Supporting Entrepreneurship Education In East Afr

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During in this brief breakdown account supporting entrepreneurship education in east afr.

REINVENTING
BUSINESS
WITH
PLYMOUTH
UNIVERSITY
Institute for Sustainability Solutions Research
Research excellence for environmental, social and economic impact
ISSR
SUPPORTING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION IN EAST AFRICA
E. KAIJAGE, D. WHEELER, AND DR R. NEWBERY
Final Report for Presentation to Stakeholders
University of Nairobi
School of Business
3
Executive Summary 4
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Background to Research 5
1.2 De?nitions and Scope 9
1.3 Study Approach 10
1.4 Report Structure 11
2 Analytical Framework 12
2.1 Rationale for Entrepreneurship Education 12
2.2 Enhancing Entrepreneurship Education
in East Africa 13
2.2.1 Developing a New Paradigm for Business
Education 14
2.2.2 Contextually Grounded and Targeted
Entrepreneurship Education 15
2.2.3 Enhancing Entrepreneurship through
University-Based Education 15
2.2.4 Maximising the Potential
of ICT-based Education 16
3 Research Findings 18
3.1 Study Contexts: Entrepreneurship
Education in South Sudan, Kenya
and Tanzania 18
3.1.1 Entrepreneurship Education
in South Sudan 18
3.1.2 Entrepreneurship Education in Kenya 19
3.1.3 Entrepreneurship Education in Tanzania 21
3.1.4 Summary and Implications 22
3.2 Findings of Semi-Structured Interviews 24
3.2.1 Results of Semi-Structured Interviews
in Kenya 25
3.2.2 Results of Semi-Structured Interviews
in Tanzania 26
3.2.3 Results of Semi-Structured Interviews
in South Sudan 26
3.2.4 Summary 27
3.3 Findings from Larger Scale Surveys 28
3.3.1 Results of Survey Undertaken in Kenya 30
3.3.2 Results of Survey Undertaken in Tanzania 34
3.3.3 Results of Survey Undertaken
in South Sudan 38
3.3.4 Evaluation of Findings 42
3.3.5 Conclusion 44
3.4 Findings of Workshop 46
3.4.1 Workshop Purpose and Design 46
3.4.2 Results of Workshop 47
3.4.2.1 Validation of Preliminary Results of Desk
Research and Fieldwork 47
3.4.2.2 Implications for Entrepreneurship
Education in Africa 49
3.4.2.3 Proposals for Entrepreneurship
Education in Focal Countries 49
3.4.2.4 Summary 50
3.5 A Synthesis of Findings 51
4 Recommendations for Capacity Building 53
4.1 Developing Shared Knowledge
and Conceptual Frameworks 53
4.2 Enhancing National Education Policies
and Practices 53
4.3 Developing Accessible Leaning Materials 53
4.4 Training Trainers and Building Enterprise
Educator Support Networks 54
4.5 Supporting Social Networks and the
Informal Sector 54
4.6 Embedding Research and Continuous
Improvement 55
4.7 Next Steps 55
4.8 Recommendations for Consideration
by DFID and Other Agencies 55
5 Stakeholder Engagement and Next Steps 56
5.1 Stakeholder Engagement in Kenya 56
5.2 Stakeholder Engagement in South Sudan 57
5.3 Stakeholder Engagement in Tanzania 57
5.4 Action Planning Workshop 58
5.5 Next Steps 58
CONTENTS OF REPORT
Cover photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
4 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The University of Nairobi School of Business
and Plymouth University Business School were
commissioned by the UK Department for International
Development to assess the capacity of business
schools and other institutions to support the
development of entrepreneurship in Eastern Africa.
Work was carried out in four phases:
? Desk Research
? To establish an understanding of current
practices in business education for
entrepreneurship; this was conducted both
in the UK (Plymouth University) and in Kenya
(University of Nairobi).
? Semi- structured Interviews (In-Country Fieldwork)
• Sixty one interviews were conducted in
Kenya, Tanzania and South Sudan to establish
perceptions of entrepreneurship with respect
to characteristics of a) entrepreneurs; b)
entrepreneurial success; and c) prospects for
enhanced entrepreneurship education among
?ve key stakeholder groups: i) micro- small- and
medium sized enterprises; ii) larger businesses;
iii) public and private institutions promoting
private sector development; iv) educators
in universities and technical colleges; and v)
graduates and unemployed youth.
? Larger Scale Surveys
• 420 stakeholders’ views were surveyed both
during and after the In-Country Fieldwork, to
establish perceptions of entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship education needs. Three key
stakeholder groups: i) employers; ii) educators;
and ii) graduates and unemployed youth.
? Workshop
• Based on the outputs of the Semi-structured
Interviews, twenty four stakeholders from
the region attended a workshop to establish
insights for entrepreneurship education in
East Africa.
Drawing on the results of the four phases of we were
able to synthesise eight principal conclusions from
our research:
? There is general agreement that entrepreneurial
education needs to be very signi?cantly enhanced
in East Africa and that this is not just a matter for
business schools. Currently, business education is
perceived as not ?t for purpose with respect to the
needs of future entrepreneurs at any level.
? There is general agreement that entrepreneurial
education needs to feature at all levels of
education: from primary and secondary schools
through to Colleges, University and through
lifelong learning. There is an opportunity to
create a movement for social change in favour
of systemising entrepreneurial intent in order
to generate higher levels of interest in self-
employment and SME growth in addition
to corporate or public sector employment.
? There is general agreement that future initiatives
in East Africa should feature integrated, multi-
sectoral approaches involving the development of
context speci?c learning materials, programmes
and curricula.
? There is a high level of congruence between
universally recognised de?nitions of
entrepreneurship and what drives entrepreneurial
success eg opportunity recognition and exploitation,
and the views of stakeholders in East Africa.
? There is a high level of congruence between
universally recognised approaches to support
for entrepreneurial learning eg the importance of
experiential learning over theoretical learning and
the recognition of the importance of core skill-
building and the views of stakeholders in East Africa.
? There is a high level of congruence between
universally recognised approaches to the
provision of direct support for entrepreneurial
action eg mentoring, peer to peer learning and
coaching, and the perceptions of stakeholders
in East Africa.
? Notwithstanding the congruence in perceptions
noted above there may be cultural and social
differences that prevail in different countries
eg with respect to the relative importance and
roles of different actors and the way in which
entrepreneurship education may develop.
? Stakeholders in the East African context perceive
the broader societal and developmental merits
of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship
education, and thus in the context of East African
entrepreneurship there is support for a de?nition
of entrepreneurship that embraces broader
societal and developmental goals.
We identi?ed six cross cutting themes for future
capacity building:
? Developing Shared Knowledge and Conceptual
Frameworks
? Enhancing National Education Policies and
Practices
? Developing Accessible Leaning Materials
? Training Trainers and Building Enterprise Educator
Support Networks
? Supporting Social Networks and the Informal Sector
? Embedding Research and Continuous Improvement
Finally, we made recommendations for consideration
by DFID and other interested parties.
Following Stakeholder Engagement in Kenya,
South Sudan and Tanzania we made six ‘next steps’
recommendations for following up on the results of
this research with respect to:
1. Dissemination of ?ndings
a. Launching a web site
b. Disseminating this report and inviting responses
2. Convening conferences of interested parties
a. Hosted by bilateral or multilateral agencies
b. Attended by governments, educators, CSOs
and other stakeholders
c. To include supportive governments, private
sectors and education systems
3. Establishing country based networks of enterprise
educators
a. Developing twinning systems where appropriate
b. Embedding within supportive environments viz
governments, private sectors and education
systems
4. Establishing a system for learning object capture
and distribution using various media
a. Requiring media partners and donor funding
b. Requiring editorial oversight and cataloguing/
curating learning objects
5. Developing integrated pilot projects in focal
countries and elsewhere re?ecting the analysis
of this report and the need for both rural and urban
entrepreneurship education initiatives particularly
focused on the young, women and disadvantaged
groups.
6. Developing mechanisms for sharing the results
of pilot projects and publicising outcomes
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
6
ABBREVIATIONS
AABS: African Association of Business Schools
DFID: Department for International Development
IEE: Integrated Entrepreneurship Education
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
GEM: Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
GIM: Growing Inclusive Markets (UNDP Initiative)
GOSS: Government of South Sudan
HEIs: Higher Education Institutions
IDPs: Internally Displaced Persons
ICT: Information and Communication Technology
ILO: International Labour Organisation
LICs: Low Income Countries
LOs: Learning Outcomes
MMW4P: Making Markets Work for the Poor
MSMEs: Micro, Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
NGO: Non-Governmental Organisation
SLEN: Sustainable Local Enterprise Network
SMEs: Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
TVETs: Technical and Vocational Education and Training providers
UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme
7
1.1 BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH
There is a signi?cant debate in the management
literature over the way the domains of business
and development should interact (Karnani, 2007 &
2011; McKague and Oliver, 2012; Prahalad and Hart
2002; and Prahalad, 2005).
i
Similarly, economists
diverge sharply over their prescriptions for self-
reliant economic development in the ‘global south’
(Collier, 2007; De Soto, 2000; Easterly, 2006; Sachs,
2005; and Sen, 1999).
ii
Thus it is essential that business
educators in Africa, Asia and Latin America do not get
trapped unwittingly in the institutional assumptions
of western management education. Rather they must
forge educational processes that are relevant to both
national economies and local entrepreneurs.
Just as there is no generally accepted, empirically
proven theory of economic development as it
relates to Low Income Countries or LICs (Banerjee
and Du?o, 2011; Bauer, 1972; Sen, 1983),
iii
there is
no ‘uni?ed theory’ of the entrepreneurial process
(Moroz and Hindle, 2012).
iv
Nevertheless, a wide
variety of international bodies, bilateral development
agencies and civil society organizations have called
for a signi?cant uplift in entrepreneurial activity
internationally in order to reduce global poverty
(see for example United Nations Development
Programme, 2004 & 2008, United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development 2012a & 2012b).
v
Notwithstanding this enthusiasm, Frederic Sautet
described one of the most perplexing challenges
in the ?eld of international development when he
noted the distinction between ‘local’ and ‘systemic’
entrepreneurship and the absence of any empirical
evidence for the impact of entrepreneurship
on development in LICs (Sautet, 2011).
vi
Citing
evidence from De Soto (2000) and others, Sautet
noted that becoming a successful entrepreneur
may be too expensive or may even require illegal
activity in many jurisdictions. As the World Bank
‘Doing Business’ Reports (World Bank, 2012) and the
United Nations Development Programme Growing
Inclusive Markets research has shown (United
Nations Development Programme, 2008), supportive
enabling conditions matter a great deal for business
formation and growth. Conversely, institutional,
social, political and other constraints may severely
inhibit entrepreneurialism and indeed may drive many
nascent entrepreneurs into the informal sector.
vii
Thus in many LICs the allocation of legitimate
entrepreneurial resource may be misdirected to
socially desirable but economically unproductive
activity. Consistent with the theories of Baumol
(1990), Sautet concluded that many countries may
be locked into a form of ‘unproductive’ or localized
entrepreneurship – often but not exclusively
populated by individuals motivated by ‘necessity
entrepreneurship’ rather than ‘opportunity
entrepreneurship’ as de?ned by the Global
Entrepreneurship Monitor (Kelley et al, 2012).
viii

In their case study of entrepreneurship in India, Koster
and Kumar Rai (2008)
ix
made similar observations,
concluding that the link between entrepreneurialism
and development may be more of a developed
country phenomenon than something associated with
LICs per se.
1. INTRODUCTION
8 9
Of course, there is nothing wrong with socially
bene?cial and locally bounded entrepreneurship
– the kind of business that ?ourishes with the
availability of micro-?nance and cottage industries
that depend on dense networks and strong social
ties. The growth of interest in micro-enterprise and
micro-?nance as advocated by Nobel Prize winner
Mohammad Yunus (2003) has been one manifestation
of this phenomenon; the success of internet
micro-lending web site Kiva is another.
x
This form
of ‘entrepreneurship of necessity’ keeps countless
millions of women in work and thus provides for the
welfare of many millions of families. However it does
not necessarily lead to the form of entrepreneurial
opportunity discovery and exploitation that can be
scaled up (Karnani, 2011).
xi
Networks may be local and
strong eg family and culturally based, but they may
not lend themselves to investments in outreach to
less familiar but more important networks that could
create scale (Sautet, 2011).
It was partly the recognition of the need for scalability
that stimulated the search for an MNC ‘corporate
strategy’ approach to the promotion of sustainable
enterprise at the bottom (or base) of the global
economic pyramid where it is noted that billions of
people subsist on less that $2 per day (Prahalad and
Hart 2002; Prahalad, 2005).
xii
Clearly there were highly
over-optimistic claims for the size of the fortune
that might be accrued by international corporations
wishing to exploit consumer markets among the
world’s poor (Karnani, 2007).
xiii
Ten years after the
launch of the hypothesis, there are still very few
examples of Western multinational corporations
‘going native’ and truly innovating by involving
the poor as either producers or consumers of
development-enhancing products and services,
let alone making money by doing so.
Of course, it depends also on personal values as to
what consumer products and services are perceived
to be useful to development. Western branded
cigarettes, alcohol and soft drinks have never had
much dif?culty penetrating consumer markets at the
base of the pyramid. And what Tate and Lyle is doing
today promoting calcium enriched products
to the poor in Colombia (Waibel, 2012), Lever Brothers
(now Unilever) was doing in late nineteenth century
England for similarly philanthropic reasons
(Unilever, 2012).
xiv

Thus the attention of most policy-makers in this
domain remains focused on prospects for the
promotion of economic growth through employment
of the poor in small and medium sized enterprises
(SMEs). Indeed in recent years, the increasing
recognition of the contribution of the private sector
– particularly small and medium sized enterprises
– to both wealth creation and employment in the
global economy has shifted the focus of many
poverty reduction efforts towards the promotion
of entrepreneurship in SMEs. Over the past two
decades, SME growth has outpaced income
distribution policies in reducing income inequalities
and building social cohesion by factors as great as
four to one.
xv

Entrepreneurial activity is ?ourishing across the globe
and is expected to create at least ?ve new jobs per
enterprise over the next ?ve years; within this trend,
developing economies have recorded the highest
growth in entrepreneurial activity.
xvi
Young people
aged between 25-44 years are a large part of this
phenomenon and the propensity to start a business
at a younger age is much higher in developing
economies where people are more likely to recognise
opportunities and believe in their ability to start a
business.
xvii

Paradoxically, and mostly because of demographic
change, the rates of graduate and unemployed
youth have also been growing in both developed
and developing economies. With the pressures of
globalisation adding new challenges to an evolving
and highly competitive marketplace, it has become
widely accepted that the classic undergraduate
business or commerce degree and the generalist
MBA are no longer adequate to respond to the
skills requirements of a global marketplace for
entrepreneurial talent.
xviii

Interestingly, Asian and African markets are recording
the fastest growing demand for entrepreneurship
education from both employers and students on
the premise that entrepreneurial success requires a
new approach to business studies – particularly for
SMEs.
xix
It is against this background that this study
proposed an empirical assessment of the current
state of entrepreneurship education in East Africa
to explore options for aligning general education
and business education more fully with the process
of value creation as part of a broader strategy for
poverty reduction in the region.
1.2 DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE
Building on the generally accepted de?nition of
entrepreneurship of Venkataraman (1997), and
drawing on the domains of economics, institutional
theory and psychology, Shepherd and Patzelt
(2011) have proposed a de?nition for ‘sustainable
entrepreneurship’ as an activity “focused on the
preservation of nature, life support, and community
in the pursuit of perceived opportunities to bring into
existence future products, processes, and services
for gain, where gain is broadly construed to include
economic and non-economic gains to individuals, the
economy, and society.”
xx
It is our contention that this de?nition provides useful
integrating ground for an exploration of what useful
entrepreneurship might look like in low income
countries generally, and thus what entrepreneurship
education may need to embrace in at least three
countries in East Africa.
Current working de?nitions of ‘entrepreneurship’ and
‘entrepreneurship education’ are built on evidence
that the acquisition by individuals of entrepreneurial
attributes, skills and behaviours is critical to the
process of opportunity discovery, evaluation and
successful commercialisation in business ventures.
As noted above, with respect to Low Income
Countries (LICs), the promotion of entrepreneurship
has in?uenced new approaches to development at a
global level by generally outperforming other
policy options.
xxi

By ‘stakeholders’ we mean all those actors in market
systems that work for all (see for example DFID,
2011)
xxii
hence we include governments, civil society
actors, educational institutions, multinational and
Photos: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
10 11
large companies, small and medium sized enterprises
(SMEs), micro businesses and social enterprises
in the informal and formal sectors, women, young
people, young graduates and the unemployed. Our
study considered the interests and perspectives of all
stakeholders listed above, either indirectly or directly.
However we placed special emphasis on including
the voices of stakeholders that are often excluded
from policy development.
Our geographic context was limited to Kenya,
Tanzania and South Sudan. The ?rst two countries
were selected based on preliminary evidence
of the relevance of their distinct and unique
characteristics in pursuing entrepreneurship
and business education, with the two countries
representing somewhat different histories
and cultures with respect to market-based
approaches to enterprise. South Sudan was
selected mostly because its post-con?ict context
situates entrepreneurship education primarily
at the grassroots level with signi?cant gender
implications. In this way we hoped to explore a
range of contexts within East Africa and perhaps
generate some generalisable as well as more
speci?c observations and conclusions.
1.3 STUDY APPROACH
In order to explore the current state of play in
entrepreneurship education in East Africa and
develop a deeper understanding of how stakeholders
relate to entrepreneurship education, a four phase
approach to the study was designed. Data were
collected through:
? Desk Research
• To establish an understanding of current
practices in business education for
entrepreneurship; this was conducted from the
UK (Plymouth University) and Kenya (University
of Nairobi).
? Semi-structured Interviews (In-Country Fieldwork)
• To establish perceptions of entrepreneurship
with respect to characteristics of a)
entrepreneurs; b) entrepreneurial success; and
c) prospects for enhanced entrepreneurship
education among ?ve key stakeholder
groups: i) micro-small-and medium sized
enterprises; ii) larger businesses; iii) public and
private institutions promoting private sector
development; iv) educators in universities
and technical colleges; and v) graduates and
unemployed youth.
? Larger Scale Surveys
• Conducted both during and after the In-
Country Fieldwork, to establish perceptions
of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship
education needs among a larger and more
comprehensive sample of three key stakeholder
groups: i) employers; ii) educators; and iii)
graduates and unemployed youth.
? Workshop
• Based on the outputs of the Semi-structured
Interviews, to establish insights for
entrepreneurship education in three countries
in Eastern Africa.
1.4 REPORT STRUCTURE
The Report includes the following sections:
Section 1: Introduction (this section)
Section 2: Analytical Framework
Section 3: Research Findings; and
Section 4: Recommendations for Capacity Building
Section 5: Stakeholder Engagement and Next Steps.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
12 13
2. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
to contribute to successful and resilient enterprises
in order to achieve ‘systemic entrepreneurship’
outcomes in East Africa and in LICs more generally.
And so, while we recognise that in the future a
good deal of entrepreneurship education will
happen outside the formal higher education
system, we have taken the view that African
business schools and their af?liated organisations
remain key partners in the development and
testing of models for entrepreneurship and
business education suitable for the East Africa
context, partly because of their institutional
legitimacy and partly because of their growing
interest and expertise in entrepreneurship.
We believe that it is possible to promote
knowledge creation, acquisition and
dissemination within African academic
institutions, using African peer learning
mechanisms, to achieve a high level of national
and international recognition for entrepreneurship
education, and therefore the legitimation of more
wide scale change within East African economies
and non-Higher Education systems.
Clearly, the potential for signi?cantly enhancing the
availability of learning for both literate and non-
literate entrepreneurs using locally generated role
models, materials, ideas and knowledge, holds great
promise for the development of entrepreneurship
in the private sector because of the power of
information and communication technologies (ICTs)
to achieve much greater scale in disseminating
relevant knowledge. Building effective bridges from
grass roots informal learning for the literate and
non-literate learner to a vibrant knowledge creation
and dissemination system in institutions of further
and higher learning is a prize worth pursuing. It is to
develop an understanding of how this might develop
in East Africa that has inspired this research.
2.2 ENHANCING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION IN EAST AFRICA
In order to discover to what extent entrepreneurship
education is established in East Africa we embarked
on a benchmarking activity to discover what Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) as ‘anchor institutions’
and their af?liates are already delivering by way
of enterprise education in the region. This activity
also helped identify stakeholders for inclusion in
subsequent phases of the research.
The promotion of entrepreneurialism challenges
traditional educational models built on assumptions
of future employment in large organisations and
the requisite compartmentalisation of knowledge.
As we have described, entrepreneurship education
is increasingly understood as a process where
learning is acquired on a continuous basis and in a
more experiential and integrated way. Practitioners
and entrepreneurship educators in the West have
responded by putting together a comprehensive
template of relevant entrepreneurial skills and
attributes and intended learning outcomes based on
a wide range of teaching and learning approaches.
xxx

The paradoxical situation of rising youth and
graduate unemployment in Africa and elsewhere
and a signi?cant upsurge in entrepreneurial activity
has, to a large extent undermined perceptions of
2.1 RATIONALE FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION
It has long been argued that formal education
discourages entrepreneurship as it is designed to
prepare students for conventional careers (Timmons,
1994) and thus has the effect of reducing rather
than increasing creativity and entrepreneurialism
(Plaschka & Welsch, 1990).
xxiii
Notwithstanding these
observations, it is generally accepted that where
entrepreneurship is taught it does encourage
entrepreneurial action (Gorman et al, 1997) or at
least intentionality towards entrepreneurial careers
(Pittaway and Cope, 2007).
xxiv

As Koratko (2005) has argued, the relevant question
is not ‘can entrepreneurship be taught?’ but ‘what
should be taught and how should it be taught?’
– a proposition he attributes to Ronstadt (1987).
xxv

Ronstadt was one of the ?rst scholars to describe
in detail the need for practical and experiential
learning as well as classroom based education in the
development of future entrepreneurs. Fifteen years
later Solomon and co-workers (2002) noted that in
contrast to traditional corporate business education
“entrepreneurial education must include skill-building
courses in negotiation, leadership, new product
development, creative thinking, and exposure to
technological innovation.” Solomon et al also drew
attention to pedagogical trends employing numerous
experiential learning devices, interdisciplinary
delivery, and the growing interest in entrepreneurship
education outside the domain of the business
schools, for example in arts, engineering
and science.
xxvi

In their comprehensive assessment of the literature
on entrepreneurship education, Pittaway and Cope
(2007) noted that educators advocate a range of
pedagogical approaches including: action learning
and the development of actual ventures, new venture
simulations, technology-based simulations, skills-
based courses, video role plays, experiential learning
and mentoring.
xxvii

It is becoming increasingly clear that business
school based entrepreneurship education is
only one component of capacity building for
entrepreneurship. Indeed, in order to achieve
‘systemic entrepreneurship’ in both developed
and low income countries a multi-level and multi-
disciplinary approach is essential. For example,
Streeter and co-workers (2011) have observed that
of the more than 2000 entrepreneurship programmes
in US universities, fully two thirds were present
beyond the domains of business and engineering
schools. We can take this observation even further.
Citing the work of Filion (1994) and Gasse (1985)
Peterman and Kennedy (2003) postulated that the
ideal age to generate an interest in entrepreneurship
is during childhood and adolescence. Evidence from
a study of high school students participating in an
entrepreneurship education programme in Australia
demonstrated signi?cant impacts on entrepreneurial
intentions both with respect to perceived desirability
and feasibility of pursuing an entrepreneurial career,
regardless of prior experience.
xxviii

Much research shows that the entrepreneurship
process is primarily socially driven and that
many entrepreneurs in developed and emerging
economies fail to reach their potential simply because
of an inadequate level of skills.
xxix
It is axiomatic
therefore, that graduates, unemployed youth and
the self-employed must be much better equipped
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
14 15
2.2.2 CONTEXTUALLY GROUNDED AND
TARGETED ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION
Successful entrepreneurship emerges from
recognising, assessing and exploiting commercial
opportunities. Research shows that entrepreneurship
is embedded in relationships that people maintain
within social networks – and the phenomenon is
highly dependent on cultural and socio-economic
factors. Entrepreneurs create value by organising
themselves and supporting each other within social
networks where the learning can occur alongside
existing networks with other business linkages taking
place simultaneously.
xxxvi

For the poor (the majority of whom start and remain in
the informal sector), and the unemployed (male and
female, graduate and non-graduate) social networks
offer the primary learning place and potentially the
only real prospects for a paid job. The educational
requirements of these groups have received a special
focus in this project and our recommendations will
address their needs in particular. The challenge
will be in the development of contextually relevant
entrepreneurship education that reaches networks of
the non-literate as well as the literate, women as well
as men, and the rural as well as the urban poor.
2.2.3 ENHANCING ENTREPRENEURSHIP
THROUGH UNIVERSITY-BASED
EDUCATION
In our research we have explored the question as to
whether HEIs and their af?liated institutions in East
Africa can contribute signi?cantly to the delivery of
entrepreneurship education, and if so what should
they teach and how should they develop and deliver
learning content.
The development of entrepreneurship requires
opportunities and space for learning and re-doing
within a community of practice based on trust and
goodwill. It therefore follows that educators must
develop projects with speci?c Learning Outcomes
(LOs) and assessment criteria that meet the
requirements of different stakeholders, including the
public and private sectors where entrepreneurial
behaviours must be recognised and stimulated using
a wide range of learning and teaching approaches.
xxxvii

Templates do exist for formal university-based
entrepreneurship education programmes where
stakeholders share the same understanding and
desired outcomes are developed so that such
programmes can be established and their success
measured. In our benchmarking and ?eldwork we
were mindful of the universal entrepreneurship
education templates pioneered by Gibb (2005)
xxxviii

and subsequently adopted by many entrepreneurship
educators around the world. Clearly, there is much
good practice available globally in the promotion
of entrepreneurship by academic institutions.
It is certainly possible to imagine programmes
emerging from East African business schools and
Universities and their af?liated organisations which
provide for the development of entrepreneurs in
formal educational settings. It is also clear that
a number of East African institutions are already
experimenting with such approaches and that
there is an appetite to do more. A number of East
African institutions are developing centres where
educated and literate entrepreneurs in (mostly)
urban environments gain knowledge and support.
Institutions known for good practices in Kenya and
Tanzania include the University of Dar es Salaam
Entrepreneurship Centre (UDEC), the Strathmore
traditional models of business education. As more
people in developing and emerging economies are
successfully venturing into business as a pathway to
employment, practitioners and educators need to
rede?ne business education in a way that is relevant
to the contextual reality of nascent and aspiring
entrepreneurs in all low income countries (LICs),
including in Africa. This will require a decisive shift
from the traditional approach of business schools and
their associated pedagogical models.
xxxi

As noted above, evidence shows that traditional
business educational provision and entrepreneurial
business requirements are not aligned. One in every
three start-ups does not survive beyond its third year
mainly because of the inadequacy or absence of
appropriate business skills. And in LICs the majority
of entrepreneurs operate in the informal sector with
little or no formal education.
xxxii
Clearly, traditional
pedagogical approaches to business education built
on analysis, planning and rational decision-making
have signi?cant limitations in regions like East Africa
where innovation is key to survival and growth.
Successful entrepreneurial businesses are those
which demonstrate a capacity to enter the market
place, to adapt and learn and to take a strong position
with regard to mobilising and directing resources.
xxxiii

Successful entrepreneurs bring attributes and skills
to drive such businesses, adapting to changes in their
market environments and exploiting opportunities.
It is important therefore to address current limitations
of traditional business education in East Africa
and evolve processes that genuinely ‘unleash
entrepreneurship’ through appropriate education
for entrepreneurs.
2.2.1 DEVELOPING A NEW PARADIGM
FOR BUSINESS EDUCATION
Entrepreneurs learn by doing on a continuous basis
and in a more integrated way, solving problems
and copying from others, making mistakes and
learning from experience.
xxxiv
What characterises
entrepreneurs are their behavioural characteristics
and their ability to adapt and learn. Successful
start-ups by young entrepreneurs in East Africa and
elsewhere have de?ed traditional perceptions of
African business, adopting values of meritocracy,
hard work and innovation.
xxxv
To develop new
approaches to entrepreneurship education focused
on role modelling and experiential learning, these
phenomena should be explored for their potential
to generate new knowledge and disseminate that
knowledge at scale. Pilot programmes with potential
for signi?cant scaling, designed with and for
entrepreneurs need to be developed and trialled.
Inevitably such programmes will involve a new
array of entrepreneurship educational actors,
including ICT ?rms, community organisations,
civil society organisations and the primary
and secondary schools systems, in addition to
Colleges and Universities. Radio and traditional
outreach mechanisms will need to supplement
web based and social media resources.
East African academic institutions and their
collaborators in developed countries can assist
in designing, measuring and researching the
success of such pilots, helping policy makers
adjust educational and economic strategies
accordingly through processes of institutional
learning and reform as part of a broader agenda
for regional poverty reduction.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
16 17
Enterprise Development Centre (SEDC), the University
of Nairobi School of Business, the Centre for
Executive and Entrepreneurial Development (CEED)
at the United States International University (USIU),
the Chandaria Business Innovation and Incubation
Centre (CBIIC) at Kenyatta University, the Regional
Centre for Enterprise development at Inorero
University, the Centre for Entrepreneurship and
Leadership Academy (CE&L) at the KCA University,
the Institute of Management and Entrepreneurship
development (IMED - Tanzania) and the
Entrepreneurship and Leadership Foundation (E + L) in
Kenya. Three of these Centres are described in more
detail in Appendix I (available as a seperate report).
Thus, in addition to opportunities for involvement
in the design of pilot projects and research into
new forms of entrepreneurship education as
represented by this project, it is clear that East African
business schools and universities may contribute
signi?cantly to the establishment of more ‘systemic’
entrepreneurship in the region through research
and outreach, even as they transform their own
approaches to business education.
The challenge now is to take entrepreneurship
education to people and places it has never reached
before, using experience and knowledge that has
not been captured before, delivered by institutions,
partnerships, social networks and other actors
that are not necessarily academic, and employing
appropriate technologies that can take such activities
to mass scale. In this context, the use of new
technologies and pedagogical approaches involving
new actors holds promise.
2.2.4 MAXIMISING THE POTENTIAL
OF ICT-BASED EDUCATION
Today, ICT-enabled education is transforming the way
knowledge is created, disseminated and shared. This
brings signi?cant potential bene?ts to the learning
processes of entrepreneurs by: i) transforming learning
into an engaging and active process connected to
real life; ii) preparing the current generation of young
people for the future workplace; and iii) fostering
tacit learning in real life contexts. In environments
where large capital investments in conventional
infrastructure cannot take place fast enough to meet
the demand for conventional education, radio and
other ICT-based delivery methods offer enormous
potential.
2
They lend themselves especially to the
needs of entrepreneurship education as experiences
and learning can be ‘uploaded and downloaded’
through social networks and other media rapidly and
potentially at scale. It is inevitable, then, that in pursuing
possibilities for new projects in entrepreneurship
education in East Africa ICTs (including radio)
and social media will play a major role.
xxxix
2
In Uganda, a radio service targeting small businesses funded by the
Swedish International Development Co-operation agency has empowered
the poor (the majority of whom are in the bottom two-third of the country
income strata) to better defend and develop their economic interests.
By applying what they have learned through radio broadcasts, listeners
have expanded their business activities signi?cantly.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
19
Based on the foregoing, two main areas for grassroots
enterprise development identi?ed in South Sudan are:
i) enterprises addressing development needs
(such as clean water, health services, de-
mining, appropriate building materials, energy
and communication in rural areas); and
ii) enterprises built around traditional livelihood
strategies (such as agriculture and livestock-
related enterprise) combined with participation
in markets and the opportunity to take a lead
role in the development of their communities.
Because of the particular needs of women in South
Sudan who traditionally have been isolated and
marginalised (and worse), enterprises should be
developed that will empower women effectively and
safely without excluding men. Although IDPs and
ex-combatants are urgent priority targets for the
development of grassroots sustainable enterprise,
all parts of the communities they settle in should be
included to increase social linkages and cohesion.
With a GDP growth rate set to reach ten per cent by
2015, and the apparent fragility of the new state, the
need for an educated and skilled workforce is urgent.
3.1.2 ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION IN KENYA
Kenya has a population of nearly 41 million
representing 42 different peoples and cultures.
Kenya is a member of the East African Community
(EAC) and the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA). The economy of Kenya
is the largest by GDP in East and Central Africa
and its capital, Nairobi, prides itself in being the
regional commercial hub. Agriculture is a major
employer and the country exports various agricultural
products. Notable sectors of the economy that
contribute most signi?cantly to GDP include: tourism,
agriculture, ?nancial services, telecommunications,
manufacturing industry and energy.
Kenya ranks among the most entrepreneurial
economies in East Africa, an environment characterised
by a relatively high level of provision of skills required
for enterprise development.
xliv
This orientation is
informed by concepts of entrepreneurship education
described earlier, which acknowledge that although
some people may be exceptionally and even innately
talented in spotting business opportunities, business
education can help uncover and develop various skills
that are critical to starting and running a successful
business venture.
As noted previously, entrepreneurially focused
business education must aim to deliver technical
skills, business management skills and personal
entrepreneurial skills as important learning outcomes.
It seems that these ideas are widely accepted in
Kenya, and are embraced within the concept of
Integrated Entrepreneurship Education (IEE). IEE in
Kenya covers the teaching of knowledge and skills
that enable individual students to plan, start and
run their own businesses in the formal or informal
sector. It forms part of the national education
system with some elements in secondary general
education integrated in other subjects, such as
Business Studies and Commerce. IEE has been a
compulsory and examinable subject at all levels of
school-based TVET where the emphasis is much
stronger since the early 1990s.
xlv
At the university
level, Kenya counts 52 HEIs of which eight host a
dedicated centre for entrepreneurship education.
Kenya’s vision is to create a globally competitive
and adaptable human resource base to meet the
requirements of a rapidly industrialising economy
by 2030, and this includes the establishment of
life-long training and education, and enhanced
collaboration between industry and educational
18
3.1 STUDY CONTEXTS: ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION IN SOUTH SUDAN, KENYA
AND TANZANIA
3.1.1 ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION
IN SOUTH SUDAN
As the world’s youngest state following several
decades of civil war, South Sudan’s educational
needs and requirements are quite speci?c and
pressing. Today, the country ranks close to the
bottom of the global league table for educational
opportunity, especially for young girls. It has some
of the world’s lowest primary school enrolment
rates, highest dropout rates and widest gender
disparities. Recent reports suggest continuing
human rights abuses, and frustrating negotiations
between the Governments of Sudan and South
Sudan (GOSS) on the oil export issue. On a more
positive note, the UK Government is promoting
South Sudan as a market ripe for investment and
trade, citing construction, textiles, agro industry
and mining as all offering attractive investment
returns despite the perception of political risk.
l

Abdelnour and colleagues (2008) undertook a
study to examine pre-and post-con?ict livelihood
strategies of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in
Southern Sudan and Darfur. A subsequent 3-year
study undertaken by the Centre for Refugee Studies
at York University and completed in 2010 revealed
that governmental institutional capacity remains
underdeveloped in South Sudan relative to the large
responsibilities they have inherited. As the number of
returnees and demobilized ex-combatants increases,
technical, vocational and entrepreneurial capacity-
building was identi?ed as the most pressing need for
development and reconstruction in South Sudan.
xli

Technical and vocational education and training
(TVET) was considered to be the most direct means
of building capabilities and providing workers with
skills relevant to evolving market needs and demands
in South Sudan. The study recommended the
development of sustainable enterprise opportunities
within communities through a grassroots, private
sector development and gendered approach,
consistent with the analysis of DFID and others.
xlii

Implications and Opportunities
In South Sudan, economic opportunities include:
i) a wealth of natural (including mineral) resources;
ii) a strong desire for post-war livelihoods
and development; iii) encouragement for the
return of displaced persons by all national and
international stakeholders; iv) existing enterprise
capabilities among IDPs; v) an active ?nancial
sector and the emergence of South Sudanese
banks with an interest in micro?nance; vi)
enterprise/market activity; and vii) engagement
of the local private sector in development.
Atari and colleagues (2010) undertook a detailed
study of Technical, Vocational and Educational
Training (TVET) in South Sudan. Using a reverse
market-mapping approach, they presented a variety
of detailed enterprise development opportunities
and policy requirements for addressing rural and
urban reconstruction and development priorities.
xliii

3. RESEARCH FINDINGS
20 21
3.1.3 ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION
IN TANZANIA
In contrast to the Kenyan experience, Tanzania has
emerged relatively recently from a socialist economic
and social model where central planning left little
scope for the active promotion of an entrepreneurial
culture. However, following recent reform
programmes instigated by the World Bank, the private
sector is developing rapidly as a growth engine for
the country. Tanzania has an estimated population
of 43 million people whose livelihoods are mostly
dependent on agriculture (which accounts for more
than half of Tanzania’s GDP), minerals, natural gas, and
tourism. Unlike the minerals sector, the contribution
of the tourism sector to the Tanzanian economy is
rising year on year. Dar es Salaam is the principal
commercial city of Tanzania and is a major seaport.
Entrepreneurially focused formal business education
in Tanzania is still mostly classroom based, aiming to
deliver technical skills, business management skills
and personal entrepreneurial skills as important
learning outcomes. Creativity and problem solving are
gaining in importance as important entrepreneurial
skills. Integrated Entrepreneurship Education (IEE)
also plays a role in the teaching of knowledge and
skills that enable individual students to plan, start
and run their own businesses in the formal or informal
sector. The country has 30 HEIs of which 19 are
privately owned. Only two do not offer any
business courses.
Tanzania’s vision is to graduate from a Low Income
Country (LIC) to a Medium Income Country (MIC) by
2025 with a high level of human development. This will
be attained through education as a strategic catalyst
that focuses on promoting creativity and problem
solving. It is envisaged that the economy will transform
from a low productivity agricultural base to a semi
industrialized economy led by modernized and highly
productive agricultural activities, fully integrated
and supported by industrial and service activities in
both rural and urban areas. However, considerable
opportunities (particularly in the tourism and hospitality
sector) remain unexploited due to an inadequate level
of management and entrepreneurial skills.
xlviii

Implications and Opportunities
As noted above, Tanzania has a total of 30 Colleges
and Universities regulated by the Tanzania
Commission for Universities. These Universities are
classi?ed as below:
University Type in Tanzania Number of Institutions
Public Universities 8
Private Universities 12
Public University Colleges 3
Private University Colleges 7
Total 30
Entrepreneurship programmes at undergraduate and
graduate levels are delivered by two HEIs that are
government sponsored. The table below provides a
summary of programmes offered.
Academic Programs in
Tanzania
Number of
Universities
PhD in Entrepreneurship 1
Master of Science in
Entrepreneurship
0
MBA in Entrepreneurship 2
Post graduate Diploma in
Entrepreneurship
0
Bachelor’s Degree in
Entrepreneurship
2
Diploma in
Entrepreneurship
1
Certi?cate in
Entrepreneurship
0
institutions. A human resource database is to be
established to facilitate better planning of human
resource requirements in the country. But not all
drivers are pointing in the right direction, particularly
among the youth where societal and family pressure
promotes aspiration to white-collar jobs. This is partly
because the strategy for education and training
currently neglects the potential contribution of
entrepreneurship education to economic growth.
xlvi

Nonetheless, Kenya remains an attractive location
for entrepreneurship education for international
and national capacity-building partners such as the
Goldman Sachs 10,000 Women programme, Empretec
and TechnoServe.
xlvii

Implications and Opportunities
As noted above, Kenya has a total of 52 Colleges and
Universities registered by the Commission of Higher
Education (CHE). These Universities are classi?ed as
below:
University Type in Kenya Number of Institutions
Public Universities 7
Private Universities 26
Public University Colleges 15
Private University Colleges 4
Total 52
All the Colleges and Universities in Kenya offer
business studies programmes within schools,
departments or faculties. However, Entrepreneurship
education is not yet mainstreamed throughout the
curriculum in Kenyan HEIs. Entrepreneurship degrees
are delivered by twelve HEIs in Kenya, of which six are
public sector sponsored institutions. The table below
provides details of programmes offered with their
relative proportion and the respective number of HEIs.
Academic Programs
in Kenya
Number
of Universities
PhD in Entrepreneurship 3
Master of Science in
Entrepreneurship
7
MBA in Entrepreneurship 2
Post graduate Diploma in
Entrepreneurship
3
Bachelor’s Degree in
Entrepreneurship
3
Diploma in Entrepreneurship 1
Certi?cate in Entrepreneurship 3
Although the proportion of Kenyan HEIs with a
speci?c programme in entrepreneurship is relatively
low, as noted above, eight institutions have
established entrepreneurship centres. Two examples
of best practice in institutional commitment are
perceived to be the Strathmore University based
Enterprise Development Centre (SEDC); and the
Kenyatta University based Chandaria Business
Innovation and Incubation Centre (CBIIC). Both are
described in more detail in Appendix I (seperately
available).
This level of activity within HEIs, combined with i) the
existing commitments of TVETs; ii) the IEE educational
priorities of the country; and iii) the potential to
involve other partners (including international NGOs,
media organisations etc) places Kenya at a signi?cant
advantage with respect to the evolution of a more
systemic approach to entrepreneurship education
involving HEIs.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
22 23
Three main categories of stakeholders remain wholly
underserved in terms of skills requirements: the poor
(for whom the informal sector has been and remains
the only market); women; and unemployed youth
(male and female, graduate and non-graduate). The
needs of these groups will deserve special attention
in follow up recommendations from this study.
Because the majority of graduates seek a
conventional paid job as a ?rst option, and some may
only start a business venture informally while being
unemployed, it is dif?cult to assess the effectiveness
of entrepreneurship training in East Africa at
present.
li
At best, for those who succeed as self-
employed, it may take ?ve to ten years to assess the
impact, and those who continue in the informal sector
are very dif?cult to capture in national statistics.
Furthermore, those who do not succeed and perhaps
go back to unemployment are not recorded as
unsuccessful business ventures because they do
not exist in of?cial records. This makes it dif?cult
to understand the full picture and challenging to
design appropriate support mechanisms to prevent
similar failures. For SME owners receiving training
while running their own businesses, eg through
entrepreneurship centres, TVETs, Empretec and
similar programmes, it is feasible to measure the
bene?ts to them and to the community only where
job creation takes place.
These observations point to a signi?cant future
research opportunity for HEIs in Eastern Africa
in order to determine what works and why in
entrepreneurship education in the region.
Of the 30 Colleges and Universities in Tanzania, just
two have an entrepreneurship centre dedicated to
entrepreneurial development and small business
support for the students. Universities with
entrepreneurship centres are: the University of Dar
es Salaam and Mzumbe University. Earlier we noted
that the University of Dar es Salam Entrepreneurship
Centre (UDEC) may be considered an exemplar of
best practice in the formal business education sector
(see also Appendix I).
In our view this level of activity within HEIs,
combined with i) the IEE educational priorities of
the country; and ii) the potential to involve other
partners (including TVETs, international NGOs, media
organisations etc) allows some optimism with respect
to the evolution of a more systemic approach to
entrepreneurship education involving HEIs. However,
Tanzania compares less well to Kenya in this regard.
3.1.4 SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS
The results of our desk studies provide some
reassurance with respect to there being a
role for higher education institutions and their
af?liates in enhancing the prospects for systemic
entrepreneurship education in East Africa. We
observed that like much of the rest of the world,
and consistent with analysis of business education
in Sub-Saharan Africa (Kabongo, 2008) there is a
disconnect between formal business education in
East Africa and the needs of entrepreneurs, especially
women (Namusonge, 2006).
xlix
Therefore it is essential
to develop a new paradigm for entrepreneurship
education that is grounded in the economic and
social context of the entrepreneurs. We noted that
Kenya has the best developed HEI infrastructure to
support a systemic approach to entrepreneurship
education in the formal educational systems, with
Tanzania in an intermediate position and with
South Sudan much more likely to be dependent on
alternatives to HEI provision (mediated especially by
TVETs and civil society organisations).
However in all cases, and notwithstanding
government policies on education, the provision for
entrepreneurship education at all levels of literacy and
education, in both urban and rural settings is unlikely
to be comprehensive.
In each country, a role for TVETs and civil society
organisations in the promotion and delivery of
entrepreneurship education may be envisaged. And
in all countries the prospects for radio and other ICTs
to disseminate entrepreneurship knowledge should
be explored.
Entrepreneurship education designed to meet diverse
stakeholders’ requirements requires that i) everyone
from governments and multinational companies
through to individual entrepreneurs can access the
knowledge and skills to enable them deliver value in
terms of jobs, goods and services; and ii) poor people
have the opportunity to access the knowledge that
can help them access local, regional and international
markets more effectively, in their capacity as SME and
micro-business owners, employees and consumers.
l

Programmes of vocational training at college level
and most university programmes are not especially
?exible or accessible. TVET programmes are not
consistently available for all potential candidates for
technical training, particularly those from the informal
sector, and particularly for women.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
25
There were three main areas where we wished
to triangulate the results of our semi-structured
interviews with the Desk Research: i) de?ning
what is an ‘entrepreneur’, tested against ?ve core
characteristics selected from the literature but
making provision for respondents to comment on
any of them and/or add other characteristics they
felt were important; ii) assessing the prevailing
entrepreneurship education system in each country
with respect to the achievement of entrepreneurial
success, job creation and educational impact on non-
traditional learners; and iii) developing suggestions
for improving current entrepreneurship and business
education systems in each country with respect
to learning approaches and delivery methods. In
order to avoid in?uencing opinions on indicators of
entrepreneurial success, we included the relevant
questions in a later part of our interviews.
We present a summary of our main ?ndings for each
country below.
3.2.1 RESULTS OF SEMI-STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS IN KENYA
De?ning ‘Entrepreneur’ and Measuring Success
There were shared understandings of de?nitions
across most stakeholder categories in Kenya but
a clear divergence in certain cases. For example,
some HEI respondents’ believed entrepreneurs were
‘gamblers of opportunities, ideas and resources’,
in sharp contrast to the views of SME and micro-
business owners who believed that entrepreneurs
had a more long term orientation. It is noteworthy
that the majority of those entrepreneurs interviewed
had been in business for more than 10 years. Success
for them was indicated by growth, diversi?cation
and social impact eg job creation above minimum
wage. There was an emphasis from SMEs and micro-
business owners on customer-oriented goals.
Current Entrepreneurship Education, Graduate
and Youth Unemployment, and Job Creation
Unanimity was expressed by interviewees that
the main factors behind graduate and youth
unemployment were a lack of practical skills and a
lack of industry relevance in education. Interviewees
also noted that the level of educators’ knowledge of
entrepreneurship education was variable. Graduates
recognised the private sector as a source of new
jobs, but some felt they were treated as a source
of ‘cheap labour’ even though they acknowledged
opportunities for ?rst steps into the job market.
Strong criticism was made of HEIs operating more for
pro?t than for the development of human capital. In
contrast, respondents from HEIs identi?ed as a matter
of urgency the need to ‘train the trainers’.
With respect to entrepreneurship education for the
informal sector, some SMEs and micro-business
owners expressed signi?cant concerns over what
they perceived to be a complete absence of dialogue
between industry and HEIs in spite of the growing
need for business skills.
Suggestions for Improving Entrepreneurship
Education Provision
The need to contextualise learning with a particular
emphasis on informal operators and the rural
economy was expressed by many stakeholders in
Kenya. Offering opportunities for experiential learning
and wider dissemination of knowledge using ICTs
was also suggested by many. Mentoring schemes
were cited as an effective strategy to learn from
local entrepreneurs regardless of their educational
level, because it would encourage learning from role
24
3.2 FINDINGS OF SEMI-STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS
Fieldwork was conducted between 21-25 May, 2012
in Kenya, between 28-31 May, 2012 in Tanzania and
between 20-24 June, 2012 in South Sudan.
Sample
We adopted a purposive sampling technique
consistent with best practice in qualitative social
science research. Stakeholder categories were
derived from the desk research as representative
of ?ve key target populations: i) educators in HEIs
and af?liated institutions; ii) employers in large
domestic and multinational businesses; iii) institutions
promoting private sector development; iv) owners of
SMEs and micro-businesses in the formal or informal
sectors; and v) graduates and unemployed youth/
aspiring entrepreneurs.
In establishing our ?nal samples for Kenya and
Tanzania, we included recommendations from
personal contacts in the ?eld and those who
emerged from our desk research to be particularly
representative of their category. In South Sudan,
we adopted a convenience sampling approach
consisting of contacts within the researchers’
networks. These included people who stayed during
the wars, returnees, and youth from various ethnic
and cultural groups. We took care to re?ect some
level of proportionality among target populations
and gender balance among interviewees.
Interview Protocol
Our interview protocol
3
was based on categories of
universal interest in entrepreneurship as developed
by Gibb (1995).
The semi-structured interviews were designed to
facilitate unbroken discussion and also to follow
interesting lines of enquiry while ensuring that all
questions were covered. Each interview took about
45-60 minutes to complete and respondents provided
in-depth and rich data.
Due to resource constraints, we limited our samples
to capital cities in the three countries. We held one
focus group in Tanzania in order to capture the
views of six unemployed graduates and aspiring
entrepreneurs at the pre-start or start-up stage and
we used the semi-structured interview questionnaire
as a topic guide.
Analysis
In total, we conducted sixty one semi-structured
interviews during ?eldwork distributed among
stakeholder categories as follows: i) ?fteen in SMEs
and micro-businesses; ii) six in large businesses;
iii) ?fteen in HEIs and af?liated organisations; iv)
twelve with unemployed graduates and youth; and
v) thirteen in institutions promoting private sector
development. The distribution by country was: twenty
three interviews in Kenya, twenty one in Tanzania
and sixteen in South Sudan. There was a reasonable
spread across stakeholder groups in Kenya and
Tanzania but in South Sudan there was a slight over-
emphasis on civil society organisations where seven
interviewees were representatives of NGOs, UN
and faith-based organisations involved in various
programmes of post war reconstruction.
We used content analysis
liii
for semi-structured
interview transcripts to support or discon?rm
hypotheses which emerged from the Desk Research
?ndings. Recurrent words or phrases were recorded
thematically in order to establish relationships
between factors, where applicable.
3
Available on request.
26 27
to be a signi?cant source of jobs. A key challenge is
foreigners’ domination of trade, markets, and jobs
in speci?c sectors eg hospitality. The government
is seen as a large employer and therefore the
preferred choice for many graduates. Job creation
opportunities are also driven by NGOs, UN agencies,
and their consultants. Finally, the military remains
a large employer, suggesting that much economic
opportunity is still tied to the security needs
of the country.
Suggestions for Improving Entrepreneurship
Education Provision
Provision of formal education and training is
conducted through public universities and technical
and Vocational Education and Training providers
(TVETs). These institutions are currently not entirely
functional due to political con?icts, lack of human
resources and funding. Certainly, government and
NGOs see TVETs as important, yet they recognise
they are also expensive to operationalise and
maintain. NGOs and international agencies promote
various learning systems, such as: BEST; Know
About Business; Farmer Field Schools (FAO); and
reproductive health (UNFPA). Historically, there
are examples of successful outreach/education
campaigns in Southern Sudan, such as those
around animal health and husbandry which could be
developed.
3.2.4 SUMMARY
The results of the ?eldwork summarised above lead to
a number of general observations:
? The concept of entrepreneurship is reasonably
well understood in Kenya, but perhaps less so in
Tanzania and Sudan;
? There is a general appreciation of the economic
importance of entrepreneurship, especially for
rural areas;
? There is a potential tension between what
educators and practising entrepreneurs perceive
to be the de?ning characteristics of entrepreneurs;
? There is a signi?cant gap in knowledge,
experience and therefore credibility on the part of
educators;
? There is a general failure in entrepreneurship
education at all levels;
? There is a general preference for public sector
employment over entrepreneurial employment;
? There is recognition of the value of experiential
learning and mentorship for entrepreneurs; and
? There is an appreciation of the potential for
non-formal eg ICT mediated education in local
languages.
models. Better training and experience of teachers
was suggested, and one entrepreneur noted ‘they
pretend to teach entrepreneurship and they do not
know one single entrepreneur’.
3.2.2 RESULTS OF SEMI-STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS IN TANZANIA
De?ning ‘Entrepreneur’ and Measuring Success
A broad de?nition of ‘entrepreneur’ emerged
from interviewees in Tanzania, but key terms, eg
opportunity, and value creation remained ill-de?ned
by many. There was a clear sense that behavioural
change was needed at the community level to adopt
more positive perceptions of entrepreneurship and
self-employment.
Current Entrepreneurship Education, Graduate
and Youth Unemployment, and Job Creation
The quality of entrepreneurship education in Tanzania
was deemed below that of neighbouring countries,
putting locals at a disadvantage in the job market.
Similar to observations from Kenya, educators
admitted they needed more training on the subject of
entrepreneurship and graduates added that this was
crucial to help them understand the relevance of skills
they need to develop.
Suggestions for Improving Entrepreneurship
Education Provision
Unemployed graduates and youth made an appeal for
entrepreneurship to be introduced much earlier in the
education system, together with a framework that can
support the development of those already in business
without proper skills. As one graduate put it: ‘it is
extremely hard to run your own business by default.
Entrepreneurship education must start much earlier
because at the University level it is too late to learn.’
Contextual learning content focusing on rural
businesses, and in particular activities dominated
by women such as food production, horticulture,
catering and hospitality were viewed as a priority
with technology disseminated learning objects to
be provided in situ in local languages if needed. An
interesting observation was made on the potential
use of mentoring to foster better ethnic integration,
for example to encourage role modelling across
ethnic groups.
3.2.3 RESULTS OF SEMI-STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS IN SOUTH SUDAN
De?ning ‘Entrepreneur’ and Measuring Success
There is no equivalent word in Juba Arabic for
‘entrepreneur’. The word ‘enterprise’ is commonly
used, but also applied to non-pro?t and public sector
organizations. ‘Livelihoods’, ‘business activity’, and
‘income generation’ are more common descriptors
of business related activity. This is starting to change,
however, as words enter the language eg from
Swahili: eg magendo, meaning a small, informal
business. South Sudanese stakeholders suggested
that entrepreneurial success can be measured by:
business growth (customers, pro?t); personal growth
(networks, professionalism); human development
(food, education, children’s future, health); and a
combination of the above.
Current Entrepreneurship Education, Graduate
and Youth Unemployment, and Job Creation
Interviewees cited the following as main reasons
for graduate unemployment: language and skills
divide; lack of enterprise enablers eg credit, and
job expectations eg a preference for working in the
public sector. However, the private sector is seen
as key for the future, and is increasingly understood
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
28 29
for graduates and unemployed youth, questions
were meant to help ?ll the gaps between their
understanding of entrepreneurship and the skills and
attributes that make for a successful entrepreneur.
Exploring the best ways to learn how to be
an entrepreneur
Section Four was designed to establish the preferred
learning approaches of each category of participant,
and we provided statements describing the most
common learning approaches we found during the
desk research. These were: experiential learning,
re?ecting on reading material, theoretical lectures,
case studies or a combination of approaches. We
also asked respondents to suggest approaches not
covered in the questionnaire.
Exploring the best delivery methods of being
an entrepreneur
Section Five covered learning methods. We asked
each participant to select their preferred learning
methods: academic lectures and tutorials, learning
from home, using multi-media, learning in community
groups with like-minded people, coaching and
mentoring, or a combination of these. We also asked
respondents to identify any preferred method of
learning if not included in our statements.
The survey instrument was designed to capture
the views of a larger sample of stakeholders than
was interviewed in the semi-structured interview
process. The questionnaire was based on universal
propositions developed by Gibb (1995). We included
short and clear sentences as measurement indicators
with Likert scales from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly
disagree) to capture respondents’ opinions.
Analysis
In total we collected four hundred and twenty valid
responses distributed as follows: two hundred and
eighty six for SMEs; sixty for educators and seventy
four for graduates and unemployed youth.
See table below.
Country Kenya Tanzania South
Sudan
Categories
Educators
in HEIs and
Af?liates
20 33 7
Owners
of SMEs
and Micro-
Businesses
101 160 25
Graduates/
unemployed
youth
44 30
Total 165 223 32
We reported the means and the standard deviations
(SDs) for each response to show the degree of
convergence of opinions. We then ranked the
responses starting with the lowest means to highlight
indicators for which respondents were in highest
agreement. In all cases total samples were heavily
weighted towards the Owners of SMEs and micro-
businesses who represented 61% of the sample for
Kenya, 72% for Tanzania and 78% for South Sudan.
Results are described overleaf for each country.
3.3 FINDINGS FROM LARGER SCALE SURVEYS
Larger scale surveys were conducted in all three
focal countries in order to explore stakeholders’
understanding of entrepreneurship and to establish
their expectations of what entrepreneurship
education should achieve as well as their preferred
learning approaches and delivery methods for
educational content.
Sample
On this occasion, our target sample for the survey
did not include large domestic and multinational
businesses or institutions generally promoting the
private sector. This is because we wished to focus on
stakeholders with a direct role in the local economy
and the entrepreneurial process. Thus the sample
was selected from the three main categories of
stakeholders described below:
i) Educators category: all those involved with
delivering education in universities, colleges, and
professional education institutions in the public
and private sectors;
ii) Employers category: including business owners/
managers within the micro and small-medium
sized business sector; we also included those
operating in both formal and informal sectors; and
iii) Graduates and unemployed youth: comprising
young people aged 16- 35 with a university or
college degree, school leavers without a degree,
either unemployed or working informally.
For the ?rst category, we chose speci?c business
schools and technical colleges on the basis of their
popularity and enrolment levels. The selection of
SME and micro-business employers was based on
location, eg large industrial estates and commercial
parks. To avoid biased responses, we ensured that
graduates were not selected from the schools taking
part in the survey, and the unemployed youth were
selected within business estates mainly operated by
the informal sector eg Kariu Mbangi in the outskirts
of Nairobi.
Due to resource constraints, we limited our target
population geographies to the capital city in each
country, except in Kenya where we were able to
collect data among the graduate and unemployed
youth category in Mombasa.
Survey Instrument
We designed our research instrument in a four-page
format in ?ve sections.
4
The ?rst section comprised
a classi?cation of participants among stakeholder
categories. Sections Two, Three, Four and Five
covered propositions in four broad areas relevant
to our research questions:
What it means to be an entrepreneur
Questions in section two aimed to establish general
perceptions and understandings of what it means
to be an entrepreneur.
To what extent the current educational programmes
develop a variety of skills and attributes associated
with being an entrepreneur.
Section three was designed to identify areas where
stakeholders require educational support to develop
or acquire particular skills and attributes. Employers
were expected to identify entrepreneurial skills
required in their employees. And for educators we
wanted to identify areas for capacity building in
delivering entrepreneurship education. Likewise
4
Available on request.
30 31

Rank
KENYA
Mean
5
SD
1 Being able to innovate 1.48 0.587
2 Being able to take the initiative 1.48 0.72
3 Constantly developing the ability to spot an opportunity 1.57 0.772
4 Being able to make intuitive decisions 1.58 0.595
5 Being an outstanding networker 1.58 0.844
6 Building high levels of trust with those they work with 1.6 0.853
7 Being up to date with the latest technology 1.61 0.748
8 Exhibiting high levels of ability to convert opportunities into viable new ventures
(or projects)
1.63 0.689
9 Regularly grasping opportunities when others have failed to. 1.63 0.914
10 Being able to persuade and negotiate 1.65 0.704
11 Being able to write and present a business plan 1.66 0.855
12 Having the capacity to think strategically 1.7 0.929
13 Being able to make decisions in uncertain and confused situations 1.73 0.93
14 Knowing what they know as well as what they don’t know 1.75 0.999
15 Taking every opportunity to learn from their experiences and their colleagues/
community
1.77 0.748
16 Always looking for ways to develop not just themselves but those around them 1.79 0.811
17 Understanding the functional importance of strategy, marketing, operations
and ?nance
1.81 0.781
18 Seeing entrepreneurial behaviours practiced in a wide range of contexts 1.83 0.719
19 Being able to enjoy everything that they do 1.89 0.868
20 Having learnt how to start a business 1.97 0.909
21 Having a good understanding of the theory of management 1.97 1.006
22 Appreciating the need for organisation to develop and know how to achieve this 2.01 1.033
23 Studying the subject of entrepreneurship 2.11 0.949
24 Having a holistic appreciation of the management of the business (or part of it) 2.15 1.019
25 Having learnt about the behaviours and values of an entrepreneur 2.18 0.939
3.3.1 RESULTS OF SURVEY UNDERTAKEN
IN KENYA
Graduate aspirations – (“Given the opportunity
where would you like to be in 5 Years”)
We asked graduates in Kenya to express their
preferred career choice. More than three quarters
said they would prefer to work for a large domestic or
multinational company. The results in the table below
show that self-employment is the last career choice
for most graduates in Kenya, with only 3% indicating
a preference for this option.
Kenya
Large Companies 77%
Public Services 20%
Self-Employment 3%
What it means to be an entrepreneur
The results in the table below show that being an entrepreneur is most strongly associated with
skills and attributes of being innovative, being able to spot an opportunity and taking initiative.
These are closely followed by intuitive decision-making, ability to network effectively and to develop
trust in relationships. The skills which were the least associated with being an entrepreneur were
studying the subject of entrepreneurship, having an holistic appreciation of the management
of business, and having learnt about the behaviours and values of an entrepreneur.
5
The lower the score, the more important the factor.
32 33

Rank
KENYA
Mean SD
1 Learning by doing – gaining the experience “on the job”. 1.31 0.465
2 Working through case studies of successful entrepreneurial endeavours 1.37 0.484
3 A combination of the above (all or just some?) 1.75 0.632
4 Reading about the subject and re?ecting on what it means to them. 1.81 0.831
5 Listening to experts and having theories presented for private re?ection. 1.85 0.809
On the learning approach, the majority of participants in Kenya expressed a preference for experiential
learning, followed by case studies of successful local entrepreneurs, which again supports the ?ndings of the
desk research for contextual learning. Theoretical approaches to learning came last – again supporting our
?ndings from desk research that traditional business school approaches do not meet the requirements of the
competitive marketplace in which entrepreneurs operate.
Exploring the best learning methods for entrepreneurial education

Rank
KENYA
Mean SD
1 Mentoring/coaching 1.73 0.673
2 Group or community learning among like-minded people 1.88 0.774
3 A combination of all the cited learning outcomes 1.92 0.678
4 Traditional taught lessons by academics or tutors in classrooms in a school or college 2.09 1.251
5 Printed material available to work through at home 2.11 0.931
6 Multi-media materials available on a mobile phone 2.22 0.937
7 Multi-media materials available via the web 2.40 1.144
As the results in the above table reveal, mentoring and coaching were the optimum learning methods selected
by participants in Kenya, followed by community learning with peers.

Rank
KENYA
Mean SD
1 Being determined 1.75 1.02
2 Ability to network with others 1.77 0.77
3 Ability to manage a project or initiative holistically 1.79 0.88
4 Ability to seek and take opportunities 1.8 0.82
5 Ability to communicate effectively 1.82 0.98
6 Ability to sell/persuade 1.85 1.00
7 Having an achievement orientation and ambition 1.89 0.926
8 Ability to use judgment to take calculated risks 1.89 1.181
9 Ability to negotiate 1.93 0.82
10 Ability to think strategically 1.93 0.99
11 Being creative 1.96 1.31
12 Ability to take initiatives to make things happen 1.97 1.03
13 Ability to manage ?nance/budgets 2 1.07
14 Being hardworking 2.01 1.36
15 Ability to make decisions under uncertainty 2.02 1.04
16 Having a preference for learning by doing 2.07 1.12
17 Ability to commercialise an idea 2.08 0.95
18 Having an action orientation 2.09 1.09
19 Ability to see things through 2.11 1.09
20 Having perseverance 2.16 1.04
21 Having self-con?dence and belief 2.16 1.30
22 Ability to take responsibility for/ownership of things 2.29 1.23
23 Ability to solve problems creatively 2.3 1.14
24 Ability to undertake consultancy activities 2.35 1.15
25 Ability to manage people 2.46 1.16
26 Ability to work in a team 2.59 1.18
27 Ability to act autonomously 2.6 1.56
Exploring the best ways to learn how to be an entrepreneur
To what extent do you require educational support to develop skills
and attributes associated with being an entrepreneur?
In terms of the support required to develop speci?c entrepreneurial skills and attributes,
participants in Kenya ranked determination, ability to network effectively and holistic
management among the top priorities; the least important priorities were skills related
to team working, people management and the ability to act autonomously.
The results acknowledge soft skills and illustrate both a good understanding of the social
nature of entrepreneurship and a recognition of the crucial role of social networks in the
value creation process. The ability to network effectively and to manage a project leverages
limited resources and improves the likelihood of a successful entrepreneurial venture.
34 35

Rank
TANZANIA
Mean SD
1 Being able to innovate 1.52 0.606
2 Being able to take the initiative 1.52 0.705
3 Building high levels of trust with those they work with 1.54 0.784
4 Regularly grasping opportunities when others have failed to. 1.54 0.861
5 Being able to persuade and negotiate 1.56 0.667
6 Being up to date with the latest technology 1.64 0.779
7 Being able to make intuitive decisions 1.66 0.653
8 Being able to write and present a business plan 1.66 0.873
9 Exhibiting high levels of ability to convert opportunities into viable new ventures
(or projects)
1.69 0.78
10 Constantly developing the ability to spot an opportunity 1.69 0.973
11 Being an outstanding networker 1.7 1.024
12 Understanding the functional importance of strategy, marketing, operations
and ?nance
1.73 0.894
13 Being able to make decisions in uncertain and confused situations 1.73 1.017
14 Knowing what they know as well as what they don’t know 1.73 1.021
15 Taking every opportunity to learn from their experiences and their colleagues/
community
1.74 0.725
16 Always looking for ways to develop not just themselves but those around them 1.74 0.838
17 Having the capacity to think strategically 1.74 0.957
18 Seeing entrepreneurial behaviours practiced in a wide range of contexts 1.77 0.828
19 Having learnt how to start a business 1.83 0.977
20 Being able to enjoy everything that they do 1.89 0.96
21 Appreciating the need for organisation to develop and know how to achieve this 1.92 0.963
22 Having a good understanding of the theory of management 1.92 0.976
23 Having learnt about the behaviours and values of an entrepreneur 2.18 1.075
24 Having a holistic appreciation of the management of the business (or part of it) 2.22 1.026
25 Studying the subject of entrepreneurship 2.23 1.06
3.3.2 RESULTS OF SURVEY UNDERTAKEN
IN TANZANIA
Graduate aspirations – (“Given the opportunity
where would you like to be in 5 Years”)
The table below outlines graduate aspirations in
Tanzania. Following a similar trend to that found in
Kenya, the most popular career choice was to work
in large companies, followed by working in public
service and then self-employment. Although the
samples are not strictly comparable, the data suggest
that graduate aspirations for self-employment may
be slightly higher in Tanzania than in Kenya (14% as
opposed to 3%).
Tanzania
Large Companies 64%
Public Services 22%
Self-Employment 14%
What it means to be an entrepreneur
Respondents to the survey in Tanzania ranked four main characteristics as best describing what
it means to be an entrepreneur. These were: being innovative, taking initiative and grasping
opportunities where others have failed to, and ?nally developing trust with whom they work.
The characteristics least associated with being an entrepreneur included: having studied
entrepreneurship as a subject, holistic management skills and demonstrating entrepreneurial
values. Overall, these results are very similar to those obtained in Kenya. See table below.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
36 37
Exploring the best ways to learn how to be an entrepreneur
Respondents in Tanzania were asked to select their preferred learning approach in developing entrepreneurial
skills and attributes. Again experiential learning came top, followed by case studies of successful local
entrepreneurs. The results presented in the table below are very similar to those we collected in Kenya.

Rank
TANZANIA
Mean SD
1 Learning by doing – gaining the experience “on the job”. 1.3 0.479
2 Working through case studies of successful entrepreneurial endeavors 1.37 0.58
3 Reading about the subject and re?ecting on what it means to them. 1.67 0.732
4 Listening to experts and having theories presented for private re?ection. 1.71 0.787
5 A combination of the above (all or just some?) 1.74 0.672
Exploring the best learning methods for entrepreneurial education
Results in the table below show that mentoring and coaching are perceived to be the best learning methods
for entrepreneurship education in Tanzania, closely followed by community-based learning with peers.
We obtained similar results in Kenya.

Rank
TANZANIA
Mean SD
1 Mentoring/coaching 1.66 0.657
2 Group or community learning among like-minded people 1.76 0.663
3 A combination of all the cited learning outcomes 1.83 0.668
4 Traditional taught lessons by academics or tutors in classrooms in a school or college 2.01 1.228
5 Multi-media materials available on a mobile phone 2.06 0.929
6 Printed material available to work through at home 2.08 0.954
7 Multi-media materials available via the web 2.34 1.13

Rank
TANZANIA
Mean SD
1 Being determined 1.58 0.873
2 Ability to network with others 1.68 0.819
3 Ability to communicate effectively 1.7 0.919
4 Ability to seek and take opportunities 1.72 0.777
5 Ability to manage a project or initiative holistically 1.74 0.783
6 Ability to use judgment to take calculated risks 1.78 1.094
7 Being creative 1.79 1.168
8 Having an achievement orientation and ambition 1.8 0.836
9 Ability to think strategically 1.82 0.975
10 Ability to make decisions under uncertainty 1.9 1.028
11 Ability to take initiatives to make things happen 1.9 1.044
12 Ability to see things through 1.91 0.996
13 Having an action orientation 1.92 1.038
14 Ability to manage ?nance/budgets 1.95 1.151
15 Having a preference for learning by doing 1.96 1.075
16 Ability to sell/persuade 1.96 1.106
17 Ability to commercialise an idea 1.97 0.974
18 Ability to negotiate 1.97 0.978
19 Being hardworking 1.98 1.357
20 Having self-con?dence and belief 2.05 1.28
21 Having perseverance 2.06 0.968
22 Ability to undertake consultancy activities 2.07 1.16
23 Ability to solve problems creatively 2.19 1.105
24 Ability to take responsibility for/ownership of things 2.36 1.252
25 Ability to work in a team 2.38 1.251
26 Ability to act autonomously 2.43 1.462
27 Ability to manage people 2.5 1.213
Again, the results presented in the table above are similar to those we obtained in Kenya and demonstrate
that the majority of respondents recognize and value those soft skills that are required to develop successful
relationships within social networks.
To what extent do you require educational support to develop a variety
of skills and attributes associated with being an entrepreneur?
We asked respondents in Tanzania to specify entrepreneurial skills and attributes
for which they required educational support in order to develop; the top three
were: being determined, networking and communicating effectively. The least
important skills required included working in a team, ability to act autonomously
and managing people.
38 39

Rank
SOUTH
SUDAN
Mean SD
1 Always looking for ways to develop not just themselves but those around them 1.22 0.441
2 Taking every opportunity to learn from their experiences and their colleagues/
community
1.3 0.675
3 Constantly developing the ability to spot an opportunity 1.4 0.699
4 Having learnt how to start a business 1.4 0.843
5 Having a holistic appreciation of the management of the business (or part of it) 1.44 0.527
6 Building high levels of trust with those they work with 1.5 0.707
7 Having the capacity to think strategically 1.5 0.85
8 Being able to take the initiative 1.5 0.85
9 Being able to innovate 1.5 0.972
10 Exhibiting high levels of ability to convert opportunities into viable new ventures
(or projects)
1.56 1.014
11 Regularly grasping opportunities when others have failed to. 1.56 1.014
12 Being able to persuade and negotiate 1.6 0.843
13 Being able to make intuitive decisions 1.6 0.843
14 Being able to make decisions in uncertain and confused situations 1.6 0.843
15 Understanding the functional importance of strategy, marketing, operations
and ?nance
1.6 0.966
16 Being an outstanding networker 1.6 1.075
17 Appreciating the need for organisation to develop and know how to achieve this 1.7 1.337
18 Knowing what they know as well as what they don’t know 1.8 0.919
19 Having learnt about the behaviours and values of an entrepreneur 1.8 1.229
20 Being able to enjoy everything that they do 1.8 1.317
21 Having a good understanding of the theory of management 1.9 1.287
22 Being able to write and present a business plan 2 1.054
23 Seeing entrepreneurial behaviours practiced in a wide range of contexts 2.1 0.994
24 Studying the subject of entrepreneurship 2.1 1.287
25 Being up to date with the latest technology 2.3 1.337
3.3.3 RESULTS OF SURVEY UNDERTAKEN
IN SOUTH SUDAN
Career aspirations
As explained above, our sample distribution in South
Sudan did not include graduates and unemployed
youth because of the special circumstances in that
country. Also, it should be noted that due to the small
sample size, these results must be viewed with some
caution. However, the initial indications outlined are
interesting and hence we have included them here.

What it means to be an entrepreneur
When asked how best to describe an entrepreneur, respondents in South Sudan cited the ability to develop
not just themselves but those around them as the most important characteristic, followed by ability to
spot an opportunity, to start a business and demonstrate holistic management skills. The least important
characteristics were assimilating latest technology, studies on entrepreneurship and demonstrating
entrepreneurial values.
The results shown in the table below are supportive of our ?ndings from the desk research which identi?ed
the need for small and micro enterprises to develop as commercial anchors with a strong community base. It
is also worth mentioning that South Sudan is the only one of the three countries where starting a business was
strongly associated with having entrepreneurial experience, this factor being ranked fourth.
40 41

Rank

SOUTH
SUDAN
Mean SD
1 Learning by doing – gaining the experience “on the job”. 1.22 0.441
2 Working through case studies of successful entrepreneurial endeavours 1.6 0.699
3 A combination of the above (all or just some?) 1.7 0.675
4 Reading about the subject and re?ecting on what it means to them. 1.8 0.919
5 Listening to experts and having theories presented for private re?ection. 1.9 0.738
As we established from the desk research, the diversity of cultures, languages and tribes in South Sudan may
not be very conducive to theoretical learning, especially when the country has very limited resources to meet
the pressing challenge of education.
Exploring the best learning methods for entrepreneurial education
On the question of preferred learning methods to receive educational content, respondents in South Sudan
ranked mentoring and coaching and a combination of other methods as their preferred options, followed by
community-based learning with peers. See table below.

Rank

SOUTH
SUDAN
Mean SD
1 Mentoring/coaching 1.8 0.789
2 A combination of all the cited learning outcomes 1.8 0.789
3 Group or community learning among like-minded people 1.9 0.738
4 Multi-media materials available via the web 2 0.667
5 Printed material available to work through at home 2 0.943
6 Multi-media materials available on a mobile phone 2.3 1.337
7 Traditional taught lessons by academics or tutors in classrooms in a school or college 2.5 1.08

Rank

SOUTH
SUDAN
Mean SD
1 Ability to network with others 1.11 0.333
2 Ability to seek and take opportunities 1.33 0.5
3 Ability to see things through 1.33 0.707
4 Ability to communicate effectively 1.33 0.707
5 Being determined 1.33 0.707
6 Ability to sell/persuade 1.33 1
7 Ability to manage a project or initiative holistically 1.33 1
8 Ability to work in a team 1.44 0.726
9 Being hardworking 1.44 0.726
10 Ability to manage people 1.56 0.726
11 Being creative 1.56 0.726
12 Ability to negotiate 1.56 1.014
13 Ability to take responsibility for/ownership of things 1.56 1.014
14 Ability to use judgment to take calculated risks 1.56 1.014
15 Ability to commercialise an idea 1.56 1.014
16 Ability to solve problems creatively 1.56 1.13
17 Ability to think strategically 1.56 1.13
18 Ability to undertake consultancy activities 1.67 1
19 Having an action orientation 1.67 1
20 Ability to manage ?nance/budgets 1.67 1.118
21 Ability to make decisions under uncertainty 1.78 0.972
22 Ability to act autonomously 1.78 0.972
23 Having self-con?dence and belief 1.78 0.972
24 Having an achievement orientation and ambition 1.78 1.093
25 Having perseverance 1.89 0.928
26 Ability to take initiatives to make things happen 1.89 1.269
27 Having a preference for learning by doing 2 0.866
To what extent do you require educational support to develop a variety
of skills and attributes associated with being an entrepreneur?
When asked to identify areas where educational support was required in order
to facilitate entrepreneurial success, respondents in South Sudan cited the ability
to network with others as the most important. This was followed by six attributes
with similar scores: seek and exploit opportunity, being determined, communicate
effectively, sell/persuade, see things through, manage holistically.
In addition, South Sudanese respondents introduced the ability to see things through, and to sell. After several
decades of war, it is perhaps to be expected that the South Sudanese will value peace and being able to start
a business, run it with an holistic approach, and grow.
Exploring the best ways to learn how to be an entrepreneur
We asked respondents in South Sudan to select their preferred learning approach in developing
entrepreneurial skills and attributes. Experiential learning came ?rst, followed by local case studies with
successful entrepreneurs. Learning using a combination of approaches was a very close third choice, in
contrast to what we observed in the Kenya and Tanzania samples. Theoretical learning was the least appealing.
42 43
a project or initiative holistically’ ranked 3
rd
and 5
th

respectively for Kenyan and Tanzanian respondents.
‘Ability to seek and take opportunities’ was ranked
4th for both, and ‘ability to communicate effectively’
was ranked 5
th
and 3
rd
respectively for Kenyans and
Tanzanians. ‘Having an achievement orientation’ was
ranked 7
th
and 8
th
and ‘ability to use judgment and take
calculated risks’ was ranked 8
th
and 6
th
respectively.
‘Ability to think strategically’ was ranked 10
th
and 9
th
for
Kenyans and Tanzanians respectively. If there was a
divergence it was that Kenyans ranked ‘ability to sell/
persuade’ and ‘ability to negotiate’ 6
th
and 9
th
, whereas
Tanzanians place more emphasis on ‘being creative’
as their 7
th
ranked most required skill.
With the caveat that the sample was qualitatively
different and smaller, the South Sudanese did appear
to value educational support for ‘being determined’
(5
th
) and ‘ability to network’ (1
st
); and the ‘ability to
seek and take opportunities’ (3
rd
) was also highly
ranked. ‘Ability to communicate effectively’ and ‘ability
to sell/persuade’ were ranked 4
th
and 6
th
respectively.
But unlike the Kenyans and the Tanzanians, South
Sudanese respondents ranked managerial and team
working educational needs such as ‘ability to manage
a project or initiative’, ‘ability to work as a team’ and
‘ability to manage people’ as top ten requirements
(7
th
, 8
th
and 10
th
respectively), well ahead of ‘having an
achievement orientation and ambition’ (24
th
).
On the topic of ‘exploring the best ways to learn how
to be an entrepreneur’, ‘learning by doing – gaining
experience on the job’ emerged as the ?rst priority
for all samples, and ‘working through case studies
of successful entrepreneurial endeavours’ was the
second most highly ranked mode of learning for all
countries’ respondents.
Finally, on the question of ‘exploring the best learning
methods for entrepreneurial education’, there was
unanimity across all country samples that ‘mentoring/
coaching’ was the best method; ‘group or community
learning among like-minded people’ ranked 2
nd
for
Kenyan and Tanzanian respondents and 3
rd
for South
Sudanese respondents. Interestingly, ‘traditionally
taught lessons by academics or tutors in classrooms
in a school or college’ (4
th
) outranked both printed
material at home and multi-media materials available
by the web or a mobile phone for both Kenyan and
Tanzanian samples, although it scored last (7
th
) for
South Sudanese respondents.
3.3.4 EVALUATION OF FINDINGS
The results of the larger scale surveys demonstrate
a remarkable similarity in responses between
stakeholders – especially in Kenya and Tanzania.
The sample was different and smaller in South Sudan,
so we will present those observations separately and
with some caution because of the small sample size.
In both the cases of Kenya and Tanzania, a signi?cant
majority of graduates and unemployed youth
expressed a desire to work for a large company
(77% and 64% respectively) and a signi?cant minority
preferred to work for the public sector (20% and
22% respectively). Only a minority (3% and 14%
respectively) was interested in self-employment.
When asked ‘what it means to be an entrepreneur’,
both Kenyan and Tanzanian stakeholders ranked
the ability to be innovative and take the initiative as
their ?rst and second criteria. Common items in the
top ten criteria included ‘constantly developing the
ability to spot an opportunity (3
rd
and 10
th
for Kenya
and Tanzania respectively); ‘being able to make
intuitive decisions’ (4
th
and 7
th
respectively); ‘building
high levels of trust with those they work with’ (6
th
and
3
rd
respectively); ‘being up to date with the latest
technology’ (7
th
and 6
th
respectively); ‘exhibiting high
levels of ability to convert opportunities into viable
new ventures or projects’ (8
th
and 9
th
respectively);
and ‘being able to persuade and negotiate’ (10
th
and
5
th
respectively).
In both cases, the ?ve least highly ranked criteria
included ‘studying the subject of entrepreneurship’,
having learned about the behaviours and values of
an entrepreneur’, having an holistic appreciation of
the management of the business’, and ‘appreciating
the need for the organisation to develop and know
how to do this’.
These results demonstrate two things: ?rst the
general appreciation of universally applicable
principles of effective entrepreneurship with respect
to opportunity identi?cation and commercialisation,
and of social attributes such as trust building,
persuasion and negotiation. The capacity for intuitive
decision-making and technological competence were
also recognised. In contrast, factors that might be
perceived to be academic or more passive tended to
be ranked lowest.
In contrast, South Sudanese respondents showed
greater appreciation for collective characteristics,
with the ability to innovate and convert opportunities
into viable new ventures scoring only 9
th
and
10
th
respectively. The importance of spotting
opportunities was ranked 3
rd
however and having high
levels of trust 6
th
. Given the small size and nature of
the sample it is important not to over-interpret these
observations but it is interesting to note that various
characteristics relating to learning and development
of self and colleagues featured in four out of the top
?ve characteristics for South Sudanese respondents.
When asked ‘to what extent do you require
educational support to develop skills and attributes
associated with being an entrepreneur?’ again there
was a high level of consistency between Kenyan
and Tanzanian respondents. ‘Being determined’ and
‘ability to network with others’ ranked as the ?rst and
second priority for both samples. ‘Ability to manage
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
44 45
? The recognition of the importance of experiential
learning over theoretical learning;
? The recognition of the importance of mentoring,
coaching and peer-peer learning over other forms
of learning support; and
? The recognition of the importance of speci?c skills
development for entrepreneurs.
Second, while there is a high degree of consistency
across the three samples, the results provide some
interesting signals with respect to clear differences in
emphasis in the three countries which may be useful
to take into account in designing future interventions
in entrepreneurship education in East Africa.
Third, the recognition of the need for experiential
learning opportunities and mentoring, compounded
by relative disinterest in pursuing self employment
as a career among most respondents demonstrates
that if ‘systemic entrepreneurship’ is to be realised in
East Africa, signi?cant levels of training and capacity
building, supplemented by processes of behavioural
and social change will need to be explored.
3.3.5 CONCLUSION
What we may conclude from the larger scale surveys
is that:
? Consistent with the results of semi-structured
interviews: i) there is a general preference for
public sector employment over entrepreneurial
employment in both Kenyan and Tanzanian
samples; ii) corporate (large company)
employment is even more preferred; and iii)
there is a clear and consistent recognition of the
value of experiential learning and mentorship for
entrepreneurs across all countries.
? The appreciation of the potential for non-formal
eg ICT mediated education is present, but not so
pronounced as the desire for mentoring/coaching,
peer to peer learning, and even traditional
classroom based teaching – at least in the case of
the Kenyan and Tanzanian respondents.
In addition, the survey results demonstrated
remarkable consistency for Kenyan and Tanzanian
respondents in:
? The importance of innovation, initiative,
opportunity seeking and commercialisation
as highly ranked attributes for entrepreneurs,
supported by social attributes such as trust
building, persuasion and negotiation and
technological competence and intuition.
? The importance of skills development in
determination, networking, project management,
opportunity seeking, communications, risk
tolerance and achievement orientation.
In partial contrast to these observations and bearing
in mind differences in sample nature and size, it
seems that South Sudanese respondents:
? Placed greatest emphasis on collective
attributes, opportunity seeking and trust building
in successful entrepreneurs and rather less
emphasis on innovation and commercialisation;
and (consistent with Kenyan and Tanzanian
respondents) South Sudanese respondents.
? Ranked determination, networking, opportunity
seeking, and communications skills development
highly, but ranked managerial and team working
skills higher than achievement orientation.
These observations are helpful from a number
of perspectives.
First, the results of the larger scale surveys provide
high levels of triangulation and reinforcement with
respect to the results of the Desk Study and the Semi-
Structured Interviews, particularly with respect to:
? The relative lack of interest in pursuing self-
employment compared to corporate or public
sector employment for graduates and unemployed
youth in Kenya and Tanzania;
? The clear recognition of the importance of
entrepreneurial characteristics related to
opportunity seeking and commercialisation
in three different cultures in Eastern Africa;
? The clear recognition of the importance of social
enablers such as trust building, communications
and negotiation skills for the success of
entrepreneurs;
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
46 47
The second stage of the workshop aimed to establish
what entrepreneurial success looked like. How would
they know if an entrepreneur was successful?
What would an entrepreneur aspire to achieve?
The third stage endeavoured to build a vision of what
an educational system would have to deliver if it
were to enable and support entrepreneurs to achieve
success in the three focal countries. What are the
educational inputs and outcomes that would have
to be delivered?
3.4.2 RESULTS OF WORKSHOP
3.4.2.1 VALIDATION OF PRELIMINARY RESULTS
OF DESK RESEARCH AND FIELDWORK
On Day 1, we presented preliminary ?ndings from
desk research and ?eldwork in each country, and
arranged delegates in country groups to validate,
challenge and enhance those ?ndings. Members
of country groups were invited to challenge
each another and explore their understandings
in order to reach a consensus. It was anticipated
that participants would bring insights from their
experience of education and their understanding of
educational programmes that aim to support aspiring
entrepreneurs.
Each country group was given two hours to complete
this activity. The level of engagement was adequate to
af?rm that the debate and discussions were inclusive
and fully participatory.
Outcomes of the ?rst Card Sort – “An
entrepreneur is” – completed in country groups
Using 25 indicators from the literature and an
additional 32 from the narratives from the ?eld work,
country groups sorted these into groups; Strongly
agree; Agree; Neither Agree nor Disagree; Disagree;
and Strongly Disagree.
Participants were invited to further ?lter the strongly
agree group and rank their choices from “highest
of the high” to “lowest of the high”. Piles of cards
were then recorded by facilitators on excel spread
sheets. Cards were assigned an identifying number.
Within the ‘strongly agree’ piles of cards the rank was
allocated a sequential number.
A second analysis was competed for all the cards.
Cards in each broad group were assigned an
identifying number according to which category they
fell into: Strongly Agree (2); Agree (1), Neither (0);
Disagree (-1); and Strongly Disagree (-2). A colour
code was then applied to show the statements that
attracted broadest levels of agreement. The summary
?nal results are depicted in the table overleaf.
The results showed a number of characteristics to be
important across all countries. Opportunity recognition
and exploitation was universally recognised as a
central characteristic for entrepreneurs along with the
ability to mobilise networks. Personal characteristics
such as hard work, ambition, ?exibility, responsibility,
daring, adaptability and commitment to lifelong
learning were also recognised by all country groups.
In contrast, entrepreneurs were not perceived to
be especially driven by pro?t; money was not their
primary driver. They did not need to have studied the
subject at University, nor did they have to be able
to write a business plan or be especially expert in
?nancial matters.
The relevance of ethical issues eg trust, integrity
and sustainability caused some debate at the
workshop. Overall, ‘value creation’ emerged as a core
characteristic that sets apart entrepreneurs from
non-entrepreneurs.
3.4 FINDINGS OF WORKSHOP
3.4.1 WORKSHOP PURPOSE AND DESIGN
A two-day workshop was convened in Nairobi on
26
th
and 27
th
June 2012 and attended by twenty
four participants. The workshop had two primary
objectives: i) to validate, interpret and enrich
the results of preliminary ?eldwork results; and
ii) to articulate a vision for the development of
entrepreneurship education in three countries in East
Africa. A detailed report on workshop activities and
results and a list of participants list is available
on request.
Workshop participants were selected from
?eldwork participants and recommendations from
all stakeholder categories across the three focal
countries. One expert from Uganda was invited who
was known previously to the principal investigators.
We took great care to ensure gender balance
and non-dominance by any particular category of
stakeholder. The attendees included:
? Young entrepreneurs, start-up and pre-start (3)
? Mature entrepreneurs, established businesses (10)
? Educators in Higher Education Institutions and
af?liated colleges (6)
? Public/private sector bodies, institutions
supporting or promoting entrepreneurship (5)
There were 11 attendees from Kenya, 7 from Tanzania,
5 from South Sudan, and (as noted above) one
from Uganda.
The workshop was hosted by the University of Nairobi
School of Business and facilitated by Professor Simon
Brown (Plymouth University), a former chair
of Enterprise Educators UK.
Throughout the workshop design and execution
facilitators developed narratives and summaries of
conversations and used these to inform and further
re?ne the tools used for workshop activities. Where
possible phrases and comments were unchanged
and anonymity was preserved in order to establish
shared understandings of the terms and concepts
underpinning the project. The workshop design was
participatory with a programme of activities based
on ‘card sort’ techniques
6
and the development
of ‘rich pictures’ to summarise and crystallise
understandings.
The results of preliminary ?eld work were presented
at the commencement of the workshop (powerpoint
presentations available on request) and thus informed
the proceedings. However the preliminary ?eldwork
observations did not preclude the emergence
of new views and understandings. Rather the
workshop design invited stakeholders to respond
to the ?eldwork and co-create new meaning around
concepts of entrepreneurialism and entrepreneurship
education. Participants were encouraged to offer new
words and concepts and comments on experiences,
beliefs and future recommendations.
The initial stage of the workshop programme was
designed to establish what East African stakeholders
participating in the workshop understood by the word
‘Entrepreneur’. What did an Entrepreneur look like?
How would they represent one? And how would they
recognise one?
6
Card sorts consisted of a number of statements, phrases or terms being presented to the groups who were invited to identify levels of agreement, and
where possible to rank each phrase. The phrases were drawn from the ?eld work and were chosen to stimulate debate. Some were felt to be ambiguous
or confusing; these generated the greatest level of discussion and ultimately helped drawout a number of the richer outputs from the workshops.
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
48 49
Outcomes of the second Card Sort
– “Entrepreneurs are successful if” – completed
in stakeholder groups
As a bridge from the establishment of individual
entrepreneurial characteristics to the implications
for entrepreneurial education, a second card sort
was done. Potential indicators drawn from literature
and from the ?eld work narratives were used
again. For this exercise the workshop moved out
of national groupings and instead ?ve stakeholder
work groups were created: Educators, Mature
Entrepreneurs (x2), Young Entrepreneurs, and Public/
Private Sector bodies and institutions supporting or
promoting entrepreneurship. Groups were invited to
build on their earlier work on identifying what/who
entrepreneurs were to establish what does success
look like for these people from the stakeholder’s
perspective. Analysis was completed as for the ?rst
card sort and fed back swiftly in order to support the
subsequent activity.
3.4.2.2 IMPLICATIONS FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION IN AFRICA
Outcomes of the third Card Sort
– “Entrepreneurship learning outcomes”
– completed in stakeholder groups
Forty nine potential indicators drawn from the
literature and the ?eldwork narratives were presented
to invite the stakeholder groups to identify key
learning outcomes from an educational system
designed to support successful entrepreneurs as
de?ned by the group’s earlier shared understandings.
Again swift analysis was completed to allow feedback
to the whole group to stimulate and inform the
second day’s workshop task.
The results of this exercise put the development of
innovation, integrity and opportunity recognition skills
as top priorities, followed by the development of
personal and social skills. Employability skills scored
variably but young and mature entrepreneurs shared
the view that expectations of employment and the
reputation of HEIs should not be part of the objectives
for entrepreneurship education.
3.4.2.3 PROPOSALS FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP
EDUCATION IN FOCAL COUNTRIES
Day two of the workshop was designed to enable
delegates working in national groups to develop a
vision for their own country, highlighting the role of
entrepreneurship education in enacting that vision.
This was an important process because it grounded
the participants in solutions and the required
partnerships and policy enablers to deliver those
solutions. The methodology for this exercise was the
construction of ‘rich pictures’ depicting the vision of
national groups, supplemented by descriptive notes.
A Vision for Entrepreneurship and
Entrepreneurship Education in Kenya
The Kenyan participants’ vision was to build a vibrant
and sustainable economy aiming for excellence
to develop regional competitive advantage. See
Appendix II (seperately avaialble) for the ‘rich
pictures’ which emerged from the ?nal part of the
workshop.
CARD No Statement - "An Entrepreneur is" group 1 group 2 group 3 Rank
Kenya Tanzania Ssudan
1 Able to recognise and exploit opportunities 2 2 2 2.00 strongly agree 2
4 Develops and uses networks 2 2 2 2.00 agree 1
5 Hard working and self confident 2 2 2 2.00 neither 0
6 Ambitious and resilient 2 2 2 2.00 disagree -1
23 Always on the look out for new things 2 2 2 2.00 Strongly disagree -2
24 Constantly scanning for new knowledge or information 2 2 2 2.00
25 Daring 2 2 2 2.00
26 Adaptive and flexible 2 2 2 2.00
40 A life long learner 2 2 2 2.00
41 Takes responsibility, and ownership of, things 2 2 2 2.00
51 builds trust 2 2.00
57 Starts small and grows 2 2.00
48 Constantly seeking knowledge 1 2 2 1.67
2 A strategic thinker 2 1 2 1.67
7 customer focussed 2 1 2 1.67
9 Agressive and success oriented 2 1 2 1.67
10 Focussed on performance 2 1 2 1.67
27 A good problem solver 2 1 2 1.67
35 Able to thrive in conditions of uncertainty and ambiguity 2 1 2 1.67
42 A good negotiator 2 1 2 1.67
44 Strategic 2 1 2 1.67
46 An initiator and self driven 2 1 2 1.67
11 Understand and manage risk 2 2 1 1.67
12 Somebody who will make things happen 2 2 1 1.67
49 A calculated risk taker 2 2 1 1.67
8 Market focussed 1 1 2 1.33
3 Able to develop a business plan 2 0 2 1.33
13 Uncomfortable with the status quo 2 1 1 1.33
14 Innovates and brings new things to market 2 1 1 1.33
18 Happy to let others do the work 2 1 1 1.33
20 Able to see the world differently 2 1 1 1.33
45 An "Intrapreneur" 2 1 1 1.33
28 Learnt from doing 0 1 2 1.00
54 A risk taker 1 1.00
53 Quality conscious 1 1.00
56 Ready to start dirty work 1 1.00
58 Not hindered ny capital 1 1.00
15 A Gambler - of ideas, investments or expectations 1 0 1 0.67
43 Good at selling 1 0 1 0.67
47 Aware of what he doesn't know 1 0 1 0.67
29 Reflects on their own performance 1 1 0 0.67
36 Able to manage their "work-life" balance 1 1 0 0.67
50 Someone with high "integrity" 0 0 1 0.33
37 More successful if they are well educated 1 0 0 0.33
21 Been inspired by somebody they respect 1 0 -1 0.00
38 Highly skilled 1 0 -1 0.00
52 A strong mentor 0 0.00
30 A new word for a self employed business person -1 -1 1 -0.33
22 Always got an exit plan -1 0 0 -0.33
39 Focussed on their own career -1 -1 0 -0.67
33 A strong business management focus -2 0 -1 -1.00
55 Sometimes depletes natural resources -1 -1.00
16 Unethical in their dealings 0 -1 -2 -1.00
19 Driven by profit at the expense of social capital -2 -1 -1 -1.33
31 Able to write and present a business plan -2 -1 -1 -1.33
17 Deplete natural resources -2 -2 -1 -1.67
32 Able to create and present financial statements -2 -2 -2 -2.00
34 Studied Entrepreneurship at University -2 -2 -2 -2.00
50 51
? The need for agreed conceptual frameworks for
entrepreneurship promotion and entrepreneurship
education (allowing for cultural and linguistic
differences);
? The need for integrated interventions addressing
all levels of education: primary, and secondary
schools, colleges and TVETs and universities/
business schools’; and
? The need for curricula and resources appropriate
for all levels of intervention.
3.5 A SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGS
Taking into account the results of our Desk Study, the
Fieldwork (semi structured interviews), the Survey and
the Workshop, we may conclude the following:
? There is general agreement that entrepreneurial
education needs to be very signi?cantly enhanced
in East Africa and that this is not just a matter for
business schools. Currently, business education is
perceived as not ?t for purpose with respect to the
needs of future entrepreneurs.
? There is general agreement that entrepreneurial
education needs to feature at all levels of
education: from primary and secondary schools
to University to lifelong learning. There is an
opportunity to create a movement for social
change in favour of systemising entrepreneurial
intent in order to generate higher levels of interest
in self-employment and SME growth in addition to
corporate or public sector employment.
? There is general agreement that future initiatives
in Eastern Africa should feature integrated,
multi-sectoral approaches and the development
of context speci?c learning materials and
programmes.
? There is a high level of congruence between
universally recognised de?nitions of
entrepreneurship and what drives entrepreneurial
success eg opportunity recognition and exploitation,
and the views of stakeholders in East Africa.
? There is a high level of congruence between
universally recognised approaches to the support
for entrepreneurial learning eg the importance of
experiential learning over theoretical learning and
the recognition of the importance of core skill-
building and the views of stakeholders in East Africa.
? There is a high level of congruence between
universally recognised approaches to the
provision of direct support for entrepreneurial
action eg mentoring, peer to peer learning and
coaching, and the perceptions of stakeholders in
East Africa.
? Notwithstanding the congruence in perceptions
noted above there may be cultural and social
differences that prevail in different countries
eg with respect to the relative importance and
roles of different actors and the way in which
entrepreneurship education may develop;
? Stakeholders in the East African context perceive
the broader societal and developmental merits
of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship
education, and thus in the context of East African
entrepreneurship there is indirect support for
the Shepherd and Patzelt
liv
(2011) de?nition of
‘sustainable entrepreneurship’ as an activity
“focused on the preservation of nature, life
support, and community in the pursuit of
perceived opportunities to bring into existence
future products, processes, and services for
gain, where gain is broadly construed to include
economic and non-economic gains to individuals,
the economy, and society.”
As one delegate put it “valuing quality and ef?cient
production must be the aim – because if Israel can
grow oranges better than Kenya there is something
wrong.” Entrepreneurship education must focus
on value creation and opportunity identi?cation
alongside the important ethical values that
businesses need in a market system.
Kenya has a well developed region and city led
specialisation approach which could be built upon
to de?ne optimal opportunities for relevant
sectoral clusters.
A Vision for Entrepreneurship and
Entrepreneurship Education in Tanzania
Tanzanian participants envisioned an entrepreneurial
society with a reformed education system that will
embed the reality of entrepreneurship in everyday life.
To achieve this, Tanzania needs a national framework
for entrepreneurship education with speci?c skills
and dedicated programmes for formal and informal
education. Tanzania needs a special focus on rural
economies where improved market access will lead
to better income levels. See Appendix II (seperately
avaialble).
A Vision for Entrepreneurship and
Entrepreneurship Education in South Sudan
South Sudanese participants aspired to set up a
regional centre of excellence in entrepreneurship by
working in partnership with all stakeholders ie the
Government, donors, HEIs, faith-based organisations,
community leaders and vocational institutions.
The priority for South Sudan is to support illiterate
women, youth and cooperative societies. Education
must be action-oriented. See Appendix II (seperately
avaialble).
3.4.2.4. SUMMARY
The results of the workshop demonstrate that there
is potentially a very high level of energy for what we
might describe as systemic entrepreneurship and
enhanced entrepreneurship education in the three
focal countries.
Learning content design needs to incorporate key
concepts of opportunity recognition and value
creation and to embed issues of trust and integrity
in the learning process. Stakeholders agreed there
is a need to reconcile entrepreneurial attributes with
soft skills.
During the workshop a variety of constraints
eg different conceptual frameworks and lack of
resources for educators, were mentioned frequently.
Those present expressed frustration with the
resources that they were using to learn and/or teach
enterprise and entrepreneurship. Thus we may
conclude that future initiatives must make freely
available banks of learning objects, case studies
and other materials that are categorised according
to the learning needs of entrepreneurs and shared
understandings of how entrepreneurs become
successful.
We may also conclude that stakeholders from the
three focal countries appreciate:
? The need for integrated policy making between
governments, the private sector, civil society
organisations and educational institutions;
? The need for disadvantaged groups to be
especially recognised in policy formulation;
? The need for social and cultural change and social
mobilisation;
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
52 53
Based on the foregoing, we recommend six cross-
cutting areas for capacity building and further action
and policy development. We propose to further
discuss and test the relevance of these areas with
a view to exploring the interest of governments,
development agencies, private sector organisations
and other potential partner organisations to pursue
opportunities for collaboration on new initiatives in
entrepreneurship education in the region.
4.1 DEVELOPING SHARED KNOWLEDGE
AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
Governments, policy makers and other stakeholders
need to develop locally tailored but shared
frameworks for supporting entrepreneurship
education in East Africa. These frameworks may
be legitimated at the regional and national levels
and they should embrace existing examples of
best practices that can evolve over time. Some
level of coordination for knowledge sharing fora
is essential in order to capture and disseminate
learning most ef?ciently. This could be done through
a well designed web site supported by key agencies
working together to de?ne, develop and disseminate
best practice.
4.2 ENHANCING NATIONAL EDUCATION
POLICIES AND PRACTICES
A recurrent theme in our research was the inadequacy
not just of traditional business education, but also the
absence of appropriate entrepreneurship content
and experiential learning opportunities within primary
and secondary education systems as well. Clearly
the opportunity to enhance ‘entrepreneurial thinking
and practice in context’ exists within the educational
systems of East African countries and it would be
useful to explore where in East Africa there is greatest
appetite for developing appropriate pedagogical
interventions through the schools systems. School
teachers as individuals and teacher education
systems more generally could be harnessed very
powerfully given the nature of the opportunity
for countries seriously interested in developing
entrepreneurial and innovative cultures.
4.3 DEVELOPING ACCESSIBLE LEARNING
MATERIALS
Based on our research, there is a strong desire for
more effective entrepreneurship education in all
three countries. This will require the development of
context-speci?c ‘learning objects’ – mini case studies,
role model stories and other highly accessible and
relevant learning materials that may be ‘uploaded and
downloaded’ into formal, informal, urban and rural
educational settings for both literate and non-literate
learners.
A bank of East African case studies, narratives of role
models, business tips, and other objects should be
developed using the knowledge and experience of
local entrepreneurs and people in their own context
to demonstrate the potential for development
of Africa-centric approach to entrepreneurship
education, foregrounding an inclusive market
orientation.
7
This material should be further adapted
to each speci?c context to re?ect preferred learning
approaches and methods at all educational levels:
primary, secondary, TVET and university. Ideally such
material could be developed within a ‘wiki’ framework,
allowing the ‘many to many’ co-creation and sharing
of learning relevant to successful entrepreneurs and
their teachers and mentors. Material should be freely
available through social media and ICT mediated
formats as well as through radio and more traditional
outreach mechanisms.
Our main observation from the research described
in this report is the universal acknowledgment
of the inadequacy of current business and
entrepreneurship education with respect to the needs
of entrepreneurs in three countries in East Africa.
This inadequacy is particularly acute when the needs
of the poor, women, rural communities and non-
literate entrepreneurs are considered. Stakeholders
also believe that entrepreneurship education is
inadequate even for literate graduates and those
living in urban areas.
Too many teaching tools, pedagogies and resources
are perceived to be based on Western models of
corporate business and education. These bear
no relationship to the African context and are
therefore perceived to be of little use. Nevertheless,
educators and other stakeholders in East Africa show
commitment, interest and passion for change and
there is no doubt that with appropriate resources and
policy changes current weaknesses in entrepreneurship
education can be addressed in the region.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR CAPACITY BUILDING
7
See for examplehttp://cases.growinginclusivemarkets.org/countries/112
Photo: Growing Inclusive Market (GIM), The MDGs: Everyone’s Business Report (2010)
54
4.4 TRAINING TRAINERS AND BUILDING
ENTERPRISE EDUCATOR SUPPORT
NETWORKS
Capacity building for entrepreneurship education
cannot happen without the participation of educators.
Developing ‘enterprise educator’ networks across
Africa, similar to the successful UK Enterprise
Educators network (http://www.enterprise.ac.uk/)
which supported the recent YouWin! Project in
Nigeria
8
could provide one model for developing the
capacity of educational institutions and both formal
and informal programmes in East Africa. The UK
Enterprise Educators network is highly pragmatic and
facilitative and members are not necessarily based in
business schools or even in universities.
A project aimed at developing such networks,
perhaps through partnering individual countries
in East Africa with individual and institutional
nodes in the UK and elsewhere may hold some
promise. Following two successful meetings of
internationally oriented enterprise educators in
London and Plymouth during 2012, opportunities for
helping stimulate ‘enterprise educator’ networks in
both Nigeria and South Africa are being explored,
potentially with the involvement of the African
Academy of Management (http://www.africa-aom.
org/). The European Foundation for Management
Development in Africa also provides a potential
venue for brokerage of international partnerships and
networks for sharing knowledge and best practices in
entrepreneurship education relevant to Eastern Africa,
as does the African Management Initiative (www.
AfricanManagers.org) sponsored by the Association
of African Business Schools, the Global Business
School Network, the Lundin Foundation and the Tony
Elumelu Foundation.
4.5 SUPPORTING SOCIAL NETWORKS AND THE
INFORMAL SECTOR
Value creation in rural economies with appropriate
linkages for market access should be given priority as
one of the main pillars of entrepreneurship education
that is relevant to social inclusion, economic growth
and empowerment (particularly of women) in Eastern
Africa. The development of local partnerships of
councils, primary and secondary schools, civil
society organisations, faith-based groups and
other community organisations would be central to
the creation of opportunities to support individual
entrepreneurs and businesses in the informal and
rural sectors. Such partnerships could advance the
concept of ‘rural business schools’ that might help
design and disseminate learning content to meet
the requirements of non-literate and disempowered
entrepreneurs at the grassroots level. Such
partnerships could also address gender imbalances
or language and religious issues where necessary.
Similar partnerships could be piloted in urban areas
where there are already dense social networks
drawing on entrepreneurial collaboration but where
basic skills are lacking. Urban networks might bene?t
from engagement with different actors eg TVETs and
secondary schools that may be absent in rural areas.
8
Seehttps://www.youwin.org.ng/
55
4.6 EMBEDDING RESEARCH AND CONTINUOUS
IMPROVEMENT
We noted earlier the importance of learning from
best practices and from experiments conducted in
different contexts and by different institutions. This is
where business schools, universities, development
partners and think tanks may endeavour to play a
strategic role in entrepreneurship education, through
supporting the design and execution of projects with
demonstrated impact, and identifying and measuring
their success factors with a view to potential.
4.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONSIDERATION
BY DFID AND OTHER AGENCIES
? Invite stakeholders to comment on this report
and commission coordinated feedback.
? Identify agencies capable of designing pilot
programmes consistent with the six areas of
capacity building noted above.
? Identify agencies interested to support and
develop networks consistent with the six areas
of capacity building.
The next section identi?es interested stakeholders
and potential next steps.
56 57
5.2 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
IN SOUTH SUDAN
Members of the South Sudanese enterprise
education community were invited to an informal
launch of the report in Juba. This was held at a central
location, with attendees including: DfID, the South
Sudan Integrated Development Agency, and Plan
International. Subsequent meetings were held with
FAO, CIDA, SPARK, Small & Medium Entrepreneurship
Consult in South Sudan (SMECOSS) and a number of
individual entrepreneurs.
Key issues discussed by Dr Wheeler and Dr McKague
were:
1. Educational curricular for entrepreneurship culture
building.
2. The importance of agribusiness and food security
as a focus for entrepreneurship education, in
addition to potential for franchised health clinics to
address maternal and child health (MCH) priorities.
Underpinning this, meetings with the University of
Juba highlighted the urgent need to collaborate and
build human capacity, in terms of entrepreneurship
educators’ capabilities, access to training support
materials and physical infrastructure.
Subsequent meetings in Canada have led to
proposals being developed for consideration by
CIDA (now DFATD) and IDRC, consistent with the
urgent need for private sector led direct interventions
in food security and MCH. Capacity building
for entrepreneurship education research and
implementation remains an opportunity best suited
for DFID support, linked to proposals for training and
material development by iLab at Strathmore University
(Nairobi) and others.
5.3 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT IN TANZANIA
The Tanzanian enterprise education community were
primarily engaged during a formal report launch at the
University of Dar Es Salaam, with informal discussions
with the Chamber of Commerce and DfID Tanzania.
The report launch at the University of Dar Es Salaam
included an invited panel including: Dr. Kashuliza
(NEEC), Dr. Olomi (IMED), Professor Kaijage (UoN),
Dr. Newbery (PU) and Drs. Nchimbi and Goodluck
(UDEC). This attracted a range of faculty members
and students.
Links with a recent report on Formal and Informal
Entrepreneurial Education in Tanzania
lv
were
explored, with direct input from its authors.
Key issues identi?ed were:
1. The need for a National Framework and curricula
review.
2. A signi?cant increase in training capacity, with
teacher training being regarded as a key point
of leverage.
Dr Kashuliza, the Executive Secretary of the National
Economic Empowerment Council, welcomed
the report and highlighted that it supported the
forthcoming National Framework for Entrepreneurial
Education. He further suggested that future
collaboration would be most appropriate with the
newly founded Tanzania Entrepreneurship and
Competitive Centre (TECC). This is a collaboration
between the Tanzania Private Sector Foundation
(TPSF), the NEEC and the Commission for Science
and Technology (COSTECH).
Following the research and recommendations for
capacity building in entrepreneurship education in
East Africa it was considered critical to validate the
?ndings and ascertain the level of commitment for
further action “on the ground” within the participant
countries.
An intensive week of events and meetings was
organised to disseminate the ?ndings of the
report and engage with interested stakeholders.
During the week a number of meetings and report
launches were held in Kenya, Tanzania and South
Sudan. These proved a valuable way of stimulating
interest in the report ?ndings and particularly in
identifying individuals, organisations and policy-
makers interested in taking the recommendations
of the report forward. The commitment of various
stakeholders, was formalised in an action planning
workshop held in Nairobi at which Kenya-based
organisations were directly represented and where
observations from report launches in Tanzania and
South Sudan were re?ected.
Whilst the recommendations of the report encompass
the East African context, different policy needs dictate
different priorities for supporting entrepreneurship
education in each country. In Kenya a key priority
was aligning goals with the Government’s Vision
2030 strategy; in South Sudan it was building human
capacity and infrastructure; and in Tanzania it was in
collaboration and development of formal pedagogies.
The country dissemination strategy and articulated
stakeholder priorities are discussed in the following
sections.
5.1 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT IN KENYA
Stakeholders from within the Kenyan
entrepreneurship education community were
engaged during a formal report launch at the
University of Nairobi, and during informal meetings
with faculty members at Strathmore University,
the United States International University, and
representatives of the policy group Vision 2030.
The report launch at the University of Nairobi attracted
a representative of the Minister of Education, the
Deputy Vice Chancellor, a range of senior University
faculty members, policy-makers, and a number of
academics and students.
Professor Kaane from the Ministry of Education
enthusiastically welcomed the report and invited
the authors to frame the recommendations around
youth unemployment in order to gain maximum
traction from the new Government in Kenya. The
recommendations would then feed directly into
the aims of the Vision 2030 policy framework. This
framework has 3 pillars: economic, social and
political, each with a number of supporting ‘?agship’
projects. It also supports projects that enable these
pillars indirectly through ‘enabler and macro projects’.
Strathmore University (speci?cally its iLabAfrica
incubator) was especially interested in taking the
lead on developing technology support platforms
for Entrepreneurship Education in East Africa . It was
highlighted that this would need to have a signi?cant
mobile phone interface in order to work in the East
African context. Faculty members were also interested
to contribute to other follow-up projects relating to
agribusiness and women’s entrepreneurship.
United States International University faculty
members were interested in and competent to lead
on a range of projects linking to women’s business
and rural business.
5. STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
AND NEXT STEPS
58 59
5.4 ACTION PLANNING WORKSHOP
As the culmination of the week’s activities,
interested individuals, report participants, and local
organisations were invited to an action planning
workshop hosted by the British Council at the
GoDown Arts Centre in Nairobi, Kenya. This event was
very ef?ciently organised by the British Council and
sponsored by the Service and Enterprise Research
Centre at Plymouth University. The venue was chosen
by the British Council as a venue where their Creative
Entrepreneurship diploma students are taught, and
also attracted entrepreneurs from the creative sector.
As such these creative entrepreneurs were invited to
the workshop, bringing their own insights to the day.
The day began with an introduction to the Centre
and the work of the British Council with Creative
Enterprise, and followed by a reprise of the DFID
report background for those yet to be engaged.
This was followed by the identi?cation of 6 future
opportunities based on the report and the week’s
discussions; these are highlighted in Table below.
The opportunities were allocated to champions to
drive the discussion, and attendees were invited
to join groups to determine next steps.
5.5 NEXT STEPS
Below we set out some candidate next steps
for taking this work forwards.
1. Dissemination of ?ndings
a. Printing and disseminating this report
and inviting responses
b. Launching a web site
2. Convening a conference of interested parties
a. Hosted by bilateral or multilateral agencies
b. Attended by governments, educators, SCSOs
and other stakeholders
c. To include supportive governments, private
sectors and education systems leaders
3. Establishing country based networks of enterprise
educators (project 1 identi?ed in the table below)
a. Developing twinning systems where appropriate
b. Embedded within supportive governments,
private sectors and education systems
4. Establishing a system for learning object capture
and distribution using various media (project 2
identi?ed in the table below).
a. Requiring media partners and donor funding
b. Requiring editorial oversight and cataloguing/
curating learning objects
5. Developing integrated pilot projects in focal
countries and elsewhere re?ecting the analysis
of this report and the need for both rural and urban
entrepreneurship education initiatives particularly
focused on the young, women and disadvantaged
groups (projects 3, 4, 5 and 6 identi?ed in the table
below, together with further speci?c proposals that
may emerge in South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania)
6. Developing mechanisms for sharing the results
of pilot projects and publicising outcomes.
No. Opportunity Championed by Team
1 Establish a Network of East
African Enterprise Educators
Prof Erasmus Kaijage,
University of Nairobi
Erasmus Kaijage (University of Nairobi)
Nyokabi Njuguna (ELF)
Kevin MacKague (Michigan University)
2 Develop a system to capture
and store entrepreneurial
learning objects
Dr Joseph Sevilla, iLabAfrica,
Strathmore University, Nairobi
Joseph Sevilla (iLab Africa)
David Wheeler (Cape Breton University)
3 Primary & Secondary School
Level Entrepreneurship for
Culture Change
Mr John Harris,
Isephus, Cape Town
John Harris (Isephus, South Africa)
Damary Sikalieh (USIU)
Eutious Mola (Creatives Garage)
Sara Kwala (Dance Forum)
Christine Gitau (Craft Afrika)
Peter Thairu (Wezesha Education
Foundation)
Kevin MacKague (Michigan University)
4 Use social networks to
empower disadvantaged
groups
Dr Robert Newbery,
Plymouth University
Robert Newbery (Plymouth University)
Mutuku Nguli (British Council)
Mueni Lundi (IPAL)
Juliette Achieng (DFN)
Jack Otieno
Eric Kamau (Rhymings Consulting)
Millicent Koki Kibuti (UoN – SOR)
5 Use social networks to
empower rural/agricultural
and other communities of
practice
Dr Stephen Roderick,
Duchy College, Plymouth
Stephen Roderick (Cornwall College)
Moses Wanami (British Council)
Dennis Wayesu (Nuwav)
Margaret Matanda (Kenyatta University)
Robert Newbery (Plymouth University)
George Mose (USIU)
6 Policy Leadership, Research
and Evaluation
Prof D King,
United States International
University
Prof E D King (USIU)
Erasmus Kaijage (University of Nairobi)
David Wheeler (Cape Breton University)
Robert Newbery (Plymouth University)
OPPORTUNITIES, CHAMPIONS AND PLANNING TEAM
60 61 60
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