡;¡, ¡86, ¡8,, ¡,¸, ao,, aa¸,
a¡a–;, a¡¡, a¸¸, a6o, ¡¡,,
¡¡6, ¡¡8–,, ¡¡o, ¡6o, ¡6a,
¡6¡, ¡6¸, ¡66, ¡68, ¡8,,
¡o¡–¡a, ¡¸¡, ¡;¸
portfolio see portfolio risk
systematic ¡66
Roddick, Anita ,, ¡6a
Rolls-Royce a8,, a,¡, a,¸, ¡¡o,
¡,,
Rose, Stuart ¡¸8
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) ¸,
8, ¡¡, ¡oa, ¡6o–¡
Royal Mail Group ¡¡o
Ryanair ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡, ¡oo
S
SAB-Miller ¡,¡, ¡66
Sainsbury ¡68
Samsung ¡,a, ¡,¡, a6¡, ¡6¡, ¡¡6
scenario planning a¡¡, a8¡–¡,
¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¸¡
Schultz, Howard a;¡, ¡a;
self-e?cacy ¡,, 8¸, ¡ao, ¡;o
service-dominant logic ;,, 8¡
Shah, BharatiNaresh ¡;
shamrock organization ¡;¡
shareholder value 8, 86, a8¡,
¡6¸, ¡66, ¡;¡
share price ¡¡¸, ¡66
Shell ¡¡¡, ¡¡;, ¡6;
Singapore Airlines a¡, ¡,o, ¡¡o
skunk working a¸¡, ¡¸¡
slack (organizational) ¸¡, ¡o6,
a¡¡, aa¸–;, ¡¡a, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸,
¡;o
SLEPT analysis a8o–a, a8¡, ¡a,,
¡¡6
small ?rms
contribution to the
economy ,–¡a
innovation see innovation,
small ?rms
Southwest Airlines a,¡
span of control ¡¸a, ¡;¡, ¡;6–;,
¡8a, ¡8¡, a¡o, ¡;¡
Specsavers a¡¡–¸
spider’s web (organization) ¸¡–¡,
¸¡, ;¡, ¡;¡, ¡;6, ¡8¡, ¡,¡, ¡;a
spin-o?siouts ,o, ¡;¸, a¡¡,
a¸¡–¡, ¡¡a, ¡¡¡, ¡¸8, ¡¸,, ¡¡¡,
¡;¡
stage gate process ¡,¡
Starbucks ¡;;, a¡a–¡¡, a¡;, a;¡,
a;¸, a,8, ¡a;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8
stock market ¸, ,, a,6, ¡¡a, ¡¸¡,
¡66
strategic
analysis ¸¡, ¡oa, a8;–,o, a86,
a8;–,o, ¡ao
alliancesipartnershipsijoint
ventures ¡;¡, ¡8¸, ¡8,–,a,
a¡¡, a¸¸, a¸8, a6o, ¡¡o, ¡¸8,
¡8,, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡o,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8, ¡;¡, ¡;¸, ¡8a
business unit (SBU) ¡8¸
development see planning
entrepreneurship a¡
?t ¡¸;, ¡o8
intent ¸¸, ¡o¡–¸, a;¡, a;,–8o,
¡,8, ¡a6, ¡;¡
options 8, ¸¡, ¸¸, 8o, 86,
a¡¡, a;¡, a;a, a;¡, a8o–¸,
a8¡–¡, a86, a8;, ¡¡6, ¡;o,
¡;¡
planning 6, 8, ¡¡, ¸¡–¸, ¸6, 8¡,
8¸, ¡o¡, a8¸–;, a,;–8, ¡o¡,
¡o¡, ¡;¡–¸
positioning a¡,–ao
renewal ¡,, a¡
vision see vision
strategizing a;¡–¡
strategy
Blue Ocean a8o, ¡,8–¡oo
corporate a8¸, a86, a,¸, ¡o¡,
¡¸8
developmenti formulation see
strategic, planning
di?erentiation see
di?erentiation
emergent ¸¡, ¸6, 8a, ¡;¡
Entrepreneurial School of aa,
¸¡, a;¡
implementation a8¸, a86–;,
a,;
launch ¡a;, ¡,a, ¡¡¡
low-price see cost advantage
marketing a88, ¡a¡, ¡a¸,
¡¡¡–¡, ¡8,, ¡,8, ¡o,
mis?t a;,
niche see niche
Positioning School of a;¡–a
Process School of a;¡–a
Streetcar ;,, 8o–¡
Sugar, Alan ,
Sun Microsystems ¡,o, ¡¡¸, ¡¡,
sustainable competitive
advantage see competitive
advantage
Swarfega ¡a6
Swatch ¡,8
switch costs ¡a¡, ¡¡;–8
SWOT analysis a8¸–6, a8;, a88,
a,o
synergy ¡;¸, ¡8,, ¡¡¡, ¡¸;, ¡6o,
¡6;–8, ¡;a, ¡o6
T
tactics ¡a¡, a;;
task
complexity ¡o;–,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡,
¡;¡, ¡;8–8o, ¡8¡, a¡;, a¡8,
¡6,, ¡;a
culture ¡¡a, ¡¡¸, ¡¡8, ¡¸8, ¡,¡
force ¡;8, a¡6, a¡;, a¡8
orientation ¡¡, ¡,, 6¡
Tata ConsultancyiGroupi
Ratan ¡88, ¡,¡, ¡66, ¡a6
Subject index 494
team
buildingidevelopmenti
working ¸,, 86, ¡¡¸, ¡¡,,
¡ao–¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¡,, ¡6¡,
¡;¸, ¡;8, ¡;,–8o, ¡8a, ¡8¡,
¡8;, ¡,¡, a¡;, a¸a, ¡o¡, ¡¡;,
¡6,, ¡;o, ¡;a–¡
cross-functional ¡;¸, a¡,
multidisciplinary a¡o, a¡;, ¡,¡,
¡¡;
project ¡;;, ¡8¡, a¡6, ¡,¡
see also venture teams
Tesco ¡6¡, ¡68
test marketing ¡,¡–a
Teory XiYiZ ¡6o–a
Tiel, Peter ¡a¸
Tomas-Kilmann con?ict
modes ¡¡¡–¡¡
Timberland a¡;, a,¡, a,6, ¡¡6,
¡6a
transactional marketing ¸o
trust ¡,, ;¡, ;¡, 8¡, ¡o6, ¡o8, ¡¡¸,
¡¡;, ¡ao, ¡aa, ¡6o–¡, ¡8¸–6,
¡,¡, ¡,a, a¡¡, a¡,, a;;, ¡¡,,
¡¸¡, ¡6,, ¡;o
TutorVista ¡6
U
uncertainty see risk
unique selling proposition
(USP) ¡¡¸
Unilever ¡¡¡
unitarism ;6
V
value chainidrivers ¡ao–¡
values ¡¸, ;6, ¡o¡, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡o;,
¡¡¡, ¡¡;, ¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡aa, ¡a¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,,
¡¸a, ¡¸¡, ¡¸8, ¡6¡, a¡¡, aa;,
a¡;, a;¡, a;;–8, a8¸, a,o, ¡¡a,
¡6,–;a
venture division a¸¡–¡, a¸¸–6,
a¸;
venture teams a¡o, a¡¡, a¡¡,
a¡,, a¸¡–a, a¸¸, a¸;
see also team working
vision ¡¡, a¡, ¡¡–¸, ¡a, ¸¡, ¸¡, ¸¸,
;6, 8¸, ¡oo–¡, ¡o¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¸a, a¡,–ao,
a¡¡, a¡8, a;¡–¡, a;;, a;,, a8¡,
a8¸–6, a,o, ¡o¡, ¡a8, ¡6,–;¡,
¡;¡
visionary leadership see
leadership, visionary
Virgin ,, a¡–¸, ¡,o, ¡,¸–,,
a,6–;, ¡¡;, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡6¡, ¡66,
¡68, ¡;¡
virtual
assets 8
network 8¡, ¡8¸, ¡¡;, ¡;¡
organization structure ¡¡8
W
walk the talk ¡o¡, ¡o¡, ¡ao, ¡¡;,
¡;o
Wendy’s 8;
wheel of learning ;6–8o, ¡¡¡
Why° Why° exercisei
diagram ¡¡8–,
Wilkin & Sons ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, a,¡
Williams ¡,o
X, Y, Z
Xerox 6o, a¸6, a,¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¸;, ¡¸,,
¡8;
Yahoo a,¡
Zennström, Niklas ¡a¸
Zipcar ;,, 8o–¡
495
Author index
¡i ¡a¡
A
Abdesselam, Bonnet and
Le Pape ¡8
Abell ¡6¸
Acemoglu, Aghion and
Zilibotti ¡6
Acs and Aaudretsch ¡,, a¸;, ¡¸6
Acs, Audretsch, Branerhjelm and
Carlsson, ¡,
Adair ¡¡¡
Adizes ,,
Aghion and Howitt ¡8
Ahmad ¡o
Aldrich and Martinez ¡¸
Allday ¡o¡
Anderson ¡¸
Anderson and Weitz ¡,¡
Andersson, Gabrielsson and
Wictor ¡¸
Annual Population Survey ¡8
Anso? ¡¸¡
Antoncic and Hisrich a¡¡, a¡6
Audretsch ¡8, ¡,, ¡8¸
Audretsch, Keilbach and
Lehman ¡6
Avolio, Bass and Jung ¡¡6
B
Bagozzi
Bartlett and Ghoshal ¡oa
Bass ¡¡¡
Bass and Avolio ¡¡6
Baty 6¡
Baum and Locke ¡,
Baum, Locke and Smith ¡,
Belbin ¡a¡, ¡a¡, a¡;, a¸a
Bell, Murray and Madden ¡¸
Bennis ao,
Bennis and Nanus ¡o¡
Bergelman a¸a, a¸¡
Berkhout and Green a,¡, ¡,;
BERR ¡o, ¡a
Bessant ¡8¸
Bettis and Prahalad ;,
Bhide ¸¡, ¡;¡
Birch ,
Birkinshaw ¡,, aa6, aa;, aa8,
aa,, a¡o
Birley ¡a¡
Blake and Mouton ¡o8, ¡¡¡
Blanch?ower and Meyer ¡¸
Blank ¡oo
Blau ¡;;
Blank ¡oo
Bolton and Tompson ¡6, ¡86,
¡a,
Booz, Allen and Hamilton ¡,o
Boston Consulting Group ¡a¡
Bowman and Faulkner ¡¸a, ¡6¡,
¡o¡
Bradford and Cohen ¡¡;
Brockhaus and Horwitz ¡¸
Brubaker ¡o6
Brush ¡¸
Burke and Logsdon a,;
Burgelman ao
Burns, P. ¸,, ¡¡6, ¡¡a, ¡a¡
Burns, P. and Whitehouse ¸¡,
¡o,
Burns, T. and Stalker ¡;;
Burt ¡¡¸
Busenitz and Barney ¡o
Buttner and More ¡¸
Buzzell and Gale ¡a¡
Buzzell, Heany and
Schoe?er ¡a¡
C
Caird ¡¸
Cannon ¡8¡
Carr ¡¡,
Carter and Cachon ¡¸
Case a¡¡
Chale? ¡¡;
Chandler ¡;;
Chaston ¡,,, ¡oo, ¡o¡
Chell ¡aa
Chell, Haworth and Brearley ¡¸
Chen, Greene and Crick ¡8, ¡,
Chesbrough ao, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¡8
Chisnall
Christensen ao, a¡8, ¡,¸, ¡,6
Churchill and Lewis ¸,
Clemmer a¡,
Cli? ¡8
Cohen and Bradford a¡¸
Collins and Porras ¡¡6
Cooper, A. 8¡
Cooper, R. ¡,¡
Cope ¸¸
Cornwall and Perlman ¡¡a, ¡¡¡
Covin and Miles a¡
Covin and Slevin 88, ¡8o
Cuba, Decenzo and Anish ¡¸
D
David a¸6
Davis, Morris and Allen 88
Day and Schoemaker ¡¡¡
Deakins ¡¸
Deakins and Freel ¡¸;
Deans, Zeisel and Kroeger ¡¡a
Author index 496
de Bono ¡¸, ¡¡¡
De Colle and Gonella a,;
de Geus ¡¡
Delmar ¡,
Department of Business,
Enterprise and Regulatory
Reforms ¡8,
Doern ¡¸
Drucker 8, ao, a¡, a¡,, ¡a8, ¡a,,
¡¸¡
Dubini and Aldrich ¡,, ¸o, 8¡,
¡8¸
Dunkelberg, Cooper, Woo and
Dennis ¡a¡
du Toit ¸a
Dwyer, Schurr and Oh ¡,¡
Dyer, Gregersen and
Christensen ¡a¸
E
Egri and Herman ¡¡6
Eisenhardt and Martin 86, a8¸
Emery and Trist ¡;;
Environics International a,¡,
a,a, a,6
Epstein and Roy a,;
Ericson and Pakes ¡8
European Commission ¡o
Eurostat ¡o
Evans and Leighton ¡¸
F
Fenton and Pettigrew ¡8¡, ¡8;
Ferreira 8,
Florida ¡¡¡, ¡¡a
Florida and Tinagli ¡¡a, ¡¡¡
Foster and Kaplan ao, aa¸, a;¡,
a8a, ¡¡a
G
Galbraith ao, ¡;8, ¡8a
Galloway a¡¡
Gardner ¡o¡
Gartner ¡¡, ¡¸
Garud and Van de Ven aa6
Garvin a¸¡
GE Capital ¡o
GEM ¡8
George ¡o;, ¡¡;
George and Sims ¡o6, ¡¡;
Ghoshal and Bartlett ao, ¡8;
Giltsham, Pegg and Culpin ¡¡;
Gladwell ¡¡¡
Goldhar and Lei ¡8¸
Goleman ¡¡¡, ¡¡;
Graham and Lam ¡¡¸
Grant ¡;¸, ¡86, a;a, a8a, ¡6o, ¡a¸
Greiner ¸;, ¸,, ¡;6, ¡8a
Guiltinan and Paul ¡¡¡
Guirdham ¡¡6
Guth and Ginsberg ¡,
H
Haige and Aiken ¡;;
Hall ¡¡,
Hamel 6, ao, ¡¡6, ¡,¡, a¡¸, ¡a;
Hamel and Prahalad ¡o¡, a;,,
a8o, ¡aa, ¡,8, ¡,,, ¡¡¡
Handy ¡¡a, ¡¡¡, ¡;¡, ¡86, ¡,¡
Harper ¡6
Harrison and Taylor ¡¡a, ¡a¡
Heifetz ¡¡;
Hischberg ¡¸¸
Hirsch and Bush ¡¸
Hisrich a¡8
Hisrich and Peters ¡¡
Hofstede ¡¡¸, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡,
¡¸o
Hofstede and Bond ¡¡8
Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv and
Sanders ¡¡¡
Hopenhayn ¡8
Hornsby, Kuratko and
Zahra a¡8
Hornsby, Na?ziger, Kuratko and
Montagno a¡6, a¡8
Hughes and Beaty ¡o6
I, J
Ireland, Hitt and Sirmon a¡
Ito a¸¡
Jackson and Schuler a¡¸
Jankowicz ¡¸¡
Johnson, G. ¡¡a, ¡¸a, ¡8¸
Johnson, J. ¡8¸
Johnson, S. ¡¡¡, ¡¡a
Jovanovic ¡8
K
Kakabadse a¡¡
Kalleberg and Leicht ¡8
Kanter ao, ¡¸, aa¡, ¡8¡, ¡,o
Karthik ¡,¡, ¡,a
Kay ;¡, ;¡, 8¡, a;¡, a8;
Kenny and Zaccaro ¡oo
Kets de Vries ¡;, ¸a
Kim xxii, ;6
Kim and Mauborgne a8o, ¡,¸,
¡,8, ¡,,, ¡oo
Kirby ¡¡;, ¡¡o
Kirton ¡¡o
Kirzner ¡¸
Klein ¡¸¡
Klepper ¡8
Konstadt ¡8;
Kotter ¡o¡, a¡6
Kotter and Cohen a¡6
Kouzes and Posner ¡oo, ¡o¡
Kuratko 86
Kuratko and Audretsch ¡,
Kuratko, Montagno and
Hornsby a¡8
L
Lakhani ¡¡6
Lakhani and Panetta ¡¡,
Lambin ¡,¡, ¡,¡
Lambson ¡8
Larson ¸o, 8¡, ¡8¸
Lawrence and Lorsch ¡;;, ¡;8
Leonard and Swap ¡¸¸
Leonard-Barton ;6
Levy and Sarnat ¡66
Lewis ¡,¡
Liedholm ¡a
Lindblom ¸¡
Lorange and Roos ¡,¡
Lu?man and Reed ¡6¸
Lumpkin and Lichtenstein ¡¸, ¡8
M
MacMillan, Block and
Narashima a¸¡
Macrae ¡a¡
Majaro ¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
Maletz and Nohria a¸¸
Markoczy ;8
Mason and Goudzwaard ¡66
Mathewson ¸¸
McCarthy and Leavy ¸¸
McClelland ¡¸
McDougall, Shane and
Oviatt ¡8¸
McGregor ¡6o
McMillan 6, ;
Mehta, Bharat and Ketyan ¡;
Mellor ¡86
Michel and Shaked ¡6¸
Michelacci ¡8
497 Author index
Miller, A. ;8
Miller, D. ¡8o
Miller, D. and Friesen 88
Miner 8¡
Mintzberg ¸¡, ¡o¸, ¡¡;, ¡6o, a¡,,
¡8¡, ¡¡a
Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and
Lampel aa, ¸¡, a;¡
Morden ¡¡¡, ¡¸o, ¡6¡
Morris ¡¡,, a¡o
Morris, Davies and Allen ¡¡o,
¡¡8
Morris and Kuratko 86, 8;, ¡¡¡,
¡¸¡, ¡8o, a¡¡, a¸¡, ¡o;
Morris, Kuratko and Covin a¡
Morris and Sexton 88
Morse ¡,
N
Nahapiet and Ghoshal ¡8;
Naisbitt ¡¡, ¡;¸
Nanus ¡oa
Nohria ¡8;
Nohria and Joyce ¡a¡
Nonaka a;;, ¡,¡
O
O’Connor ¡¡,
OECD ¡o¡
Ohmae 6, ¡,¡, a;,, a,o
Ouchi ¡6o
Oviatt and McDougall ¡8¸
Ozgen and Baron ¡¸
P, Q
Page ¡a¸
Park ¡6¸
Parkhe ¡8,, ¡,a
Pavitt, Robinson and
Townsend a¸;, ¡¸6
Pedler, Burgoyne and Boydell ;¸
Penrose ¡6
Perrow ao¸
Peters ¡¡¡
Peters and Waterman ao, 88,
¡6¸
Pettigrew ¡8,
Phan, Wright, Ucbasaran and
Wee ¡oo
Pierce, Kovosta and Dirks a¡;
Pinchot ao, ¡¸, a¡¡, a¡¡, a¡¸,
a¡6, a¸o
Pink a¡;
Porter 88, ¡¡o, ¡¡6, ¡ao, ¡aa, ¡¡;,
¡6¸, ¡6,, ¡8¡
Prahalad and Bettis ;,
Prahalad and Hamel a88
Pugh and Hickson ¡;;
Pugh, Hickson and Hinings ¡;;
Quinn, Mintzberg and
James a;a
Quinn and Rohrbaugh ¡6¸
R
Raelin ¡¡;
Ray and Hutchinson ¡¡¡, ¡a¡
Read, Sarasvathy, Dew, Wiltbank
and Ohlsson ¸6, a;¡
Reich a¸a
Rosa, Carter and Hamilton ¡8
Rosa, Hamilton, Carter and
Burns, H. ¡¸
Ross a¡¡
Ross and Kanter ao
Ross and Unwalla a¡¡
Rost ¡¡;
Roth and Nigh ¡8;
Rowley ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
S
Sarasvathy ¸¸
Sathe a¡8
Saxenian ¡6
Schein ¡¡¸, ¡¡a, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¸o
Schein, Mueller, Lituchy and
Liu ¡¸
Schmidt ¡,6
Schneider and Barsoux ¡¸¸
Schumpeter ¡;, ¡¸, ¡8¡
Schwartz ¡¸, a8a
Senge ;¸, ;6, ¡oa, ¡o¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡
Shapero ¡¸
Sharma and Chriman ¡,
Shaver and Scott ¡¸
Siegel, R, Siegel, F. and
Macmillan ¡a¡
Simon ¡;6
Sinetar ¡¸¸
Sloane ¡¸¡
Smith a,;
Solem and Steiner ¡a¡
Stanworth, J., Blythe, Granger and
Sanworth, C. ¡8
Stata ;6
Stewart ¡8;
Stinchcombe ¡;;
Stopford and Baden-Fuller a¸a
Storey ¡a
Storey and Greene ¡¸, ¡6, ¡8
Storey, Keasey, Watson and
Wynarczyk ¡a¡
Storey and Sykes ¡¸
Stormer, Kline and Goldberg 6¡
Strangler ¡o
Symon ;8
T
Takeuchi and Nonaka ¡,¡
Tappin and Cave ¡ao
Teece ¡8,
Teece, Pisano and Schuen ;6
Tellis, Stremersch and Yin ¡a;
Tornhill and Amit ¡8a
Tidd and Bessant a¸,
Tidd, Bessant and Pavitt ¡,6,
¡¡6
Timmons ,, ;6, ,,, ¡o,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡,
¡¡¡
Torrington ¡6o
Treacy and Wiersema a88, ¡¡o,
¡aa
Turnbull ¡¡8
Tushman and O’Reilly ao
U, V
Utterback and Acee ¡,6
Valery ¡a8
Van de Ven aa6, ¡,¡
Van der Sluis, van Praag and
Vijverberg ¡¸
Van Grundy ¡86
Vera and Crossan ¡¡6
Verschoor a,¸
Vesper ¡,
Von Oech ¡¸a
Vossen ¡¸;
Vyakarnham and Leppard ¡¡,
W, X
Weber ¡;;
Webster ¸o
Welsch ¡¡6
Wernerfelt and
Montgomery ¡6¸
Weston, Smith and Shrieves ¡66
Whittington, Mayer and
Curto ¡8¡
Wickham a;¡
Wilpert ;8
Author index 498
Wilson ¡,¡
Wilson and Gilligan ¡¡,
Woo, Cooper, Dunkelberg,
Daellenbach and Dennis ¡a¡
Wood a,¡
Woodward ¡;;
Wynarczyk, Watson, Storey, Short
and Keasey ¡a¡
Y
Yelle ¡a¡
Yukl a¡6
Z
Zaccaro ¡oo
Zaccaro and Klimoski
Zahra ¡,
Zahra, Jennings and
Kuratko ¡,
499
Quotes index
A
Adizes, Ichak (author) ,,
Arculus, David (Emap
Group) ¡o¡
B, C
Barrell, Geo? (BlueArc) ¡aa
Bennis, Warren (author) ¡o¡
Branson, Richard (Virgin) ¡¸, ¡8,
¡¡, ¸¡, ¡o;, ¡¡¡, ¡¡;, ¡aa, a¡¡,
a8¡, ¡;¡
Collins, Derek (Brewlines) ¡¡,
a;¡
D
Darling, David (Codemaster) ¸¸
Dawes, Martyn (Co?ee
Nation) ¡6
Dell, Michael (Dell
Corporation) ¡,, ¡a, ¸¡, ¸¡,
¸;, ;¸, 8¡, ¡o¡, ¡a¡, ¡¸¡, ¡;;,
¡8o, ¡86, a¡o, ¡¡6, ¡a¡, ¡86,
¡,,
Deshpande, Gururaj (Sycamore
Networks) ¡;, ¡¡¸, a;¡
Drucker, Peter (author) 8
E
Elnaugh, Rachel (Red Letter
Days) ¡¡o
Elvidge, Jonathan (Gadget
Shop) ¡;, ¸o, ¡o;
F
Farmer, Tom (Kwik-Fit) ¡o
Ferguson, Alex (Manager, Football
Club) ¡aa
Fernandes, Tony (AirAsia) ¡a¡
G
Ganesh, Krishnan
(TutorVista) ¡¸
Garland, Chey (Garland Call
Centres) ¡6
Gooch, Elizabeth (EG
Solutions) ¡6
H, I
Haji-Ioannou, Stelios
(easyJet) ¡8
Hamel, Gary (author) 6
Hisrich, Robert (author) ¡¡
Hoberman, Brent (Lastminute.
com) ¡6
Ingram, Chris (Tempus) ¡o
J, K, L
Kelly, Neil (PAV) ¡,
Lane Fox, Martha (Lastminute.
com) ¡¡
M
Muirhead, Charles
(Orchestream) ¡6
Mazumdar-Shaw, Kiran
(Biocon) ¡a
N, O
Naisbitt, John (entrepreneur and
author) ¡¡
Nanus, Burt (author) ¡o¡
Notley, Ann (Te Iron Bed
Company) ¡;
Ohmae, Kenichi (author) 6
P, Q, R
Peters, Michael (author) ¡¡
Peters, Mike (Universal
Laboratories) ¡a
Rose, Stuart (M&S) ¡oa
S
Saddler, Terry (Bioglan
Pharma) ¡a
Shah, Eddy (Messenger
Group) ¡6
Speakman, David (Travel
Counselors) ¸¡
T, U, V
Tompson, Diane (Camelot) a¡
Timmons, Je?rey (author) ,
W, X, Y, Z
Waring, Stephen (Green
Tumb) ¡6, ¡,
Worcester, Bob (MORI) ¡o
Wing Yip (W. Wing Yip &
Brothers) ¡6
doc_745035066.pdf
With this brief information pertaining to the entrepreneurial revolution.
vii
Contents
List of figures xv
List of tables xvii
Acknowledgements xviii
Preface to the third edition xix
How to use the book and website xxi
Guided tour of the book xxvi
Part 1 Entrepreneurship 1
1 The entrepreneurial revolution 3
Te new age of uncertainty ¸
From opportunity to austerity 6
Te entrepreneurial revolution ,
Economic, technological and societal in?uences ¡¡
Big companies ¡a
Entrepreneurs ¡¡
Innovation, entrepreneurship and economic growth ¡;
Corporate entrepreneurship ¡,
Entrepreneurial transformation a¡
Te entrepreneurial organization a¡
Summary a6
Case insights
AirAsia – Entrepreneurial opportunity ¡¡
TutorVista – Entrepreneurial opportunity ¡6
Entrepreneurial leaders – Michael Dell, Richard Branson,
Bill Gates and Kiran Mazumdar Shaw a¡
2 Entrepreneurial DNA 31
Te DNA of entrepreneurship ¡¡
Personal character traits ¡¡
Character traints of owner-managers ¡6
Character traits of entrepreneurs ¡8
Antecedent in?uences ¡¸
Cognitive theory ¡8
Contents viii
Relationships and networks ¡,
Organization structure ¸¡
Decision-making and strategy development ¸¡
E?ectual reasoning ¸¸
Te challenges of growth ¸;
Summary 6¡
Case insights
Kenyan Asians – Entrepreneurial immigrants ¡;
Cases with questions
Duncan Bannatyne, Dragon – Entrepreneurial character traits ¡¡
Steve Jobs and Apple – Entrepreneurial character traits 6o
Executive insights
General Enterprise Tendency (GET) test 6¡
Part 2 Organizational architecture 69
3 Entrepreneurial architecture 71
Architecture ;¡
Te learning organization ;¸
Dominant logic and mental models ;8
Complexity theory 8a
Creating architecture 8¡
Building entrepreneurial DNA into architecture 8¡
Internal environment: entrepreneurial intensity 86
External environment 88
Summary ,¡
Case insights
Zipcar (Streetcar) – Paradigm shifts: changing dominant logic 8o
Case with questions
¡M – Corporate entrepreneurship ,o
Executive insights
Service-dominant logic in marketing ;,
4 Becoming an entrepreneurial leader 97
Leadership and management ,,
De?ning the role of leader ¡oo
Building a shared vision ¡oa
Strategic intent ¡o¡
Personal attributes of leaders ¡o¸
Leadership style and contingency theory ¡o;
Leaders in a learning organization ¡¡¡
Leadership paradigms ¡¡¡
Leadership in the context of our time ¡¡;
Entrepreneurial leaders ¡¡8
Building the management team ¡ao
Summary ¡a8
Case insights
Gary Redman and Now Recruitment – Leadership style ¡a¡
ix Contents
Case with questions
Michael Dell – Entrepreneurial leaders ¡a¸
Executive insights
Seven principles of successfully communicating a vision ¡o¡
Leadership style questionnaire ¡¡o
How do you behave in situations involving con?ict° ¡¡a
Are you a visionary leader° ¡¡¸
What sort of team player are you° ¡a¡
5 Constructing the entrepreneurial culture 133
Culture ¡¡¸
Dimensions of culture ¡¡6
International in?uences on culture ¡¡,
Organizational culture ¡¡¡
Culture in the entrepreneurial organization ¡¡¡
Mapping the dimensions of entrepreneurial culture ¡¡6
Constructing culture ¡¸o
Reconstructing culture ¡¸8
Culture and leadership style ¡6o
Summary ¡66
Case insights
AirAsia – Management style and culture ¡¡6
Google – Corporate culture ¡¸¡
Wilkin & Sons and J. Cadbury & Sons – Ethics and culture ¡¸¡
Louis Gerstner and IBM – Changing culture ¡¸,
Cases with questions
Apple – Organizational culture ¡¸¸
David Hall and HFL Sport Science – Changing culture ¡6a
Executive insights
Five ways to destroy a rich culture ¡6o
Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) ¡6¸
6 Building the organization structure 171
Size ¡;¡
Hierarchy ¡;6
Change and complexity ¡;8
Organic structures ¡8o
New forms of organizing ¡8¡
Networks and socially embedded ?rms ¡8¸
Te knowledge ?rm in the knowledge economy ¡86
Te globalizing ?rm and its changing boundaries ¡8;
Strategic alliancesipartnerships and joint ventures ¡8,
Developing partnerships ¡,¡
Leadership, culture and structures ¡,¡
Hybrid organic structures and the multi-business organization ¡,¡
Summary ¡,,
Case insights
JaguariWilliams, BBCiIBM and Sun MicrosystemsiIntel –
Strategic alliances ¡,o
Love?lm – Strategic partnerships ¡,a
Contents x
Cases with questions
Apple – Organizational structures ¡8a
Tata Consultancy Services – Structures to encourage innovation ¡88
Richard Branson and Virgin – Brand, culture and structure ¡,¸
Part 3 Management 205
7 Managing the entrepreneurial organization 207
Barriers to corporate entrepreneurship ao,
Reactions to change a¡¡
Implementing change a¡¸
Cementing change a¡,
Management style aa¸
Managing autonomy aa6
Open book management a¡¡
Managing risk a¡a
Monitoring and mitigating risk a¡6
Summary a¡8
Case insights
Enron – Autonomy vs control aa,
Eurostar – Risk management a¡;
Cases with questions
Starbucks – Turnaround a¡a
Marks & Spencer (M&S) – Turnaround aao
BP and Deepwater Horizon – Autonomy vs control a¡o
Specsavers – Mitigating ?nancial risk a¡¡
Executive insghts
Toolkit for managing change a¡,
8 Encouraging intrapreneurship and corporate
venturing 241
Corporate venturing, venture teams and intrapreneurship a¡¡
Personal characteristics of intrapreneurs a¡¡
Motivating intrapreneurs a¡6
Encouraging intrapreneurship a¡8
How intrapreneurs work a¸o
New venture teams a¸¡
Organizing new venture developments a¸a
New venture divisions a¸¸
Research and development a¸;
Successful corporate venturing a¸,
Summary a6¡
Case insights
Apple’s App Store – Involving outsiders in intrapreneurship a¡8
Boeing – Encouraging intrapreneurship a¸o
Xerox Technology Ventures – New venture divisions a¸6
Cases with questions
GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) – Organizing R&D a¸8
xi Contents
Nokia – Encouraging organizational innovation a6¡
Nokia and Microsoft – Strategic partnerships a6¡
Executive insights
Could you be an intrapreneur° a¡¸
Part 4 Strategy 267
9 Developing strategy 269
Distributed strategizing a;¡
Vision and mission a;¡
Values and ethics a;;
Developing strategic intent a;,
Developing strategic options a8o
Developing strategy a8¸
Strategic analysis a8;
Ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) a,o
Building CSR into strategic planning a,;
Corporate governance and the board of directors ¡oo
Summary ¡o¡
Case insights
Lush and Dell – Corporate values a;8
Monorail – Company of the future a8a
Novo Nordisk – Diabetes and Obesity aoa¸ – Scenario planning a8¡
Jordans – Ethics and market positioning a,a
Rolls-Royce and TotalCare – Te environment and business
model innovation a,¡
Ecotricity – Environmental sustainability a,¸
Richard Branson and Virgin Unite – Philanthropy a,6
Starbucks – Environmental mission statement a,8
Cases with questions
easyJet, Starbucks, Dell and Google – Mission statements a;¸
Abel and Cole – CSR and competitive advantage a,8
Marks & Spencer (M&S) – CSR in a public company a,,
Executive insights
Ten guidelines for reducing waste a,¡
10 Creating competitive advantage in mature markets 307
Competitive advantage ¡o,
Cost advantage ¡¡¡
Di?erentiation advantage ¡¡¸
Value drivers ¡ao
Sustainable di?erential advantage ¡aa
Productiservice life cycles ¡a¡
Product portfolios ¡a,
Marketing strategy and product portfolios ¡¡¡
Finance and product portfolios ¡¡¡
Product modi?cation, extension and expansion ¡¡¸
Finding new markets ¡¡6
Penetrating foreign markets ¡¡,
Contents xii
Industry life cycles ¡¡a
Organizational structure and product portfolios ¡¡¡
Summary ¡¡6
Case insights
Quanta Computers – Di?erential advantage ¡¡;
Quad Electroaccoustics – Niche strategy ¡¡,
Morgan Motor Company – Niche strategy ¡ao
Hewlett Packard Pavilion 8ooo laptop – Global supply chains ¡aa
Heineken – International brands and market positioning ¡¡a
Rolls-Royce Aerospace – Expanding overseas ¡¡o
Case with questions
easyJet – Low price strategy ¡¡¡
Crocs™ – Niche product life cycles ¡a8
B&Q in China – Establishing operations in an overseas market ¡¡¡
Barbie` and Mattel Corporation – Extending the product
life cycle ¡¡¸
11 Building value through acquisitions and diversi?cation 351
Acquisitions, diversi?cation and conglomerates ¡¸¡
Strategic acquisitions ¡¸¡
External corporate venturing ¡¸6
Diversi?cation ¡6o
Conglomerates ¡6¸
Economies of scope and synergy ¡6;
Reasons why acquisitions fail ¡6,
Multi-businesses and value creation ¡;a
Summary ¡;¸
Case insights
eBay and PayPal – Acquiring complementary companies ¡¸¸
Pret a Manger – Corporate venturing ¡¸,
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) – Aggressive acquisition ¡6o
Reliance Industries – Family-owned conglomerates ¡6;
Cases with questions
AmazoniAppleiFacebookiGoogleiMicrosoft – Cyber-wars:
incremental diversi?cation ¡6¡
Cadbury – Managing a global product portfolio ¡;o
BAE Systems – Strategic acquisitions ¡;¡
Part 5 Creativity and innovation 379
12 Exploiting innovation 381
Innovation, invention and creativity ¡8¡
Encouraging innovation ¡88
New productiservice development model ¡,o
Parallel development model ¡,a
Disruptive innovation ¡,¡
Sources of disruptive innovation ¡,6
Challenging marketing paradigms: Blue Ocean strategy ¡,8
Innovation and risk ¡o¡
xiii Contents
A portfolio approach to innovation risk ¡o;
Risk and time taken to innovate ¡o8
Mitigating the risks of disruptive innovation ¡¡o
Summary ¡¡8
Case insights
Charles Babbage – Inventor ¡8¡
James Dyson – Inventor and entrepreneur ¡8;
Levi jeans – Disorderly development processes ¡,¡
Swatch – Paradigm shift ¡,8
OnMobile – Timing ¡o,
Case with questions
Nintendo Wii – Paradigm shift ¡oa
Google – Entrepreneurial architecture ¡¡a
Executive insights
Ten ways to sti?e innovation ¡,o
Innovative Tinker Test ¡¡;
13 Generating creative ideas 423
Discovery skills ¡a¸
Creativity and the search for innovation ¡a8
Te creative mind ¡¡o
Generating new ideas ¡¡a
Connectivity ¡¡¡
Open innovation and crowdsourcing ¡¡;
Creative environments ¡¡,
National creativity ¡¡¡
Knowledge and learning ¡¡¡
Techniques for generating new ideas ¡¡6
Blocks to creativity ¡¸a
Encouraging creativity and innovation ¡¸¡
Summary ¡6a
Case insights
Swarfega – Re-using ideas ¡a6
Google – Experimentation ¡a;
HFL Sport Science – Stimulating new ideas ¡¡¡
Great Ormond Street Hospital – Connecting ideas ¡¡¸
Starbucks – Crowdsourcing ¡¡8
Linux – Open innovation ¡¡,
Googleplex – Creative environments ¡¡o
Cases with questions
LG and Hallmark – Encouraging creativity and innovation ¡¡¸
Lego` – Driving corporate transformation ¡¸6
Lego` – Focused open innovation ¡¸8
Executive insights
Six principles of open innovation ¡¡8
How to run a brainstorming session ¡¡;
Personal Construct Teory and the Repertory Grid ¡¸¡
CREAX creativity resources and creativity test ¡6¡
Contents xiv
14 The architecture of corporate entrepreneurship 467
Context ¡6,
Leadership ¡6,
Culture ¡;¡
Structure ¡;a
Strategies ¡;¡
Environment ¡;¸
Corporate Entrepreneurship Audit (CEA) ¡;6
Strategic direction ¡8o
Case reviews
¡M, Apple, Dell Corporation, HFL Sport Sciences, Google
and Virgin ¡8¡
Further reading and journals 485
Subject index 489
Author index 495
Quotes index 499
3
Chapter 1
The entrepreneurial revolution
> The new age of uncertainty
> From opportunity to austerity
> The entrepreneurial revolution
> Economic, technological
and societal in?uences
> Big companies
> Entrepreneurs
> Innovation, entrepreneurship
and economic growth
> Corporate entrepreneurship
> Entrepreneurial transformation
> The entrepreneurial organization
> Summary
Case insights
> AirAsia – Entrepreneurial opportunity
> TutorVista – Entrepreneurial opportunity
> Entrepreneurial leaders – Michael
Dell, Richard Branson, Bill Gates
and Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw
Entrepreneurship 4
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
> Critically analyze the changing commercial environment;
> Explain why entrepreneurs and small ?rms are so important to the
economies of modern countries and the particular importance of a
small number of rapidly growing ?rms called ‘gazelles’;
> Critically analyze the problems large ?rms have in coping with
the new age of uncertainty and the advantages enjoyed by small,
entrepreneurial ?rms;
> De?ne an entrepreneur, what they do and why they are so important;
> Critically analyze the link between innovation, entrepreneurship and
economic growth;
> De?ne ‘corporate entrepreneurship’ and critically analyze the
‘schools’ of literature that have delineated the discipline;
> Explain what is meant by, and what the bene?ts are, of corporate
entrepreneurship;
> Critically analyze the different schools of corporate entrepreneurship
literature.
5 The entrepreneurial revolution
The new age of uncertainty
Te old world order has changed and continues to change. Economic
power is moving east from the USA and Europe to China and India. If the
most startling evidence of this was the ?nancial crisis of aoo8i,, followed
by the recession that engulfed the mature western economies, the seeds
of the change were sown much earlier. Te twenty-?rst century has seen
enormous turbulence and disruption. Tere have been unpredictable
shocks such as the terrorist attack on the twin towers in New York in aoo¡
followed by attacks in London, Bali, Madrid and Mumbai and the wars in
Afghanistan and Iraq. Te upheavals caused by the so-called ‘Arab spring’
of ao¡¡ have continued to a?ect the Middle East. Tere have been natural
disasters like the Icelandic volcano in ao¡o and the earthquake and tsunami
in Japan in ao¡¡. Tere have been enormous shocks to the international
monetary system precipitated by the ?nancial crisis of aoo8i, which
particularly a?ected Iceland in aoo8 and then Portugal, Ireland, Greece and
Italy in ao¡oi¡¡ and subsequently the entire Eurozone. Tere have also been
some spectacular corporate failures from Lehman Brothers in the USA to
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) in the UK. Corporate integrity has come to
be questioned. In the USA the unexpected failure of Enron, one of the most
admired ?rms of the ¡,,os, in aoo¡ became a benchmark for management
greed and lack of integrity. But such scandals were not con?ned to the USA.
Parmalat in Italy became the largest bankruptcy in Europe in aoo¡. Te
Olympus scandal of ao¡a in Japan led to prosecutions. Alongside this the
twenty-?rst century has seen unprecedented volatility in just about every
market from commodities to exchange rates, from stock markets to bond
markets. And underpinning this volatility is the uncertainty surrounding
climate change and whether we have reached a ‘tipping point’ in global
warming.
Te major themes running through this new age of uncertainty are
complexity and change. We are living in an increasingly complex world,
full of interconnections formed by a truly global market place linked by
technology which allows instant communication. Small changes tend to be
ampli?ed in highly connected systems. Actions in one part of the market
place can have unexpected and rapid consequences in another part of it.
And nobody, not even sovereign states, seems able to control this. And
the pace of change has accelerated. Change itself has changed to become a
continuous process of often-discontinuous steps, abrupt but all-pervasive.
Te idea that change has become endemic, continuous and, above all,
unpredictable, sometimes resulting in discontinuous or revolutionary
shifts that can create chaos has powerful implications for us all, but it is
not new. Te ancient Chinese saw change as an endless and essential
feature of our universe – a pattern of cyclical coming and going, growth
and decay, winter and summer, the yin of night and yang of day. Somehow
the west had forgotten this, believing instead that it could create stability
Entrepreneurship 6
and certainty, that change was a series of discrete events that moved socie-
ties from one stable state to another. Economists based theories on it. And
economists, politicians and managers focused on the ways that change
could be controlled in a systematic way. Managers turned to rational tech-
niques of long-term planning and tight control
systems. But this new age of uncertainty has
powerful implications for all organizations.
Planning becomes problematic if you cannot
predict the future and strategic management
faces completely new challenges as the linear
models based on knowledge and information
that have been used for decades seem increas-
ingly unrealistic. Centralized control seems
increasingly unable to cope and traditional
views of leadership need to be reconsidered as
people increasingly show they also have power.
McMillan (aoo¡) characterized what she
called the ‘traditional, classical, mechanistic’
view of change as abnormal, potentially
calamitous, an incremental linear event that
is disruptive but that can be controlled. She
contrasted this to what she called the ‘new,
modern dynamic’ view that change is normal,
continuous, turbulent, both revolutionary and
incremental, uncontrollable and non-linear
but full of opportunities. Tese two views are
contrasted in Figure ¡.¡. McMillan went on to
question traditional approaches to leadership and strategy development
and to cast the net wide in searching for ideas about how to deal with
change by saying that we need to look at quantum physics and complexity
theory – to which we shall indeed return in Chapter ¡.
From opportunity to austerity
Te economic boom at the end of the twentieth century came to an end in
the twenty-?rst. Te banking crisis of aoo8i, led to recession and stagna-
tion, particularly in western markets. Te age of opportunity gave way to a
new age of austerity to accompany the age of uncertainty. Te shift simply
made us realize our vulnerability in this new era. Commercial opportuni-
ties remain but competition is now as much about survival as growth. And,
as global competition continues to increase, sources of competitive advan-
tage are proving increasingly di?cult to sustain over any period of time.
Indeed, it is the ability to create new sources of competitive advantage
quickly, again and again, that is proving to be the only sustainable source
of real competitive advantage. At the same time as seeking new sources
‘We now stand on the threshold of a new age – the age
of revolution. In our minds, we know the new age has
already arrived: in our bellies, we’re not sure we like
it. For we know it is going to be an age of upheaval, of
tumult, of fortunes made and unmade at head-snapping
speed. For change has changed. No longer is it additive.
No longer does it move in a straight line. In the twenty
?rst century, change is discontinuous, abrupt, seditious.’
Gary Hamel, author, 2000
‘We need to nurture future business leaders … to shape
the vision of the world to come. It is not possible to
draw a picture of this universe, but we know it and how
fast it is moving and developing. It is like describing
the shape of a large cloud in the sky, blown o? by a
strong wind. Yet we know its shape and where it is
because we see it and sense it. Although it is not entirely
possible to describe it in a static way, a world-class
entrepreneur can describe it and even capture a large
chunk of it, converting it into raindrops or pro?t.’
Kenichi Ohmae, author, 2005
7 The entrepreneurial revolution
F 1.1 Views of change
Traditional, classical, mechanistic views of change
Change
is…
An event
Linear
Controllable
Cause and
effect
Abnormal Disruptive
Calamitous Incremental
New, modern, dynamic views of change
Change
is…
About
learning
Normal
Uncontrollable
Revolutionary
and
incremental
Creative
Full of
opportunities
Turbulent
Continuous
Non-linear
Adapted from E. McMillan (2004) Complexity, Organisations and Change,
London: Routledge.
Entrepreneurship 8
of competitive advantage companies must continue to manage existing
businesses. Tey must ?nd ways of managing to achieve cost e?ciencies
whilst at the same time di?erentiating themselves from the competition.
Tey must ?nd ways to innovate at the same time as managing products at
the mature stage of their life cycle. Tey must ?nd ways of understanding
and reconciling customer needs in both India and the USA, of reconciling
global integration with local di?erentiation. And, despite their size, they
must respond to changes in these needs quickly just as they must react
quickly to the actions of competitors. All these pressures and paradoxes
have caused large ?rms to reconsider how they are structured and how
they manage their diverse operations. Tey need to manage for survival
today but plan for growth when an upturn comes.
Tis new imperative of survival has led to some reappraisal of how
shareholder value is maximized. Certainly the previous focus on short-
term pro?ts has shifted to liquidity and cash ?ow. But also there is a focus
on risk minimization and a realization that companies
need to maximize their ?exibility if they are to survive in
this new, unpredictable age. And that means they need to
maximize the number of commercial options they face at
any time, even if that comes at the expense of short-term
pro?ts. Strategic options are valuable when you face either
an unexpected downturn or upturn and are essential in
the age of uncertainty. Flexibility increases shareholder value. Tis all has
implications, not only for how strategy is developed, but also for deciding
which sectors are attractive.
Te age of austerity has coincided with a shift in sources of value being
in physical assets to virtual assets – a shift from assets that are purchased
and restrict ?exibility to those that can be built up and can increase
?exibility. We have moved from an industrial economy to a knowledge
economy driven by new digital technologies. And with this new economy
commercial opportunities continue to emerge both from technological and
market innovation, sometimes breaking down established industry barriers
and creating new and unexpected sources of competition. For example, the
internet has caused many high street retailers to radically reappraise their
customer o?ering and will probably lead to the high street looking very
di?erent in the future. It has caused the music, video and print industries
to reappraise how their products are distributed. It has caused disruption,
generating as many opportunities as threats.
Te new age has also seen companies face new social pressures.
Corporate scandals such as Enron and Parmalat have led to cries for
improved corporate governance and board room accountability. Excessive
executive salaries and bonuses that bore no relationship to the performance
of the organization, exempli?ed in RBS and Merrill Lynch, have redoubled
these cries. At the same time companies have been pressurized to take a
more socially responsible role. Tis pressure comes from many sources.
‘Today’s businesses, especially the large
ones, simply will not survive in this period
of rapid change and innovation unless
they acquire entrepreneurial competence.’
Peter Drucker, author, 1985
9 The entrepreneurial revolution
Environmentalists want companies to reduce their ‘carbon footprint’,
espouse ‘green’ issues and become more sustainable. Social reformers
want them to change some of their behaviours, for example exploitation
of child labour in developing economies. Social activists want them to
espouse ‘corporate citizenship’ programmes and undertake charity work
in the community. Finally ethical activists see companies such as Enron
and Parmalat behaving in unacceptable ways and want business ethics to
be re-established in the board room. All these issues have become bundled
together under the umbrella of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). CSR
is seen as increasingly important for large companies for both ethical and
commercial reasons. CSR stock market indices have been developed and
there is increasing pressure from customers and shareholders to imple-
ment CSR.
The entrepreneurial revolution
While we have moved from the age of opportunity to an age of auster-
ity there has been a quiet revolution taking place. Entrepreneurs have
emerged as the species most able to cope with the turbulence caused by
both opportunity and austerity. Over the last three decades entrepreneurs
establishing new ?rms have done more to create wealth than ?rms at any
time before them – ever! Ninety-?ve per cent of the wealth of the USA
has been created since ¡,8o. Bill Gates started Microsoft in ¡,;¸, Steve
Jobs started Apple in ¡,;6, Michael Dell set up Dell Corporation in ¡,8¡,
Pierre Omidyar launched eBay in ¡,,¸ and Larry Page and Sergy Brin set
up Google in ¡,,6. And this was not just happening in the USA. In the
UK Alan Sugar launched Amstrad in ¡,68, Richard Branson started what
has become his Virgin empire in ¡,;a, James Dyson started selling his now
ubiquitous Dyson vacuum cleaners in ¡,;6, Anita Roddick opened the ?rst
Body Shop in ¡,;6 and Julian Metcalfe and Sinclair Beecham opened their
?rst Pret A Manger sandwich bar in ¡,86. In
India Sunil Mittal started his ?rst business, later
to become Bhati Enterprises, in ¡,;6 and Kiran
Mazumdar-Shaw started Biocon in ¡,;8. Tese
are now gigantic corporations that made their
founders into millionaires.
People have begun to appreciate the contri-
bution all small ?rms make to the economies of
their countries. It was David Birch (¡,;,) who,
arguably, started this process with his seminal
research which showed that 8aºof new jobs in
the USA created between ¡,6, and ¡,;6 were
in small ?rms (under ¸oo employees). Although
the detailed statistics have been disputed, this
general pattern has been repeated every year.
‘Te Entrepreneurial Revolution is here to stay, having
set the genetic code of the US and global economy
for the ??st century, and having sounded the death
knell for Brontosaurus Capitalism of yesteryear.
Entrepreneurs are the creators, the innovators, and the
leaders who give back to society, as philanthropists,
directors and trustees, and who, more than any
others, change the way people live, work, learn, play,
and lead. Entrepreneurs create new technologies,
products, processes, and services that become the next
wave of new industries. Entrepreneurs create value
with high potential, high growth companies which
are the job creation engines of the US economy.’
Jeffrey Timmons, author, 1999
Entrepreneurship 10
Small, growing ?rms have outstripped large ones in terms of job genera-
tion, year after year. At times when larger companies retrenched, smaller
?rms continued to o?er job opportunities. It has been estimated that in the
USA small ?rms now generate ¸oº of GDP, and over ¸oº of exports now
come from ?rms employing fewer than ao people.
Europe lags a little behind the USA, but the pattern is similar. Small
?rms, virtually no matter how they are de?ned, now make up over ,¸º
of enterprises in the European Community. Overall, they generate 6;º of
employment and ¸8º of value added (Eurostat, aoo8). In Italy the propor-
tion of value added is ;,º, in France it is 6¡º and in Germany it is 6oº.
In the UK they generate 6aº of employment and over a¸º of GDP. With
¡.; million small ?rms in aoo; (an increase of almost ,6º in a8 years), the
UK has one of the highest business start-up rates in Europe. By just about
any measure the contribution small ?rms make to the economy of any
country is increasing and their importance is now fully recognized.
But the focus is not just on small ?rms. It is also on high-growth ?rms.
Despite being few in number, young, high-growth businesses – often
called ‘gazelles’ – are disproportionately important to national economies.
De?nitions of gazelles vary. Te OECD proposed de?nition is enterprises
with ¡o or more employees, with an average employment growth of over
aoº for three consecutive years (Ahmad, aoo6). In the USA it has been
estimated that gazelles, although they comprise less than ¡º of all compa-
nies, generate about ¡oº of new jobs in any given year. Indeed the top-
performing ¡º of all ?rms generate about ¡oº of all new jobs (Strangler,
ao¡o). Te pattern is replicated in other countries. In the UK, a government
survey of the literature concluded that gazelles, although they represent
just a to ¡º of all ?rms, were responsible for the majority of employment
growth (BERR, aoo8). And, although medium-sized businesses (turnover
rao–r8oo million) represent ¡º of businesses they generate over ¡oº of
GDP and employ more than one-third of the workforce (GE Capital, ao¡a).
But again Europe lags somewhat behind the USA. An EU survey found US
SMEs were on average larger and expanded more rapidly than EU ?rms
(European Commission, aoo8) and, whilst a higher percentage of UK ?rms
achieve high growth than European ?rms, the UK still lags behind the USA
(BERR, op. cit).
As the pace of change in just about every aspect of our life accelerates,
small ?rms seem more able to cope than large. Start-ups are on the increase
across the world. While the number of small ?rms is increasing, big ?rms
are struggling to survive. In the UK there are only around ;ooo ?rms
employing over a¸o employees. Many large ?rms are slimming down or
deconstructing – becoming many small ?rms – because this is the only way
they can cope with the pace of change and remain responsive to changes
in the market. Te entrepreneur has been recognized as a vital part of the
process of economic wealth generation. But large organizations are desper-
ate to learn from the entrepreneur and become more entrepreneurial
11 The entrepreneurial revolution
themselves. After all, increasing size is a natural consequence of businesses
being successfully started by entrepreneurs. Te trick is to learn the lessons
of that success and not allow the organization to fossilize and die. However,
according to Arie de Geus (¡,,

ingly inept at survival. He quoted a Dutch survey showing the average
corporate life expectancy in Japan and Europe was ¡a.¸ years. ‘Te average
life expectancy of a multinational corporation – the Fortune ¸oo or equiva-
lent – is between ¡o and ¸o years.’ Te reality is that large companies often
die young or at least their ownership changes fairly quickly. But the other
side of the coin is that most small ?rms remain very small and do not grow.
In the UK ;¡º have no employees and ,6º have fewer than ¡o employees
(www.statistics.gov.uk). What is more, almost ¸oº of businesses will cease
trading within the ?rst three years of their existence.
Economic, technological and societal
in?uences
A number of other in?uences have accelerated the trend towards smaller
?rms. Firstly there has been the shift in most economies away from
manufacturing towards the service sectors where small ?rms often ?our-
ish because of their ability to deliver a personalized, ?exible, tailor-made
service at a local level. Te move to a knowledge economy has meant that
economies of scale become less important as a form of competitive advan-
tage. For example, a high proportion of innovations in the pharmaceutical
industry now come from small ?rms set up speci?cally to undertake R&D.
A high proportion of our gazelles hold intellectual property and intangible
jCase insight AirAsia
Entrepreneurial opportunity
Former Time Warner executive Tony Fernandes set up Asia’s ?rst low-cost
airline, AirAsia, in 2001, buying the heavily indebted state-owned company
from the Malaysian government for only 25p. He set about remodelling it as
a short-haul, low-cost operator ?ying around Asia. Being ?rst in the Asian
market with an idea copied from the West from companies such as easyJet,
the company expanded rapidly from a ?eet of only two planes in 2002 to 86
planes ?ying 30 million people around the world by 2010. It created a new
Asian market in low-cost air travel. By 2007, UBS research showed it to be
the lowest-cost airline in the world. Now with hubs in Kuala Lumpur and
Singapore, it has won the Skytrax World’s best low-cost airline award in 2007,
2009, 2010 and 2011. It has also established associate airlines in Thailand and
Indonesia.
Entrepreneurship 12
assets such as trademarks and patents (BERR, op. cit.). SMEs can build
value in the knowledge economy rather than having to buy it in the form of
physical assets – and they often seem better at doing that than large ?rms.
Technology has played its part. It has in?uenced the trend in three ways.
Firstly, the new technologies that swept the late twentieth century business
world were pioneered by new, rapidly growing ?rms. Small ?rms pioneered
innovation in computers, the internet and digital communications, creat-
ing new markets for these innovations. Tese markets are starting to
consolidate and amalgamate into larger units now, as they mature. We look
at the ‘cyber-wars’ this process has spawned in Chapter ¡¡. Secondly, these
technologies have actually facilitated the growth of self-employment and
small business by easing communication, encouraging working from home
and allowing smaller and smaller market segments to be serviced. Indeed
information has become a product in its own right and one that can be
generated anywhere around the world and transported at the touch of a
button. Finally, many new technologies, for example digital printing, have
reduced ?xed costs so that production can be pro?table in smaller, more
?exible units. Tey have also simpli?ed the routes to market so that small
?rms can sell to larger ?rms or direct to customers around the world, with-
out the expense of putting in place a distribution network. And as large
?rms increasingly outsource non-core activities, the bene?ciaries are often
small ?rms.
Social and market trends have also accelerated the growth of small ?rms.
Firstly, customers increasingly expect ?rms to address their particular
needs. Market niches are becoming slimmer and markets more competi-
tive – better served by smaller ?rms who can get close to their customers.
Secondly, people want to control their own destiny more. After periods
of high unemployment, they see self-employment as more attractive and
more secure than employment. Redundancy has pushed many people into
self-employment at the same time as the new ‘enterprise culture’ has given
it political and social respectability. And, in an age of uncertainty people
seek to control as many aspects of their economic security as possible. Te
growth of the ‘new-age’ culture and ‘alternative’ life styles, encouraged by
worries about climate change, have also led to the development of a whole
range of new self-employment and sustainable opportunities, albeit often
at the periphery of the economy.
Big companies
Big companies are struggling with these challenges – and seem not to
be winning. Tey cut budgets, close plants, downsize, rightsize, decon-
struct – and go out of business. Te ‘deconstruction’ of larger ?rms into
smaller, more responsive units concentrating on their core activities, often
sub-contracting many of their other activities to smaller ?rms has also
contributed to the trend towards SMEs. Large ?rms and even the public
13 The entrepreneurial revolution
sector became leaner and ?tter in the ¡,8os in a bid to reduce ?xed costs
and reduce risks, a process that continues to the present day. Small ?rms
have bene?ted, although they may be seen as dependent on large ones.
But the core of the problem is that traditional
management practices focus on e?ciency and
e?ectiveness rather than creativity and innovation
– control rather than empowerment. Tey look for
cost savings through scale e?ciencies rather than
di?erentiation through economies of small scale.
Tey look for uniformity rather than diversity and
stress discipline rather than motivation. And they
often discourage what they see as the risk-taking
associated with a market opportunity without the
information to evaluate it. By the time they get that the opportunity will
have been seized by a small ?rm. Add all this to the danger that bureau-
cracy will swamp the organizations that practise this traditional form of
management, that they will ossify, and you have the makings of disaster. No
wonder big is no longer beautiful.
And yet big business comes with signi?cant advantages – ?nancial
resources, credibility with stakeholders, established routes to market,
trusted brands and, most valuable of all, large work-forces. Indeed up to
the middle of the twentieth century big companies were thought of as
the route to economic plenty. If only more organizations can continue to
be entrepreneurial as they grow and, just perhaps, others can turn from
being bureaucratic to become entrepreneurial. Te Holy Grail they seek is
sustainable competitive advantage through the ability to change and adapt
to suit a constantly changing environment where continuous innovation
yields substantial rewards – and increases longevity. But most big business
remains typically risk averse. Whether this comes from size or age is di?-
cult to discern. And this creates the culture of bureaucracy which in turn
sti?es entrepreneurship and all it represents – particularly innovation.
And with this, entrepreneurship has become something that society,
governments and organizations of all sizes and forms wish to encourage
and promote. Whether it be creating a new venture or breathing life into an
old one, whether it is creating new products or ?nding new ways to market
old ones, whether it is doing new things or ?nding new ways of doing old
things, entrepreneurial management – whatever that is – has become a
highly valued skill to be nurtured, developed and encouraged. Fostering
entrepreneurship in all aspects of their teaching is probably one of the
major challenges facing Business Schools in the twenty-?rst century.
However, whilst the boards of larger companies are often criticized for
the marked absence of entrepreneurs, there is a pervading suspicion that,
whilst entrepreneurs might be good at that ‘vision thing’ and launching
new ventures, they can become a dangerous liability once a company is
established. And too many entrepreneurs in one organization is bound to
‘Te guiding principles in a traditional corporate
culture are: follow the instructions given; do
not make any mistakes; do not fail; do not take
initiatives but wait for instructions; stay within
your turf; and protect your backside. Te restrictive
environment is of course not conducive to creativity,
?exibility, independence, and risk taking.’
Robert Hisrich and Michael Peters, authors, 1992
Entrepreneurship 14
lead to con?ict, disagreement and disaster as they move o?, often at speed,
in di?erent directions. Tere is some truth in this and it is a real danger.
But it is a predictable danger and one, therefore, that can be avoided with
proper management. What is more, to be e?ective within an organization,
entrepreneurial behaviour needs to be encouraged and focused at all levels
within it, not just at the top. It needs to be institutionalized, ingrained
in the culture of the organization. But equally it needs to be focused and
directed. Finally it needs to be the appropriate response to the environment
the organization faces. Not all industrial sectors or tasks face turbulence
and change – these were broad generalizations. Not all ?rms need to
encourage innovation. Outside of an appropri-
ate context, entrepreneurial actions may be
inappropriate and reckless. For example, in
the early twenty-?rst century RBS was seen as
one of the most entrepreneurial banks in the
world, but its entrepreneurial risk-taking led
to its nationalization and precipitated the UK
?nancial crisis of aoo8i,. However, at the risk
of generalizing, entrepreneurial management
has by and large proved more successful than
traditional management at coping with the
new age of uncertainty.
By looking at both successful and unsuccess-
ful entrepreneurs and their businesses we can
start to understand what it takes to build and
sustain a truly entrepreneurial organization.
And the lessons are valuable to organizations
of any size that need to make the most of the
opportunities and threats generated by rapid change. Te challenge, then,
is to isolate the very DNA of entrepreneurship and, through genetic engi-
neering, replicate it within and throughout a larger organization using all
the skills of systematic management. Te challenge is to develop ‘corporate
entrepreneurship’.
Entrepreneurs
Most owner-managers of small ?rms are, in fact, not at all entrepreneurial.
Tey prefer to manage businesses that will not grow but rather deliver a
life style that they enjoy. Te real driving force behind this entrepreneurial
revolution are those ‘super-heroes’ called entrepreneurs who lead our
gazelles. Tey have become the stu? of legends, increasingly held in high
esteem and held up as role models to be emulated. Tey are often held out
as embodying many ephemeral qualities – freedom of spirit, creativity,
vision, zeal. Tey have the courage, self-belief and commitment to turn
their dreams into realities. Tey are the catalysts for economic change.
‘In the years ahead all big companies will ?nd it
increasingly di?cult to compete with – and in general
will perform more poorly than – smaller, speedier,
more innovative companies. Te mindset that in a huge
global economy the multinationals dominate world
business couldn’t have been more wrong. Te bigger
and more open the world economy becomes, the more
small and middle-sized companies will dominate.
In one of the major turnarounds of my lifetime, we
have moved from economies of scale to “diseconomies
of scale”; from bigger is better to bigger is ine?cient,
costly, wastefully bureaucratic, in?exible, and, now,
disastrous. And the paradox is that that has occurred as
we move to a global context: Te smaller and speedier
players will prevail on a much expanded ?eld.’
John Naisbitt, entrepreneur and author, 1994
15 The entrepreneurial revolution
Tey see an opportunity, commercialize it and in the process create jobs
from which the rest of society bene?ts. Entrepreneurs can be described in
terms of their character traits and by their actions. And we shall explore
this in detail in the next chapter, where we attempt to isolate their very
DNA.
Interestingly for something so popular, there is no universally accepted
de?nition of the term ‘entrepreneur’. Te Oxford English Dictionary de?nes
an entrepreneur as ‘a person who attempts to pro?t by risk and initiative’.
Tis de?nition emphasizes that entrepreneurs exercise a high degree of
initiative and are willing to take a high degree of risk. But it covers a wide
range of occupations, including that of a paid assassin. No wonder there
is an old adage that if you scratch an entrepreneur you will ?nd a ‘spiv’ or
a ‘con-man’ – somebody who will try to get you to part with your money
by deception. However, the di?erence is more than just one of legality.
Terefore a question you might ask is ‘How do they do these things°’
Back in ¡8oo, Jean-Baptiste Say, the French economist usually credited
with inventing the word, said: ‘entrepreneurs shift economic resources from
an area of lower productivity into an area of higher productivity and greater
yield’. In other words entrepreneurs create value by exploiting some form of
change, for example in technology, materials, prices or demographics. We
call this process ‘innovation’ and this is an essential tool for entrepreneurs.
Entrepreneurs, therefore, create new demand or ?nd new ways of exploit-
ing existing markets. Tey identify a commercial opportunity and then
exploit it. Indeed, these two factors – the ability to spot opportunities and
to innovate – are probably the major factors de?ning true entrepreneurs.
Central to all of this is change. Change causes disequilibrium in markets
out of which come the commercial opportunities that entrepreneurs thrive
upon. To them change creates opportunities that they can
exploit. Sometimes they initiate the change themselves – they
innovate in some disruptive way and do things di?erently
from how they have been done in the past. Tey question the
‘dominant logic’ and create new market paradigms. At other
times entrepreneurs exploit a change created by the external
environment. Often, in doing so, they destroy the established
order and complacency of existing social and economic
systems. How entrepreneurs manage and deal with change
is central to their character and essential if they are to be
successful. Most ‘ordinary people’ ?nd change threatening.
Entrepreneurs welcome it because it creates opportunities that
can be exploited and they often create it through innovation.
Another key feature of entrepreneurs is their willingness to accept risk
and uncertainty. In part this is simply the consequence of their eager-
ness to exploit change. However, the scale of uncertainty they are willing
to accept is altogether di?erent from that of ordinary owner-managers.
Tis high degree of uncertainty re?ects itself in the risks they take for the
‘I am often asked what it is to be an
entrepreneur and there is no simple
answer. It is clear that successful
entrepreneurs are vital for a healthy,
vibrant and competitive economy.
If you look around you, most of
the largest companies have their
foundations in one or two individuals
who have the determination to
turn a vision into reality.’
Richard Branson, from Anderson, 1995
Entrepreneurship 16
business and for themselves. And for some this can become so addictive
that they become ‘serial entrepreneurs’, best suited to continually starting
up businesses and unwilling to face the tedium of day-to-day management.
But just because entrepreneurs accept risk does not mean that they like it,
because they have ways of mitigating its e?ects on them. All these charac-
ter traits and approaches to business and management will be analyzed in
the next chapter.
It is no wonder that entrepreneurship has been described as ‘a slippery
concept … not easy to work into a formal analysis because it is so closely
associated with the temperament or personal qualities of individuals’
(Penrose, ¡,¸,). But notice in these de?nitions that there is no mention
of small ?rms. Te point is that entrepreneurs are de?ned by their actions,
not by the size of organization they happen to work within. Any manager
in any organization in the private or public sectors can be entrepreneurial.
Te manager of a small ?rm may not be an entrepreneur – an important
distinction that is often missed in the literature. Equally entrepreneurs
can exist within large organizations, even ones that they did not set up
themselves, and how large organizations encourage and deal with this is an
important issue for them.
jCase insight TutorVista
Entrepreneurial opportunity
Based in India, Krishnan Ganesh launched TutorVista in 2006. It offers a
very twenty-?rst century service. The company uses the internet to connect
students in high-wage cost countries like the USA and Britain with private
tutors from low-wage cost countries like India. It is completely dependent on
the internet and the widespread availability of home computers. TutorVista
is an intermediary. The part-time tutors are mainly employed full-time as
teachers in schools and work from home for TutorVista – a remote business
model that allows the company to keep capital and running costs to a mini-
mum and minimize risks. Teachers are vetted and quality is monitored. The
company markets the service directly using Google search advertisements.
When somebody searches for tutor support in any subject an advertisement
for TutorVista comes up. When they click on the website they can talk to staff
about the service. By 2011 the company had over 2000 students in the USA
alone and Pearson had acquired a controlling stake in the business.
And yet Krishnan had no experience of the education sector. He got the
idea when he was travelling around the USA and was shocked to hear a media
debate about ‘the crisis in the US school education system’. He investigated
and realized that personal tutors in the USA were charging $40–$60 an hour
and were regarded by most people as unaffordable. That got him thinking
about how he could link teachers from his home country, India, to the market
demand in the USA.
17 The entrepreneurial revolution
Innovation, entrepreneurship and economic
growth
It was the work of Joseph Schumpeter, an Austrian economist, which most
strongly linked entrepreneurship to innovation. He was the ?rst economist
to challenge classical economics and the way it sought to optimize existing
resources within a stable environment and to treat disruptions as a ‘god
sent’ external force. In his primary work, Schumpeter (¡,¡¡) set out his
overall theory of economic development – an endogenous process within
capitalism of wrenching the economy out of its tendency towards one
equilibrium position and directing it towards a di?erent one – a process
of ‘creative destruction’. Tis fundamental phenomenon entailed carrying
out new combinations of the means of production – which Schumpeter
labelled ‘enterprise’ but we could equally call ‘innovation’ – by individuals
called ‘entrepreneurs’. Tese new combinations ‘as a rule … must draw the
necessary means of production from some old combinations’.
Schumpeter was arguing against traditional economic theory which
presumed that the economy was always tending towards equilibrium
and that changes in that equilibrium could only occur through changes
in underlying conditions of the economy, such as population growth or
changes in savings ratios, or through external shocks such as wars or natu-
ral disasters. Te former were thought to change only slowly and the latter
only unpredictably. Schumpeter sought to explain the process of economic
development as a process caused by enterprise – or innovation – and
carried out by entrepreneurs.
For Schumpeter a normal healthy economy was one that was continually
being ‘disrupted’ by technological innovation producing the ¸o-year cycles
of economic activity noticed earlier by the Russian economist, Nikolai
Kondratie?. Using data on prices, wages and interest rates in France, Britain
and the USA, Kondratie? ?rst noticed these ‘long waves’ of economic
activity in ¡,a¸. Unfortunately he was executed by Stalin some ten years
later because he predicted (accurately as it turned out) that Russian farm
collectivization would lead to a decline in agricultural production. It was
therefore left to Schumpeter to study these waves in depth.
Schumpeter said that each of these cycles was unique, driven by di?erent
clusters of industries. Te upswing in a cycle started when new innovations
came into general use:
> Water power, textiles and iron in the late eighteenth century.
> Steam, rail and steel in the mid nineteenth century.
> Electricity, chemicals and the internal combustion engine in the early
twentieth century.
Tese booms eventually petered out as the technologies matured and the
market opportunities were fully exploited, only to start again when a new
set of innovations changed the way things were done. For the last twenty
Entrepreneurship 18
years of the cycle the growth industries of the last technological wave
might be doing exceptionally well. However, they are in fact just repaying
capital that is no longer needed for investment. Tis situation never lasts
longer than twenty years and returns to investors then start to decline with
the dwindling number of opportunities. Often this is precipitated by some
form of crisis. After the twenty years of stagnation new technologies will
emerge and the cycle will start again.
Te other factor at work is that innovation – particularly technological
innovation – also seems to generate growth that cannot be accounted for
by changes in labour and capital. Although the return on investment may
decline as more capital is introduced to an economy, any deceleration in
growth is more than o?set by the leverage e?ects of innovation. Because
of this the rich western countries have seen their return on investment
increasing, while the poorer countries have not caught up.
By the time Schumpeter died in ¡,¸o the next cycle of boom was start-
ing, based upon oil, electronics, aviation and mass production. Since then
we have seen booms based upon software, digital networks and new media.
Te internet created e-commerce and made information and knowledge a
commodity that can be traded. And we have seen frequent booms followed
by the inevitable downturns across a wide range of these new industries.
One reason for these shortening cycles may be the more systematic
approach entrepreneurs now have towards exploiting innovation.
But innovation does not happen as a random event. Central to the
process are the entrepreneurs. It is they who introduce and then exploit
the new innovations. For Schumpeter, ‘the entrepreneur initiates change
and generates new opportunities. Until imitators force prices and costs into
conformity, the innovator is able to reap pro?ts and disturb equilibrium’.
By way of contrast, early classical economists such as Adam Smith saw
entrepreneurs as having a rather minor role in overall economic activity.
He thought that they provided real capital, but did not play a leading or
direct part in how the pattern of supply and demand was determined.
Aghion and Howitt (¡,,a) have produced a formal restatement of
Schumpeter’s theories whereby new entrants replace existing ine?cient
?rms. Other economists have emphasized the Schumpeterian assumption
that innovation-based growth needs entrepreneurs and e?ective selection
among entrepreneurs (Acemoglu et al., aoo6, Michelacci, aoo¡). Building
on Schumpeter’s work, recent theories of ‘industrial evolution’ have
linked entrepreneurship and economic growth directly (Audretsch, ¡,,¸,
Ericson and Pakes, ¡,,¸, Hopenhayn, ¡,,a, Jovanovic, ¡,8a, Klepper, ¡,,6,
Lambson, ¡,,¡). Tese theories focus on change as the central phenomenon
and emphasize the role knowledge plays in charting a way through this.
Innovation is seen as the key to entry, growth and survival for an enterprise
and the way entire industries change over time. But the information they
need in order to innovate is crucial – being inherently uncertain, asym-
metric (one party may have more than another) and associated with high
19 The entrepreneurial revolution
transaction costs. As a result there are di?erences in the expected value
of new ideas which encourages their exploitation. Acs et al. (aoo¸) and
Audretsch et al. (aoo6) expanded on this notion that the important feature
of entrepreneurs – and entrepreneurial ?rms – is that they act as ‘knowl-
edge ?lters’, facilitating ‘knowledge spillovers’ or ‘knowledge transfers’.
However, underpinning all this is a realization that change has changed.
Change is increasingly seen as a continuous ?ow. Rather than change
taking us from one ‘equilibrium state’ to another, it is now seen as a
continuous phenomenon, with occasional disruptive large-scale changes.
And continuous innovation is driving this change. Large ?rms need to be
able to innovate continuously, just to survive the tide of change.
Corporate entrepreneurship
Corporate entrepreneurship is a loose term used to describe entrepre-
neurial behaviour in established, larger organizations. Te objective of this
is simple – to gain competitive advantage by encouraging innovation at
all levels in the organization – corporate, divisional, business unit, func-
tional or project team levels. Even as late as the ¡,8os some academics still
believed it was di?cult, if not impossible, for entrepreneurial activity to
take place in larger, bureaucratic organizations (Morse, ¡,86). Nevertheless
there is a large literature on the general phenomenon stretching back over
¡o years. Despite this there has been no real consensus on what the term
means (Sharma and Chrisman, ¡,,,). Vesper (¡,8¡) suggested it was char-
acterized by three very broad sorts of activities:
> creation of new business units by an established ?rm,
> development and implementation of entrepreneurial strategic thrusts,
> emergence of new ideas from various levels in the organization.
Notwithstanding this, Zahra (¡,,¡) still de?ned corporate entrepreneur-
ship narrowly as ‘activities aimed at creating new businesses in established
companies’. Guth and Ginsberg (¡,,o) expanded the de?nition to include
‘transformation of organizations through strategic renewal’ – in e?ect
turn-arounds of ailing companies. Zahra et al. (¡,,,) added further dimen-
sions suggesting that there are many facets to entrepreneurship at ?rm
level which re?ect di?erent combinations of:
> content of entrepreneurship – corporate venturing, innovation,
proactivity,
> sources of entrepreneurship – both internal and external,
> focus of entrepreneurship – formal or informal.
Views about what constitutes corporate entrepreneurship are diverse
and cover a wide range. Trying to pull them together into some order,
Birkinshaw (aoo¡) identi?ed four strands of the literature that he called
‘basic schools of thought’: corporate venturing, intrapreneurship, bringing
the market inside, entrepreneurial transformation.
Entrepreneurship 20
Corporate venturing
Tis is concerned with larger businesses needing to manage new, entre-
preneurial businesses separately from the mainstream activity (internal
corporate venturing) and how they might eventually be ‘spun o?’. It is
also concerned with the organizational structures needed to encourage
new businesses whilst aligning them to the company’s existing activities
(Burgelman, ¡,8¡, Drucker, ¡,8¸, Galbraith, ¡,8a). It also deals with how
companies can manage disruptive technologies (Christensen, ¡,,

aspects are dealt with in Chapter 8. However, the term is also concerned
with investment by larger ?rms in strategically important smaller ?rms
(external corporate venturing) and the di?erent forms of corporate ventur-
ing units needed to undertake both roles (Chesbrough, aooa). Tis is dealt
with in Chapter ¡¡.
Intrapreneurship
Tis is concerned with individual employees and how they might be
encouraged to act in an entrepreneurial way within a larger organization.
It is part of how internal corporate venturing can take place and is covered
in Chapter 8. Te literature is concerned with the systems, structures and
cultures that inhibit this activity and how they might be circumvented or
even challenged. It is concerned with the character and personality of this
strange hybrid of entrepreneur and ‘company-man’. Te term was intro-
duced and popularized by Gi?ord Pinchot (¡,8¸) building on the earlier
work of Ross Kanter (¡,8a). In many ways it was this school that launched
the idea that large organizations could change and be something di?erent
from what, all too often, they had become.
Bringing the market inside
Tis focuses mainly on the structural changes needed to encourage
entrepreneurial behaviour and argues for a market approach to resource
allocation and people management systems using market-based techniques
such as spin-o?s and venture capital operations (Foster and Kaplan, aoo¡,
Hamel, ¡,,,). Structural issues are covered in Chapter 6 but other issues
emerging from this school are covered throughout the book.
Entrepreneurial transformation
Te premise behind this strand of literature is that large ?rms need to adapt
to an ever-changing environment if they are to survive, and to do so they
need to adapt their structures and cultures so as to encourage entrepre-
neurial activity in individual employees (Ghoshal and Bartlett, ¡,,;, Kanter,
¡,8,, Peters and Waterman, ¡,8a, Tushman and O’Reilly, ¡,,6). According
to this school individual behaviour is fashioned by various elements in
21 The entrepreneurial revolution
the organization – its leadership, strategies,
systems, structures and culture. One aspect of
this school – the identi?cation and exploita-
tion of opportunities by creating and sustain-
ing competitive advantage – has also been
called ‘strategic entrepreneurship’ (Ireland
et al., aoo¡, Kuratko and Audretsch, aoo,,
Morris et al., aoo8). Another term associated
with this school is ‘strategic renewal’ (Sharma
and Chrisman, op. cit.), and combinations
of the words ‘strategic’, ‘organizational’ and
‘corporate’ with the words ‘renewal’, ‘rejuvena-
tion’ and ‘rede?nition’ are often used in the
literature associated with corporate entrepre-
neurship. For example, Covin and Miles (¡,,,)
say that corporate entrepreneurship generates
competitive superiority in four ways:
> Organizational regeneration – by altering the organization itself, its
internal processes, structures and capabilities – an aspect covered in
Chapters 6 and ;.
> Sustained regeneration – by regularly entering new markets or intro-
ducing new products – an aspect covered in Chapters ¡o, ¡¡ and ¡a.
> Domain rede?nition – by developing a completely new productimarket
arena and, e?ectively, creating a new industry (disruptive innovation
and paradigm shift) – an aspect covered in Chapters ¡¡ and ¡a.
> Strategic renewal – by fundamentally altering how it competes and
rede?ning its relationship with the market place and competitors. Te
most e?ective form of strategic renewal is entrepreneurial transforma-
tion because it creates the capacity for continuous renewal. It is also
likely to lead to organizational regeneration, sustained rede?nition and
domain rede?nition. How to go about creating this entrepreneurial
transformation is outlined in the next section.
Entrepreneurial transformation
Tis book is about corporate entrepreneurship as transformation – a trans-
formation that is continuous and sustainable. However, it is also about
all the other schools mentioned in the previous section, regarding them
simply as tools that help the transformation. Te book is written from the
viewpoint that, in order to be truly entrepreneurial, the whole organization
must be transformed – but also that transformation must be sustainable.
Te very DNA of the entrepreneur must, somehow, be replicated in the
larger corporate entity. As Drucker (op. cit.) says: ‘Entrepreneurship is
based upon the same principles, whether the entrepreneur is an existing
‘Tere is a real need for corporate entrepreneurs at the
moment. For too long the prevailing consensus has been
if it ain’t broke, don’t ?x it but entrepreneurs recognize
that action and change are crucial for maximizing
potential and taking advantage of opportunities. You
have to be tough and outgoing and not afraid of leaving
calm waters to ride the waves of a storm. I consider
myself to be a corporate entrepreneur. I have not created
the company I am in charge of, but I have changed the
way it is run and have made a real di?erence. I think
times have changed and entrepreneurs don’t have to be
totally out on a limb. Tere are plenty of opportunities
for entrepreneurialism in large companies too.’
Diane Thompson, Chief Executive, Camelot
(also founder of an advertising agency)
Sunday Times 17 March 2002
Entrepreneurship 22
large institution or an individual starting his or her new venture single-
handed. It makes little or no di?erence whether the entrepreneur is a busi-
ness or a non-business public-service organization, nor even whether the
entrepreneur is a government or non-government institution. Te rules are
pretty much the same, and so are the kinds of innovation and where to look
for them.’ So we need to unpick the character traits and the approaches
to business, management and strategy development of successful entre-
preneurs. And when Mintzberg et al. (¡,,8) said that the entrepreneurial
school of strategy (yes, there is one) ‘presents strategy formation as all
wrapped up in the behavior of a single individual, yet never really says
much about what the process is’, the challenge is to start to delineate what
those processes are and the principles on which they are based. We shall
isolate the DNA of entrepreneurship in Chapter a.
Tis process of entrepreneurial transformation can be achieved by
building what I call ‘entrepreneurial architecture’. Tis entrepreneurial
architecture creates within the organization the knowledge and routines
that allow it to respond ?exibly to change and opportunity in the way the
entrepreneur does. It is better suited to survive in the age of uncertainty.
It is a very real and valuable asset. It creates competitive advantage in its
own right and is sustainable. Tis architecture is based upon relationships,
but it is built on the three pillars of leadership, culture and structure and
underpinned by appropriate strategies, as shown in Figure ¡.a. It can be
constructed and this book provides a blueprint for that – a blueprint we
outline in Chapter ¡. One of the paradoxes of entrepreneurial architecture
is that it cannot be too prescriptive as it must be able to evolve and develop
as people in the organization direct it. However it needs some degree of
prescription to ensure this can happen. And to build this architecture
requires a holistic, multidisciplinary approach to managing an organiza-
tion. It needs a renaissance leader who is able to use all the management
levers and techniques at their disposal and is willing to take leadership
by giving it away. It is not easy. But entrepreneurs like Bill Gates, Michael
Dell, Richard Branson and Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw have managed it and in
so doing transformed themselves from entrepreneurs into entrepreneurial
leaders.
F 1.2 Pillars of
entrepreneurial architecture
Architecture
Culture Leadership Structure
Strategies
23 The entrepreneurial revolution
The entrepreneurial organization
So, if you are successful in constructing this entrepreneurial architecture
what will the organization look like° What will it do that is di?erent from
other organizations° What is corporate entrepreneurship about°
Corporate entrepreneurship is about encouraging opportunity-seeking
and innovation in a systematic manner throughout the organization,
always questioning the established order, seeking ways to improve and
create competitive advantage. It is about encouraging the qualities enjoyed
by successful entrepreneurs such as vision and drive, empowering sta? to
do the right things for the organization on their own initiative. It is about
learning new ways to manage organizations involving relationships and
culture rather than discipline and control. It is about new ways of dealing
with risk, uncertainty and ambiguity so as to maintain ?exibility – and
allowing failure but mitigating and learning from its consequences. It is
about institutionalizing a process of continuous strategizing, learning from
customers, competitors and the environment. It is about remaining ?ex-
ible, encouraging change and managing rapid growth. And it is about doing
these things throughout an organization so that it re?ects the entrepre-
neurial characteristics of its managers – responding quickly and e?ectively
to opportunities or changes in the market place. Successfully implemented,
corporate entrepreneurship provides competitive superiority and is a blue-
print for survival and even growth in the age of uncertainty.
jCase insights Entrepreneurial leaders
Michael Dell
Born in 1965, Michael Dell is one of the rich-
est men in the world with a fortune in excess
of $17 billion. He started Dell Computers
in 1984 with just $620. Today the company
is worth billions and employs some 76,500
people, globally.
Michael’s entrepreneurial career started
early. At the age of 12 he made $1200 by
selling his stamp collection. At the age of 14
he devised a marketing scheme to sell news-
papers which earned him over $11,000. From
the age of 15 his interest in calculators and
then computers started to grow. He started
buying microchips and other bits of computer
hardware in order to build systems because
he realized that he could buy, say, a disk drive
for $500 which would sell in the shops for
$1800. In 1983 he began a pre-med degree at
the University of Texas but dropped out fairly
quickly to set up his own business selling
computers direct to end-users.
From the start Michael Dell knew the criti-
cal success factor for his business. He used
an expert to build prototype computers whilst
he concentrated on ?nding cheap compo-
nents so he could keep prices low. The ?rm
grew at an incredible pace, notching up sales
of $3.7 million in the ?rst nine months. The
company went on to pioneer direct marketing
in the industry and integrated supply chain
management, linking customers’ orders and
suppliers through the internet – both strate-
gies helping to keep prices low. At all times
the focus on a low-cost/low-price marketing
strategy has been maintained.
Entrepreneurship 24
Michael Dell has moved from being an en-
trepreneur, wheeling and dealing, to become
an entrepreneurial leader; understanding
where his competitive advantage lies and
then putting into place the systems and pro-
cesses to keep his company two steps ahead
of the competition.
Richard Branson
Richard Branson is probably the best known
entrepreneur in Britain today and his name
is closely associated with the many busi-
nesses that carry the Virgin brand name.
He is outward-going and an excellent self-
publicist. He has been called an ‘adventurer’,
taking risks that few others would contem-
plate. This shows itself in his personal life,
with his transatlantic power boating and
round-the-world ballooning exploits, as well
as in his business life where he has chal-
lenged established ?rms like British Airways
and Coca-Cola. He is a multimillionaire with
what has been described as a charismatic
leadership style.
Born in 1950, Richard comes from a well-
off background. His father was a barrister
and he went to school at Stowe, a leading
private school (called ‘public’ in Britain,
just to confuse). However, he was never
academic and suffered from dyslexia. He left
school at the age of sixteen. Famously his
head teacher commented; ‘Congratulations,
Branson. I predict that you will either go to
prison or become a millionaire.’ Needless to
say, leaving school at sixteen did not dent his
self-con?dence. His mother encouraged this.
She commented that ‘bringing him up was
like riding a thoroughbred horse. He needed
guiding but you were afraid to pull the reins
too hard in case you stamped out the adven-
ture and wildness.’
Now in his sixties, Richard Branson’s busi-
ness life started as an 18-year-old schoolboy
when he launched Student magazine, sell-
ing advertising space from a phone booth.
He wrote to well-known personalities and
celebrities – pop and ?lm stars and politi-
cians – and persuaded many to contribute
articles or agree to interviews. He persuaded
a designer to work for no fee, negotiated a
printing contract for 50,000 copies and got
Peter Blake, the designer of The Beatles’
Sgt Pepper album cover, to draw the cover
picture of a student. The magazine made
money by selling advertising space. It was
so successful that the BBC featured Richard
in a documentary called ‘The People of
Tomorrow’. And that is probably how the
Richard Branson legend started and how he
realized the importance of self-publicity – a
lesson he has never forgotten. Since then he
has become known for his, often outrageous,
publicity stunts, such as dressing up as a
bride for the launch of Virgin Bride.
After Student magazine he started Virgin
Records, originally selling discounted, mail-
order records but soon decided he needed
a retail site. In 1972 he got his ?rst store,
above a shoe shop on London’s Oxford Street,
rent-free on the grounds that it could not be
let and would generate more customers for
the shoe shop. It was a great success and
Richard earned enough money from it to
buy a country estate, in which he installed a
recording studio. Mike Old?eld’s enormous
hit Tubular Bells was recorded in Virgin’s ?rst
recording studio – an Oxfordshire barn – and
released in 1973. Other star names signed by
Virgin Records included The Rolling Stones,
Genesis, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, Bryan
Ferry, Janet Jackson, Culture Club, Simple
Minds and The Sex Pistols.
Since those early days the Virgin brand
has found its way onto aircraft, trains, cola,
vodka, mobile phones, cinemas, a radio
station, ?nancial services, ?tness studios
and the internet. Virgin Atlantic Airways was
launched in 1984. In 1986 Virgin was ?oated
but later re-privatized because Richard did
not like to be accountable for his actions to
institutional shareholders. In 1992, to keep
his airline company a?oat, he sold the Virgin
record label to EMI for $1 billion. In 1999 a
49% stake in the airline was sold to Singapore
Airlines. In the same year Virgin Mobile was
launched.
25 The entrepreneurial revolution
Virgin is now one of the best known brands
in Britain with 96% recognition and is well-
known worldwide. It is strongly associated
with its founder, Sir Richard Branson – 95%
can name him as the founder.
Bill Gates
Bill Gates and Microsoft is probably the
outstanding business success story of a
generation. Born in 1955 in Seattle, he and
his friend Paul Allen, ’begged, borrowed and
bootlegged’ time on their school’s computer
to undertake software commissions. The two
went to Harvard University together, using
the University’s computer to start their own
business. Bill’s big break came when he
approached Altair, a computer company in
Albuquerque, New Mexico, trying to sell it a
customized version of the BASIC program-
ming language for the PC it produced. The
only problem was that, at the time, he and his
partner, Paul Allen, had not ?nished writing
it. He had a vision of what it would look like
and how it would operate, but no software.
That was not ?nished until some weeks later
and with it Microsoft came about. The pack-
age was later licensed to Apple, Commodore
and IBM. IBM later commissioned Microsoft
to develop its own operating system and that
was how Microsoft Disk Operating System
(MS DOS) was born.
Founded in 1975, Microsoft’s growth has
been amazing. It is now the world’s largest
software company producing a range of prod-
ucts and services, including the Windows
operating systems and Of?ce software suite.
And its ambitions are still anything but small.
The company has expanded into markets
such as video game consoles, interactive
television and internet access. With its core
markets maturing, it is targeting services
for growth, looking to transform its software
applications into web-based services and
looking to establish itself in the fast growing
digital communications market. In 2008 it
entered the cloud computing market. Since
2010 it has also partnered with Nokia to
secure market share for its Windows Phone
OS smartphone operating system and other
digital services, competing with the Google
Android system and the Apple iPhone. In
2011 Microsoft founded the Open Networking
Foundation which is meant to speed innova-
tion through simple software changes in
telecommunications and wireless networks,
data centres and other networking areas.
Now a billionaire, Bill Gates stepped down
as CEO of Microsoft in 2000 and retired as
Chief Software Architect in 2008 while still
retaining other positions in the company,
including non-executive chairman. Although
criticized for his anti-competitive business
tactics at Microsoft, he has become a gener-
ous philanthropist and now works full time
for the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw
Born in 1953 in Bangalore, India, Kiran
Mazumdar-Shaw is one of the richest women
in India. She is the founder of Biocon, a bio-
tech company and India’s largest producer of
insulin. With a degree in zoology, she went
on to take a postgraduate course and trained
as a brewer in Australia, ahead of returning
to India hoping to follow in her father’s foot-
steps as a brew-master. Despite working in
the brewing industry in India for a couple of
years, she never achieved her ambition, ?nd-
ing her career blocked by sexism. Instead,
in 1978, she was persuaded to set up a joint
venture making enzymes in India.
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw started Biocon
India with Irishman Les Auchincloss in 1978 in
the garage of her rented house in Bangalore
with seed capital of only Rs 10,000. It was a joint
venture with Biocon Biochemicals, Ireland.
Eventually she found a banker prepared to
loan the company $45,000 and, from a facility
in Bangalore making enzymes for the brew-
ing industry, started to diversify. It became
the ?rst Indian company to manufacture and
export enzymes to the USA and Europe. This
gave her a ?ow of cash that she used to fund
research and to start producing pharmaceuti-
cal drugs. The early years were hard.
Entrepreneurship 26
Summary
3 We are living in an age of uncertainty
characterized by continuing, unpredictable
and rapid change – change that is both
incremental and discontinuous. It is
an increasingly complex world full of
interconnections formed by a global market
place linked by technology allowing instant
communication.
3 Whilst large ?rms ?nd this environment
challenging, small, entrepreneurial ?rms have
thrived and entrepreneurs like Michael Dell,
Richard Branson, Bill Gates and
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw have become
millionaires.
3 Small, entrepreneurial ?rms are a vital part
of the economies of most Western countries.
,¸º of the wealth of the USA was created
since ¡,8o. SMEs generate ¸oº of GDP in the
USA, and over a¸º in the UK. In the EU they
generate 6;º of employment. Fast growing
‘gazelles’ – like AirAsia – generate most of
this employment growth.
‘I was young, I was twenty ?ve years old
… banks were very nervous about lend-
ing to young entrepreneurs because
they felt we didn’t have the business
experience … and then I had … this
strange business called biotechnology
which no one understood … Banks were
very fearful of lending to a woman be-
cause I was considered high risk.’
BBC News Business 11 April 2011
In 1989, Kiran met the chairman of ICICI
Bank, which had just launched a venture
fund. The fund took a 20% stake in the com-
pany and helped ?nance its move into bio-
pharmaceuticals. Shortly after this Unilever
took over Biocon Biochemicals, and bought
ICICI’s stake in Biocon India, at the same
time increasing it to 50%. In 1996 it entered
the bio-pharmaceuticals and statins mar-
kets. One year later Unilever sold its share in
Biocon Biochemicals, and Mazumdar-Shaw
bought out Unilever and was able to start
preparing Biocon India to ?oat on the stock
market, which it did in 2004, with a market
value of $1.1bn.
In 2003 it became the ?rst company to
develop human insulin on a Pichia expression
system. Since then it has obtained a listing
on the stock exchange and entered into
thousands of R&D licensing agreements with
other pharmaceutical companies around the
world. Today Biocon has a turnover in excess
of Rs 24,000 million. It has Asia’s largest
insulin and statin production facilities and its
largest perfusion-based antibody production
facility. It produces drugs for cancer, diabetes
and auto-immune diseases and is developing
the world’s ?rst oral insulin, currently under-
going Phase III clinical trials.
Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw has enjoyed many
awards and honours. In 2010 TIME magazine
included her in their 100 most powerful
people in the world, in the same year the
Financial Times had her in their list of the top
50 women in business and in 2009 Forbes
included her in their list of the 100 most pow-
erful women. Passionate about providing af-
fordable health care in India, she has funded
the 1400-bed Mazumdar-Shaw Cancer
Centre, a free cancer hospital in Bangalore.
Every year, she donates $2 million to support
health insurance coverage for some 100,000
Indian villagers.
She remains involved in breaking gender
barriers:
‘We see many women entrepreneurs
today when it comes to small busi-
nesses. But where we do not see many
success stories is in large businesses.
I think it stems from lack of self con?-
dence. Most women feel that they have
limitations and they are not cut out to
hold such large businesses. That has
to change. It is heartening to see fam-
ily businesses are encouraging their
daughters which was not so in the past.
That is a good sign.’
Rediff Business, 10 August, 2011
27 The entrepreneurial revolution
3 Entrepreneurs are de?ned primarily by their
actions. As with Krishnan Ganesh and
TutorVista, they identify and capitalize upon
commercial opportunities in the market.
Tey have certain identi?able character traits
and approaches to business and management
that set them apart – their DNA.
3 Corporate entrepreneurship is the term used
to describe entrepreneurial behaviour in an
established, larger organization. Te views on
what constitutes corporate entrepreneurship
are diverse, however there are four
identi?able strands of literature or schools of
thought:
> Corporate venturing,
> Intrapreneurship,
> Bringing the market inside,
> Entrepreneurial transformation.
3 Entrepreneurial transformation is about
adapting the whole organization so that
it is better able to cope with the new age
of uncertainty. Corporate venturing,
intrapreneurship and bringing the market
inside are simply techniques to help achieve
this.
3 Tis transformation is achieved by building
an entrepreneurial architecture. Although
based on relationships it can be constructed
through leadership, culture and structures,
and is underpinned by appropriate strategies.
3 Tis entrepreneurial architecture creates
within the organization the knowledge and
routines that allow it to respond ?exibly to
change and opportunity in the same way as
entrepreneurs.
Essays and discussion topics
1 What do you understand by the term ‘age of
uncertainty’° Does it accurately describe the
environment of today°
2 How are the challenges posed by the age of
opportunity di?erentithe same as those posed
by the age of austerity°
3 Why do you think small ?rms have prospered
rather than large ?rms over the last ¸o years°
4 In a turbulent, changing environment what
advantagesidisadvantages do small ?rms
have°
5 In a turbulent, changing environment what
advantagesidisadvantages do large ?rms have°
6 Were Enron and RBS entrepreneurial
organizations° If so, what are the dangers
facing an entrepreneurial organizations° How
might they be mitigated°
7 How important are CSR issues° How
responsive to them are large ?rms° How
might this be increased°
8 Why is there more entrepreneurial activity in
the USA than anywhere else°
9 Why are owner-managers not all
entrepreneurs°
10 Have you ever thought about setting up your
own business° What attracts you to do so
and what blocks you from doing so° In what
circumstances might you actually do it°
11 Can large ?rms also be entrepreneurial° Is it
in their interests to be so° What pressures are
there for them not to be entrepreneurial°
12 If large ?rms were more entrepreneurial
what would be the individual, economic and
societal advantages°
13 What do you understand by the term
corporate entrepreneurship° Do you
agree that it is the same as entrepreneurial
transformation°
14 How are the three other schools of thought
related to entrepreneurial transformation°
15 Using the description of an entrepreneurial
organization outlined in the ?nal section,
speculate how architecture – leadership,
culture and structures underpinned by
appropriate strategies – might build this.
Exercises and assignments
1 Identify two large organizations that you
would describe as entrepreneurial and explain
why you would describe them this way.
Are they commercially successful° Can you
identify any clues as to why they might be
successful°
Entrepreneurship 28
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Subject index
¡M 8;, 88, ,o–¡, ¡o6, ¡¡,, ¡,¡,
aa¸, aa;, aa8, a¡6, a¡;, a¸6,
¡¡¡, ¡¸,, ¡86, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a
;-Up ¡66
A
ABC analysis ¡¡¡
Abel & Cole a,¡, a,6, a,8–,
acquisitions and mergers ¡¸¡–;6
action plans a¡,, a¡,, ¡,a
a?ordable loss ¸6
AirAsia ¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
Altria Group (Philip Morris) ¡66
American Airlines ¡,¡
analogy a;;, ¡a;, ¡¡a, ¡¡,
Anso? matrix see producti
market matrix
antecedent in?uences see
entrepreneurial, antecedent
in?uences
AOL Time Warner ¡¸8, ¡¡¸
Apple a¸, ¡¡, 6o–¡, ¡¡8, ¡¸¸–;,
¡¸8, ¡;¸, ¡8a–¡, ¡8,, a¡o, a¡;,
a¡8, a¸6, a¸;, a6¡, ¡¡o, ¡¡6,
¡¡;, ¡¡,, ¡a¡, ¡a¡, ¡a;, ¡¡6,
¡¡¡, ¡¸;, ¡¸,, ¡6¡–¸, ¡86, ¡8;,
¡o¸, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡6, ¡a¸,
¡a6, ¡¡¸, ¡¡,
architecture (entrepreneuriali
organizational) aa, ;¡–,¡
Astra Zenica a¸8, a¸,
AT&T ¡¸8, ¡68, ¡6,
attribute analysis ¡¸o
B
BA see British Airways
Babbage, Charles ¡8¡
BAE Systems ¡;¡–¸, ¡,;
B&Q ¡¡¡
Bang & Olufson ¡¡6
Bannatyne, Duncan ¡¡–¡
Barbie` ¡¡¸–6
Barclays Bank ¡o6, ¡¡;
barriers to
change a¡¡, a¡6, a8¡
corporate
entrepreneurship ao,–¡¡
market entryiexit ;¡, a¸;, ¡o,,
¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡;6
BBC ¡,o
benchmarking ¡o¸, a8o
Bezos, Je? ¡a¸
Bhati Enterprises ,
Biocon ,
Blue Ocean strategy a8o, ¡,8–,,
¡o¸
BMW ¡¡;
board of directors ¡¡a, a¡;,
¡oo–¡
Body Shop, Te ,, ¡¡,, ¡6a, ¡oo
Boeing a¸o, ¡¡¡, ¡;¸
Boston matrix ¡a,–¡6
see also product portfolio
BP aa6–;, aa,, a¡o, a,a, ¡¡¡
brainstorming ¡¡;–8, ¡¡,, ¡¸¡
brainwriting ¡¡8
brandibranding ¡¡, ¡¡8, ¡,¸,
a¡6, a;;, a8;, a,o, a,¡,
a,6–;, a,8, ¡¡o, ¡¡6–;, ¡¡,,
¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡a¡, ¡a¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸–8,
¡¡¸, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡68, ¡;¡, ¡o¡,
¡¡;, ¡;¡
Branson, Richard ,, aa, a¡–¸, ¡¸,
,,, ¡,o, ¡,¸–,, ¡¡;, ¡¡¸, ¡;¡
Brin, Sergy ,, ¡¡a–;
bringing the market
inside ¡,–ao
British Airways a¡, ¡,¡, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡
BT ¡¡;
C
Cadbury ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, a,6, ¡66,
¡;o–a
capabilities
alliancesinetworksi
partners ¡8¸, ¡,a, a6¡
coreicorporatei
organizational a¡, ;6, 86,
¡8¡, a¸a, a6¡, a;;, a8¸, a8;,
a88, ¡o,, ¡¡8, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡6¸,
¡68, ¡6,, ¡;¡, ¡,¡, ¡,¸, ¡oo,
¡o¡, ¡¡o, ¡;¡, ¡;¡
personal ;¡, ;6, 8¡, ,,, aa¸
product ¡,¡, ¡¸¡
technological ¡¡a
Capital Asset Pricing Model
(CAPM) ¡66
cash cow ¡;8, ao,, ¡¡o–6, ¡¡¡
cash ?ow 8, ¡6, ¸¡, a¸6, ¡¡o, ¡¡a,
¡¡¡–¸, ¡66, ¡o8, ¡¸¡
change
agent ¡¡8, a¡;, a¡¡
cube a¡,–ao
management a¸¡, ¡;¸
Cisco ¡¸;
cognitive theory ¡¡, ¡8–,
cognitive processes ¡¸a, ¡¸¡–¡,
a;;, ¡¡o
competitive advantage a;¡, a;;,
a;,, a8;–8, a,o, ¡o,–¡¡, ¡¡8,
¡ao–¡, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6¸, ¡6,, ¡8¡,
¡8¸–6, ¡,¡, ¡,¡, ¡,¸, ¡,8, ¡,,,
¡o¸, ¡¡¸, ¡¸¡, ¡;¡
Subject index 490
complexity theory 6, ¸¡, 8a, ¡8¡,
a;a
con?icticon?ict resolution ¡¡,
¡¡¡–¡¡, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡a¸,
¡¸o, ¡6o, a¡¡, a¸a, ¡o¡, ¡6,,
¡¸¸, ¡;o
conglomerates a¸¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¸¡,
¡6¸–6, ¡;¡
contingency theory ¡o;–¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8–¡,, ¡;;–8
Co-op Bank a,¡, a,6, ¡¡6
core competences ¡o¸, ¡8;, a¸a,
a¸¡, a¸¸, a¸;, a6o, a6¡, a8o,
a8;, a88, ¡aa, ¡¡¸, ¡¸;, ¡6a,
¡6,, ¡,o, ¡,¡, ¡oo, ¡o¡, ¡o8,
¡;¡
corporate entrepreneurship
(de?nition) ¡,–a¡
Corporate Entrepreneurship
Audit (CEA) ¡;6–8o, ¡8a
corporate governance 8, ¡oo–¡
corporate social responsibility
(CSR) ,, a,o–8, ¡,;, ¡;6
corporate venturing ¡,, ao, ,o,
¡;¡, a¡¡–¡, a¡,, a¸;, a¸,–6¡,
¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡¸6–,, ¡6o, ¡6a, ¡6¡,
¡;a, ¡o¸, ¡o6, ¡¡8, ¡;¡, ¡;¸,
¡8a
cost advantage ¡¡¡–¡¡
cost of capital a8¡, ¡o,
Coutts Bank ¡¡6
creativeicreativity
blocks ¡¸a–¡
de?nition of ¡86–;
destruction of ¡;, ¡¡¡
national ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–¡
process ¡¡o, ¡¡,, ¡¡;
resources and test
(CREAX) ¡6¡–a
tension ¡o¡, ¡o¡, a86
see also discovery skills
CREAX ¡6¡–a
critical success factors
(CSFs) a8,
Crocs` ¡a8–,
crowdsourcing see innovation,
open
culture
dimensions of (Hostede’s) ¡¡,,
¡¡6–¸o
nationaliinternational ¡¡, ¡¡¡,
¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¡,–¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡8,
¡¡,, ¡¸o, ¡6¡, ¡6a
organizational ¡¡, 8a, 8¡,
¡¡¡, ¡aa, ¡¡,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–¡¸,
¡¸¡–6a, ¡,¡, ¡,¸, aa¸,
a¡;, ¡o¡, ¡6,, ¡¸¡,
¡;¡–a
Organizational Culture
Assessment Instrument
(OCAI) ¡6¸–6
web ¡¡a, ¡¡;, ¡6¡, ¡86, ¡;a
customer focus ¡o¡, ¡¡o, ¡;¡
customer loyalty ladder ¡¡;
D
deconstruction ¡a, ¡;¸
delayeringidecentralizing 8¸,
¡o¡, ¡¸¡, ¡;¡, ¡;,, ¡8o, ¡8a, a;a,
a;,, ¡68, ¡;¡, ¡;¡
delegation ¸8, ¸,, 8¸
Dell, CorporationiMichael ,,
aa, a¡–¡, ¡¸, ¡¸, 8o, 8¡, ¡a¸–8,
¡;¡, ¡8¸, a;¡, a;6, a;8, a8a,
a8,, a,o, ¡¡o, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¸;,
¡a¸
Delphi method ¡¸a
design
organizational ¡¡¡, ¡;;, ¡;8,
¡8a, ¡8,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
product ¡¡8, ¡8o, a¡o, aao,
a,¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6–¡;, ¡¡,, ¡ao,
¡aa, ¡a¡, ¡a6, ¡8¡, ¡8¸, ¡8;,
¡,o, ¡,a, ¡oo, ¡o¸
Deutsche Telecom ¡,o
di?erentiation 8, ¡¡, ¡66,
¡o,–¡o, ¡¡¸–¡,, ¡ao–¡,
¡aa–¡, ¡¸¡, ¡6¸, ¡8,
Direct Line ¡,,
discovery skills ¡a¸–8, ¡¡a, ¡;o,
¡;¸
diversi?cation a¸,, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸6,
¡6o–¡, ¡6¸, ¡6¡, ¡6;, ¡68, ¡;a,
¡oa, ¡o¸
dominant logic ¡¸, ;8–8o, 8a,
8¸, 88, 8,, ¡o¸, ¡¡¸, a;;, a8a,
¡,¸, ¡,6, ¡,,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡;,
¡;o
Dom Perignon ¡¡¸
double loop learning ;;, 8o
downscopingi
outsourcing ¡;¡–¸, ¡8;, a¡¡,
a¸;, a¸8, ¡¡¡, ¡¸8, ¡;¡
Dupont ¡¡a, ¡¸;
Dyson ,, a8,, ¡¡¡–¸, ¡86, ¡8;–8,
¡¡¡
E
early adopters ¡a¡–¸, ¡¡¸, ¡,a
easyJet ¡¡, a;¡, a;¸, ¡¡o, ¡,,, ¡oo
eBay ,, ¡¸¸, ¡a¸
economies of
scale ¡¡, ¡;¸, ¡,¡, ¡¡¡–¡¡, ¡¡;,
¡¸¡, ¡,,, ¡o¡, ¡;6
scope ¡;¸, ¡6;–8, ¡;¡
small scale ¡¡, ¡¡¡–¡a
Ecotricity a,¡, a,¸
e?ectual reasoning ¸¸–;, a;¡
e?ciency ¡¡, ,,, ¡¡¡, ¡;;, ¡;8,
ao,, aa¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡o, ¡8,, ¡,,,
¡o¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
emergent strategy see strategy
empoweriempowerment ¡¡, a¡,
;¡, ;6, 8¸, ¡o¡, ¡o¸, ¡o;, ¡¡¡,
¡¡;, ¡ao, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸–¸o,
¡¸a–¡, ¡8a, a¡;, a¡8, aa6,
a¡¡–a, a¡6, a¡;, ¡;¡–¡
Engineer, Navin ¡;
Enron ¸, 8, ,, aa,, a,¡, ¡oa
entrepreneur (de?nition) ¡¡–¡6
entrepreneurial
antecedent in?uences ¡¡, ¡¸–8
architecture see architecture
character traits a¡, ¡¡–¡, ¸a,
¸;, ¡¡6
intensity 86–8, ¡8¸, ¡;¸
leadersileadership aa, ¸;, ¡oa,
¡o¡, ¡o¸, ¡o6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8–ao, ¡8a, ¡,¡
management ¡¡, ¡¡, ¡;¡, ¡8o,
a¡,
marketing planning ¡oo–¡
transformation ¡,, ao–a, ;¡
Entrepreneurial School of
strategy aa, ¸¡, a;¡
environment
external ¡¸, 88–,o, ¡¡a, ¡¸¸,
¡8o, ¡o¡, ¡¸¡
internal 86–8, ¡¡6
sustainability ,, a,o–¡, a,¡–6,
a,8, ¡,;
ethics ,, ¡¡¡, ¡¸a, ¡¸¡, a;;–8,
a,o–;, a,8
experience curve ¡¡¡–a
exporting ¡¡,–¡o
ExxonMobil ¡,¡
F
Facebook ¡¡6, ¡6¡, ¡o¸
failure, corporate ¸, a8a
491 Subject index
?nancial
controlimanagement a,¡, ¡¸¡
gearingileverage 8;, a8¡
performanceireturn a8o, a,¸,
¡a¡, ¡¸6, ¡¸¡
reportingiinformation a¡¡,
¡o¡
services ¡6a, ¡66
theory ¡66
Fisher Price a¸¡
Ford ¡8¡, ¡8¸, ¡,¡
Fox TV ¡;¸
franchiseifranchisee ¡¡,, ¡¡o,
¡6a
futures thinking a8a–¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8, ¡¸¡
G
gap analysis ¡¸o–¡
Gates, Bill ,, aa, a¸, ¡¸
gazelles ¡o, ¡¡, ¡¡
General Electric ¡;¡, a,¡, ¡¡a,
¡¸;
General Enterprise Tendency
(GET) test 6¡–¡
generic marketing strategies ¡¡o,
¡¡a, ¡,,
GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) a¸8–,
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
(GEM) ¡6, ¡8
Google ,, ¡o6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡,, ¡¸¡, ¡¸6,
¡;¸, ¡;;, ¡;,, ¡8,, aa6, aa;,
a¡;, a¸a, a¸;, a6¡, a;¡, a;6,
¡¡6, ¡¡¡, ¡6¡, ¡6¡, ¡;a, ¡,a,
¡,¸, ¡o¸, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a–¡;, ¡a6,
¡a;, ¡¡a, ¡¡o, ¡¡¸
Gore-Tex ¡8o
Great Ormond Street
Hospital ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
gross domestic product
(GDP) ¡o
growth models ¸;–,, 86
growth strategies a,8, ¡¡¸–¡o,
¡¸8, ¡6a, ¡66, ¡6,, ¡;a, ¡8¡,
¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡8¡
H
Hallmark ¡¡¡, ¡,o, ¡¡¸, ¡¡6
Heineken ¡¡a
Hewlett Packard (HP) 6o, ¡a;,
¡¡;, ¡aa
HFL Sport Science ¡¡¡, ¡¡,,
¡6a–¸, ¡,;, ¡¡¡–¡, ¡¡¸
hierarchical organizationsi
structures ¡¡¸, ¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¸a,
¡6¸, ¡;6–8, ¡;,, ¡8¡, ¡8¡, ¡8¸,
¡8;, ¡,¡, a¡o, a¸o
human capital a¸¡
Hyundai ¡,¡
I
IBM a¸, 6o, 6¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡,, ¡¡o, ¡¸8,
¡¸,, ¡,o, a¡;, a,6, ¡¸;, ¡8¡,
¡,¡, ¡¡o, ¡¡,
in-group ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6¸,
a¸¡, a¸a, ¡;¡, ¡;a
innovation
blocks ao,
continuous 8¡, ¡8¡, a¸¸, a¸6,
a8;, ¡a¡, ¡o6, ¡¡o, ¡;¡
de?nition 88, ¡8¡i¸
discontinuousiradical ¡8¡,
a6o, ¡8¸, ¡8,, ¡,o, ¡,,,
¡oo, ¡oa, ¡o6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡;¡, ¡;¸
disruptive ¡o¸, a8o, a,o,
¡6¡, ¡,o, ¡,¡–8, ¡oo, ¡o¸,
¡¡o–¡a, ¡a¸, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¸¡,
¡¸¡, ¡;¸
distributed see open
incremental a¸a, a6o, ¡8¸, ¡8,,
¡,o, ¡oa, ¡o6, ¡¡o, ¡¡6, ¡¸¡,
¡;¡
networks ¡¡6
open ¡¡6, ¡¡;–,, ¡;¡
outsourcingibuy-in ¡¸6, ¡¸8
risk ¡o¡–¡a
small ?rms (contribution) ¡;¡,
a¸;–8, ¡¸6–8
Innovative Potential Indicator
(IPI) ¡¡;–8
Intel 6o, ¡,o, ¡aa, ¡¸;, ¡¸8, ¡,¡
intellectual property ¡¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸8,
¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¡,
intrapreneurship ¡,, ao,
a¡¡–a¸¡, a6¡, ¡o6, ¡;¡
invention ¡8¡, ¡86–;
J
Jaguar ¡88, ¡,o, ¡¡;
Jardine Matteson ¡,¡
Jobs, Steve ,, ¡¸, ¡¡, ¡¸, 6o–¡,
,,, ¡8a–¡, ¡8;, ¡¡o, ¡a¸, ¡¡¸
John Lewis ¡¡6, a¡;, a,6, ¡68
Johnson and Johnson ¡¸;
joint ventures ¡8¸, ¡8,–,o, a¸¸,
a6o, a6¡, ¡¡o, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡o,,
¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡;¡, ¡;¸, ¡8a
Jordans a,a
K
Karla, Ravi ¡;
keiretsu ¡,6
key risk indicator a¡6
Kirton Adapter-Innovator (KAI)
scale ¡¡o
knowledge
economy 8, ¡¡, ¡a, ¡8¡, ¡86–;
management ¡86, a¡¸, ¡o¡, ¡¡¸
organizational ;¡, ;¸, ¡o¡,
¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
spilloveritransfer ¡,, ¡6, ¡8¡,
¡8¸, aa8, a¡6, a¸¸, a¸;, a¸8
tacit ;,, ¡86, ¡a¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
Kodak ¡¡a, ¡,;
kosoryoku a;,
Kraft ¡66
Kyocera ¡¸;
L
laggards ¡a¸, ¡a6, ¡¡¡
Lastminute ¡¸¡
leadersileadership
authentic ¡o6
charismatic ¡o¡
competences ,,
de?nition ,,–¡o¡
delegatedidispersedi
distributediteam-
based 88, ¡o8, ¡o,, ¡¡;,
¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡ao, ¡¡8, ¡¸a, a;¡,
¡6,
entrepreneurial ¡o¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡;,
¡¡8–ao, ¡8a, ¡,¡, ¡6,–;¡
paradigms ¡¡¡–;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,
style 8,, ¡o;–¡¡, ¡a¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¸a,
¡6o–a, ¡;¸, ¡,¡–¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¸¸,
¡;¡
transformational ¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡;,
¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6,
transactional ¡¡¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¡,,
¡6,
visionary ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡6,
learning organization ;¸–8, ;,,
8o, ¡oa, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡¡¡–¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡6¡, ¡86, ¡,a,
a¡¸, a¡¡, a;¡, a;a, ¡8,, ¡a,,
¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
Subject index 492
Lego` a8¡, ¡¡;, ¡¸6–6¡
Lehman Brothers ¸
Level ¡ Communication 8;
Levi ¡,¡
LG ¡¡¡, ¡aa, ¡¡¸, ¡¡¸
life cycle ¡¡6
productiservice 8, 8,, ¡¡6, ¡;8,
¡,¡, a¸¡, a¸6, a,¸, ¡¡¡, ¡a¡,
¡a¡–;, ¡a,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–a, ¡¡¸,
¡¡¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸, ¡8¸, ¡,a,
¡o¡, ¡o8, ¡¸o, ¡¸¡, ¡6,, ¡;¡,
¡;6, ¡8¡
industry ¡¡a–¡
Linux ¡¡;, ¡¡,
locus of control ¡¡, ¡¸, ¡;, ¡,, ¸a,
¸¡, ¸6, ¸8, ¡o¡, ¡¡8, a¡6
Love?lm ¡,a
Lush a;8, a8,, a,¡, ¡¡6
LVMH (Moet Hennessey Louis
Vuitton) ¡;¡
M
machine bureaucracy ¡;8, ¡;,
management
buy-insibuy-outs a¸¡
team ¸8, ¸,, ¡o,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a, ¡¡,,
¡ao–¡, ¡¡¸, ¡6a, a¡;, ¡;o, see
also team buildingiworking
style see leadership style
market
development a6o, a6¡, ¡¡;,
¡o¡, ¡o8
disruption ¡,¸, ¡,6
penetration ¡¡¸, ¡oa, ¡o¡, ¡o8,
¡8a
research ¸6, a¡¸, ¡,¡, ¡,¡, ¡¡o,
¡¡¡, ¡¸o
segmentisegmentation ¡a, a¸¡,
a¸¡, a88, ¡¡o, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡a¡,
¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¸;
marketing paradigms ¡¸, ¡o¸,
a;,, a8o, a,o, ¡,8–¡oa, ¡;¸
marketing strategy see strategy
M&S ¡¸8, aao–¡, a¡;, a,¡, a,6,
a,,–¡oo, ¡,;
Mattel ¡¡¸–6
matrix structures
(organization) ¡;;, ¡;8, ¡;,,
¡,¡
Mazumdar-Shaw, Kiran ,, aa,
a¸–6
McDonald’s ¡;8, ¡;,, a¸¡, a88,
a8,, ¡¡6, ¡a;, ¡a,, ¡¡6
mental models ¡8, ;;, ;8–8o,
¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, a8a, ¡¡¡, ¡,¸, ¡¡¡, ¡;o
Mercedes Benz ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡6;
mergers and acquisitions ¡¡a,
¡¡¡, ¡¸¡–;a, ¡¡¡, ¡;6
Merrill Lynch 8
Metcalfe, Julian ,, ¡¸,
Microsoft ,, a¸, 6¡, ¡¡,, a6¡–¡,
¡¡6, ¡6¡–¸, ¡;a, ¡,¸, ¡,6, ¡o¸,
¡¡6
middle and late majority ¡a¸–6
mission ¡8,, aa;, a¡;, a;a,
a;¡–6, a;;, a,;–8, ¡8¡
Mitsubishi ¡,¡
Mitsui ¡,¡
Mittal, Sunil ,
Monorail a8a
Monsanto ¡¸;, ¡¸,
Morgan Motor Company ¡ao
motivation
intrinsiciextrinsic ¡¡, ¡,, a¡6
theory ¡6o, a¡6–8
Motorola ¡¸8, ¡6¡
multi-business
organizations ¡,¡–¸, a8¸,
¡oa, ¡o,, ¡a¡, ¡¸¡, ¡;a–¡, ¡6,,
¡;¡, ¡;¡
multinational ¡¡, ¡¸o, ¡6a, ¡;;,
¡8¡, ¡a;, ¡¡¸
N
NCR ¡¸8, ¡68
networksinetworking ¡¡, ¡,–¸¡,
;¡, ;¡, 8¡, ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8,
¡¡,, ¡6o, ¡;¸, ¡8¡, ¡8¸–6,
¡8;–,, ¡,¡, a¡,, ¡¸;, ¡¸8, ¡68,
¡,;, ¡¡¡–;, ¡;o, ¡;¡–¡
new venture divisioniteam see
venture divisioniteam
niche marketsistrategies ¡a, a,¡,
¡¡o, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡a¡, ¡a;, ¡¡a, ¡¡¡,
¡¡6, ¡¸¡, ¡,6, ¡o;, ¡¸¡
Nintendo (Wii) ¡,6, ¡oa–¡
Nokia a¸, a6¡–¡, ¡6¸, ¡¡6
non-metric mapping ¡¸¡
norms ¡¡¡, ¡a¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡o, ¡¡8, ¡¸o,
¡¸a, ¡¸¡, ¡8¡, ¡¡¡, ¡;¡–a
Novo Nordisk a8¡, a8¡
Now Recruitment ¡a¡
Nucor Steel 8;, 88
O
Olympus ¸
Omidyar, Pierre ,, ¡a¸
OnMobile ¡o,
open book management a¡¡–a
organic (organizational
structure) ¡¡6, ¡¸a, ¡;,,
¡8o–a, ¡,¡, ¡,¡–¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡,
¡¸¡, ¡;¡, ¡;a–¡
organizational architecture see
architecture
Organizational Culture
Assessment Instrument
(OCAI) ¡6¸–6
Oticon ¡8¡
out-group ¡¡;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,, ¡;¡,
¡;a
outsourcing ¡;¡–¸
P
Page, Larry ,
paradigm shift (markets) a¡, 8o,
¡8¡–¸, ¡8,, ¡,o, ¡,¡, ¡,6, ¡oa,
¡¡o
Parmalat ¸, 8, ,
PayPal ¡¸¸–6, ¡a¸
penetration see market
penetration
perceptual mapping ¡¸o
personal construct theory ¡¸¡
philanthropy ¡¸¡, a,6–;, ¡oo,
¡¡a
Polaroid ¡86
Porter’s Five Forces 88, ¡¡;–,
portfolio
product a¸6, ¡¡,, ¡a,–¡6,
¡¡¡–¸, ¡;¡, ¡;¡–6, ¡8¡–a
risk ¡o;–8, ¡¡o
Positioning School of
strategy a;¡, a;a
Pret A Manger ,, ¡¸,
price competitivenessisetting
a8¡, a,¡, ¡o,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡–,, ¡a¡,
¡a¡, ¡a¸, ¡a6–;, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡, ¡¡a,
¡¡;–8, ¡¸¡, ¡8,, ¡oo, ¡a6, ¡a,,
¡;6
pricing ¡¡¡, ¡a6, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡;¡
Process School of strategy a;¡,
a;a
product
development ¡8o, ¡,¡, ¡,¡, a¸a,
a¸¡, a,¡, ¡,¡–a, ¡a¸, ¡a6,
¡;¡
expansion ¡¡¸–6
extension a¸¡, ¡a¸–6
493 Subject index
innovation see innovation,
product
modi?cation ¡¡¸–6
life cycle see life cycle
portfolio see portfolio
productimarket matrix ¡¸¡–6
productivity ¡¸, a¸¡, a¸;, a,¡,
¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
Q
Quaker Oats a¸¡
Quanta Computers ¡¡;–¡8, ¡aa
Quad Electroaccoustics ¡¡,
R
R&D ¡¡, ¡;6, ¡,o, a¸;–8, ¡ao,
¡¸¸, ¡68, ¡8,, ¡,¸, ¡¡8, ¡¡a
recession ¸, 6, 8,, ¡¡;, ¡;¡, ¡8,,
a8¡, a8¡, ¡¡¡
Redman, Gary ¡a¡
relationship marketing ¸o
Reliance GroupiIndustries ¡66,
¡6;, ¡68
repertory grid ¡¸¡
risk
classi?cation a¡a–¸
?nancial a¡¡, a8¡
innovation see innovation risk
managementimitigationi
minimization ¸6, 88, ¡o¡,
¡;¡, ¡86, ¡8,, ¡,¸, ao,, aa¸,
a¡a–;, a¡¡, a¸¸, a6o, ¡¡,,
¡¡6, ¡¡8–,, ¡¡o, ¡6o, ¡6a,
¡6¡, ¡6¸, ¡66, ¡68, ¡8,,
¡o¡–¡a, ¡¸¡, ¡;¸
portfolio see portfolio risk
systematic ¡66
Roddick, Anita ,, ¡6a
Rolls-Royce a8,, a,¡, a,¸, ¡¡o,
¡,,
Rose, Stuart ¡¸8
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) ¸,
8, ¡¡, ¡oa, ¡6o–¡
Royal Mail Group ¡¡o
Ryanair ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡, ¡oo
S
SAB-Miller ¡,¡, ¡66
Sainsbury ¡68
Samsung ¡,a, ¡,¡, a6¡, ¡6¡, ¡¡6
scenario planning a¡¡, a8¡–¡,
¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¸¡
Schultz, Howard a;¡, ¡a;
self-e?cacy ¡,, 8¸, ¡ao, ¡;o
service-dominant logic ;,, 8¡
Shah, BharatiNaresh ¡;
shamrock organization ¡;¡
shareholder value 8, 86, a8¡,
¡6¸, ¡66, ¡;¡
share price ¡¡¸, ¡66
Shell ¡¡¡, ¡¡;, ¡6;
Singapore Airlines a¡, ¡,o, ¡¡o
skunk working a¸¡, ¡¸¡
slack (organizational) ¸¡, ¡o6,
a¡¡, aa¸–;, ¡¡a, ¡¸¡, ¡¸¸,
¡;o
SLEPT analysis a8o–a, a8¡, ¡a,,
¡¡6
small ?rms
contribution to the
economy ,–¡a
innovation see innovation,
small ?rms
Southwest Airlines a,¡
span of control ¡¸a, ¡;¡, ¡;6–;,
¡8a, ¡8¡, a¡o, ¡;¡
Specsavers a¡¡–¸
spider’s web (organization) ¸¡–¡,
¸¡, ;¡, ¡;¡, ¡;6, ¡8¡, ¡,¡, ¡;a
spin-o?siouts ,o, ¡;¸, a¡¡,
a¸¡–¡, ¡¡a, ¡¡¡, ¡¸8, ¡¸,, ¡¡¡,
¡;¡
stage gate process ¡,¡
Starbucks ¡;;, a¡a–¡¡, a¡;, a;¡,
a;¸, a,8, ¡a;, ¡¡;, ¡¡8
stock market ¸, ,, a,6, ¡¡a, ¡¸¡,
¡66
strategic
analysis ¸¡, ¡oa, a8;–,o, a86,
a8;–,o, ¡ao
alliancesipartnershipsijoint
ventures ¡;¡, ¡8¸, ¡8,–,a,
a¡¡, a¸¸, a¸8, a6o, ¡¡o, ¡¸8,
¡8,, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡o,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡8, ¡;¡, ¡;¸, ¡8a
business unit (SBU) ¡8¸
development see planning
entrepreneurship a¡
?t ¡¸;, ¡o8
intent ¸¸, ¡o¡–¸, a;¡, a;,–8o,
¡,8, ¡a6, ¡;¡
options 8, ¸¡, ¸¸, 8o, 86,
a¡¡, a;¡, a;a, a;¡, a8o–¸,
a8¡–¡, a86, a8;, ¡¡6, ¡;o,
¡;¡
planning 6, 8, ¡¡, ¸¡–¸, ¸6, 8¡,
8¸, ¡o¡, a8¸–;, a,;–8, ¡o¡,
¡o¡, ¡;¡–¸
positioning a¡,–ao
renewal ¡,, a¡
vision see vision
strategizing a;¡–¡
strategy
Blue Ocean a8o, ¡,8–¡oo
corporate a8¸, a86, a,¸, ¡o¡,
¡¸8
developmenti formulation see
strategic, planning
di?erentiation see
di?erentiation
emergent ¸¡, ¸6, 8a, ¡;¡
Entrepreneurial School of aa,
¸¡, a;¡
implementation a8¸, a86–;,
a,;
launch ¡a;, ¡,a, ¡¡¡
low-price see cost advantage
marketing a88, ¡a¡, ¡a¸,
¡¡¡–¡, ¡8,, ¡,8, ¡o,
mis?t a;,
niche see niche
Positioning School of a;¡–a
Process School of a;¡–a
Streetcar ;,, 8o–¡
Sugar, Alan ,
Sun Microsystems ¡,o, ¡¡¸, ¡¡,
sustainable competitive
advantage see competitive
advantage
Swarfega ¡a6
Swatch ¡,8
switch costs ¡a¡, ¡¡;–8
SWOT analysis a8¸–6, a8;, a88,
a,o
synergy ¡;¸, ¡8,, ¡¡¡, ¡¸;, ¡6o,
¡6;–8, ¡;a, ¡o6
T
tactics ¡a¡, a;;
task
complexity ¡o;–,, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡,
¡;¡, ¡;8–8o, ¡8¡, a¡;, a¡8,
¡6,, ¡;a
culture ¡¡a, ¡¡¸, ¡¡8, ¡¸8, ¡,¡
force ¡;8, a¡6, a¡;, a¡8
orientation ¡¡, ¡,, 6¡
Tata ConsultancyiGroupi
Ratan ¡88, ¡,¡, ¡66, ¡a6
Subject index 494
team
buildingidevelopmenti
working ¸,, 86, ¡¡¸, ¡¡,,
¡ao–¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¡,, ¡6¡,
¡;¸, ¡;8, ¡;,–8o, ¡8a, ¡8¡,
¡8;, ¡,¡, a¡;, a¸a, ¡o¡, ¡¡;,
¡6,, ¡;o, ¡;a–¡
cross-functional ¡;¸, a¡,
multidisciplinary a¡o, a¡;, ¡,¡,
¡¡;
project ¡;;, ¡8¡, a¡6, ¡,¡
see also venture teams
Tesco ¡6¡, ¡68
test marketing ¡,¡–a
Teory XiYiZ ¡6o–a
Tiel, Peter ¡a¸
Tomas-Kilmann con?ict
modes ¡¡¡–¡¡
Timberland a¡;, a,¡, a,6, ¡¡6,
¡6a
transactional marketing ¸o
trust ¡,, ;¡, ;¡, 8¡, ¡o6, ¡o8, ¡¡¸,
¡¡;, ¡ao, ¡aa, ¡6o–¡, ¡8¸–6,
¡,¡, ¡,a, a¡¡, a¡,, a;;, ¡¡,,
¡¸¡, ¡6,, ¡;o
TutorVista ¡6
U
uncertainty see risk
unique selling proposition
(USP) ¡¡¸
Unilever ¡¡¡
unitarism ;6
V
value chainidrivers ¡ao–¡
values ¡¸, ;6, ¡o¡, ¡o¡, ¡o6, ¡o;,
¡¡¡, ¡¡;, ¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡aa, ¡a¡, ¡¡6,
¡¡,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¡;, ¡¡8, ¡¡,,
¡¸a, ¡¸¡, ¡¸8, ¡6¡, a¡¡, aa;,
a¡;, a;¡, a;;–8, a8¸, a,o, ¡¡a,
¡6,–;a
venture division a¸¡–¡, a¸¸–6,
a¸;
venture teams a¡o, a¡¡, a¡¡,
a¡,, a¸¡–a, a¸¸, a¸;
see also team working
vision ¡¡, a¡, ¡¡–¸, ¡a, ¸¡, ¸¡, ¸¸,
;6, 8¸, ¡oo–¡, ¡o¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¡6,
¡ao, ¡a¡, ¡¡6, ¡¡8, ¡¸a, a¡,–ao,
a¡¡, a¡8, a;¡–¡, a;;, a;,, a8¡,
a8¸–6, a,o, ¡o¡, ¡a8, ¡6,–;¡,
¡;¡
visionary leadership see
leadership, visionary
Virgin ,, a¡–¸, ¡,o, ¡,¸–,,
a,6–;, ¡¡;, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡6¡, ¡66,
¡68, ¡;¡
virtual
assets 8
network 8¡, ¡8¸, ¡¡;, ¡;¡
organization structure ¡¡8
W
walk the talk ¡o¡, ¡o¡, ¡ao, ¡¡;,
¡;o
Wendy’s 8;
wheel of learning ;6–8o, ¡¡¡
Why° Why° exercisei
diagram ¡¡8–,
Wilkin & Sons ¡¸¡, ¡¸¡, a,¡
Williams ¡,o
X, Y, Z
Xerox 6o, a¸6, a,¸, ¡¡¡, ¡¸;, ¡¸,,
¡8;
Yahoo a,¡
Zennström, Niklas ¡a¸
Zipcar ;,, 8o–¡
495
Author index
¡i ¡a¡
A
Abdesselam, Bonnet and
Le Pape ¡8
Abell ¡6¸
Acemoglu, Aghion and
Zilibotti ¡6
Acs and Aaudretsch ¡,, a¸;, ¡¸6
Acs, Audretsch, Branerhjelm and
Carlsson, ¡,
Adair ¡¡¡
Adizes ,,
Aghion and Howitt ¡8
Ahmad ¡o
Aldrich and Martinez ¡¸
Allday ¡o¡
Anderson ¡¸
Anderson and Weitz ¡,¡
Andersson, Gabrielsson and
Wictor ¡¸
Annual Population Survey ¡8
Anso? ¡¸¡
Antoncic and Hisrich a¡¡, a¡6
Audretsch ¡8, ¡,, ¡8¸
Audretsch, Keilbach and
Lehman ¡6
Avolio, Bass and Jung ¡¡6
B
Bagozzi
Bartlett and Ghoshal ¡oa
Bass ¡¡¡
Bass and Avolio ¡¡6
Baty 6¡
Baum and Locke ¡,
Baum, Locke and Smith ¡,
Belbin ¡a¡, ¡a¡, a¡;, a¸a
Bell, Murray and Madden ¡¸
Bennis ao,
Bennis and Nanus ¡o¡
Bergelman a¸a, a¸¡
Berkhout and Green a,¡, ¡,;
BERR ¡o, ¡a
Bessant ¡8¸
Bettis and Prahalad ;,
Bhide ¸¡, ¡;¡
Birch ,
Birkinshaw ¡,, aa6, aa;, aa8,
aa,, a¡o
Birley ¡a¡
Blake and Mouton ¡o8, ¡¡¡
Blanch?ower and Meyer ¡¸
Blank ¡oo
Blau ¡;;
Blank ¡oo
Bolton and Tompson ¡6, ¡86,
¡a,
Booz, Allen and Hamilton ¡,o
Boston Consulting Group ¡a¡
Bowman and Faulkner ¡¸a, ¡6¡,
¡o¡
Bradford and Cohen ¡¡;
Brockhaus and Horwitz ¡¸
Brubaker ¡o6
Brush ¡¸
Burke and Logsdon a,;
Burgelman ao
Burns, P. ¸,, ¡¡6, ¡¡a, ¡a¡
Burns, P. and Whitehouse ¸¡,
¡o,
Burns, T. and Stalker ¡;;
Burt ¡¡¸
Busenitz and Barney ¡o
Buttner and More ¡¸
Buzzell and Gale ¡a¡
Buzzell, Heany and
Schoe?er ¡a¡
C
Caird ¡¸
Cannon ¡8¡
Carr ¡¡,
Carter and Cachon ¡¸
Case a¡¡
Chale? ¡¡;
Chandler ¡;;
Chaston ¡,,, ¡oo, ¡o¡
Chell ¡aa
Chell, Haworth and Brearley ¡¸
Chen, Greene and Crick ¡8, ¡,
Chesbrough ao, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¡8
Chisnall
Christensen ao, a¡8, ¡,¸, ¡,6
Churchill and Lewis ¸,
Clemmer a¡,
Cli? ¡8
Cohen and Bradford a¡¸
Collins and Porras ¡¡6
Cooper, A. 8¡
Cooper, R. ¡,¡
Cope ¸¸
Cornwall and Perlman ¡¡a, ¡¡¡
Covin and Miles a¡
Covin and Slevin 88, ¡8o
Cuba, Decenzo and Anish ¡¸
D
David a¸6
Davis, Morris and Allen 88
Day and Schoemaker ¡¡¡
Deakins ¡¸
Deakins and Freel ¡¸;
Deans, Zeisel and Kroeger ¡¡a
Author index 496
de Bono ¡¸, ¡¡¡
De Colle and Gonella a,;
de Geus ¡¡
Delmar ¡,
Department of Business,
Enterprise and Regulatory
Reforms ¡8,
Doern ¡¸
Drucker 8, ao, a¡, a¡,, ¡a8, ¡a,,
¡¸¡
Dubini and Aldrich ¡,, ¸o, 8¡,
¡8¸
Dunkelberg, Cooper, Woo and
Dennis ¡a¡
du Toit ¸a
Dwyer, Schurr and Oh ¡,¡
Dyer, Gregersen and
Christensen ¡a¸
E
Egri and Herman ¡¡6
Eisenhardt and Martin 86, a8¸
Emery and Trist ¡;;
Environics International a,¡,
a,a, a,6
Epstein and Roy a,;
Ericson and Pakes ¡8
European Commission ¡o
Eurostat ¡o
Evans and Leighton ¡¸
F
Fenton and Pettigrew ¡8¡, ¡8;
Ferreira 8,
Florida ¡¡¡, ¡¡a
Florida and Tinagli ¡¡a, ¡¡¡
Foster and Kaplan ao, aa¸, a;¡,
a8a, ¡¡a
G
Galbraith ao, ¡;8, ¡8a
Galloway a¡¡
Gardner ¡o¡
Gartner ¡¡, ¡¸
Garud and Van de Ven aa6
Garvin a¸¡
GE Capital ¡o
GEM ¡8
George ¡o;, ¡¡;
George and Sims ¡o6, ¡¡;
Ghoshal and Bartlett ao, ¡8;
Giltsham, Pegg and Culpin ¡¡;
Gladwell ¡¡¡
Goldhar and Lei ¡8¸
Goleman ¡¡¡, ¡¡;
Graham and Lam ¡¡¸
Grant ¡;¸, ¡86, a;a, a8a, ¡6o, ¡a¸
Greiner ¸;, ¸,, ¡;6, ¡8a
Guiltinan and Paul ¡¡¡
Guirdham ¡¡6
Guth and Ginsberg ¡,
H
Haige and Aiken ¡;;
Hall ¡¡,
Hamel 6, ao, ¡¡6, ¡,¡, a¡¸, ¡a;
Hamel and Prahalad ¡o¡, a;,,
a8o, ¡aa, ¡,8, ¡,,, ¡¡¡
Handy ¡¡a, ¡¡¡, ¡;¡, ¡86, ¡,¡
Harper ¡6
Harrison and Taylor ¡¡a, ¡a¡
Heifetz ¡¡;
Hischberg ¡¸¸
Hirsch and Bush ¡¸
Hisrich a¡8
Hisrich and Peters ¡¡
Hofstede ¡¡¸, ¡¡6, ¡¡;, ¡¡o, ¡¡¡,
¡¸o
Hofstede and Bond ¡¡8
Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv and
Sanders ¡¡¡
Hopenhayn ¡8
Hornsby, Kuratko and
Zahra a¡8
Hornsby, Na?ziger, Kuratko and
Montagno a¡6, a¡8
Hughes and Beaty ¡o6
I, J
Ireland, Hitt and Sirmon a¡
Ito a¸¡
Jackson and Schuler a¡¸
Jankowicz ¡¸¡
Johnson, G. ¡¡a, ¡¸a, ¡8¸
Johnson, J. ¡8¸
Johnson, S. ¡¡¡, ¡¡a
Jovanovic ¡8
K
Kakabadse a¡¡
Kalleberg and Leicht ¡8
Kanter ao, ¡¸, aa¡, ¡8¡, ¡,o
Karthik ¡,¡, ¡,a
Kay ;¡, ;¡, 8¡, a;¡, a8;
Kenny and Zaccaro ¡oo
Kets de Vries ¡;, ¸a
Kim xxii, ;6
Kim and Mauborgne a8o, ¡,¸,
¡,8, ¡,,, ¡oo
Kirby ¡¡;, ¡¡o
Kirton ¡¡o
Kirzner ¡¸
Klein ¡¸¡
Klepper ¡8
Konstadt ¡8;
Kotter ¡o¡, a¡6
Kotter and Cohen a¡6
Kouzes and Posner ¡oo, ¡o¡
Kuratko 86
Kuratko and Audretsch ¡,
Kuratko, Montagno and
Hornsby a¡8
L
Lakhani ¡¡6
Lakhani and Panetta ¡¡,
Lambin ¡,¡, ¡,¡
Lambson ¡8
Larson ¸o, 8¡, ¡8¸
Lawrence and Lorsch ¡;;, ¡;8
Leonard and Swap ¡¸¸
Leonard-Barton ;6
Levy and Sarnat ¡66
Lewis ¡,¡
Liedholm ¡a
Lindblom ¸¡
Lorange and Roos ¡,¡
Lu?man and Reed ¡6¸
Lumpkin and Lichtenstein ¡¸, ¡8
M
MacMillan, Block and
Narashima a¸¡
Macrae ¡a¡
Majaro ¡¡¡, ¡¸¡
Maletz and Nohria a¸¸
Markoczy ;8
Mason and Goudzwaard ¡66
Mathewson ¸¸
McCarthy and Leavy ¸¸
McClelland ¡¸
McDougall, Shane and
Oviatt ¡8¸
McGregor ¡6o
McMillan 6, ;
Mehta, Bharat and Ketyan ¡;
Mellor ¡86
Michel and Shaked ¡6¸
Michelacci ¡8
497 Author index
Miller, A. ;8
Miller, D. ¡8o
Miller, D. and Friesen 88
Miner 8¡
Mintzberg ¸¡, ¡o¸, ¡¡;, ¡6o, a¡,,
¡8¡, ¡¡a
Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and
Lampel aa, ¸¡, a;¡
Morden ¡¡¡, ¡¸o, ¡6¡
Morris ¡¡,, a¡o
Morris, Davies and Allen ¡¡o,
¡¡8
Morris and Kuratko 86, 8;, ¡¡¡,
¡¸¡, ¡8o, a¡¡, a¸¡, ¡o;
Morris, Kuratko and Covin a¡
Morris and Sexton 88
Morse ¡,
N
Nahapiet and Ghoshal ¡8;
Naisbitt ¡¡, ¡;¸
Nanus ¡oa
Nohria ¡8;
Nohria and Joyce ¡a¡
Nonaka a;;, ¡,¡
O
O’Connor ¡¡,
OECD ¡o¡
Ohmae 6, ¡,¡, a;,, a,o
Ouchi ¡6o
Oviatt and McDougall ¡8¸
Ozgen and Baron ¡¸
P, Q
Page ¡a¸
Park ¡6¸
Parkhe ¡8,, ¡,a
Pavitt, Robinson and
Townsend a¸;, ¡¸6
Pedler, Burgoyne and Boydell ;¸
Penrose ¡6
Perrow ao¸
Peters ¡¡¡
Peters and Waterman ao, 88,
¡6¸
Pettigrew ¡8,
Phan, Wright, Ucbasaran and
Wee ¡oo
Pierce, Kovosta and Dirks a¡;
Pinchot ao, ¡¸, a¡¡, a¡¡, a¡¸,
a¡6, a¸o
Pink a¡;
Porter 88, ¡¡o, ¡¡6, ¡ao, ¡aa, ¡¡;,
¡6¸, ¡6,, ¡8¡
Prahalad and Bettis ;,
Prahalad and Hamel a88
Pugh and Hickson ¡;;
Pugh, Hickson and Hinings ¡;;
Quinn, Mintzberg and
James a;a
Quinn and Rohrbaugh ¡6¸
R
Raelin ¡¡;
Ray and Hutchinson ¡¡¡, ¡a¡
Read, Sarasvathy, Dew, Wiltbank
and Ohlsson ¸6, a;¡
Reich a¸a
Rosa, Carter and Hamilton ¡8
Rosa, Hamilton, Carter and
Burns, H. ¡¸
Ross a¡¡
Ross and Kanter ao
Ross and Unwalla a¡¡
Rost ¡¡;
Roth and Nigh ¡8;
Rowley ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸
S
Sarasvathy ¸¸
Sathe a¡8
Saxenian ¡6
Schein ¡¡¸, ¡¡a, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¸, ¡¸o
Schein, Mueller, Lituchy and
Liu ¡¸
Schmidt ¡,6
Schneider and Barsoux ¡¸¸
Schumpeter ¡;, ¡¸, ¡8¡
Schwartz ¡¸, a8a
Senge ;¸, ;6, ¡oa, ¡o¡, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡
Shapero ¡¸
Sharma and Chriman ¡,
Shaver and Scott ¡¸
Siegel, R, Siegel, F. and
Macmillan ¡a¡
Simon ¡;6
Sinetar ¡¸¸
Sloane ¡¸¡
Smith a,;
Solem and Steiner ¡a¡
Stanworth, J., Blythe, Granger and
Sanworth, C. ¡8
Stata ;6
Stewart ¡8;
Stinchcombe ¡;;
Stopford and Baden-Fuller a¸a
Storey ¡a
Storey and Greene ¡¸, ¡6, ¡8
Storey, Keasey, Watson and
Wynarczyk ¡a¡
Storey and Sykes ¡¸
Stormer, Kline and Goldberg 6¡
Strangler ¡o
Symon ;8
T
Takeuchi and Nonaka ¡,¡
Tappin and Cave ¡ao
Teece ¡8,
Teece, Pisano and Schuen ;6
Tellis, Stremersch and Yin ¡a;
Tornhill and Amit ¡8a
Tidd and Bessant a¸,
Tidd, Bessant and Pavitt ¡,6,
¡¡6
Timmons ,, ;6, ,,, ¡o,, ¡¡¡, ¡¡¡,
¡¡¡
Torrington ¡6o
Treacy and Wiersema a88, ¡¡o,
¡aa
Turnbull ¡¡8
Tushman and O’Reilly ao
U, V
Utterback and Acee ¡,6
Valery ¡a8
Van de Ven aa6, ¡,¡
Van der Sluis, van Praag and
Vijverberg ¡¸
Van Grundy ¡86
Vera and Crossan ¡¡6
Verschoor a,¸
Vesper ¡,
Von Oech ¡¸a
Vossen ¡¸;
Vyakarnham and Leppard ¡¡,
W, X
Weber ¡;;
Webster ¸o
Welsch ¡¡6
Wernerfelt and
Montgomery ¡6¸
Weston, Smith and Shrieves ¡66
Whittington, Mayer and
Curto ¡8¡
Wickham a;¡
Wilpert ;8
Author index 498
Wilson ¡,¡
Wilson and Gilligan ¡¡,
Woo, Cooper, Dunkelberg,
Daellenbach and Dennis ¡a¡
Wood a,¡
Woodward ¡;;
Wynarczyk, Watson, Storey, Short
and Keasey ¡a¡
Y
Yelle ¡a¡
Yukl a¡6
Z
Zaccaro ¡oo
Zaccaro and Klimoski
Zahra ¡,
Zahra, Jennings and
Kuratko ¡,
499
Quotes index
A
Adizes, Ichak (author) ,,
Arculus, David (Emap
Group) ¡o¡
B, C
Barrell, Geo? (BlueArc) ¡aa
Bennis, Warren (author) ¡o¡
Branson, Richard (Virgin) ¡¸, ¡8,
¡¡, ¸¡, ¡o;, ¡¡¡, ¡¡;, ¡aa, a¡¡,
a8¡, ¡;¡
Collins, Derek (Brewlines) ¡¡,
a;¡
D
Darling, David (Codemaster) ¸¸
Dawes, Martyn (Co?ee
Nation) ¡6
Dell, Michael (Dell
Corporation) ¡,, ¡a, ¸¡, ¸¡,
¸;, ;¸, 8¡, ¡o¡, ¡a¡, ¡¸¡, ¡;;,
¡8o, ¡86, a¡o, ¡¡6, ¡a¡, ¡86,
¡,,
Deshpande, Gururaj (Sycamore
Networks) ¡;, ¡¡¸, a;¡
Drucker, Peter (author) 8
E
Elnaugh, Rachel (Red Letter
Days) ¡¡o
Elvidge, Jonathan (Gadget
Shop) ¡;, ¸o, ¡o;
F
Farmer, Tom (Kwik-Fit) ¡o
Ferguson, Alex (Manager, Football
Club) ¡aa
Fernandes, Tony (AirAsia) ¡a¡
G
Ganesh, Krishnan
(TutorVista) ¡¸
Garland, Chey (Garland Call
Centres) ¡6
Gooch, Elizabeth (EG
Solutions) ¡6
H, I
Haji-Ioannou, Stelios
(easyJet) ¡8
Hamel, Gary (author) 6
Hisrich, Robert (author) ¡¡
Hoberman, Brent (Lastminute.
com) ¡6
Ingram, Chris (Tempus) ¡o
J, K, L
Kelly, Neil (PAV) ¡,
Lane Fox, Martha (Lastminute.
com) ¡¡
M
Muirhead, Charles
(Orchestream) ¡6
Mazumdar-Shaw, Kiran
(Biocon) ¡a
N, O
Naisbitt, John (entrepreneur and
author) ¡¡
Nanus, Burt (author) ¡o¡
Notley, Ann (Te Iron Bed
Company) ¡;
Ohmae, Kenichi (author) 6
P, Q, R
Peters, Michael (author) ¡¡
Peters, Mike (Universal
Laboratories) ¡a
Rose, Stuart (M&S) ¡oa
S
Saddler, Terry (Bioglan
Pharma) ¡a
Shah, Eddy (Messenger
Group) ¡6
Speakman, David (Travel
Counselors) ¸¡
T, U, V
Tompson, Diane (Camelot) a¡
Timmons, Je?rey (author) ,
W, X, Y, Z
Waring, Stephen (Green
Tumb) ¡6, ¡,
Worcester, Bob (MORI) ¡o
Wing Yip (W. Wing Yip &
Brothers) ¡6
doc_745035066.pdf