Description
A social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies (social units, see differentiation). The term is used to describe a social structure determined by such interactions.
ABSTRACT
Title of Document:
THE INFLUENCE OF CAREER IDENTITY AND SOCIAL NETWORKS ON CAREER TRANSITION MAGNITUDE. Holly Selena Slay, PhD, 2006
Directed By:
Professor M. Susan Taylor, Smith School of Business, Management and Organization
Increasingly, scholars and journalists are suggesting that there is a trend toward greater magnitude in career transitions signified by the crossing of career boundaries (such as level, functional, organizational, industry and professional boundaries). To date, much of the quantitative empirical research suggests that organizational, relational and environmental factors influence career transition behavior. However, while we know that these external influences may cause an individual to transition, we know less about the process through which career transitions evolve, especially those of larger magnitude and how forces internal to the individual may help to explain variance above and beyond these external factors. In this dissertation, I use qualitative and quantitative methodologies to develop and refine a model of career transition focusing on career transition magnitude. Specifically, I use research from social identity, social networks and role exit theory to develop a model of career transition magnitude that posits career identity (the cognitive representation of the
self derived from past career experiences, beliefs, values, attributes and motives that define the individual in terms of their career) and network characteristics (the pattern of interpersonal relationships) influence the magnitude of intended career transition, the career exit behaviors one engages in and the evaluation of career opportunities. Further, I use path analysis to find that career exit behaviors are influenced by the magnitude of the intended career transition as well as strong coworker ties and social and personal turbulence. Additionally, I find that the favorable evaluation of career transition opportunities is impacted by career identity centrality and organizational satisfaction. Finally, I find that the magnitude of the intended career transition is influenced by the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities, network career range, organizational satisfaction and social and personal turbulence. Theoretical and practical contributions are discussed.
THE INFLUENCE OF CAREER IDENTITY AND SOCIAL NETWORKS ON CAREER TRANSITION MAGNITUDE
By
Holly Selena Slay
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2006
Advisory Committee: Professor M. Susan Taylor, Chair Professor Violina Rindova Professor Ken G. Smith Professor Ian O. Williamson Professor Paul Hanges
© Copyright by Holly Selena Slay 2006
Dedication
To Mom and Dad You are more than just my parents. You gave me a love of books and knowledge. You encouraged thinking and debate. You taught me that quiet reflection could be as fun as raucous laughter. In doing so, you provided me with tools to begin the scholarly journey that produced this manuscript. My prayer is that I will use the gifts you’ve provided to produce work that makes a positive difference.
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Acknowledgements
When I left Evansville, Indiana and Mead Johnson Nutritionals to begin my doctoral program at the University of Maryland, I had no idea what I had undertaken. I thought I was completing a degree program that would allow me to teach at the college level. I had no idea that I would develop a passion for research or that the word “identity” would become a mantra infecting almost every waking hour (yes, I really do see identity themes everywhere). Nor did I realize the role the relationships in my life would play in shaping me professionally and personally. My family has been an amazing source of love and support throughout the process. Mom and Dad, thank you for believing in me and encouraging me to follow this dream. Cheryl, I appreciate you beyond words. Thanks for listening to me and my friends talk about research and papers at what were meant to be parties. Thanks for taking me away to the Eastern Shore after comps and obliging my incessant requests for dinner in the Harbor. Thanks for hearing me rail during the process and encouraging me at every step. You are truly my best friend. Yvonne, JoAnne, and Lorenzo, you are incredible siblings. I’m always impressed by the quality of our conversations and I believe my first PhD seminars were around our dinner table. I was fortunate to share this journey with an amazing group of doctoral students at the University of Maryland. Meredith Burnett , Mike Pfarrer, Long Jiang, Dax Basdeo (and Marilyn, too), Tony Petkova, Sharon Hill, Jay Carson, Qing Cao, and Gosia Langa challenged my thinking in seminars, shared summaries, provided feedback on research ideas and offered social support.
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Patrick and Sara Maggitti, Amanuel Tekleab, Lisa Dragoni, Jen Marrone and Katy Decelles have been a source of remarkable support, encouragement and friendship. I really don’t know how to thank you for expressing your belief in my research, your help with my quantitative analysis (thanks, Amanuel), personal insights on career and life, fun and wine. You are all incredibly important to me. My research shows the power of the social network in career transitions. However, I’ve come to personally experience how being a part of an incredible network of minority PhD students and faculty can shape identity and influence one’s dreams. Therefore, I’d like to thank the PhD Project and Ian Williamson for helping create the “possible self” that sees endless possibilities and has the efficacy to believe that I can become that self. The dissertation process can be a harrowing one and lots of people fail to complete it. So, I’d like to thank my chair, Susan Taylor, and my committee, Ken Smith, Ian Williamson, Violina Rindova, and Paul Hanges, for your support and for compelling me to revise the dissertation after the defense. Your feedback has made it a much better product and has helped me to become a better researcher – thank you. Finally, to Danika and David, Garen and John, Lorenzo III and Cejoi. What a great heritage we descendants of Mattie and Sylvester Rowell have! I dedicate this manuscript to you, knowing that you can and will do greater things and have careers that transcend what we can imagine today. I look forward to your inaugurations, acceptance of Nobel Peace Prizes, creating art and vaccines, and succoring the oppressed and helpless. Don’t let anyone look down on you because
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you are young, but set an example for the believers in speech, in life, in love, in faith, and in purity – 1 Timothy 4:12.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements...................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents......................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .............................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................ viii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Exploratory Qualitative Study................................ 6 Chapter 3: Methods..................................................................................................... 45 Chapter 4: Results ....................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................ 78 Appendix A: Biographical Narrative Instrument....................................................... 94 Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................ 96 Appendix C: Pilot and Quantitative Study Instruments........................................... 100 Appendix D: Trusted Other Survey ......................................................................... 118 Appendix E – Magnitude Pattern Coding................................................................. 122 References................................................................................................................. 164
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List of Tables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Summary of Career Transitions Research………………………………….…..5 Study Respondents and Career Transitions Included in Study………………..13 Qualitative Data Structure Overview …………………………………………19 Career Transition Magnitude Analysis by Pattern Code, Provisional Code….21 Network Member Career Range……………………………………………....31 Pilot Study Variable Means, SDs, and Intercorrelations.………………..……44 Quantitative Study Variable Means, SDs, and Intercorrelations.......................52 Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict Factor Analysis………..……55 Organizational Satisfaction, Strong Coworker Ties, and Social and Personal Turbulence Factor Analysis……………………………………………..……..56 10. Opportunity Evaluation Factor Analysis………………………………………57 11. Magnitude Factor Analysis…………………………………………………….57 12. Reidentification and Disengagement Factor Analysis…………………………58 13. Path Coefficients for Alternative Model.............................................................62 14. Summary of Hypotheses and Findings………………………………………...68 15. Trusted Other Variable Means, SDs and Intercorrelations…………………….71
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List of Figures
1. Biographical Narrative for Interviewee #105 – Michelle………………….13 2. Theoretical Framework for the Determination of Career Transition Magnitude.....................................................................................................39 3. Path Diagram for Original Conceptual Model……………………………..60 4. Path Diagram for Alternative Model………………………………………61 5. Path Diagram with Control Variables……………………………………...67 6. Trusted Other Analysis Path Diagram……………………………………..73 7. Cycle of Career Transition Magnitude Determination……………………..81
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Chapter 1: Introduction
“Most people who have made big career changes have heard loved ones tell them, ‘You’re out of your mind.’ Sabotage is not their intention, but a shared history has entrenched certain expectations, and reinventing oneself can amount to breaking the implicit ‘contract,’”(Ibarra, 2003, p. 121) Although there is increasing interest in career transitions, we know relatively little about how the magnitude or size of career transitions is chosen especially, as suggested in the above quote, why individuals choose to make “big career changes” that expose one to social censure and changing or modifying one’s identity (“reinventing oneself”). Career transition magnitude is defined by how novel or far reaching the personal and professional adjustments are required to make the transition a reality (Nicholson & West, 1989). Because the nature of the personal and professional adjustments differ as a function of transition size, it is also likely that the process and consequences of transition differ as a function of size (Bruce & Scott, 1994; Kirschenbaum & Weisberg, 2002; Latack, 1984; Louis, 1980; Stephens, 1994). Given the potentially increasing number and size of career transitions (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; DeFillippi & Arthur, 1994) and the importance of career identity in how people define the global self (Hall, 2002; Baker & Aldrich, 1996), addressing issues of career transition magnitude and career identity change is critical. Unfortunately, our current understanding of career transitions and career identity may be insufficient to help us understand the career transition process as it relates to the determination of career transition size. First, there is a dearth of literature on the subject of career transition magnitude. In general, when career 1
transition has been studied in the literature, the empirical studies have tended to focus on career change that is internal to a single organization. Although almost twenty years ago Nicholson and West (1989) stated that career transition magnitude is an important topic for future career transition research, Table 1 demonstrates that the research has been focused primarily on career transitions that are internal to organizations. This table was constructed by conducting queries of the Social Sciences Citation Index using the terms career and transition, work role and transition, and job and transition. The list is compiled from articles in ten peer reviewed, well respected journals that publish careers research: Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organization Science, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes and Personnel Psychology. In the fifty-seven studies that met the criterion imposed on the search, only 8 (14%) discussed occupational change or transitions to a different profession. The vast majority (63%) of the studies discussed internal mobility or turnover (studies of transitions between organizations that do not specifically address career transition magnitude). In a similar manner, the literature on changes in career identity is primarily on professional adaptation to new roles (Ibarra, 1999, Pratt, Rockmann & Kaufmann, forthcoming) and it is not clear that insights concerning adaptation to roles within organization or even within professions can be transferred to adaptation to roles within new organizations or new professions. For example, research on professional
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adaptation is rooted in identity theory and, as a result, examines the impact of others perceptions of the individual on identity construction within the same profession. To illustrate, in Ibarra’s (1999) influential research on provisional selves, the participants are junior consultants or bankers that move from serving in analytic roles to more senior roles managing client relationships in thesame organization . However, it is not clear that the perceptions of others plays a similar role when people are deconstructing and reconstructing the self (Ebaugh, 1988) and the required changes in identity are more substantial such as leaving medicine or the priesthood to pursue entirely different careers including those of less status. Further, career transition research to date, even that which looks at sizeable career transitions (Ibarra, 2003) may not be sufficient to explain the serial, voluntary career transitions of varying magnitude that occur within the careers of many individuals. As a result, the literature currently offers career transition “snippets” rather than a holistic understanding of career transition, career identity and how one makes sense of their career. The purpose of this dissertation is to build and enrich theory around how individuals determine the size of a given career transition and “reinvent” their career identity to make such a career transition and therefore I examine the process of career transitions in two ways. First, in an exploratory qualitative study, I examine careers over the life course in alignment with early pioneers of career theory who suggested that “career” includes institutionalized roles as well as avocations where individuals are sometimes moving vertically but the career is not limited to vertical movement (Barley, 1989) and therefore I use biographical narratives to gain a better
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understanding of how individuals construct, navigate and make sense of the career over time rather than cross-sectionally. Second, I test a model based on the results of the exploratory qualitative study by quantitatively measuring the behaviors and perceptions of individuals concerning a current career transition. Although my interest is in building and enriching theory, I begin this dissertation by providing a brief theoretical review of career transition and career transition magnitude in Chapter 2.
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Table 1 Summary of Career Transitions Research
Type of Transition Internal mobility - promotions, level changes, job rotation, developmental experiences Number of Studies and Citation 16 Zhao & Zhou, 2004; Ibarra, 1999; Mael, Waldman, & Mulqueen, 2001; Singh & Greenhaus, 2004; Finegold, Mohrman, & Spreitzer, 2002, Ostroff & Clark, 2001; McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994; Murrell, Frieze, & Olson, 1996; Miner, 1987; Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994; Bruce & Scott, 1994; Miner & Robinson, 1994; Ohlott, Ruderman, & McCauley, 1994; Kondratuk, Hausdorf, Korabik, & Rosin, 2004; Latack, 1984; Prince, 2003 4 Noe & Barber, 1993, Eby & Dematteo, 2000, Feldman & Bolino, 1998, Munton & West, 1995 3 Kraimer & Wayne, 2004, Gregersen & Stroh, 1997, Gregersen & Black, 1996 2 Singh & Greenhaus, 2004, Bruce & Scott, 1994 2 Raghuram, Wiesenfeld, & Garud, 2003, Raghuram, Garud, Wiesenfeld, & Gupta, 2001 2 Thompson & Van de Ven, 2002, Wrzesniewski, 2001 5 Singh & Greenhaus, 2004, Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003, Ashford & Black, 1996, Chao, O'Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein, & Gardner, 1994, Jackson, Stone, & Alvarez, 1992 7 Pearce & Randel, 2004, Higgins, 2001, Kondratuk et al., 2004, Blau, 2000, Blau & Lunz, 1998, Lynn, Cao, & Horn, 1996, Blau, Tatum, & Ward-Cook, 2003 8 Smart & Peterson, 1997, Blau, 2000, Blau & Lunz, 1998, Oleski & Subick, 1996, Snape & Redman, 2003, Lee, Carswell, & Allen, 2000, Lynn et al., 1996, Blau et al., 2003 2 Robson, Wholey, & Barefield, 1996, Miner & Robinson, 1994 3 Feldman, 1994, Blau, 2000, Blau & Lunz, 1998 2 Stephens, 1994, Arnold & Nicholson, 1991 1 Mirvis & Hall, 1994
Internal mobility geography/relocation Internal mobility - expatriate adjustment/repatriation Internal mobility change in function Internal change (telecommuting work style changes) Role change brought on by organizational change (physicians that change from practitioner to employee) Organizational entry
Change in organization (move from one organization to another)
Change in “field” (move from one occupation or profession to another) External mobility (unknown destination) Retirement Psychological orientation Nonwork roles
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Chapter 2: Literature Review and Exploratory Qualitative Study
Career Transitions and Magnitude: A Brief Review Studies involving career transition magnitude have been few (Latack, 1984; Bruce & Scott, 1994), thus, the construct has not been well defined. One of the earliest definitions is provided by Nicholson and West (1989) who define career transition magnitude1 in terms of the demands placed on the individual, that is, the novelty or radicalness of the career change in relation to one’s current career role. Therefore, magnitude may be defined along a continuum ranging from low magnitudes, where there are minimal demands associated with transition, to high magnitudes where the change is dramatic. For example, a career transition involving intraorganizational movement such as changing from one job to another within the same function is a relatively low magnitude transition while a career transition that breaks industry or occupational boundaries would be characterized as a high magnitude transition. I further refine the definition of career magnitude to reflect that the demands associated with career transition magnitude can be thought of in terms of changes in career competencies: knowing why, knowing what and knowing whom (DeFillippi & Arthur, 1994, 1996). Knowing why competencies speak to identity or the beliefs, values and definition of self applied in the career context. Knowing what refers to the knowledge and skills associated with a particular career experience. Finally, knowing whom competencies reflect the relationships needed to learn and facilitate career growth. Thus, career transitions of low and high magnitude are differentiated by the
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Nicholson uses the term amplitude to discuss the size of a career transition in terms of how radical or novel the change is compared with the previous career role.
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degree to which a change in career choice or a new career role will demand significant investments in new relationships, skills, knowledge and changes in the career identity. Several theories implicitly or explicitly address the process of career transition and examine how or why individuals make career transitions of varying magnitudes. From these literatures, I identified three theories as especially helpful in understanding career transition magnitude: career and role transitions, social network theory and role exit theory. Though I ultimately found that each perspective provides insights into how individuals determine the magnitude of the transition they will pursue, none are adequate to explain my findings. This is due, in part to the fact that career magnitude is rarely discussed in studies of career transition (Bruce & Scott, 1994; Kirschenbaum & Weisberg, 2002; Latack, 1984; Nicholson & West, 1989). Career/Role Transitions. Research on career and role transition suggest that the process of career transition is cyclical comprised of preparation for the change, initial sensemaking once one is in the new role (encounter) followed by adjustment to provide for greater fit between the individual and the new role. Finally, the individual settles into the new role (stabilization) and the cycle begins again with preparation for entrance into the next role (Nicholson, 1984, 1987, Nicholson & West, 1989). In this literature, transitions are largely inter-organizational and role changes are imposed upon individuals. In contrast Rhodes and Doering’s (1983, 1993) work on career change process does examine movement to a new occupation but defines this type of career change as atypical career movement and does not examine “job change” such as promotions at all. Thus, much of the transition literature stops short of examining
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how the career transition may be affected by changes in career magnitude ranging from promotion to voluntary changes in profession or movement outside of an organization. The research on career and role transitions also discusses identity change as a function of role change. According to Nicholson (1984), an individual may change their values, goals and self concept (absorption), may make changes in the assumed role (determination) or may experience and enact personal and role changes (exploration). Ibarra contributes significantly to this literature by examining the process of career transition and noting that individuals experiment with identity by observing others, determining identities that “match”, and imitating and adapting those identities to discover the self best suited for the new role. While this research describes the process of identity construction, it focuses on identity as an outcome of transition but says little about identity change as an antecedent of career choice or how identity change might determine the size of career changes. Social Network Theory. A second literature that either implicitly or explicitly deals with career transition magnitude is research on social networks. Research on social networks and careers has investigated the relationship between network structure and career change. For example, Granovetter’s (1973) seminal work on the strength of weak ties demonstrated that connections between individuals served as conduits for career information, specifically, career opportunities. Recent social networks/careers research has also explored the relationship of career range (the diversity in the social network) to career change. Higgins (2001) found that individuals with broad career networks were more likely to change careers than
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individuals with narrow career networks. She speculates that the positive relationship between network range and career change is the result of the importation of both opportunity and identity information. Further, there is recognition that social networks are critical to the understanding of one’s career identity. “Social identity emerges through network processes: the people around us are active players in the co-creation of who we are at work. Our work identities are created, deployed and altered in social interactions with others” (Ibarra, Kilduff, & Tsai, 2005, p. 363). However, little is said of how social interactions and changes in work identities may influence the size or magnitude of the career transition that one chooses. Role Exit Theory. A third literature that deals with the process of career transition and career transition magnitude more directly is role exit theory. Ebaugh defines role exit as “the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity and the reestablishment of an identity in a new role that takes into account one’s ex-role” (p. 1). For example, Ebaugh studied ex-nuns, women who left the cloister to marry or pursue secular careers. Ebaugh also argues that there are two major steps in the role exit process: disengagement and re-identification.2 Disengagement, defined as withdrawing from relationships associated with the role exited, is characterized by a reduction in the number ofrelationships associated with the role that is being left, less frequent contact with individuals
Ebaugh (1988) actually uses the terms disidentification. However, that term is used by organizational scholars to describe antagonism toward one’s connection with an organization (Bhattacharya & Elsbach, 2002; Elsbach & Bhattacharya, 2001). Therefore, I choose the term re-identification to give the sense of disconnecting from and establishing a new career identity as well as to avoid confusion with the definition of disidentitifaction used in prior organizational studies.
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associated with that role and a decrease in the quality or intimacy of the interaction with individuals associated with the role one is leaving (Kahn, 1990). The role exit process also includes re-identification. Re-identification occurs when individuals shift identities, that is, define themselves according to the current role less and adopt a definition of self consistent with the role they are adopting. Thus, individuals may shift reference groups and internalize the norms and values of the desired group showing greater identification with the new group and the desired role. However, to date, careers researchers have done little investigation of how role exit and the concomitant changes in identity influence the size of career transition. Thus, while research in role exit theory, career/role transitions and social network theory is promising, these concepts remain a loose set of confederates providing little insight into the relationship between career identity and career transition magnitude determination. I seek to redress this shortcoming by building theory on how career transition magnitude is determined and career transitions of various magnitudes are pursued. METHODS Sample and Participants The aim of this section of the dissertation is to build theory in the area of career transition and to extend existing theory on career transitions and determination of career transition magnitude. I adopt the view held by Nicholson and West that “career” describes the sense that individuals make of their work histories or sequence of work experiences and, as a result, qualitative research is uniquely positioned to provide an opportunity to explore the ways individuals come to understand their
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careers (Miles & Huberman, 1994) by capturing the individuals perceptions of their careers in their own words. In order to build and elaborate theory, I searched for participants that could offer variety across the types of career transition magnitude possible (Stake, 2000). That is, the sample for the exploratory qualitative study contains individuals that have experienced at least two career transitions of varying magnitudes. Therefore, there are individuals within the sample who have made career transitions of large magnitude as well as those that have experienced transitions of small magnitude. Further, individuals were obtained through snowball sampling (Visser, Krosnick, & Lavrakas, 2000). In snowball sampling, respondents are asked to identify individuals that would also serve as good study respondents. While snowball sampling does not ensure a random sample of respondents, it is an excellent method to gather study subjects for theory building when the sampling characteristic is somewhat uncommon. Therefore, I asked my initial respondents if they knew of other people who had made significant career transitions in an attempt to locate people who would have experienced transitions of varying magnitudes. Table 2.1 describes each respondent and their career transitions. Data collection was accomplished through two complementary processes: biographical narratives and semi-structured interviews. Interviews and biographical information were collected from 12 individuals. These narratives covered 42 career transitions or approximately 3.5 career transitions per person. 33% or 4 of the participants were male. 58% or 7 of the participants were married. The individuals
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within the sample were all over 30 years of age. All the participants in the sample had a bachelor’s degree. Most also had advanced degrees (83% or 10 participants). Although this study involves a small number of respondents, the number of cases or transitions analyzed (42) provides for a rich understanding of career transition magnitude and the dual data collection methods help to establish theoretical saturation which is defined as occurring when new data fits into categories that have been previously defined (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Charmaz, 2000). I read through each of the biographical narratives developing preliminary codes and their properties. Then, I conducted semi-structured interviews with respondents. The codes developed during the analysis of the biographical narratives were used and described in the analysis of the semi-structured interviews. I provide a detailed review of the data collection methods below. Biographical Narratives. To complete the biographical narrative, participants were asked to think about their career history as a book. They were asked to write an introduction to the story that provides an overview and any background that might be relevant to the reader. Next, the individuals were instructed to think of each career transition as a chapter in the book and to describe when the transition occurred (age), and provide a title for each chapter. Finally, they were asked to write an epilogue where they reflected on the experiences and discussed the sense they have made of the story and where they believed their career was headed next. The length of the biographical narratives ranged from 1 to 8 pages. A short sample narrative is provided in Figure 2.1.
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Table 2.1 Study Respondents and Career Transitions Included in Study
Name John Transition 1 From chemistry major (college and first job) to industrial sales From college to variety of psychology jobs and Master’s From political science major (college and first job) to seminary From law student to first job in law firm Moving within organization to various jobs and departments (analyst) From variety of jobs to college administrati on From priest to jobs with the state From musician and promoter to law student From college to series of temp jobs Transition 2 From industrial sales to academia Transition 3 Transition 4 Transition 5 Transition 6
Mary
Barbara
From counselor (master’s degree) to PhD psychologist From seminary to work at nonprofit
From full time to part time psychologist and new organization From nonprofit to stay-athome parenting
From stay at home parenting to coordinator
From coordinator to psychologist with an organization (PhD)
From psychologist to private practice
Susan
Michelle
Moving within law firm practice areas From analyst to manager
From lawyer to priest
Shelby
Derrick
Ken
From college admin to PhD program in college admin From jobs with the state to professor From law student to lawyer
From manager back to various jobs and departments (analyst) From PhD program to college admin
From analyst to private law practice
From college admin to HR
From professor to retirement From lawyer to lawyer in a different firm From nonprofit to part-time work From lawyer to consultant, author From parttime work to entrepreneur
Sheila
From series of temp jobs to non-profit
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Paul
Marilyn
From engineering to MBA From fulltime to contract lawyer From aviation mechanic to aviation safety
Jessica
From MBA to entrepreneur From contract lawyer to doctoral student From aviation safety to aviation law
From entrepreneur to academia
To different law firms within aviation law
From private law firms to the federal government
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Intro to career history I started working on a job that influenced my career choices early – in high school, when I was employed as a student reporter for a regional newspaper. This was meaningful because I had always been told I was a good writer, and planned to major in Journalism upon entering college, which I did (Communications major). I have remained an active writer throughout my career, and it plays a major role in my current profession as a lawyer. State and Age Pre-career stage, 16 Realizing necessity of college degree, 19 Post-college secretarial work, 21 Planning for graduate school, 22 Move to Atlanta, 23 Enrollment in Grad school, 25 Receipt of M.P.A. degree, 27 Federal employment, 27-43 Graduation from law school, 33 Transition from management, 27 Complete upheaval & confusion, 37-43 Resignation & entrepreneurship, 43 Chapter Title Evolving as a Journalist Not just a Kelly Girl The Wyatt Years No Plan, No Future Overqualified Secretary On My Way First Real Job – Presidential Mgt Internship The Land of Opportunity First managerial position First “Failure” Escape Reborn: Charting my own course
Epilogue Stepping out from a secure job, starting my own practice and thereby finding my own way has proved more exciting, “right”, and timely that I could have imagined. I have found new opportunities, colleagues, confidence and even a meshing with my singing avocation. I have learned to trust my intuition, to take a chance, to realize that opportunities are there for the taking. There are some sacrifices; I took a 60% pay cut. But I hope, and believe, the monetary rewards are forthcoming. The rewards of freedom and meaning are already being realized. I have no regrets, except perhaps that I had done it sooner, and had take care of a few more financial details first. The future holds whatever I can handle and attempt. It amazes me that within six months of resigning from my job I have almost more clients than I can handle, have gained visibility and prominence within my new arena, and am thinking of ways to manage growth while expanding. Amazing. At the same time, the amount of work for which I am now responsible can be overwhelming, and requires management as well. Yet when I think of what I was managing before – frustration, a sense of aimlessness and insignificance, feeling I had maximized my potential 20 years before retirement, disconnectedness from my work in particular and career success in general – the tradeoff seems more than fair! I am grateful to have made the transition, and anticipate a bright and challenging career future. Figure 2.1. Biographical Narrative of Interviewee #105 - Michelle
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Semi-structured Interviews. After I received the biographical narrative, I conducted interviews with each respondent. The interviews took place face-to-face as well as by telephone. The interviews ranged from approximately 60-120 minutes. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim3. Additionally, I took detailed notes of each interview. The interviews selectively discussed transitions based on magnitude and recency. I took this approach to maximize the value of the information collected in the limited interview time frames. Although interview protocols were modified during data collection to take advantage of emerging themes (Spradley, 1979), common to each interviews were questions about: a) the meaningfulness of the career choice to the individual and significant others (career identity centrality), b) career transition considerations, c) descriptions of defining moments and subsequent career exit behaviors, d) network characteristics and network member reactions to career transition decisions and e) consequences associated with the career transition. Data Analysis In an iterative fashion, I analyzed the qualitative data by traveling back and forth between the data and theory as a structure of theoretical arguments emerged (Miles & Huberman, 1994, Pratt et al forthcoming). This analysis utilized three major steps. Step 1: Creating a provisional “start list” of codes. This list was based on a preliminary conceptual framework derived from the literature review as suggested by
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One interview was not recorded because of technical difficulties (interview #104). However, the notes were sent electronically to the respondent to ensure accuracy. The respondent provided a review and additional information as requested.
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Miles and Huberman (1994). I initially conceptualized career transition magnitude as being driven primarily by the individual’s career identity. However, I also posited that the opinions of significant others have an influence on the size of career transitions and that the actual size of a career transition is influenced by the exit behaviors individuals engage in as they consider career transition. Contact summary sheets were written up after each of the first nine interviews to allow reflection on emerging concepts and themes (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The information surfaced by the use of the contact summary sheets was used to establish new codes as well as questions that should be used in subsequent interviews. As new codes were added, I reviewed transcripts and biographical narratives to determine if there was data that fit into the new codes. This review of data led to the clarification of code definitions as well as abandoning other codes. Step 2: Between case analysis of provisional codes and creating pattern codes. To develop pattern codes, I examined the summary sheets across interviews and looked for common themes between informants as well as differences among informants with transitions of varying magnitudes. “Pattern codes are explanatory or inferential codes that identify an emergent them, configuration or explanation…they are a sort of mega codes (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 69). For example, as I looked across informants it became clear that career transitions of large magnitude take longer and are discussed by respondents as “gradual” (42% of transitions involving profession or occupational change) and preceded by a career transition considerations of various size (47% of transitions involving profession or occupational change had statements concerning career transition considerations)
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while smaller transitions such as promotion were described as gradual less frequently (16%) and considerations were discussed in fewer cases (33%). Step 3. Developing constructs and a theoretical framework. Once pattern codes were developed, I formed theoretical categories and initial propositions concerning the relationship between these categories. Additionally, I examined the data for “conceptual analogues” (Miles & Huberman, 1994) in the extant literature to provide support for the emergent conceptual framework. For example, the consideration of career transitions of various magnitudes seemed to be a part of career growth and career identity development (Hall, 2002). Career growth is defined as “the actual creation of new aspects of the self, in the career area” (p. 72). Thus, I hypothesized that career transition considerations are positively related to behaviors associated with reshaping the career identity (re-identification) and disengagement activities that move the individual toward development of the self and the career. The process that I followed is summarized in Table 2.2. This shows the provisional codes, pattern codes, and the key constructs of the theoretical framework. The framework describes the process of career transition magnitude determination.
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Table 2.2. Qualitative Data Structure Overview
Provisional Codes Statements that indicate career identity centrality or that the career was meaningful to the individual (e.g. “seeing direct impacts” on clients, “rewarding”, “passionate”) Pattern Codes There are many things that indicate the meaningfulness of the career to an individual’s definition self such as allows authenticity, balance, or a return to earlier selves, etc. Individuals also discuss the importance of other identities in global self-concept which may conflict with career identity. Key Constructs Definitions of self: Career identity centrality Identity conflict
Statements about the work environment offering (or failing to offer) validating experiences, challenge, fit, freedom, job satisfaction, prestige, positive or negative ties, etc.
Statements about factors that external or societal factors that pushed respondents in to pursing a career transition that was considered Statements concerning exit behaviors Active behaviors such as borrowing money, counseling, taking courses or enrolling in degree programs, experimentation, job hunting, joining or becoming more active in professional organizations, reading, relationship building, seeking role models, sabbaticals, simultaneous roles, talking, transitioning work, etc. Many people indicate that the responses of network members were important in transition magnitude. Additionally, dynamism in the careers of others as well as the role models in the network influenced magnitude of transition considerations. Considerations come in all magnitudes and are the result of self-reflection, information from counselors and others, gradual as there is constant evaluation and exploration, learning about career and learning about self resulting in career growth and personal development Statements that indicate how individuals evaluate career alternatives such as whether it allows some expression of an avocation, family concerns may play a role in evaluation (both financial, geography), spouse’s move, insecurities, money (or not money), other perspectives, spiritual considerations Statements about “bad” decisions, realizations about self or career path post transition, regrets, worry as well as hope for becoming the person that they want to be, excitement, optimism, pride, satisfaction, social, and thanksgiving.
Validation and Violation of Self: Organizational satisfaction and Strong coworker ties Challenges to Self: Social and personal turbulence Experimenting with Self: Reidentfication and Disengagement
Statements concerning the response of network members to cues of career transition Statements that indicate consideration of possible career alternatives (“I considered working for another firm”, “considered teaching”)
Reflections of Self: Network structure and response Magnitude considerations
Opportunity evaluation
Statements concerning the negative and positive consequences of career transitions
Transition sensemaking
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I continue with a brief overview of my findings and this chapter concludes with the hypotheses used in the quantitative study of the process of career transition magnitude determination. FINDINGS Upon looking at the data from the respondents, two main findings emerged. First, there are differences in the process of career transition as a function of magnitude. As noted in Table 2.3 (a truncated version of the magnitude pattern coding provided in its entirety in Appendix E), some constructs were mentioned in high magnitude transition cases more frequently than in those of low magnitude transition cases. Second, Table 2.2 reflects career identity plays a strong role in the process of career transitions and especially in transitions of increasing magnitude such that even organizational or societal events, for example, were seen as validations, violations, or challenges to the understanding of self (Appendix E).
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Table 2.3. Career Transition Magnitude Analysis by Pattern Code, Provisional Code
Magnitude Description of Transition
5 Changing professions
Sample Transition
Analyst to lawyer, from aviation mechanic to aviation lawyer Remaining as a psychologist but changing organizations Analyst to lawyer, from aviation mechanic to aviation lawyer Analyst to lawyer, from aviation mechanic to aviation lawyer Transitioning from career as “student” to pursuing career path dictated by major – law student to lawyer Moving within an single organization to a number of positions Remaining as a psychologist but changing organizations
# of transitions with magnitude
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Pattern Code
Exit behaviors
Code
Borrow money
# transitions with code
2
% transitions with code
10
3
Changing organizations
7
Exit behaviors
Career counseling
2
29
5
Changing professions
20
Exit behaviors
Career counseling
5
20
5
Changing professions
20
Exit behaviors
Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc. Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc
9
45
1
Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11
Exit behaviors
4
36
2
Changing functions
3
Exit behaviors
Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc.
1
33
3
Changing organizations
7
Exit behaviors
2
29
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In describing the process of career transition magnitude determination, I begin with a discussion of career identity and identity conflict which provide insight into how individuals evaluated opportunities and the magnitude of transitions considered. I continue by addressing how the context and attitudes toward the work and social context such as organizational satisfaction, social and personal turbulence, relationships with coworkers, and network influences correlate with opportunity evaluation and transition consideration magnitude. Finally, I discuss the relationship of opportunity evaluation and transition consideration magnitude to disengagement and re-identification. I conclude the chapter proposing a theoretical framework and hypotheses that build theory in the area of career transition magnitude and provide a basis for testing in Chapter 3. Definitions of self: Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict What shapes career path and transition decisions? Much careers research suggests that career decisions are an outgrowth of an understanding of the self (Hall, 2002; Holland, 1985;Roe, 1957; Super, 1957, 1990). Scholars have used a number of different terms to capture individuals’ career identity such as occupational identity (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999), professional identity (Ibarra, 1999) and career subidentity (Hall, 1971, 2002). In this dissertation, the term “career identity” is defined as the cognitive representation of the self derived from past work experiences, beliefs, values, attributes and motives that define the individual in terms of their work roles. This definition is consistent with the meanings that underlie all three terms as well as definitions of identity and self-schema (Markus, 1977). A career identity may be considered central when the career identity is important to one’s global definition of
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self and dominates other identities in one’s view of self (Rosenberg, 1979; Stryker & Burke, 2000; Stryker & Serpe, 1994). Logically, we can expect career identity centrality to play a central role in the evaluation of transition opportunities and the magnitude of transitions considered. One illustration of how career identity centrality influences the magnitude of intended career transitions from my data is Marilyn, a former lawyer currently pursuing a doctorate in industrial psychology as a foundation for a career in academia. As she ends her degree program and contemplates her next career transition, she states thatshe is learning toward position s at teaching universities or consulting firms rather than research universities because the identity as a researcher is not a central identity. It’s kind of like the law, it hasn’t been something that drove me, like there’s no, I don’t have this real intrinsic interest in it, so I just kind of do it. However, an individual has many important identities such as a parent identity or daughter identity (Hall, 1986) and it is likely that at times the demands of one identity cause conflict with the demands of another important identity (Settles, Sellers, & Damas Jr., 2002). Therefore, while the career identity and it’s centrality in one’s definition of self will influence career decision making, it is only one identity in a hierarchy of identities such that conflicts between identities may also drive career decision making (Lobel & St. Clair, 1992; McCall & Simmons, 1966). For example, during Mary’s career transition from a full time university counseling psychologist to a part-time university counseling psychologist in a chapter
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she titled “Motherhood…changes everything”, she found a conflict between her identity as a new mother and as a career woman. I was one of those people, and my boss even remembers me, I remember before I had [her son], I said, “no, I like what I do, I’ll definitely go back to work full time” and a month into maternity leave, I said, “I have to get out of this house and I want to go back to work’ and because I like what I do, I’ve always liked what I do, and I want to have that professional life. So, I knew that very early on but I also didn’t want to go back to the intensity [of the university counseling center]. I didn’t want to go back to full time work. Finally, as magnitude increases, it appears that many of the codes associated with centrality are mentioned with decreasing frequency (Appendix E). For example, individuals who changed professions mentioned the importance of authenticity in 58% of cases while individuals involved in changing functions or changing organizations mentioned influencing in 67% and 63% of cases respectively. This may be due to the high degree of centrality of a current career choice such that the person cannot imagine being defined by a career choice that is significantly different (recall that changes high in magnitude equal significant changes in knowing what, knowing whom and knowing why). These data suggest that definitions of self, demonstrated in career identity centrality and identity conflict, play an important role in the magnitude of intended transitions (considerations) and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Therefore: Hypothesis 1a: Career identity centrality is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities.
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Hypothesis 1b: Career identity centrality is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 1c: Identity conflict is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Hypothesis 1d: Identity conflict is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Validation and Violation of Self: Organizational Satisfaction and Strong Coworker Ties How does the process of magnitude determination unfold? Many individuals seemed to struggle with particular choices along the career path experiencing a type of career identity violation or seeking career identity validation. These struggles are often captured in the biographical narrative titles chosen such as: “Bench chemistry ain’t for me”, “I am who I was meant to be”, “The golden handcuffs are too tight”, “The negreto (the darkness)”, “Finding a new path”, “Reborn: Charting my own course” and “Finding my own voice.” Often, violations and validations of the self in a current career choice became defining experiences leading to transition and were linked to organizational satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) and strong positive (or negative) coworker ties. To illustrate: I felt it was far beneath what I was capable of and uninteresting if nothing else. [Michelle – organizational dissatisfaction]
I was really hiding [being inauthentic] ‘cause I didn’t really like them that much and I didn’t like being there. [Ken – negative coworker ties]
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The identity and self-concept literature shows that individuals tend toward self-enhancement and self-verification and, as a result, selectwork situations where their values are reflected and their sense of self worth will be validated (Crocker & Park, 2000; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, 2005; Schneider, 1987). Intriguingly, research shows that even when an individual has a negative self-concept, they will still seek self-verification choosing situations and interaction partners that validate the self-concept (McNulty & Swann, 1994; Swann, 1987;Swann & Hill, 1982; Swann, Stein-Seroussi, & Geisler, 1992). Indeed, the qualitative data seems to suggest that the statements signifying violation of the self-concept or a need for verification of the self-concept increased as a function of magnitude. For example, 42% of the cases involving profession change mentioned misfit while those changing organizations or functions mentioned misfit in 38% and 33% of the cases. Thus, it appearsthat the greater the degree of fit and the more satisfied one is with the current organizational context including relationship to coworkers, the less likely the individual is to favorably evaluate career transition opportunities or to make career transitions of significant magnitude. Hypothesis 2a: Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Hypothesis 2b: Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 2c: Strong coworker ties are negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities.
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Hypothesis 2d: Strong coworker ties are negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Challenges to Understanding of Self: Social and Personal Turbulence How do factors in the wider environment influence one’s career path? Hall (1986) suggests that there are “triggers” that signal an opportunity for choice resulting in exploration and possibly, changes in the career path. These triggers include changes in society, major external events or personal life changes such as changes in an individual’s family or health. More recently, Wrzniewski (2002) discusses how the bombing of the World Trade Center on September 11 changed work meanings for many individuals and became the impetus for changes in the career path. Individuals in my study discussed the importance of both social and personal turbulence in challenging their current understandings of self and the direction that the career path should take in the future. This is the time, not only of the assassinations but the Viet Nam moratorium and things like that so just suddenly feeling that maybe it wasn’t me, maybe I just needed to be in a different place [Barbara]
At that time, the aviation work, you know, aviation was in bad shape before 9/11 and then after 9/11, the aviation work was just non-existent. The firm, or no, the airlines and stuff, anybody in aviation basically couldn’t afford to pay the firm [Jessica]
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I do realize part of what was wrong was I got impatient and that impatience was driven by…the death of [wife’s] father. I was very close to him, and her moving here, my desire to be with her and I think I had a secret desire to be with her also for my own self, not just be husband and be supportive but also because I was hurting about that as well. [Ken] Thus, social and personal turbulence triggers are indicated in the favorable evaluation of career opportunities. Additionally, in general, more statements indicating the influence of social and personal turbulence were present in transitions of higher magnitude than in those of lower magnitude. Therefore, I predict: Hypothesis 3a: Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Hypothesis 3b: Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Reflections of Self: Network Structure and Response. How do others influence the determination of career transition magnitude? From the earliest hypotheses concerning identity, scholars have suggested that our beliefs about who others think we are have a profound impact on our own selfconceptions (McCall & Simmons, 19966; Roberts, Dutton, Spreitzer, Heaphy, & Quinn, 2005; Tice & Wallace, 2003). This is clearly seen in Cooley’s (1902) description of the looking glass self or the self that is constructed and reconstructed as a result of glimpsing the self through interaction with significant others. Career identities are constructed in a similar manner with the reflected appraisal of others influencing one’s view of the self including one’s strengths and weaknesses (Ibarra,
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1999; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Roberts et al, 2005). In Ibarra’s insightful study of junior consultants and bankers transitioning into new roles, she found the following: External parties also confer identity by providing social signals about who one is becoming. By gauging others’ reaction to their behavior, people learn more about who they and who they want to be…others’ reactions lead junior members to come to think of themselves in new terms and begin to act and feel accordingly.” [Ibarra, 1999, p. 781] The respondents in my study suggested that the evaluations of others on the career had a significant impact on career transitions considered and pursuit of career transitions. For example, Michelle, an analyst for the federal government suggests that she did not like the reflection she saw in the eyes of others and that lead to pursuit of a profession change: Interviewer: Was it [her work for the federal government] meaningful to other people in your life? Michelle: I never thought that, no. I think that’s one of the reasons that I sought a law degree. Additionally, respondents found that as they considered career transitions of significant magnitude, they often received a great deal of encouragement and affirmation from significant others. Such positive responses from the network seemed to facilitate career transitions of significant magnitude. To illustrate: I would actually say he was one of the people that planted the seed that I could really do this, would be my own therapist as well as my friend. Then
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lots of people who offered whatever help I needed to get started [Barbara on transition to private practice] Role models also seemed to play a significant role in magnitude as suggested by Markus and Nurius (1986), the career transitions of others were instructive: “what others are now, I could become”, (p. 954). I had some good friends who had done the same thing [transitioning because they wanted more life balance]. Sol they were good role models, just kind of forging the way and saying ‘no, this is what I want.’ [Mary on transition to part time work following birth of first child]
I have always…gravitated towards these articles and magazines…spotlighting somebody who made a transition. I always made a mental note of people who, you know, just up and quit their jobs and why and how well they did afterwards. So, I was influenced by that to read that you know, people can do it and many people have done it. You can do it, too. [Michelle on transition from analyst with federal government to private law practice] Often, the role models are from a variety of career types suggesting that greater diversity in the variety of career contexts may have an influence on career transition magnitude and the evaluation of opportunities. Indeed, research by Higgins (2001) found that network diversity directly affected career change. Although her empirical results did not fully examine why, she did report that network membership yielded no increases in the number of opportunities leading to career change. Instead, she posited that a diverse network changed one’s thinking about career and career
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opportunities. My data seems to support this supposition because in the cases where individuals identified networks, those with diverse networks made the greatest transitions (Table 2.4). In this table, range represents the percentage of network members from different occupations or professions. Hypothesis 4a: Network career range is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 4b: Network career range is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities, that is, transition opportunities will be evaluated more favorably when network career range is high.
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Table 2.4. Network Member Career Range
Interviewee and most recent transition John – industrial sales to academia Mary – full time psychologist to part time psychologist Barbara – full time psychologist to psychologist in private practice Susan – attorney to Episcopalian priest Shelby – doctoral student in college administration/ college administrator to human resource professional Ken – attorney to consultant, author Member 1 and career choice Equipment sales Psychologist Member 2 and career choice Entrepreneur Psychologist and mother Member 3 and career choice University business school professor Psychologist and mother Member 4 and career choice Psychologist Industrial sales Member 5 and career choice Maintenance manager Member 6 and career choice Range
100% 25%
Professor
Homemaker
Therapist/psychologist
Psychologist
40%
Attorney
Attorney
Professor
Actress
Attorney
Doctoral student/women studies
50%
Professor
Professor
Vice president (at a university)
33%
Pastor
Doctoral student
Was hesitant to name influences on decision making, felt that decision was not influenced by others in general
100%
Other Respondents
Either identified only one network member or did not identity a network, did not feel that the career network exerted influence
NA
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Consideration of Possible Selves: Magnitude of Intended Transitions Ibarra’s (1999) research on role transitions found that a key step in professional adaptation was identifying possible selves. Possible selves are defined by Markus and Nurius (1986) as “the ideal selves that we would very much like to become” (p. 954) but also the selves that we want to avoid becoming. Therefore, in my construction of the interview protocol, I asked individuals to tell me about career transitions that they considered to get an idea of the possible selves that individuals were constructing and the size of the career transition that results from these visions of self. This link between possible selves and the magnitude of intended career transitions is crucial because it determines the motivation or the direction, intensity and persistence with which individuals will move toward desired career transitions (Locke, 1997; Markus & Nurius, 1986). The participants seemed to conceive of a number of possible selves: I thought maybe about more teaching but I knew I really didn’t want to go in route of tenure track, publications, things like that. That didn’t seem to be the direction. So, I think it became sort of an obvious decision to start out on my own practice. [Barbara on transition to private practice]
When she left the firm, she wasn’t sure that she would leave the law. Considered teaching but didn’t have the publications…also considered being part time in seminary while still full time at the firm, considered and applied for jobs at non-profits. [Susan on transition to priesthood, from fi eld notes]
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I explored all kinds of careers…I considered going into another program. I just did a lot of things to explore what my next step would be. I considered…different types of fields. [Shelby on transition from doctoral program in college administration to human resource management]
Oh, I considered so many things! Running my own catering business, going and getting my MBA…what else did I think of? I tried to think of everything and anything that you know, seemed interesting to me. [Marilyn on transition from attorney to doctoral program in organizational/industrial psychology] Therefore, career transition considerations and the magnitude of intended career transitions motivate career transition behavior and enables determination of transition magnitude for “ultimate” transition. Opportunity Evaluation Turnover research has long suggested that the decision to make changes in the career path is mediated by the evaluation of opportunities using criteria such as ease of movement, availability of alternatives, and the possibility of values attainment in a new career choice (March & Simon, 1958; Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, & Meglino, 1979, Maertz & Campion, 2004). Further, Markus and Nurius (1986) found that possible selves are antecedents to behavior; however, this relationship is mediated by beliefs about what is possible and the importance of these beliefs. So, the favorability of an opportunity for achieving important goals or achieving values congruence will determine whether individuals engage in behaviors that lead to career transition.
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In my study, participants conducted a variety of evaluations considering opportunities, money, avocations, values and other important factors. For example, consider Paul’s evaluation of entrepreneurship versus taking a prestigious job with large, Fortune 100 firms: So, I told my wife, ‘well, let’s do this for maybe three years and if it doesn’t work out I’m sure I could go to Bank of America or something. I could go back and interview again.’ So, I felt kind of safe. [Paul on transitioning into entrepreneurship] In some cases, such as Jessica’s, the individual has a career dream and each career transition is evaluated on the basis of how it may help her to achieve the dream: The aviation work…began to dry up and I found myself doing less and less aviation and I’m thinking…I can’t continue to do this because this is going to weaken my long term goal. I need to get as much aviation experience as I possibly can. So…the second firm that I went to had a very, very thriving aviation transactional work practice [Jessica on transition to another firm] Individuals may also evaluate their strengths and whether a transition would make better use of their skills, talents and aptitudes. I just started evaluating what I might be good at. It didn’t seem like it was chemistry, enough to be wealthy [John on transition away from chemistry and toward industrial sales]
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Money also played an important role in opportunity evaluation. Although individuals may have transitioned and accepted less money, money was an issue that had to be considered. I was afraid…what was I going to do for money, for my mortgage or my livelihood…my practice was a practice that was started as a side business. It was never designed to support me financially. I’m a single woman. I have no other source of financial support. So, it was, I was certainly concerned about money. [Michelle on transition to private law practice]
These golden handcuffs…I was able to make a good income. You know, why risk that…it would have been easier if I was making less money at my primary job. That would’ve made it easier [John on transition from industrial sales to academia] Experimenting with Self: Re-identification and Disengagement. How do individuals engage in the process of career transition and fix on a specific career magnitude and direction? Although the antecedents mentioned above (such as organizational satisfaction, social and personal turbulence, network range) have an impact on opportunity evaluation and the magnitude of the intended career transition, research shows that experimentation or trying out new roles facilitates transition (Ebaugh, 1988; Ibarra, 1999). Ibarra (2003) suggest that individuals often engage in liminal experiences to assist in career transitions: “sabbaticals, vacations and leisure activity, for example are temporal means of gaining freedom from institutional obligations and, therefore, freedom to play with new ideas” (p. 3). The
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participants in my study engaged in a variety of behaviors aimed at transition “play” and reconceiving the self such as career counseling, enrolling in courses or degree programs, joining or becoming active in professional organizations, developing relationships, and talking possible career transitions through with others. For example: I was just tired of trying to figure it out and so that’s why I hired this guy. I was like, someone has to help me figure this out…I remember him vaguely pushing a little bit on like, what other areas of law but he also seemed to think…based on my testing outcomes…there was a huge opportunity for me to find something that really suited me. [Marilyn on the transition from attorney to academia]
Well, first, I went back for my MBA. So, there is an example of how you can tell it was building for years because I wasn’t going back to get my MBA to become a better salesman. You know, I was trying to do something that I thought would get me out of the industrial sales [John on transition from industrial sales to academia]
There’s this girl…I had met through a friend at a part like years before and listening to what she did, what she was studying, I was like, ‘oh, that’s so interesting. What is that?’ and it kind of popped back into my head…because I was interested in psychology…I went and called her up and took her to lunch [Marilyn on the transition from attorney to academia]
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Moreover, statements concerning re-identification and disengagement behaviors tend to be correlated with larger transitions. For example, statements about returning to school or taking certification courses are mentioned in 47% of the cases involving profession changes and only 33% of those seeking changes in level and 25% of those changing organizations. Similarly, individuals that changed professions talked more about simultaneous career experiences such as starting a business on the side or taking a part time job (53% of cases) than those that changed organizations or changed levels (38% and 17% of cases respectively). Therefore, the data suggest that career transition magnitude and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities are related to disengagement and re-identification behaviors. Hypothesis 5a: The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to disengagement. Hypothesis 5b: The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to re-identification. Hypothesis 6a: The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to disengagement. Hypothesis 6b. The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to reidentification. Transition Sensemaking Hall, Zhu and Yan (2002) ask the following insightful question regarding career sensemaking: How can one change in a way that keeps one true to one’s career history and basic values but still engenders a fundamental transformation of identity that
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is congruent with the new adaptive behavior unfolding over time and that is still integrated with one’s earlier identity? [Hall, Zhu & Yan, 2002, p. 160] Role exit research (Ebaugh, 1988) and my data may help to answer this question by focusing on role residual, that is, the carrying of a previous career identity into the transition. Ebaugh refers to role residual as “hangover identity” (p. 173) and found that professionals or individuals in highly visible roles (e.g. celebrities) experienced a greater degree of role residual than non-professionals. In a similar manner, individuals within my sample that experienced transitions of great magnitude discussed a greater degree of role residual. For example, Jessica who was once an aviation mechanic and became an aviation attorney expressed feelings that she never really left aviation mechanics. Derrick, a former Catholic priest carries the Catholic identity, such that it precluded him from becoming an Episcopalian priest, as well as the “minister” identity, as he continues to look for ministry opportunities in his work and his volunteer work as a lay leader in the Catholic church. Ken, a former musician and music promoter who is now an attorney and consultant discusses role residual in this way: Well, when you look at the resume’ and/or the Bio, it appears I shifted careers, but I didn’t really view it as shifting careers at the time. In fact, even looking back, I still don’t because I didn’t really decide to stop doing music… I wasn’t the guy who was playing and decided, ‘ I don’t want to play any more, I want to be a lawyer.’ I’m actually still playing and looking forward to going back into um, music on a more regular basis, probably as early as next
39
year. I want to produce a CD and really pick up where I left off before I went to law school. Hall and his colleagues suggest that individuals that are competent in career change make sense of career change through response learning or reading external signals to understand the environment and its requirements, identity exploration or uncovering knowledge about the self and integrative potential or seeing the congruence between the transition and the self. Many of the individuals in the qualitative sample seemed to make sense of the career according to these principles. For example, previous career transitions were considered unsuccessful when the individuals did not see congruence between the career choice and the self. I shouldn’t have taken it to be honest with you. One of the things that I talk about in this book [in a book he is writing on dating] is how people fall within one of three zones of compatibility…one is the red zone, zero to minimum compatibility, the other is the yellow zone, which is moderate to high…and the green zone is maximum and what you want obviously is maximum compatibility and if you don’t find that, you should move on and so when looking back at the job, this job was like yellow to red. It was even like a high yellow. It was like a yellow to a red and I knew that, but I convinced myself that it was the right thing to do. [Ken on his transition from a very prestigious attorney role to entrepreneurship, consulting] In other cases, individuals are making sense of the career by reflecting on what they have learned about themselves or the career choice that leads them to believe they are now in the right place.
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I’ve been progressing slowly to me…it’s almost like you’ve heard them say before, people without a vision will perish but I’ve got my eye on the prize. I feel like I’m really moving. [Shelby on transition from doctoral program to human resource management] On the other hand, making a transition does not alleviate all worries. Often individuals in the study expressed the realization that the career change may not be able to live up to all of their expectations or they may not be as competent in the new career path as they would like. However, there is a sense of openness or hope about the future as demonstrated by Marilyn as she discusses why she titles the final chapter “Finding my own voice”: …really listening and kind of believing the kind of things that I’m good at and interested in, that I don’t have to be in the same mind as other people. I don’t even have to be as good as other people. I just need to be happy with how much I’m doing, whether it be less or more than people around me are doing, how much time I reserve for myself…to do other things that I like [Marilyn on the transition from attorney to academia] Additionally, relationships often changed or ended as a result of transition. In some cases, there was regret about the change in the relationship. Yet, individuals seemed to feel that relationship change was inevitable especially if the relationships were not close (e.g. relationships with coworkers). Finally, in many cases, the relationships changed for the better or the ties were maintained despite geographical or organizational boundaries.
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The people that I worked with at that firm, they are among my best friends. I mean, even now I still keep in touch with them…you spend a lot of time with people. You develop very close relationships and so…I love these people dearly and I still…e-mail them back and forth every day, just about, I’m getting an email from somebody at my first firm [Jessica on organizational transition from one law firm to another law firm] Therefore, while there are a range of possible outcomes for transitions of varying magnitude, individuals seemed to make sense of the career in ways that are dependent, to some extent, on career transition magnitude such that those experiencing large transitions discussed a greater degree of role residual (demonstrated in the need to create the image of a consistent self) as well as expressed more hope, learning about the self and satisfaction than individuals with small magnitude transitions. Theoretical Framework Figure 2.2 is a summary of my main findings to help make sense of the concepts and their relationships. This illustration reflects how identity, network relationships and the determination of career transition magnitude are intricately linked as described in Table 2.1.
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Definitions of self: Career identity and identity conflict Validation and violations of self: Organizational satisfaction and strong coworker ties Challenges to self: Social and personal turbulence Reflections of self: Network structure and member response Magnitude of intended career transition
Favorable evaluation of transition opportunities
Experimenting with self: Reidentification and disengagement
Magnitude of actual career transition
Transition sensemaking
Figure 2.1. Theoretical framework for determination of career transition magnitude This initial study suggests that the process of career transition magnitude determination is set in motion by four stimuli involving the self: the definition of the self through career identity and identity conflicts, the validation or violation of the self through organizational satisfaction and coworker ties, the presence of challenges to the way that one sees the world and the place of the self in it through social and personal turbulence and the reflection of the self through network members and their responses. As suggested throughout the data analysis and in Figure 2.2, the career identity (self) as well as theinfluence of network members is heavily implicated in the determination of career transition magnitude and the evaluation of career transition opportunities. Further, mediators of career transition magnitude determination include the magnitude of intended career transitions and the favorable evaluation of career opportunities. I found that individuals considered a variety of career transitions as
43
possible intended career transitions and the magnitude of those considerations varied. Additionally, transition opportunities were evaluated using several criteria (such as money, availability of alternatives) and those that were most favorable led to experimenting with the self through re-identification and disengagement behaviors. Re-identification and disengagement behavior are a function of the magnitude of the intended consideration and lead to the magnitude of the actual career transition. In the next chapter, I discuss the methodology underlying the development of measures and the testing of hypotheses 1-6b.
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Chapter 3: Methods
In chapter 1 of this dissertation, I described the data collection methods that would be used to build theory and test hypotheses in this research. In chapter 3, I describe the methodology of the pilot study used to examine the psychometrics of the measures that will used to assess the central concepts of the conceptual framework (Figure 2.1, p. 43) derived from my qualitative research as well as the path analysis that will be used to test hypothesis 1-6b taken from the underlying conceptual framework. I begin with a brief description of the pilot study.
PILOT STUDY Study Purpose The pilot study was conducted to ensure the reliability of scales to be used in hypothesis testing. Therefore, I tested scales that were created based on the qualitative analysis as well as testing scales used in previous published research. Additionally, I performed principal components analysis and an assessment of the content validity of constructs discussed in the model. Descriptive statistics characterizing the variables examined in the pilot study are provided in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Pilot Study Variables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Variable Sex Race Education Org. Tenure Prof. Tenure Centrality Disengagement Re-identification Organizational Satisfaction Social and Personal Turbulence Strong Co-Worker Ties Opportunity Evaluation Magnitude M 0.65 3.64 3.43 2.30 3.00 3.88 2.73 2.79 3.43 2.47 3.78 2.94 3.36 SD 0.487 0.727 0.507 0.974 1.348 0.951 0.682 0.792 1.005 0.832 1.099 0.625 .0977 1 (-) -.12 -.10 -.05 .07 -.25 .20 -.18 -.39 -.06 -.23 -.27 .11 (-) -.30 .08 -.02 -.17 .18 -.24 .01 -.27 -.10 -.13 -.36 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(-) -.10 -.26 .36 .13 .26 -.10 .57* .20 .03 .41
(-) .59** .00 .16 -.16 .03 .00 .26 .07 -.30
(-) -.14 -.26 -.25 .26 -.08 .19 .12 -.15
(.933) -.05 .09 .60** .07 .65** -.22 -.17
(.930) .11 -.19 .14 -.24 -.40 .04
(.837) .10 .39 -.24 -.00 .43*
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Table 3.1. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Pilot Study Variables
9. 10. Variable Organizational Satisfaction Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties Opportunity Evaluation Magnitude M 3.43 2.47 SD 1.005 0.832 9 (.853) .00 10 11 12 13
(.787)
11. 12. 13.
3.78 2.94 3.36
1.099 0.625 .0977
.35 -.07 -.08
-.17 -.02 .26
(.903) .06 -.24 (.893) .24 (.640)
* - significant at .05 level
** - significant at .01 level
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Participants and Procedures The participants in the pilot study were MBA students at a university in the Northeast. A pilot survey, based on the results of The qualitative study, was administered to students electronically. MBAs were considered an appropriate sample as many MBA students rate career enhancement (such as increasing earning potential and improved career options) as driving the perceived value of the MBA degree (GMAC, 2005). I administered the pilot survey to students in two small summer classes and received twenty-five useable surveys, a response rate of 65%. In terms of sample demographics, 63% of respondents were female. The racial composition of respondents was: 71% White, 12.5% Asian, and 8% African American. Measures and Results Career identity centrality. Career identity centrality refers to the importance of a career identity to an individual and the extent to which that identity occupies a prominent place within the individual’s global definition of self. Ashmore and his colleagues have praised the identity scale provided by Luhtanen and Crocker as “perhaps the purest operational definition of explicit [identity] importance” (p.88). Thus, my measure of career identity centrality used an adaptation of the work of Luhtanen and Crocker (1992). An example item derived from Luhtanen and Crocker’s scale is “In general, my current line of work is an important part of my self image.” The career identity centrality scale is composed of 5 items on a 5-point Likert scale. The reliability of the scores of this scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .933.
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Disengagement. The disengagement scale measures the behaviors that individuals engage in as they consider or actively pursue a career transition. The items I developed are based on Ebaugh’s (1988) qualitative study of role exits and I also build on the work of Arthur, Claman & DeFillippi (1995) and Parker, Arthur and Inkson (2004) on career investments and career communities. The disengagement items used in the quantitative study asked individuals to consider the extent to which they are disconnecting from the current career choice. Two sample items are: “I spend less time with co-workers from my current line of work” and “I attend fewer occupational functions (professional organization meetings, etc) for my current line of work”. Individuals were asked to respond to four items using a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The resulting reliability was acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = .930). Re-identification. The re-identification career exit behavior scale is intended to measure the process of learning professional values, behaviors and social knowledge for a desired career choice in anticipation of career transition. It is based on Ebaugh’s (1988) qualitative and theoretical work on role exits while also building on the experiences of individuals interviewed in my qualitative study. Items in the measure include “I have joined an organization associated with the line of work that I desire” and “I am attending training classes or a certification program to prepare me for the line of work that I desire” and are measured with a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The resulting reliability was an acceptable .837.
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Organizational satisfaction. Based on the findings of the qualitative study, I added scales to measure the influence that one’s work organization, changes in one’s environment (social and personal turbulence) as well as relationships with co-workers have on career transition magnitude. The organizational satisfaction scale consists of five items from Martins, Eddleston & Viega (2002) and a modification of an embeddedness item from Lee and his colleagues (2004). Primarily, these items measure an individual’s contentment with career status, career progress and the current job. A sample item is “I feel I am a good fit for my current organization”. The reliability of the items of this scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .853. Social and personal turbulence. The social and personal turbulence scale consists of six items based on the results of the qualitative study. The items in the scale measure the dynamism in one’s environment such as downsizing, changes in the economy and momentous events (for example, national or personal tragedies) have on career decision making. A sample item is “A change in my family (such as the birth of a child or needing to care for elderly parents) has been a motivation for career change”. The reliability of the scale scores was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .787. Strong coworker ties. Finally, the strong coworker ties scale consists of four items. These items were adapted from Chao and colleagues’ research (1994) assessing the extent to which an individual has positive relationships within their work group. A sample item is “I consider many of my co-workers as my friends”. The reliability of the scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .903.
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The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. The opportunity evaluation scale measures the extent to which expected benefits and costs associated with a career transition make the opportunity attractive to an individual. I assessed this concept with a modification of a scale used by Hom & Kinicki (2001) that includes four items for each type of career transition (20 items total). These items ask the individual to assess the chances, on a scale of 0-100%, that a given career transition would provide an expected outcome such as increased career satisfaction, more balance between family and career, and greater career opportunities. The reliability of the scale was acceptable with a Cronbach’s alpha of .903. Convergent and Discriminant validity I performed correlational analyses among the study variables to determine convergent and discriminate validity because some measures consisted of new items developed from information received in the qualitative study. My first investigation involved re-identification and disengagement. I expected medium correlations of the two variables in the range of .30 - .50 consistent with the results of qualitative studies examining conditions of role engagement and identity construction which suggest that the social processes of engagement and the cognitive processes of identification are linked in the construction of identity, so much so in fact, that cognitive and social processes have often been confounded (Kahn, 1990; Pratt, Rockman & Kauffman, forthcoming). The correlation between disengagement and re - identification (r = .11) is lower than expected, however, this may be a function of my attempts to differentiate the constructs in item development as well as small sample size which may have yielded a non-representative result.
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Next, I examined the correlation between organizational satisfaction, social and personal turbulence and strong coworker ties. I expected that there would be a small to moderate relationship between organizational satisfaction and strong coworker ties consistent with Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sabylnski and Erez’(2001) research on job embeddedness which shows that the degree of attachment to an organization is related to the links that an individual has with the organization, including co-worker relationships, as well as organizational characteristics that cause one to feel comfortable or a fit with the organization (r = .22; p < .01). The relationship I found between organization satisfaction and strong coworker ties was similar and marginally significant (r = .35; p < .10.). Additionally, social and personal turbulence is not related to organizational satisfaction (r = -.00, p = n.s.) and strong coworker ties are weakly related to social and personal turbulence (r = -.17, p = n.s.) suggesting that the constructs are distinct (Table 3.9). In summary, the pilot study showed that (a) all of the scales exhibited good reliability, and (b) that each of the constructs demonstrated content validity and therefore the instruments may be used in hypothesis testing. HYPOTHESIS TESTING Study Purpose The objective of the final study was to test the hypotheses proposed in the theoretical model developed from the qualitative data and analyses. Descriptives and internal consistency reliabilities for the quantitative study are provided in Table 3.2. Participants and Procedures
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The potential sample for this study consisted of approximately 1,010 individuals comprised of MBA students at the University of Maryland (650 students) and attendees of the PhD Project Conference originally surveyed in November (360 individuals). I e-mailed invitations to the lists provided by the university and PhD project, however, 59 of e-mail addresses were returned as undeliverable leaving a potential sample of 618 University of Maryland students and 333 PhD Project participants (951 total invitees). 206 surveys were completed and returned from the University of Maryland sample providing for a response rate of 33%. The return rate from the PhD Project sample was considerably smaller with 47 respondents (response rate = 14%). This yielded a total sample of 253 and a response rate of 27%. In the combined group (University of Maryland and PhD Project participants), 34% of respondents were female. The racial composition of the respondents in the combined group was: 51% White, 18 % African American, 9.5 % Hispanic-American/Latino, and 16% AsianAmerican. 48% percent of the individuals in the sample had bachelor’s degrees while another 48% had post-graduate degrees. 64% had been with their current organization for 1-5 years. Professional tenure was more varied than the tenure distribution with individuals having been in the current occupation/profession for less than one year (10%), 1-2 years (11.5%), 3-5 years (38%), 6-10 years (30%) and more than 10 years (10%). Fifty-eight percent (58%) of respondents were between 20-30 years of age.
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Table 3.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Study Variables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Variable Sex Race Education Org Tenure Prof Tenure Network Range Magnitude – Participant Central Identity Conflict Org Satisfaction Social and personal turbulence Strong coworker ties Disengagement Re-identification Opportunity Evaluation M 0.35 3.56 3.53 2.03 3.19 3.78 9.61 3.44 2.67 3.08 1.86 SD 0.47 0.92 0.549 0.70 1.09 1.94 3.11 0.98 1.01 0.96 0.91 1 (-) -.07 .16** .00 -.00 .10 -.01 .00 .05 .02 .11 2 (-) -.19** -.06 -.17** .03 -.08 -.09 -.01 .07 -.06 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(-) -.08 .00 -.04 .08 .06 .02 .04 .02
(-) .34** -.03 .13* .03 -.01 -.11 .02
(-) .11 .09 .16 -.08 -.09 -.00
(-) .16* -.04 -.06 .00 .06
(.72) -.24** .08 -.27** .17** (.89) -.02 .49** -.08
(.92) -.00 .28**
12. 13. 14. 15.
3.79 2.63 1.88 2.21
0.81 1.03 0.86 0.60
-.02 .02 .09 .10
.02 -.08 -.11 -.15*
.02 .06 .17** .17**
-.03 .04 .09 -.06
-.04 -.01 -.09 .07
.04 -.03 -.033 -.02
-.12 .32** .244** .13*
.26** -.15* -.07 .04
-.05 .17** .04 .16*
* - significant at .05 level
** - significant at .01 level
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Table 3.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Study Variables
Variable 10. Org Satisfaction 11. Social and personal turbulence 12. Strong coworker ties 13. Disengagement 14. Re-identification 15. Opportunity Evaluation
M 3.08 1.86 3.79 2.63 1.88 2.21 0.96 0.91 0.81 1.03 0.86 0.60
SD (.82) .02
10 (.81)
11
12
13
14
15
.31** -.24** -.07 -.05
-.11 .13* .26** .10
(.80) -.25** -.07 -.02
(.86) .22** .20**
(.78) .08
(.87)
* - significant at .05 level
** - significant at .01 level
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Chapter 4: Results
Overview The results section is divided into six sections. In the first section, exploratory factor analysis results are presented for all variables. In the next five sections, analyses and results for each of the hypotheses (social network influences, identity centrality, identity conflict, social and personal turbulence, strong coworker ties, organizational satisfaction, magnitude, and opportunity evaluation) are presented. A summary table containing all hypotheses and results can be found in Table 4.9. Factor Analyses I used factor analysis in the quantitative study to provide evidence that the items used were good indicators of the constructs studied such as centrality, magnitude and opportunity evaluation. Definitions of self: Career Identity and Identity conflict The items used to measure career identity centrality and identity conflict were entered into a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation where I sought to confirm that there were two distinct factors. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 4.1. Two factors explaining 63% of the variance were extracted. The items loaded cleanly on each of the factors as predicted with no cross loading.
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Table 4.1. Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict Factor Analysis Item Central1 Central2 Central3 Central4 Central5 Idcon1 Idcon2 Idcon3 Idcon4 Idcon5 Idcon6 Idcon7 Factor 1 – Oblique -.125 .051 .029 -.061 .023 .810 .783 .800 .753 .779 .835 .772 Factor 2 Oblique .749 .830 .646 .824 .870 .167 .059 -.020 -.023 -.029 -.152 -.106
Validations, Violations and Challenges to self: Organizational satisfaction, strong coworker ties, and social and personal turbulence The items measuring social and personal turbulence, organizational satisfaction, and strong coworker ties were entered into a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation to verify the existence of three distinct constructs. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 4.2. Three factors explaining 50% of the variance were extracted. The items loaded cleanly on each of the factors as predicted with no cross loading.
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Table 4.2. Organizational Satisfaction, Strong Coworker Ties, and Social and Personal Turbulence Factor Analysis Item Orgsat1 Orgsat2 Orgsat3 Orgsat4 Orgsat5 Socper1 Socper2 Socper3 Socper4 Socper5 Socper6 Cowork1 Cowork2 Cowork3 Cowork4 Factor 1 Oblique .743 .786 .683 .572 .553 -.375 -.365 .092 .088 -.001 .176 .144 .158 .102 .212 Factor 2 Oblique .023 .016 -.030 -.067 .055 .705 .682 .544 .708 .622 .644 -.050 -.013 -.051 -.088 Factor 3 Oblique .112 .145 .211 .231 .066 .142 .150 -.150 -.192 .011 -.108 .651 .727 .833 .534
Opportunity Evaluation All opportunity evaluation items were entered into a principal axis factor analysis. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 4.3. One factor explaining 32% of the variance was extracted.
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Table 4.3a Opportunity Evaluation Factor Analysis Item Cpeval3 Cpeval4 Cpeval5 Cpeval6 Cjeval3 Cjeval4 Cjeval5 Cjeval6 Cfeval3 Cfeval4 Cfeval5 Cfeval6 Coeval3 Coeval4 Coeval5 Coeval6 Cieval3 Cieval4 Cieval5 Cieval6 Factor 1 .299 .462 .413 .302 .295 .550 .611 .322 .485 .665 .658 .487 .556 .714 .782 .527 .375 .656 .663 .417
The Magnitude of Intended Career Transition Principal axis factor was also used to ensure that all of the magnitude items loaded on a single factor. Indeed, a single factor explaining 54% of the variance was extracted. The results are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4. Magnitude Factor Analysis Item Mag1 Mag2 Mag3 Mag4 Factor Loadings .622 .440 .735 .694
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Experimenting with self: Reidentification and disengagement (exit behaviors) The exit behaviors that I studied were disengagement and re-identification. All exit behavior items were entered into a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation. The result of this analysis can be found in Table 4.5. Two factors explaining 50% of the variance were extracted. Table 4.5. Reidentification and Disengagement Factor Analysis Item Diseng1 Diseng2 Diseng3 Diseng4 Deid1 Deid2 Deid3 Deid4 Deid5 Deid6 Deid7 Deid8 Factor 1 – Oblique .094 .194 .145 .136 .687 .716 .574 .445 .584 .432 .402 .532 Factor 2 – Oblique .837 .676 .846 .693 .103 .086 .093 .185 .104 .158 .039 .104
Path Analysis I used path analysis to test the hypotheses because path analysis allows for a better understanding of the sources of variance, such as relationships between independent variables, which is not possible in regression. I believed, based on the qualitative analysis as well as the correlational data, that there were important relationships between some independent variables, such as organizational satisfaction and strong coworker ties. Additionally, interpersonal relationships (such as coworker ties) are theorized to have a causal relationship to identity (Cooley, 1902; McCall &
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Simmons, 1966). Path analysis allows researchers to address concerns about such relationships. The path model analyzed is shown in Figure 4.2. The chi-square test for this model was significant ( 2 (13, N=253) = 25.76, p < .05). However, the model indicates a moderate degree of fit (CFI = .928, NFI = .884, RMSEA = .073) where the RMSEA and NFI indices are not quite within Hu and Bentler’s (1999) recommendations. Therefore, I tested a alternative model with a covariance added between disengagement and re-identification as suggested by the correlational and LaGrange multiplier test. Additionally, the LaGrange multiplier test suggested that the addition of direct paths from some independent variables to disengagement and re-identification would improve the model fit. The model fit improves significantly when I add the covariance and suggested paths (CFI = 1.000, NFI = .966, RMSEA = .000). Additionally, the difference between the chi-squares of the two models are significant ( 2 (3, N=253) = 17.58, p < .01). Therefore, the
alternative model (shown in Figure 4.3) is the better model. The dashed lines in the model diagram represent non-significant paths while the solid lines are significant paths. All test statistics and path coefficients for the alternative model are shown in Table 4.6. This table shows all of the variables hypothesized to explain variance in the dependent and mediator variables, the extent of the effects of the variables (shown in the path coefficients column) and the statistical significance of those relationships (t-test statistic).
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Career Identity Centrality Identity Conflict Organizational Satisfaction Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties Network Range Magnitude of Intended Career Transition Disengagement Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity
Reidentification
Figure. 4.2. Path Diagram for Original Conceptual Model
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Identity Conflict
Career Identity Centrality
Organizational Satisfaction Network Range
Magnitude of Intended Career Transition
Disengagement
Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties
Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity
Reidentification
Figure 4.3. Path Diagram for Alternative Model.
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Table 4.6. Path Coefficients for Alternative Model of Career Transition Model Dependent Predictors Variable Disengagement Opportunity evaluation Magnitude Identity conflict Strong coworker ties ReOpportunity evaluation identification Magnitude Social and personal turbulence Opportunity Network range evaluation Career identity centrality Identity conflict Organizational satisfaction Social and personal turbulence Strong coworker ties Magnitude Network range Career identity centrality Identity conflict Organizational satisfaction Social and personal turbulence Strong coworker ties Path t -Test Coefficients Statistic .210 1.684 .258 3.622* .162 2.359* -.218 -2.653* .187 1.958 .288 5.102* .167 2.707* .011 .140 .058 -.093 .058 -.035 .079 -.071 .031 -.253 .265 .001 0.524 2.926* 1.393 -1.877 1.216 -0.683 2.332* -0.907 0.455 -3.142* 3.427* 0.018 SE .125 .071 .069 .082 .096 .450 .062 .021 .048 .041 .049 .047 .051 .034 .078 .068 .081 .077 .083 R2 .161
.212
.068
.193
* t - Test statistic is significant at the .05 level Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict Hypothesis 1 proposed relationships between the internal factors, career identity centrality and identity conflict, and the intermediate variables (career transition magnitude and opportunity evaluation).
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Career identity centrality, the magnitude of intended career transition and opportunity evaluation. I hypothesized that career identity centrality is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities positing that individuals who have define themselves according to a current career identity would be less likely to consider transition favorably or consider transitions that involved significant change in the career competencies (knowing whom, knowing what and knowing why). However, the relationship between career identity centrality and the magnitude of intended career transition was not supported (hypothesis 1b). Hypothesis 1a posited that career identity centrality is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. However, the analysis shows that career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities (t = 2.92, p < .05). Therefore, while the direction of the hypothesis was not supported, the influence of career identity centrality on the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities was demonstrated. Identity conflict, the magnitude of intended career transition and opportunity evaluation. Hypothesis 1d, which states that identity conflict is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition, was not supported by the data. Similarly, hypothesis 1c which states that identity conflict is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities was not supported by the data. Social and Personal Turbulence, Organizational Satisfaction, and Strong Coworker Ties
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Hypothesis 2 and 3 proposed relationships between social and personal turbulence, organizational satisfaction, and strong coworker ties and the intermediate variables, opportunity evaluation and the magnitude of intended career transition. Organizational satisfaction, strong coworker ties, social and personal turbulence and opportunity evaluation. Specifically, hypothesis 3a states that social and personal turbulence is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This hypothesis was not supported. In contrast, hypothesis 2a states that organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This hypothesis was also not supported. Hypothesis 2c states that strong coworker ties are negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. However, support for this hypothesis was not found. Organizational satisfaction, strong coworker ties, social and personal turbulence and the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 3b posits that social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. This hypothesis was supported (t = 3.41, p < .05). Similarly, hypothesis 2b which states that organizational satisfaction is negatively related to career transition magnitude was supported by these data (t = -3.14, p < .05). Finally, the relationship predicted between strong coworker ties and the magnitude of intended career transition was not supported (hypothesis 2d). Network Range Hypothesis 4 involved tests of the relationship of network career range to the intermediate variables, the magnitude of career transitions considered and opportunity evaluation. According to the model, diversity in one’s social network is positively
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related the magnitude of transitions considered (hypothesis 4a) as well as the favorability of opportunity evaluation (hypothesis 4b). Hypothesis 4a is supported. Magnitude is positively related to career range (t = 2.37, p <.05). However, the relationship between opportunity evaluation and network range was not supported by these data. Disengagement and Reidentification I posited that disengagement and re-identification are influenced by the magnitude of career transitions considered and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Specifically, hypotheses 5a and 5b state that the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to disengagement and re-identification. However, these hypotheses are not supported by the data. Hypotheses 6a and 6b posit that the magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to career disengagement and re-identification. Indeed, the magnitude of the career transition considered is positively related to disengagement (t = 3.62, p < .05) and reidentification (t = 5.17, p < .05). Additionally, the career exit behaviors are directly influenced by some of the independent variables rather than the total mediation suggested by the model. Specifically, identity conflict is positively related to disengagement (t = 2.35, p < .05). Strong coworker ties have a significant negative relationship to disengagement (t = -2.65, p < .05). Finally, social and personal turbulence is positively related to re-identification (t = 2.50, p < .05). Control Variables Finally, I examined the relationship between the control variables (gender, race, education, income, professional tenure and organizational tenure), the
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intermediate variables (magnitude and opportunity evaluation), and the dependent variables (disengagement and re-identification). According to the correlation table, only two of the control variables showed any significant relationships with the study variables – race and education (Table 3.12). Therefore, I entered these variables into the path analysis with paths to the intermediate variables, opportunity evaluation and the magnitude of intended career transition (Figure 4.4). However, the fit statistics for the model including race and education are not an improvement over the original model ( 2 (69, N=253) = 80.91, CFI = .948; RMSEA = .032; AIC = -57.09).
Additionally, the same pattern of relationships is found, that is, significant t-values are unchanged in the model containing the control variables. Therefore, the model shown in Figure 4.4 without control variables is the better model based on the fit statistics and the summary table (Table 4.9) containing all hypotheses and results is based on this model.
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Identity Conflict Career Identity Centrality Organizational Satisfaction Network Range Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties Race Education Level Consideration Magnitude Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity Disengagement
Reidentification
Figure 4.4. Path Diagram for Model with Control Variables
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Table 4.9. Summary of Hypotheses and Findings
Hypothesis 1a. Career identity centrality is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Finding Not supported; career identity centrality was positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities Not supported Not supported Not supported Not supported Supported Not supported Not supported Not supported Supported Supported Not supported
1b. Career identity centrality is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 1c. Identity conflict is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. 1d. Identity conflict is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 2a. Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. 2b. Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 2c. Strong co-worker ties are negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. 2d. Strong co-worker ties are negatively related to career transition magnitude. 3a. Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities 3b. Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 4a. Network career range is positively related to career transition magnitude. 4b. Network career range is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities, that is, transition opportunities will be evaluated more favorably when network range is high. 5a. The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to disengagement. 5b. The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to re-identification 6a. The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to disengagement. 6b. The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to re-identification. Supported Mediated Relationships: Identity conflict is positively related to disengagement. Strong coworker ties are negatively related to disengagement. Social and personal turbulence is positively related to reidentification
Not supported Not supported Supported Supported Partial rather than full support
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TRUSTED OTHER ANALYSIS In this section, I describe the methodology of a “trusted other” study conducted because data collection from a single source can pose a potential problem in behavioral analysis (Posdsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003), therefore, the trusted other serves as a second source of data concerning the career transition process. The sample in this study is small (33 individuals), thus the results of this analysis are exploratory providing further evidence for the findings discussed in the hypothesis testing section. Participants and Procedures The participants in the trusted other survey were individuals identified by the MBA student respondents based on the following prompt: In this section, we ask that you provide the e-mail address of a trusted other to provide a different perspective on the actions that you have taken during your consideration process. Please select someone who you trust with information about your decision making process. Forty-nine percent (123) of the MBA respondents provided a trusted other email address. Twenty-seven of the trusted other surveys were returned as undeliverable reducing the potential trusted other sample to 96. Thirty - three of the remaining individuals named as trusted others (34%) responded to the survey. Therefore, the results provided here are exploratory in nature rather than formal hypothesis testing. Descriptives and internal consistency reliabilities for the quantitative study are provided in Table 4.10. Measures and Results
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Disengagement. The disengagement scale measures the behaviors that individuals engage in as they consider or actively pursue a career transition. The disengagement items used in the trusted other survey asked individuals to consider the extent to which their friend is disconnecting from the current career choice. Two sample items are: “They spend less time with co-workers from their current line of work” and “They attend fewer occupational functions (professional organization meetings, etc) for their current line of work”. Individuals were asked to respond to four items using a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The resulting reliability was acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = .807). Re-identification. The re-identification career exit behavior scale is intended to measure the process of learning professional values, behaviors and social knowledge for a desired career choice in anticipation of career transition. Items in the measure include “They have joined an organization associated with the line of work that they desire” and “They are attending training classes or a certification program to prepare them for the line of work that they desire” and are measured with a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The reliability of this scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .807. Career transition magnitude. In this section of the survey, I asked individuals to provide qualitative and quantitative assessments of magnitude. First, trusted others were asked to give a qualitative description of the transition that their friend has made:
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Please describe the transition that your friend has made. For example, "John was a chemical engineer. He is now an elementary school teacher." If your friend has not made a career change, please write "no change" here. Thirteen of the thirty-three trusted others reported that the respondents had made no change (39%). Next, the trusted others were asked to rate the magnitude of the career transition using a nine item scale which measures the career transition in terms of changes required in the career competencies (knowledge and skill, relationships, and values and goals). A sample item is “To what extent did your friend’s career change necessitate a change in knowledge or skill.” The Cronbach’s alpha for the magnitude scale is acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .802. Table 4.11. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Trusted Other Responses (N = 33)
Variable 1. Disengagement (TO) 2. Reidentification (TO) 3. Magnitude (TO) 4. Range (R) 5. Identity Conflict (R) 6. Career Identity Centrality (R) 7. Organizational Satisfaction (R) 8. Strong Coworker Ties (R) 9. Social and Personal Turbulence (R) 10. Reidentification (R) 11. Disengagement (R) 12. Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity (R) 13. Magnitude (R) M 2.77 3.15 3.76 4.29 2.53 3.30 2.90 3.91 2.20 2.53 2.81 2.58 3.33 SD .924 .831 .669 1.756 .843 .872 1.016 .768 .866 .781 .989 .589 .865 1 (.807) .335* .269 .182 .153 .077 .060 .272 .476** .059 .315* -.165 .350** 2 (.807) .530** .044 .346* -.194 -.320* -.111 .116 .426** .004 -.075 .192 3
(.802) -.268 .394* -.050 -.304 .563** .321 .242 .091 .130 .160
TO = Trusted other; R = respondent (All respondent variables were measured using MBA students and PhD Project participants)
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* - significant at .10 level
** - significant at .05 level
*** - significant at .01 level
Analysis First, I explored the relationship between the respondents assessments of disengagement and reidentification with the trusted others assessments of disengagement, reidentification and magnitude by examining the correlations. Due to the sample size and the exploratory nature of these investigations, I considered a relationship at the .10 level as indicating significance. The relationship between the two parties assessment of reidentification (r = .429, p < .05) and disengagement (r = .315, p < .10) is significant and in the predicted direction. However, the correlation between the respondents’ assessment of magnitude and that of the trusted other is not significant (r = .160, p > .10). One possible explanation for this result is that the respondents were asked to assess the magnitude of a desired transition while the trusted other is asked to provide information on the actual transition. While there is a delay of approximately 4 months between data collection from the respondent and the trusted other, it is likely that there was not enough time for the individual to make the desired transition. Indeed, according to the data gathered from the trusted others, 39% of the respondents made no change at all in this time period. Next, I analyzed the data with path analysis to provide insights on the career transition process using data from both the respondent and the trusted other. The model analyzed is shown in Figure 4.6. I selected these variables to maximize the sample size-free parameter ratio and because the model posits that disengagement and reidentification are directly impacted by the magnitude of transition considered and the favorable evaluation of opportunities. Therefore, the model I tested examines the relationships between the disengagement and reidentification behaviors respondents 74
report engaging in and the exit behaviors that trusted others observe the respondent perform as well as how the observed behaviors relate to the magnitude of actual transition.
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Disengagement (Respondent)
Disengagement (Trusted Other) Magnitude (Trusted Other)
Reidentification (Respondent)
Reidentification (Trusted Other)
Figure 4.5. Trusted Other Analysis Path Diagram The path analysis of the model in Figure 4.5 showed that this model fit the data very well. The fit statistics for this model were as follows: chi square ( 2), 4.99 with 5 degrees of freedom; comparative fit index (CFI), 1.00; root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), .00; and Akaike information criterion (AIC), -5.010. I compared this with a model where the error variances for the trusted other disengagement and trusted other reidentification variables were allowed to covary. I added this error covariance because some of the items used to measure disengagement and reidentification are similar in gauging the degree to which the individual is making changes in relationships and how one spends their time as they consider career transition. Additionally, the LaGrange multiplier test indicated that the error terms for disengagement and reidentification should be covaried. After adding the error covariances, the change in the chi square statistic was significant at the .10 level, providing support for the alternative model ( 2 = 3.69, df = 1). The
fit statistics for the alternative model adding the error covariance were as follows: chi square ( 2), 1.29 with 4 degrees of freedom; comparative fit index (CFI), 1.00; root
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mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), .00; and Akaike information criterion (AIC), -6.70. Therefore, the model with the error covariances is the better model. Reidentification (behaviors as reported by the respondent) was directly and positively related to reidentification behaviors observed by the trusted other (t = .434, p < .05). However, disengagement behaviors reported by the respondent did not show a relationship to those observed by the trusted other. Finally, reidentification behaviors observed by the trusted other were positively related to the magnitude of actual transition (t = .451, p < .05). Disengagement behaviors were not significantly related to actual transition magnitude. Evidence from my studies regarding the determination of career transition magnitude can be summarized, then, as follows: (1) Career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. (2) Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. (3) Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. (4) Network career range is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. (5) The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to disengagement and re-identification.
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Chapter 5: Discussion
I began my dissertation by discussing how the magnitude of career transition is often implied but has been rarely researched. My research contributes to our understanding of the process of career transition magnitude determination by describing the importance of the career identity and social networks in the process. Specifically, I found four major stimuli that influence the magnitude of intended career transitions (or the generation of career transition considerations): (1) definitions of the self including multiple identities and the centrality of the work identity in the global view of self, (2) validation and violation of the self experienced in organizational and occupational settings, (3) challenges to the self as a result of social and personal turbulence which called in to question one’s understanding of the world and one’s place in the world, and (4) reflections of self as seen through the eyes of network members including social comparisons made as a result of network range and dynamism (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Although most of the hypotheses involving the magnitude of intended career transition were supported, few of the relationships between the study variables and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities were supported. It seems plausible that a methodological issue, specifically, the cross sectional design of the quantitative study may account for these results. That is, the favorable evaluation of opportunities may occur after one has engaged in the experimentation afforded by exit behaviors. Indeed, it appears one of the purposes of disengagement and reidentification is to gain information about a possible career transition or career path. Therefore, in the relatively short time frames of my study, individuals simplymay not 78
have had enough time to invoke their career exit strategy and move to the favorable evaluation of an opportunity that one would ultimately pursue. Despite the unsupported hypotheses concerning the favorable evaluation of opportunities, the results concerning the magnitude of intended career transition found in both the quantitative and qualitative studies are provocative and in identifying the influences to the determination of career transition magnitude, I contribute to career theory building and offer new insights for practitioners. Implications for theory: Toward a Model of Career Transition Magnitude I began my dissertation with an overview of three sets of theories that touch upon the notion of career transition magnitude determination. I return to those here and discuss how my studies build or extend theory in these areas as they are related to the development of a career transition magnitude model. Career/Role Transitions. My research builds and extends research in the area of career and role transitions in two ways. First, in discussing the process of
career transition, I complement the work of Nicholson and colleagues (1984, 1987) by showing that the transition process does seem to be cyclical with individuals making a series of career transitions comprised of preparation (including disengagement and re-identification behaviors), encounter, attempts at adjustment and stabilization. However, because Nicholson’s research and theorizing is centered on organizational careers, career transitions are studied independently of magnitude and as a result, we lose sight of how the cycle may operate differently as a function of transition size. Therefore, my data adds to our understanding of the transition cycle
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by suggesting thatthe preparation for the change as well as the sensemaking following career transition (indicative of Nicholson’s encounter and adjustment stages) isquitedifferent depending on the magnitude of transition. In almost all cases, the number of statements indicating disengagement and re-identification behaviors is higher for transitions of greater magnitude such as changing organizations or professions as compared to promotions or changing functions within the same organization. Further, statements expressing consequences suggest differences in sensemaking such that individuals making transitions of higher magnitude such as changing organizations or professions discussed more frequently feelings of hope, learning about themselves, satisfaction with the transition and thanksgiving for being able to make the transition. Second, in much of the literature, identity changes are discussed as an outcome of role and career transition, however, my data shows that identity changes within a career choice are an antecedent of career transition and are central to career transition magnitude determination. This complements Hall’s theories of career identity growth (1971, 2002) which posit that the accumulation of experiences and competencies during one’s careers results in the “creation of new aspects of the self, in the career area” (p. 59) and some of the new aspects of the self become so valued that occupational choices are sought which give these aspects of the self opportunities for expression. The qualitative and quantitative studies demonstrate that several self sub-processes (validation and violation of self, challenges to self and reflection of self) influence identity development and career transition magnitude.
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I also extend research on career identity by finding career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This result seems to stand in contrast to Hall’s propositions that career identity is linked to a particular career role or career area (1971, 2002) and thus, as individuals are successful in a role, we should expect greater congruence between the career identity and the role or career choice. This theorizing led me to expect, that if there is greater congruence between the role and the identity, an individual would be loathe to leave a job or career choice that allows a great deal of identity expression. However, my findings suggest that career identity is not linked to an understanding of oneself in a given role but rather one’s understanding of who one is or should be at work in a broader sense. Therefore, my data demonstrates that the more central career identity is to one’s global definition of self, the more likely one is to search for a career that really is definitive of self, that is, the individual is constantly engaged in career development, “the quest for what one truly is and wants to do” (Hall, 2002, p. 171). Social Network Theory. My work extends and bridges studies on careers and social networks. While research that integrates social network and careers theories have examined what individuals “do” (Kilduff, 1990; Higgins, 2001), less research discusses how or why network structure and network member responses influence the size of career choices. That is , my data surfaces three factors involved in the creation of the “looking-glass” reflection that serves as an input to career transition magnitude determination. First, statements concerning network member responses (such as affirmation and support ) are generally higher for transitions of higher magnitude. This finding suggests that individuals either seek or are more
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attuned to positive responses from network members for higher magnitude transitions and that these positive responses serve as reflections that the individual is on the right track in terms of career. Second, perceptions of the career’s meaningfulness to network members are important in determination of magnitude (recall how Michelle felt inclined toward law school because she felt that her career in the Federal government was not meaningful to others). Indeed, meaningfulness to others is mentioned more frequently by those that made large transitions rather than small transitions with many of the statements referring to the consequences of transition, that is, significant others found the new role very meaningful. Third, role models are important in surfacing possible selves which also have an influence on transition magnitude. Again, statements about role models are made more frequently with higher magnitude transitions. Thus, reflections of self are transmitted through network members influencing the size of transition. This is further verified by the quantitative study where network range is positively related to magnitude of intended career transition. However, I would not paint a picture that career transitions are met with little or no opposition. On the contrary, statements concerning discouragement are observed with greater frequency in cases of profession change as are statements of relationships ending or changing. I believe this extends research on how and why networks change over time. For example, Ibarra, Kilduff and Tsai (2005) review the literature integrating networks, identity and career change suggesting that transitioning individuals engage in tasks to shape their social networks to reflect who they are becoming. This is consistent with identity research that finds the self-
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verification motive (Swann, 1987, 1992; Swann & Ely, 1984; Swann & Hill, 1982) is so strong that people create networks that verify the self rather than those that do not. In my research, I clarify this process to some extent by showing how this occurs. For example, people avoid talking with people who might be negative toward the career transition. In this way, transitioners disengage, at least to some extent for some time period, in order to become firm in the transition. However, transitioners are not the only architects of the changing network, sometimes significant others choose to the end the relationships because the person is acting in unexpected or unapproved ways. Finally, individuals do not sever all relationships with individuals that express disapproval of the transitions (such as family members), instead transitioners often decided that these dissenting opinions are not important to them and worked instead to help the dissenting individual understand that the career transition is a reflection of the “true” self or is the right career path and such actions are consistent with the selfverification literature (Swann & Ely, 1984; Swann & Hill, 1982) Role Exit Theory. Finally, my research adds to the role exit literature which has often been overlooked in career studies (Ebaugh, 1988). Career identities are a significant part of how one defines the self such that saying what you “do” in career terms becomes a signal of “who you are” (Hall, 1971, 2002), therefore, leaving a career path to pursue a new career path may involve a substantial change in the way one defines the self as well as how others see the transitioner. Indeed, while much of the career research does incorporate the socialization literature, it is increasingly important as individual engage in fewer organizational careers to consider role exit theory because the identity construction process associated with the transition may
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not be informed by an organizational entity (e.g. individuals that leave organizations to become entrepreneurs, contract workers, to follow an avocation or for stay-at-home parenting). Therefore, as demonstrated by my research, career changes of significant magnitude have different antecedents, exit behaviors and consequences and the process of transition may be better explained by integrating role exit theoryand the literature on socialization (cf. Ibarra, 2003). Indeed, comparing role exit theory and my data provides a starting place for the development of a stage model of career transition magnitude determination. For example, Ebaugh (1988) suggests two processes in role exit: 1) a process involving the process of forming first doubts and transforming those into alternatives to the currents role and 2) the process of actually exiting where the individual experiences a turning point which results in actions leading to role exit. However, my qualitative and quantitative data, consistent with Ibarra’s (2003) research, suggest that transitioners engage in experimentation with the self and evaluation of transition opportunities follow these experiments. Moreover, my qualitative data suggest that only definitions of the self influenced the favorable evaluation of opportunities (as opposed to experimentation as well as violations, validations, challenges to and reflections on the self). Therefore, I would argue that career transition magnitude is determined by a transition cycle that is similar to Nicholson’s but also differs in significant ways as it incorporates role exit theory, Ibarra’s research (2003) and the findings from my data.
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First Doubts: violations, validations, and challenges to self
Transition sensemaking
Magnitude of intended career transition
Opportunity evaluation and determination of transition magnitude
Experimenting with self: Re-identification and disengagement
Definitions of self: Career identity and career identity centrality
Reflections of self: Network structure and network member response
Figure 5.1. Cycle of Career Transition Magnitude Determination First doubts and magnitude of intended career transition. Ebaugh (1988) defines first doubts as reinterpretations of a role brought about by a variety of events. My data suggest that this reinterpretation is catalyzed by violations as well as validations and challenges to the self brought on by organizational dissatisfaction (or satisfaction), negative (or positive) coworker ties and changes in the environment (including catastrophic events such as September 11). Individuals who engaged in large magnitude transitions express lower degrees of fit, job satisfaction and made more statements concerning misfit, stigma, and job dissatisfaction. Experimenting with self and self-definition. I would further argue that as individuals experience these first doubts, they consider career transitions of various magnitudes and cue others to the possibility of change through career experiments. The cues and experiments invoke the responses of others which lead to changes in self definition (Cooley, 1902; Ibarra, 2002, 2003; Roberts et al, 2005; Tice &
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Wallace, 2003). These experiments were sometimes small such as reading about new careers or enrolling in courses but often were quite substantial such as starting a practice on the side while working full time. Experiments were a way of keeping one’s “career sanity”, as suggested by Michelle who moved from being an analyst with the federal government to her own law practice, but even if the experiment was not initially intended to become a substitute for the current career role, it often created changes in self-definition that became the impetus for career change (Ibarra, 2003) Opportunity evaluation and determination of actual career transition magnitude. My quantitative research demonstrated that the major influence on opportunity evaluation is career identity centrality or the importance of career identity in the global definition of self. Further, the qualitative suggest that individuals evaluate the career opportunities using a variety of criteria such as their sense of the strengths and weaknesses, financial concerns, family obligations, and spiritual values or experiences. Also, the strength of the “straw” or turning point experience become fuel for the opportunity evaluation process and the ultimate determination of career transition magnitude. This is consistent with Ibarra’s (2002, p. 47) research on career transitions where she states the following: “Across my many interviews, a striking discovery was that such moments tended to occur late in the transition process, only after much trial and tribulation. Rather than catalyzing change, defining moments helped people make sense of changes that had long been unfolding.” Transition sensemaking. Finally, an individuallearns to live with career change by making sense of the career change. As Ibarra suggests above, part of this
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sensemaking is in the “straw” story but that is only early sensemaking. My research suggests that even years later, individuals continue sensemaking and they have moved on from the straw story to making sense of what has happened since they’ve made the transition. As discussed in the qualitative results suggestion of this dissertation, a key part of the sensemaking for many individuals is creating a sense of self-consistency, that is seeing that this the self being expressed in the current role is a self that always existed but finds better expression today than it could it in the past. Thus, Ebaugh’s concept of role residual is important in understanding career transition, especially those of greater magnitude. Often, an individual will even go back to early career selves, possibly childhood selves, to establish this sense of self consistency. Consider Barbara’s statement concerning her career journey: I used to be very sure that I chose this path because it was an outcome of [her husband's] death but when I went through this, I really, really realized that I may have exaggerated that influence and underestimated the influence of the childhood fantasies because the more I thought about it, teaching and nursing, you know as childhood stuff...it ended up being pretty much what I do. Practical Implications Career Counseling. I believe that my study has practical implications for professionals and nonprofessionals alike who today are inclined to feel that career is critical to self-definition and that it is a fundamental right to have work that fits self and even goes beyond self to fit into a higher purpose such as contributing to the good of society or family (Hall, 1996; Muirhead, 2004). However, as suggested by Ibarra
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(2002, 2003), traditional career counseling may not provide good advice on how to make career transitions, especially those of significant magnitude that enable an individual to throw off the shackles of an ill fitting career and embrace one that can lead to psychological success and fulfillment. Yet, my data demonstrates that career counseling as an exit behavior is more common among individuals making substantial career transitions such as changing professions or changing organizations than individuals changing functions or levels within an organization. Therefore, I suggest that career counselors concerned about helping clients to make the career transitions that they are seeking might consider using the stage process of career transition magnitude suggested in this dissertation. For example, individuals should be encouraged to think of career transitions of various magnitudes rather than being directed to a set of career transitions based on personality or other self-assessment inventories. It is likely that clients are already considering transitions that are small and big but may not feel comfortable expressing big transitions if an inventory suggests a direction that is inconsistent with such a career transition consideration. Next, the counselor might suggest that the individual try experiments related to those considerations including forming relationships, taking a course, membership in a professional organization, a sabbatical or some type of simultaneous engagement in the career consideration such as starting a side business or working part time. Further, because of the role self plays in career transition magnitude determination, the counselor may also suggest use of best reflected self strategies (Roberts et al, 2005) where the individual asks others when they are at their best.
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Roberts and her colleagues have created a tool that may be used within an organization for aiding career development; however, such strategies and tools may prove helpful in career transitions as well. To illustrate, an individual may distribute the tool within their career advice network (i.e. not only coworkers) creating a picture of when they are at their best as a Sunday school teacher, parent, volunteer, engineer, as well as in other important roles. Then, the individual and counselor may interpret the results together, creating a portrait and definition of the self that may be used in determining what career transition size is required to lead to expression of the “best” self. Finally, the counselor should engage the individual in writing a biographical narrative, much like the ones written by participants in my qualitative study. This provides an opportunity for sensemaking, determining what opportunities are best and understanding the events that catalyzed career transition. Organizational Career Development. While the organizational career landscape has changed and many suggest that organizational careers are dead (Pieperl, 2005; Hall, 2002), one thing remains true: organizations want to attract and retain the best and brightest. My research demonstrates that individuals are often seeking to have careers that are more reflective of the self and the self that they wish to become. Therefore, organizations may consider facilitating and encouraging job crafting which is described as attempts by individuals to change work meanings by changing work tasks, working relationships or both in an attempt to create meaningful work (Wrzniewski, 2001). Thus, organizations may find that allowing individuals to craft jobs within the workplace helps to reduce the need for individuals to engage in
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career transitions of significant size and enables retention of key employees. Wrzniewski makes it clear that organizations indirectly impact job crafting by creating empowering work environments and sharing strategic goals that provide a framework for individuals to imbue their jobs with meaning. Thus, organizational leaders should engage valued members in discussions of the organization’s strategic mission and goals as well as encouraging experimentation and self-determination. Indeed, recent research suggests that organizational commitment was positively related to supervisory career support including advice and encouragement while intentions to leave were negatively related to supervisory career support (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005). Limitations and Future Research Although this study used qualitative and quantitative analysis to explore the hypothesized relationships, my results must be interpreted in light of some methodological limitations. First, the qualitative research demonstrated that career transitions are gradual in nature often involving extensive time periods between career transition intention and actual career transition. This finding caused me to change the design of thequantitative study from a longitudinal (over the course of nine months) to a concurrent one. Therefore, the resulting cross sectional design likely prevents a more complete understanding of the causal relations in the career transition process. Additionally, the qualitative study seems to have a disproportionate number of women in the sample as snowball sampling does not guarantee a random sample. However, while a limitation, the quantitative study found no gender effects for the study variables suggesting that this is not a serious
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limitation. Finally, as previously discussed, the hypotheses generated on the basis of the qualitative data concerning the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities were not supported in the quantitative analysis. While this is a limitation, the time frames of the two studies (qualitative study is longitudinal in nature covering an individual’s entire career while the quantitative study is cross-sectional) may explain the lack of significant findings. Further, the study is limited by the use of a single source for the primary hypothesis testing. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff’s (2003) review of behavior science research highlights important issues and provides remedies for the potential biases created by common source bias. They suggest that one of the best ways to eliminate common source bias is to collect data from more than one source. I designed this research with this in remedy in mind and asked study respondents to provide the e-mail of a trusted other familiar with their thoughts of transition so that I could send them a survey measuring specific criterion variables. However, only 49% of the respondents (123 people) provided a trusted other e-mail address. The results gathered from the trusted other source, while limited by the sample size, do provide compelling, although preliminary evidence that exit behaviors are related to actual career transition magnitude. Several strengths of this research offset the above limitations. First, I used qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to explore the career transition process. In combination these methodologies provided a richer and more complex view of the factors contributing to the determination ofcareer transition magnitude and the internal and external validity of the model. Second, the qualitative analysis
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is longitudinal in the sense that biographical narratives provide the entire career history to date. This data was painstakingly analyzed to show the relationship of career transition magnitude to the independent variables and mediators in the model. Finally, my dissertation also generated a number of fruitful directions for future research investigating the magnitude of career transitions. First, my research proposes a cyclical model of career transition magnitude determination. Further work is needed to investigate this model longitudinally and quantitatively. My quantitative research ended with the determination of transition magnitude and, because of the cross sectional nature of the study, could not explore opportunity evaluation and transition sensemaking. Second, my findings suggest contrary to predictions that career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This result suggests that even when individuals see their current career role as defining them, opportunities of various magnitudes are still attractive. Future research should further explore career identity centrality as being a multifaceted concept composed of the current career role identity as well as visions of a future possible career self that motivates both large and small career transitions. Next, the studies have implications for research on protean careers. In the future, studies could examine career identity centrality and opportunity evaluation to build a picture of how identity drives or influences the pursuit of the protean career. That is, if career identity centrality is multifaceted and composed of future selves, then its effects on the favorable evaluation of opportunities may result from
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individuals’ assessment of how such opportunities impact the likelihood of becoming the ideal self (as suggested in Jessica’s quote on p. 35). Finally, future research should explore the link found between network range and the favorable evaluation of opportunities, specifically examining how career diversity within a network may impact individual’s understanding of their career options perhaps by using methodologies such as verbal protocol analysis that enable researchers to identify the set of rules that individuals use in evaluating career choices. In conclusion, my dissertation contributes to the literature explicating the factors that contribute to magnitude, illuminating how the evaluation of career opportunities and the magnitude of intended career transition influence exit behaviors and proposing a stage model of career transition magnitude determination. Future research, building on these studies, can enable a greater understanding of career transition magnitude and the roles that identity and networks play in shaping career choices
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Appendix A: Biographical Narrative Instrument
Purpose: The purpose of writing this narrative is to ask you to think about your career history and engage in interpreting the events and relating the meanings that led to various career transitions.
Instructions: Every person’s life can be written as a book. I’d like for you to focus on your life in terms of your career, that is, when you started working. First, write an introduction to this book. An introduction generally provides a sense of the story and any background information that might be helpful to the reader. Next, think about the chapters of this book. I have here a sample to help you in this task. Write down the years in the first column - from the day you took you first job. When did the first stage end? Write it here. Then go on to the next chapters, and put down the age that each one begins and ends for you. Go on till you reach your present age. You can use any number of chapters or stages that you find suitable to your own life. Do not limit yourself to traditional jobs. If you left a job to attend college or graduate school to influence your career, include this as a career stage. If you left a job to become a full-time care-giver for a child, parent or spouse, include this as a career stage. If you left a job to engage in full time ministry or volunteer work, include this as a career stage as well.
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After you have written out all of the chapters, think about a title you would give each one of these chapters, and write it in the next column. See the example below. Finally, write an epilogue for the book. Now that you’ve thought through your career history, what insights does it yield? What does the future hold?
Stages and Age Pre-career stage, 15 First real job, 23 Searching, 27
Chapter Title The Burger Chef Years Discovering Engineering Finding Where I Belong
Thank you for your thoughtful participation! I look forward to our upcoming interview.
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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
During the interview, I will focus on the following questions for each stage in a semi-structured manner. Therefore, if I find that the participant needs prompting, I will also ask appropriate follow up questions to get a more detailed answer. a. Identification of personal identity, centrality and commitment i. Tell me about the position that you held at this stage. ii. Was it personally meaningful? What made it personally meaningful? What was important to you about this job at the time? What about it resonated with you (or failed to resonate) with you? iii. Was it meaningful to trusted others as well as to you? iv. In what ways was it important to you that you occupied this role? v. What concerns did you have about leaving this role? In what ways did leaving the role influence how you thought about yourself? The role? vi. Would you say people saw you as a success in that line of work? Was that important to you? vii. In what ways could leaving that line of work be interpreted as failure? Was that important to you? viii. Did the concern that you may be seen as a “failure” have any influence of your choice to leave that line of work? The line of work that you aspired to enter? In what way(s)? b. Identification of career transition considerations
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i. Is there a defining moment that led you to leave this line of work (or was it a gradual decision)? Was it you that changed or the job that changed or something else (prompters – networks, family, etc)? ii. What exactly were you thinking at this time? iii. When you decided to leave this job, what did you consider doing next? iv. Why did you consider this? v. Did you go on to do what you considered doing? How exactly did that unfold? vi. What stopped you/pushed you into doing the thing that you considered (or not doing the thing that you considered)? vii. Can you summarize for yourself the reason that you choose to terminate this stage when you did? c. Identification of role exit behaviors i. What sort of things did you do when you knew you wanted to terminate this stage in your life? ii. Did you let others know that you wanted to terminate this stage? How did you do that (in what ways did you let others know that you were planning to end this stage in your life)? iii. Are there any relationships that ended when you ended this stage in your life? Why did these relationships end? d. Identification of social network characteristics
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i. Were there trusted people, friends and/or advisors, who influenced your decision-making? Who were they (friends, close friends, acquaintance, advisors, mentors, etc.)? How did they influence you? ii. “Did these trusted people know each other?” iii. “What sort of careers/jobs were these trusted people engaged in?” iv. “Were any of the trusted people in your life also terminating their careers?” e. Identification of social network member responses i. How did trusted people in your life respond when you let them know that you wanted to end this stage in your career? ii. Which of the trusted people were supportive? How did they express support? iii. Which of the trusted people were not supportive? How did they express disapproval? iv. Did you lose some friends or did the friendship/relationship with trusted people change when (as) you made this transition?” f. Identification of actual career transition i. So, the next chapter is “xyz”? What prompted you to make that decision? ii. Were you satisfied with this decision? iii. Did anything change in terms of how you thought about yourself as a result of this change? What changed?
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Closing. At this juncture, I will thank the respondent, ask him or her if there are any questions, reiterate that all responses are confidential and discuss the next phase in the project. Additionally, I will ask if they know of individuals that have undergone transitions that might be interested in participating in the study.
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Appendix C: Pilot and Quantitative Study Instruments
Career Transitions Survey
The purpose of the Career Transitions study is to gain a greater understanding of the process of career transition and how career identity and interpersonal relationships influence that process. Please complete the survey in the order in which the questions are listed. Within each part, you will see a set of directions that explain how to complete the items that follow. Please read these directions carefully as you proceed through the survey. It will help make the results more meaningful if you respond to items that ask about “your current line of work” by thinking about the same line of work throughout the survey as the one that you write in as your response to the first question on page 4. Upon request, you will receive a feedback report summarizing the survey responses during the spring of 2005. To analyze the data, however, we need your explicit permission, which involves you reading and completing the consent form on the next page. Please note that completing this form, which allows us to analyze your data in a completely confidential aggregate form, is completely voluntary. Completing this form, however, enables us to provide you a more detailed account of career transition processes. If you have any questions about the survey process, please contact M. Susan Taylor ([email protected]); 301-405-2240 or Holly Slay ([email protected]); 301405-9541. We greatly appreciate your cooperation!
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INFORMED CONSENT FORM FOR PARTICIPANTS Title of Project: Career Transitions Study Statement of Age: I state that I am over 18 years of age and wish to participate in a program of research being conducted by Ms. Holly Slay in the Department of Management and Organization at the University of Maryland, College Park. Purpose: The purpose of this research is to better understand how career identity and interpersonal relationships influence career transitions. Procedures: The procedure involves completing the attached survey. The survey asks questions about four general areas: 1) my view of my current career, 2) my interaction with significant others concerning my career, 3) career transitions that I am considering and actions I am taking and 4) any actual career transition(s) made by the end of the survey period. Sample demographic questions include things such as age, race, and gender. Interaction with significant others will be assessed using sample questions such as "Please write the initials of people who you go to for advice about job related topics or information about career opportunities. List as many or as few people as you think are relevant and circle "Know" or "Does Not Know" indicating whether or not these individuals know each other." Questions concerning career transitions that you are considering include "Please respond to how often you do the following . . . think of completely changing my line of work." Finally, actual career transition is measured by questions such as "I have accepted a new job within my current company." If I agree that my responses be used in an aggregate, confidential form for research purposes, I can provide my permission by signing my name on page 2 indicating that I am providing my consent to the researchers to use my data for the research described here. I will receive feedback based on my participation. Confidentiality: All information collected is strictly confidential and will only be seen by the Student Investigator. I understand that neither my name nor my individual responses will be reported or disclosed in any form by the researcher. Only the researchers have access to this information and use this information solely for the purpose of tracking responses over time. All responses will be transferred to a database within two months of the survey administration. The original paper copies will be destroyed within three months of the final survey administration. Risks: I understand that as I review my career history in responding to the questions in the survey, there is a minimal risk that I may reflect on experiences have been unpleasant or distressing. I know that I am free to skip any questions that cause such a reaction. Additionally, I will be asked to provide the e-mail address of a "trusted other". While the confidentiality of all information provided on this survey is guaranteed, it is possible that my "trusted other" could share information concerning my career transition thoughts with someone else. It is recommended that I choose this person very carefully. Initials: _____________ Date: ______ Page 1 of 2
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Benefits, Freedom to Withdraw, and Ability to Ask Questions: For participating in this research, I may request a feedback report based on my responses and those provided by my trusted other. The research that will be based on my data aggregated with data from other participants will help the investigator learn more about career transitions. I am free to ask questions, I can choose to not respond to questions, and/or withdraw from participation without any penalty. Additionally, I understand that a raffle will be conducted as a small token of your appreciation. Individuals who participate in all three surveys will be entered into raffle for an Apple Ipod (or other technological device of my choice with a value of up to $200). Printed name of participant:__________________________________ Signature of participant:___________________________________ Date: _______________________________
Principal investigator: M. Susan Taylor [email protected] 4518 Van Munching Hall University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (301) 405-2240 Student investigator: Holly S. Slay [email protected] 4523 Van Munching Hall University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (301) 405-5941 If you have questions about your rights as a research participant or wish to report a researchrelated injury, please contact: Institutional Review Board Office, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (email): [email protected]; (telephone) 301-405-4212. Page 2 of 2
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1. Career Identification a. In terms of my current line of work, I consider myself to be a __________________________________________________________.
Please fill in the blank with your personal definition of your line of work. For example, "in terms of my current line of work, I consider myself to be a chemical engineer". Please keep this line of work in mind throughout the questionnaire whenever the term "current line of work" is used.
b. If you are currently a full time student or unemployed, please type here the occupation or line of work that you were in before you became a full time student or unemployed. _________________________________________________________. Your current line of work In this section, we ask you to tell us a little about how you feel about your current line of work. Read each statement carefully. For each statement, please choose the number that best represents your opinion where 5 = strongly agree, 4 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree In general, my current line of work is an 5 4 3 2 1 important part of my self-image. I have a strong sense of belonging to my 5 4 3 2 1 current line of work. I have a strong attachment to other 5 4 3 2 1 people in my current line of work. Being in my current line of work is an 5 4 3 2 1 important reflection of who I am. I strongly identify with my current line 5 4 3 2 1 of work. Your life outside of work In this section, we ask you to tell us about how your work interacts with your activities and responsibilities outside of work such as your family, community activities and other interests. For each statement, please choose the number that best represents your opinion where 5 = strongly agree, 4 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree My work schedule often conflicts with 5 4 3 2 1 my family life.
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On the job I have so much work to do that it takes away from my personal interests. My job contributes fully to achieve my personal ambitions. My work takes up time that I’d like to spend with my family. My job makes it difficult to be the kind of spouse or parent I’d like to be. The work I do is not contributing toward achieving my personal goals. My present job gives me little time for extracurricular activities (appointments, studies, recreation, etc.) My personal interests remain neglected due to my involvement with work. The work I do is not contributing towards achieving my personal ambitions and aspirations. At times I feel helpless that I cannot strike a balance between work and family demands.
5
4
3
2
1
5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
5
4
3
2
1
2. Would you have rated the statements in #2 or 3 differently in the past? If so, what has changed?
3. Please provide your opinion on the following statements concerning your current line of work. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree In general, I am satisfied with my career 5 4 3 2 1 status. In general, I am satisfied with my 5 4 3 2 1 present job. I feel that my progress toward 5 4 3 2 1 promotion is satisfactory. I feel that I am a good fit for my current 5 4 3 2 1
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organization. In general, I am satisfied with my 5 salary.
4
3
2
1
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4. Would you have rated the statements in #5 differently in the past? If so, what has changed in your organization, job or career progress?
5. Please provide your perspective on the following statements that consider how events outside of work may impact your decision-making. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree Downsizing and cost cutting within my 5 4 3 2 1 industry have made me consider career transition seriously. Changes in the economy (such as more 5 4 3 2 1 jobs in the technology sector, outsourcing, etc.) have had an influence on my decision to consider a career change. I am considering career transition 5 4 3 2 1 seriously because of a recent geographic move (for example, a spouse’s job required relocation). The death of a friend or loved one has 5 4 3 2 1 caused me to consider changes in my life including a career transition. A change in my family (such as the 5 4 3 2 1 birth of a child or needing to care for elderly parents) has been a motivation for a career change. Tragic social events (such as 5 4 3 2 1 September 11, the tsunami in Asia) have placed a spotlight on my life and career that has caused me to consider career transition more seriously.
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6. Please provide an example of the event(s) that is(are) stimulating your interest in career change.
7. Please provide your opinion on the statements below concerning your relationship to your current co-workers. strongl y agree I consider many of my co-workers as my friends. I am usually included in social gettogethers given by other people in the organization. Within my work group, I would be easily identified as “one of the gang.” I feel that people at work respect me a great deal. 5 5 some what agree 4 4 neither somewhat agree nor disagree disagree 3 2 3 2 strongly disagree 1 1
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
8. Would you have rated the statements in #9 differently in the past? If so, what has changed in your relationships with your co-workers?
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9. Career Transition Considerations In this section, please respond to the following possible career transitions by thinking of the frequency with which you consider this type of career transition (5 = very often, 1 = never). In the second column, indicate the certainty with which you think you will pursue this type of career transition (5 = virtually certain and 1 = entirely uncertain). You will notice some redundancy in the statements. This is to ensure measurement accuracy. Thank you for your patience as you respond to the statements. Below, we have provided the definition of terms used in these statements to assist you in responding to them. Occupation – line of work such as engineering. An example of an occupation change is leaving engineering to become a secondary school teacher. Function – dominant organizational area such as production, accounting, marketing, R&D, etc. An example of a functional change is leaving accounting to work in marketing. Industry – group of firms producing products that are similar or substitutable. An example of changing industries is leaving a pharmaceuticals to work in the automobile industry. Please respond to how often and with what level of certainty you do the following . . . 1. . . . think of completely changing my occupation. 2. . . . search internal job postings to make a job change outside of my function (engineering, marketing, etc). 3. . . . consider seeking a promotion within my current function in my current organization. 4. . . . consider seeking a job at another organization at about the same level as my current job. 5. . . . search job boards or other resources for opportunities outside of my current organization. 6. . . . consider entrepreneurial or other opportunities that would result in a change in occupation. 7. . . . consider taking a similar job (same level, same function) but in a different industry. 8. . . . consider changing functions within my current organization. 9. . . . apply for positions in different industries. 10. . . . consider seeking a higher status/level job within my current organization. 11. . . . consider career growth outside of my current organization. 12. . . . consider taking a job that would be in a different occupation. 13. . . . consider exploring career growth in a different function within my current organization. 14. . . . search internal job postings for higher level positions within my current company. 15. . . . consider the possibilities for career growth outside of my current industry. Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Certainty 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
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If you had to choose only one of the career transition considerations listed above (#115), which would you do tomorrow? (You may list the number or write out the consideration you’ve chosen.) Although you may have considered several of these transitions, in this question, we are asking you to narrow to the one that is so compelling that you would pursue it tomorrow. If you are NOT considering career transition at this time, please state that on the line below. ____________________________________________________________________
10. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent would the option you wrote in the line above ( #11) . . . A great deal Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with everyday? Require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)? 5 4 3 2 Not a great deal 1
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
5
4
3
2
1
11. Career Transition Behavior In this section, we ask you to think about things that you have done within THE LAST SIX MONTHS as you have considered a possible career transition. Read each statement carefully. For each statement, please choose the number that best represents your opinion where 5 = strongly agree, 4 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree I spend less time with co-workers from 5 4 3 2 1 my current line of work. I attend fewer occupational functions 5 4 3 2 1 (professional organization meetings, etc.) for my current line of work. I have decreased the frequency that I 5 4 3 2 1 talk to co-workers and friends from my
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current line of work. Because I am considering a transition, I have decreased the amount of personal information that I share with co-workers and friends from my current line of work. I have joined an organization associated the line of work that I desire. I have subscribed to journals or magazines associated with the line of work that I desire. I am attending training classes or a certification programs to prepare me for the line of work that I desire. I have talked to friends or relatives about beginning a new career. I have visited a career or placement counselor. I am “moonlighting” or have started working part-time to provide me with experience in a desired profession or career choice. I have requested a special assignment (project team, etc.) to provide me with experiences that will help me make a career transition. I have requested a sabbatical or leave of absence to pursue a possible career transition or follow a calling (such as a short term mission trip, etc.)
5
4
3
2
1
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
5
4
3
2
1
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
12. The following statements ask you to evaluate career transition opportunities in terms of their costs and benefits. Please estimate the chances that the career transition would yield the list outcomes on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 = 0% chance that the transition would result in the outcome and 5 = 100% chance that the transition will result in that outcome. Changing Occupations 5 100% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 80% 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 60% 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 40% 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
Changing Levels (receiving a promotion) within my current organization 5 4 3 2 100% 80% 60% 40%
1 0%
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Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction
5 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
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Changing functions within my current organization 5 4 100% 80% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 60% 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 40% 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
Changing organizations but keeping essentially the same occupation 5 4 3 2 100% 80% 60% 40% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
Changing Industries but keeping essentially the same occupation 5 4 3 100% 80% 60% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 40% 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
13. In column 1, please create a list of people you go to for advice about job related topics or
information about career opportunities. Please list the most important people that you go to for advice based on the frequency you discuss your career with them as well as the weight you attach to their advice. Only list up to 20 of the most important people. This list may include family or friends if you talk with them about job related topics or career opportunities. Next, in column 2, indicate the names of other individuals on the list that the focal individual knows. For example: Person A on my list is Debbie. Her initials will go in column 1. She knows Robin, Cheryl, and Joan who are also on my list. In column 2, I will write their initials on the person A line. Network Members Column 1 Please place the names/initials of people Column 2 List the names or initials of other individuals within your
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you go to for career advice in this box. EG: Person A Person A Person B Person C Person D Person E Person F Person G Person H Person I Person J Person K Person L Person M Person N Person O Person P Person Q Person R Person S Person T Debbie
network (individuals listed in Column 1) that this person knows. Robin, Cheryl, Joan
14. Please list the initials of the people in your advice network (list in the same order as
above) and their line of work. For example: Person A, Debbie, dentist. In the third column, indicate the closeness of your relationship with each individual where 1 = not close at all and 3 = very close. Network Members Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Names or initials Line of work. Closeness of Relationship EG: Person A Debbie Dentist 1 2 3 Person A 1 2 3 Person B 1 2 3 Person C 1 2 3 Person D 1 2 3 Person E 1 2 3 Person F 1 2 3 Person G 1 2 3 Person H 1 2 3 Person I 1 2 3 Person J 1 2 3 Person K 1 2 3 Person L 1 2 3 Person M 1 2 3 Person N 1 2 3 Person O 1 2 3 Person P 1 2 3
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Person Q Person R Person S Person T
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
15. Career Transition In this section of the survey, we ask you to respond to statements concerning any recent career transition. a. Respond to the statements under #18 and #19 if you have transitioned or will transition within your current company/organization within the last/next 6 months. b. Respond to the statements under #20 and #21 if you have transitioned or will transition to a different company/organization within the last/next 6 months. c. Respond to the statements under #22 and #23 if you have changed or will change occupations or professions within the last/next 6 months. 16. Transition within your current company/organization Please answer the following questions ONLY if you have made/will make a transition within your current company/organization within the next 6 months. I have accepted a new job within my current company Yes The job that I have accepted is a promotion. Yes The job that I have accepted is in a different function than my current/previous Yes job (for example, your current/previous job is in the engineering function, the new job is in the marketing function). No No No
17. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent does the transition within your company or organization . . . A great deal Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill 5 4 requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with 5 4 everyday? Require membership in a new or in 5 4 additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different 5 4 values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)? Not a great deal 1
3
2
3 3
2 2
1 1
3
2
1
GOTO the demographic information section below. SKIP #20-24.
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18. Transition to a different company or organization Please answer the following questions ONLY if you are making a transition to a different organization or company within the last six months. I have accepted a job in a different organization The job that I have accepted is in the same occupation as my current/previous job (for example, you are an engineer with your current/previous employer and you will be an engineer at the new employer). The job that I have accepted is in a different function than my current/previous job (for example, at my current employer, I am in engineering, at the new employer, I will be in marketing). The job that I have accepted is in a different industry than my current/previous job (for example, your current employer is in the pharmaceutical industry, the new employer is in the automotive industry). Yes Yes No No
Yes
No
Yes
No
19. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent does the transition that you made to a different company or organization . . . A great deal Not a great deal 1
Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with everyday? Require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)?
5
4
3
2
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
5
4
3
2
1
GOTO the demographic information section below. SKIP #22-24.
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20. Transition to a different line of work or occupation Please answer this set of questions ONLY if you have made a transition to a different line of work or occupation. I have accepted a job in a different occupation or profession. Yes No
21. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent does the transition to a different line of work or occupation . . . A great deal Not a great deal 1
Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with everyday? Require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)?
5
4
3
2
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
5
4
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1
22. If you have made a career change that is not covered by questions 18, 20 or 22, please describe it here.
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Demographic Information Please provide the following demographic information about yourself. How long have you been in your current occupation/line of work? Less than one year 1 -2 years 3-5 years 6-10 years More than 10 years How would you describe your ethnicity What is your annual income? Less than $20,000 and/or race? $20,000 - $39,999 If none of the choices are a good description of you race and/or ethnicity, please provide a $40,000 - $59,999 better description under "Other". $60,000 - $79,999 $80,000 - $99,999 Native American/Alaska Native Greater than $100,000 Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islander African American/Black Caucasian/White Hispanic/Latino What is your gender? Male Female Other: Please indicate your highest educational How old are you? 20 – 30 years old level attained Some college - no degree 31 – 40 years old Two-year college degree (Associates) 41 – 50 years old Four year college degree (Bachelors) 51 – 60 years old Post graduate degree - Master's Degree Greater than 60 years old Advanced degree - Ph.D., JD, etc. How long have you worked with your What is your expected annual income following the transition you chose in #11? current company? Less than one year Less than $20,000 1 -5 years $20,000 - $39,999 6-10 years $40,000 - $59,999 11-15 years $60,000 - $79,999 16-20 years $80,000 - $99,999 21-25 years Greater than $100,000 26-30 years More than 30 years Trusted Other In this section, we ask that you provide the email address of a trusted other to provide a different perspective on the actions that you have taken during your consideration process. Please select someone who you trust with information about your decision making process:
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Email ___________________________
address:
Appendix D: Trusted Other Survey
Welcome to the Career Transitions Survey The purpose of the Career Transitions study is to gain a greater understanding of the process of career transition and how career identity and interpersonal relationships influence that process. You were named as a "trusted other" by a friend to provide information on their career transition process. Please complete the survey in the order in which the questions are listed. Within each part, you will see a set of directions that explain how to complete the items that follow. Please read these directions carefully as you proceed through the survey. There is one (1) page in total in this survey. Although we anticipate that it will take you only 10-20 minutes to complete the survey, you may exit the survey and return later to complete subsequent parts, if desired. To analyze the data, we need your explicit permission, which involves you reading and completing the consent form displayed next (after you click the continue button). Please note that completing this form, which allows us to analyze your data in a completely confidential aggregate form, is completely voluntary. If you have any questions about the survey process, please contact Holly Slay ([email protected], 585-475-7237) or M. Susan Taylor ([email protected]; 301-4052240). If you experience any technical problems with the survey itself, please direct your questions or problems to Holly Slay . We greatly appreciate your cooperation!
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Career Transition Behavior
In this section, we ask you to think about things that your friend has done within the last six months as they have considered a possible career transition. Please consider things that you have discussed previously or you have witnessed them do (rather than interviewing them using this survey). Read each statement carefully. For each statement, fill in the circle with the response that best represents your friend's behavior in the last six months.
1– strongly disagree They spend less time with coworkers from their current line of work They attend fewer occupational functions (professional organization meetings, etc) for their current line of work. They have decreased the frequency that they talk to coworkers and friends from their current line of work. Because they are considering a transition, they have decreased the amount of personal information that they share with coworkers and friends from current line of work. They have joined an organization associated with the line of work that they desire. They have subscribed to journals or magazines associated with the line of work that they desire. They are attending tranining classes or a certification program to prepare them for the line of work that they desire. They have talked to friends or relatives about beginning a new career. They have visited a career or placement counselor. They are "moonlighting" or have started working part-time to provide them with experience in a desired profession or career choice. They have requested a special assignment (project team, etc.) to provide them with experiences that will help them make a career transition. They have requested a sabbatical or leave of absence to pursue a possible career transition or follow a 2– somewhat disagree 3 – neither agree nor disagree 4– somewhat agree 5– strongly agree
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calling (such as short-term mission trip, etc.)
. The items below were used to indicate the type of career transition made by the focal individual.
Yes They have accepted a new job within their current company/organization. The job that they have accepted is a promotion. The job that they have accepted is in a different function than their current/previous job (for example, their current/previous job is in the engineering function, the new job is in the marketing function). They have accepted a job in a different company/organization The job that they have accepted is in the same occupation as their current/previous job (for example, your friend was an engineer with their previous/current organization and they will be an engineer at the new employer) The job that they have accepted is in a different function than their current job (for example, at their current/previous employer, they are in engineering, at the new employer, they will be in marketing) The job that they have accepted is in a different industry than their current/previous job (for example, their current/previous employer is in the pharmaceutical industry, the new employer is in the automotive industry). They have accepted a job in a different occupation or profession. No
Please describe the transition that your friend has made. For example, "John was a chemical engineer. He is now an elementary school teacher." If your friend has not made a career change, please write "no change" here.
____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
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Based on the description of your friend's career transition that you typed in # 9 above, please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent did your friend's career change . . .
1– strongly disagree 2– somewhat disagree 3– neither agree nor disagree 4– somewhat agree 5– strongly agree
. . . necessitate a change in knowledge or skill? . . . create a change in who they work with everyday? . . . require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, American Medical Association, etc.)? . . . create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as helping others, personal development, etc.)? . . . require them to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? . . . require the development of new areas of expertise? . . . necessitate the development of new relationships to accomplish their work? . . . require the adoption of a new or different code of conduct? . . . enables them to engage in achieving new or different purposes (profit maximization, the development of others, etc.)?
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Appendix E – Magnitude Pattern Coding
Magnitude Description of magnitude Sample transition within this magnitude code Pattern/ # of transition Mega Code cases with this magnitude 20 definitions of self Code #of cases using code % of cases using code 35.00
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work
age
7
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
age
1
9.09
authenticity authenticity
5 2
71.43 66.67
authenticity
12
60.00
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area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
authenticity
2
18.18
balance (seeking) balance (seeking)
3 1
42.86 33.33
balance (seeking)
5
25.00
20 definitions of self
calling
2
10.00
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5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 definitions of self
career choice is meaningful to self
14
70.00
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
5 Changing Professions
career choice is meaningful to self career choice is meaningful to self career choice is meaningful to self career choice is not meaningful to self
7
63.64
4
57.14
1
33.33
8
40.00
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
7 definitions of self 11 definitions of self
career choice is not meaningful to self career choice is not meaningful to self
2
28.57
3
27.27
124
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
failure and/or sense of self as failure failure and/or sense of self as failure
4
57.14
8
40.00
2 Changing functions
3 definitions of self 11 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
failure and/or sense of self as failure failure and/or sense of self as failure feeling of being lost
1
33.33
2
18.18
4
20.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self
feeling of being lost feeling of being lost
2
18.18
1
14.29
125
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 definitions of self
importance of positively influencing others in career choice (such as educator, priest, etc.) importance of positively influencing others in career choice (such as educator, priest, etc.) importance of positively influencing others in career choice (such as educator, priest, etc.) reflections on early career dreams reflections on early career dreams
11
55.00
7 definitions of self
2
28.57
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 definitions of self
3
27.27
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 definitions of self 7 definitions of self
1
33.33
2
28.57
126
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 definitions of self
reflections on early career dreams
5
25.00
11 definitions of self 11 definitions of self
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 definitions of self
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
20 definitions of self
reflections on early career dreams sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices
1
9.09
4
36.36
1
33.33
6
30.00
127
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 definitions of self
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 definitions of self
sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices statements about having good self esteem re: career
2
28.57
8
40.00
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
statements about having good self esteem re: career statements about having good self esteem re: career success or feeling that one is a success
3
27.27
1
14.29
13
65.00
3 Changing organizations
7 definitions of self
success or feeling that one is a success
4
57.14
128
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 Exit Behaviors
success or feeling that one is a success success or feeling that one is a success Borrow money
6
54.55
1
33.33
2
10.00
7 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
Career related counseling Career related counseling
2 5
28.57 25.00
20 Exit Behaviors
Courses or degree/ certification programs
9
45.00
129
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 Exit Behaviors
3 Exit Behaviors
3 Changing organizations
7 Exit Behaviors
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
7 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
Courses or degree/ certification programs Courses or degree/ certification programs Courses or degree/ certification programs developing relationships to change careers developing relationships to change careers
4
36.36
1
33.33
2
28.57
3
42.86
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 Exit Behaviors 11 Exit Behaviors
developing relationships to change careers Experiments with jobs usually within company
3
27.27
4
36.36
130
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 Exit Behaviors
Experiments with jobs usually within company
7
35.00
3 Exit Behaviors 7 Exit Behaviors 7 Exit Behaviors 3 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
Experiments with jobs usually within company Experiments with jobs usually within company job hunting job hunting
1
33.33
1
14.29
5 2
71.43 66.67
5 Changing Professions
job hunting
7
35.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 Exit Behaviors
job hunting
3
27.27
131
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own
7 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
membership in professional organization membership in professional organization
1
14.29
2
10.00
3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
7 Exit Behaviors 3 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
5 Changing Professions
not talking or avoiding talking with others not talking or avoiding talking with others not talking or avoiding talking with others
3
42.86
1
33.33
4
20.00
5 Changing Professions
20 Exit Behaviors
reading about possible career changes
3
15.00
132
practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 Exit Behaviors 7 Exit Behaviors 11 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
reading about possible career changes sabbatical sabbatical
1
9.09
1 1
14.29 9.09
simultaneous career experiences such as starting business or part time work
10
50.00
7 Exit Behaviors
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 Exit Behaviors
simultaneous career experiences such as starting business or part time work simultaneous career experiences such as starting business or part
3
42.86
1
9.09
133
time work
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 Exit Behaviors
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own
20 Exit Behaviors
talking with others about possible career transition talking with others about possible career transition
5
71.43
10
50.00
3 Exit Behaviors
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
11 Exit Behaviors
20 Exit Behaviors
talking with others about possible career transition talking with others about possible career transition transferring work to others
1
33.33
1
9.09
3
15.00
134
practice
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 Exit Behaviors
writing articles for journals, etc.
1
5.00
7 magnitude
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 magnitude
possible or intended career transitions, considerations possible or intended career transitions, considerations
4
57.14
9
45.00
11 magnitude
possible or intended career transitions, considerations
4
36.36
135
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
affirmation
7
35.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
affirmation
1
14.29
affirmation
1
9.09
career choice is meaningful to others
12
60.00
3 Changing organizations
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response
career choice is meaningful to others career choice is meaningful to others
4
57.14
5
45.45
136
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
5 Changing Professions
3 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
career choice is not meaningful to others career choice is not meaningful to others
1
33.33
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
11 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
career choice is not meaningful to others discouragement from others regarding career choice
1
9.09
8
40.00
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
3 network range and member response 7 network range and member response
discouragement from others regarding career choice discouragement from others regarding career choice
1
33.33
2
28.57
137
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
5 Changing Professions
7 network range and member response 3 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
dynamism
4
57.14
dynamism
1
33.33
dynamism
4
20.00
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
3 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
encouragement
2
66.67
encouragement
3
42.86
encouragement
8
40.00
138
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
encouragement
3
27.27
opinions of others are important
10
50.00
3 Changing organizations
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response
opinions of others are important
2
28.57
opinions of others are important
1
9.09
opinions of others are not important
3
42.86
opinions of others are not important
2
18.18
139
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
opinions of others are not important
3
15.00
5 Changing Professions
3 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
positive mentor
1
33.33
positive mentor
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 3 network range and member response
positive mentor
2
18.18
relationship change
3
42.86
relationship change
1
33.33
140
5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
relationship change
5
25.00
20 network range and member response
relationship ended
7
35.00
3 Changing organizations
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 3 network range and member response
relationship ended
1
33.33
relationship ended
1
14.29
reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice
2
66.67
141
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice
4
20.00
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice role models
1
14.29
1
9.09
2
28.57
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
role models
4
20.00
142
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
role models
1
9.09
support from significant others
4
57.14
support from significant others
10
50.00
11 network range and member response 20 opportunity evaluation
support from significant others
5
45.45
career change was gradual
8
40.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 opportunity career change evaluation was gradual
2
18.18
143
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc. 20 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc.
2
66.67
12
60.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work
7 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc. 11 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc. 20 opportunity money was a evaluation consideration
4
57.14
6
54.55
11
55.00
144
area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 opportunity money was a evaluation consideration 7 opportunity evaluation 7 opportunity evaluation 20 opportunity evaluation money was a consideration money was NOT a consideration money was NOT a consideration
5
45.45
3 4 8
42.86 57.14 40.00
11 opportunity money was NOT evaluation a consideration 20 opportunity opportunity to evaluation incorporate avocation
2
18.18
4
20.00
145
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 opportunity opportunity to evaluation incorporate avocation 11 opportunity opportunity was evaluation present 7 opportunity evaluation 20 opportunity evaluation opportunity was present opportunity was present
1
14.29
7
63.64
4 8
57.14 40.00
2 Changing functions
3 opportunity opportunity was evaluation present 20 opportunity spiritual or evaluation religious experience
1
33.33
5 Changing Professions
7
35.00
3 Changing organizations
7 opportunity spiritual or evaluation religious experience
1
14.29
146
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 opportunity spiritual or evaluation religious experience 7 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment 20 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment
1
9.09
4
57.14
11
55.00
2 Changing functions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
3 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment 11 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment 20 sense expresses worry making about career change
1
33.33
2
18.18
4
20.00
3 Changing organizations
7 sense making
feels thankful for chance to make career change
2
28.57
147
5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
20 sense making
feels thankful for chance to make career change
2
10.00
20 sense making
hope following transition
10
50.00
7 sense making 3 sense making 11 sense making
hope following transition hope following transition individual experienced pride in self as a result of transition individual experienced pride in self as a result of transition
3 1
42.86 33.33
4
36.36
3 sense making
1
33.33
148
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 sense making
individual experienced pride in self as a result of transition
2
10.00
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 sense making
individual expresses satisfaction with transition individual expresses satisfaction with transition
3
42.86
8
40.00
3 sense making
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 sense making
individual expresses satisfaction with transition individual expresses satisfaction with transition
1
33.33
2
18.18
149
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 sense making
individual learned about self through experiences
9
45.00
7 sense making
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
11 sense making
3 sense making
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work
20 sense making
individual learned about self through experiences individual learned about self through experiences individual learned about the profession or field through experiences individual learned about the profession or field through experiences individual learned about the profession or field through experiences
3
42.86
4
36.36
2
66.67
4
57.14
10
50.00
150
area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 sense making
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 sense making
3 Changing organizations
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 sense making
individual learned about the profession or field through experiences individual voices some regrets concerning transition individual voices some regrets concerning transition individual voices some regrets concerning transition
5
45.45
1
33.33
2
28.57
5
25.00
11 sense making
individual voices some regrets concerning transition
1
9.09
151
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 sense making
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 sense making
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 sense making
realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition
2
66.67
4
36.36
2
28.57
5
25.00
3 sense making 7 sense making 7 social and personal turbulence
transition was considered a bad decision transition was considered a bad decision family obligations
1
33.33
1
14.29
3
42.86
152
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 social and personal turbulence
family obligations
3
15.00
11 social and personal turbulence 3 social and personal turbulence 7 social and personal turbulence 20 social and personal turbulence
family obligations geographic move
1
9.09
1
33.33
geographic move
2
28.57
influence of societal events
4
20.00
3 Changing organizations
7 social and personal turbulence
personal tragedy
3
42.86
153
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own
20 social and personal turbulence
personal tragedy
2
10.00
3 validation
11 validation
7 validation
20 validation
feelings of fit with career, organization feelings of fit with career, organization feelings of fit with career, organization feelings of fit with career, organization
2
66.67
6
54.55
2
28.57
5
25.00
5 Changing Professions
20 validation
organization, profession is prestigious
10
50.00
154
practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions, from aviation mechanics to aviation safety Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 validation
7 validation
3 validation
organization, profession is prestigious organization, profession is prestigious Positive Ties
5
45.45
2
28.57
2
66.67
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
7 validation 20 validation
Positive Ties Positive Ties
4 11
57.14 55.00
2 Changing functions
3 validation
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 validation
satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks
2
66.67
6
54.55
155
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
7 validation
20 validation
satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks
3
42.86
8
40.00
5 Changing Professions
20 validation/ violation
freedom is available or sought
10
50.00
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
7 validation/ violation 11 validation/ violation 3 validation/ violation
freedom is available or sought freedom is available or sought mergers or reorganizations influenced career plans
3
42.86
3
27.27
2
66.67
156
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 validation/ violation
20 validation/ violation
mergers or reorganizations influenced career plans mergers or reorganizations influenced career plans
1
9.09
1
5.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
11 validation/ violation 20 validation/ violation
stability was important to individual stability was important to individual
2
18.18
3
15.00
5 Changing Professions
20 validation/ violation
work is challenging
2
10.00
157
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 validation/ violation 11 violation
work is challenging experiences discrimination experiences discrimination
1
9.09
2
18.18
20 violation
2
10.00
3 violation
expresses job dissatisfaction expresses job dissatisfaction expresses job dissatisfaction
2
66.67
7 violation 20 violation
4 10
57.14 50.00
11 violation
expresses job dissatisfaction
3
27.27
158
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 violation
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 violation
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 violation
expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc. expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc. expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc.
5
71.43
2
66.67
5
25.00
11 violation
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 violation
expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc. feelings of having reached a plateau feelings of having reached a plateau
2
18.18
1
33.33
7 violation
2
28.57
159
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 violation
feelings of having reached a plateau
5
25.00
11 violation
feelings of having reached a plateau feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers
2
18.18
20 violation
9
45.00
7 violation
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 violation
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 violation
feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers
3
42.86
1
33.33
3
27.27
160
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 violation
7 violation
20 violation
individual is denied a career opportunity individual is denied a career opportunity individual is denied a career opportunity
2
66.67
3
42.86
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
11 violation
7 violation
20 violation
individual is denied a career opportunity individual is seeking greater career control individual is seeking greater career control
2
18.18
3
42.86
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 violation
individual is seeking greater career control
2
18.18
161
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions, from aviation mechanics to aviation safety Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 violation
Negative Ties
2
66.67
7 violation 11 violation
Negative Ties Negative Ties
4 2
57.14 18.18
20 violation
Negative Ties
3
15.00
20 violation
perceptions that job, organization carries a stigma
3
15.00
7 violation
11 violation
perceptions that job, organization carries a stigma perceptions that job, organization carries a stigma
1
14.29
1
9.09
162
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 violation
5 Changing Professions
20 violation
threatened with job loss, being fired, downsizing, etc. threatened with job loss, being fired, downsizing, etc.
1
33.33
3
15.00
3 Changing organizations
7 violation
threatened with job loss, being fired, downsizing, etc.
1
14.29
163
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Super, D.E. (1957). The psychology of careers. New York: Harper & Row. Super, D.E. (1990). A life span, life space approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (eds.), Career choice and development (pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Swann Jr., W.B. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet. Journal of Personality and social Psychology, 53, 1038-1051. Swann Jr., W.B., & Ely, R.J. (1984). A battle of wills: Self-verification versus behavioral confirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1287-1302. Swann Jr., W.B., & Hill, C.A. (1982). When our identities are mistaken: Reaffirming self-conceptions through social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 59-66. Swann Jr., W.B., Stein-Seroussi, A., & Giesler, B. (1992). Why people self-verify. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 392-401. Thompson, J. A., & Van de Ven, A. H. (2002). Commitment shift during organizational upheaval: Physicians' transitions from private practitioner to employee. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(3), 382-404. Tice, D.M., & Wallace, H.M. (2003). The reflected self: Creating yourself as (you think) others see you. In M.R. Leary & J.P. Tagney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 91-105). New York: Guilford Press. Visser, P.S., Krosnick, J.A., & Lavrakas, P.J. (2000). Survey research. In H.T. Resi & C.M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 223-252). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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doc_194847462.pdf
A social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies (social units, see differentiation). The term is used to describe a social structure determined by such interactions.
ABSTRACT
Title of Document:
THE INFLUENCE OF CAREER IDENTITY AND SOCIAL NETWORKS ON CAREER TRANSITION MAGNITUDE. Holly Selena Slay, PhD, 2006
Directed By:
Professor M. Susan Taylor, Smith School of Business, Management and Organization
Increasingly, scholars and journalists are suggesting that there is a trend toward greater magnitude in career transitions signified by the crossing of career boundaries (such as level, functional, organizational, industry and professional boundaries). To date, much of the quantitative empirical research suggests that organizational, relational and environmental factors influence career transition behavior. However, while we know that these external influences may cause an individual to transition, we know less about the process through which career transitions evolve, especially those of larger magnitude and how forces internal to the individual may help to explain variance above and beyond these external factors. In this dissertation, I use qualitative and quantitative methodologies to develop and refine a model of career transition focusing on career transition magnitude. Specifically, I use research from social identity, social networks and role exit theory to develop a model of career transition magnitude that posits career identity (the cognitive representation of the
self derived from past career experiences, beliefs, values, attributes and motives that define the individual in terms of their career) and network characteristics (the pattern of interpersonal relationships) influence the magnitude of intended career transition, the career exit behaviors one engages in and the evaluation of career opportunities. Further, I use path analysis to find that career exit behaviors are influenced by the magnitude of the intended career transition as well as strong coworker ties and social and personal turbulence. Additionally, I find that the favorable evaluation of career transition opportunities is impacted by career identity centrality and organizational satisfaction. Finally, I find that the magnitude of the intended career transition is influenced by the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities, network career range, organizational satisfaction and social and personal turbulence. Theoretical and practical contributions are discussed.
THE INFLUENCE OF CAREER IDENTITY AND SOCIAL NETWORKS ON CAREER TRANSITION MAGNITUDE
By
Holly Selena Slay
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2006
Advisory Committee: Professor M. Susan Taylor, Chair Professor Violina Rindova Professor Ken G. Smith Professor Ian O. Williamson Professor Paul Hanges
© Copyright by Holly Selena Slay 2006
Dedication
To Mom and Dad You are more than just my parents. You gave me a love of books and knowledge. You encouraged thinking and debate. You taught me that quiet reflection could be as fun as raucous laughter. In doing so, you provided me with tools to begin the scholarly journey that produced this manuscript. My prayer is that I will use the gifts you’ve provided to produce work that makes a positive difference.
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Acknowledgements
When I left Evansville, Indiana and Mead Johnson Nutritionals to begin my doctoral program at the University of Maryland, I had no idea what I had undertaken. I thought I was completing a degree program that would allow me to teach at the college level. I had no idea that I would develop a passion for research or that the word “identity” would become a mantra infecting almost every waking hour (yes, I really do see identity themes everywhere). Nor did I realize the role the relationships in my life would play in shaping me professionally and personally. My family has been an amazing source of love and support throughout the process. Mom and Dad, thank you for believing in me and encouraging me to follow this dream. Cheryl, I appreciate you beyond words. Thanks for listening to me and my friends talk about research and papers at what were meant to be parties. Thanks for taking me away to the Eastern Shore after comps and obliging my incessant requests for dinner in the Harbor. Thanks for hearing me rail during the process and encouraging me at every step. You are truly my best friend. Yvonne, JoAnne, and Lorenzo, you are incredible siblings. I’m always impressed by the quality of our conversations and I believe my first PhD seminars were around our dinner table. I was fortunate to share this journey with an amazing group of doctoral students at the University of Maryland. Meredith Burnett , Mike Pfarrer, Long Jiang, Dax Basdeo (and Marilyn, too), Tony Petkova, Sharon Hill, Jay Carson, Qing Cao, and Gosia Langa challenged my thinking in seminars, shared summaries, provided feedback on research ideas and offered social support.
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Patrick and Sara Maggitti, Amanuel Tekleab, Lisa Dragoni, Jen Marrone and Katy Decelles have been a source of remarkable support, encouragement and friendship. I really don’t know how to thank you for expressing your belief in my research, your help with my quantitative analysis (thanks, Amanuel), personal insights on career and life, fun and wine. You are all incredibly important to me. My research shows the power of the social network in career transitions. However, I’ve come to personally experience how being a part of an incredible network of minority PhD students and faculty can shape identity and influence one’s dreams. Therefore, I’d like to thank the PhD Project and Ian Williamson for helping create the “possible self” that sees endless possibilities and has the efficacy to believe that I can become that self. The dissertation process can be a harrowing one and lots of people fail to complete it. So, I’d like to thank my chair, Susan Taylor, and my committee, Ken Smith, Ian Williamson, Violina Rindova, and Paul Hanges, for your support and for compelling me to revise the dissertation after the defense. Your feedback has made it a much better product and has helped me to become a better researcher – thank you. Finally, to Danika and David, Garen and John, Lorenzo III and Cejoi. What a great heritage we descendants of Mattie and Sylvester Rowell have! I dedicate this manuscript to you, knowing that you can and will do greater things and have careers that transcend what we can imagine today. I look forward to your inaugurations, acceptance of Nobel Peace Prizes, creating art and vaccines, and succoring the oppressed and helpless. Don’t let anyone look down on you because
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you are young, but set an example for the believers in speech, in life, in love, in faith, and in purity – 1 Timothy 4:12.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements...................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents......................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .............................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................ viii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Exploratory Qualitative Study................................ 6 Chapter 3: Methods..................................................................................................... 45 Chapter 4: Results ....................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................ 78 Appendix A: Biographical Narrative Instrument....................................................... 94 Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................ 96 Appendix C: Pilot and Quantitative Study Instruments........................................... 100 Appendix D: Trusted Other Survey ......................................................................... 118 Appendix E – Magnitude Pattern Coding................................................................. 122 References................................................................................................................. 164
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List of Tables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Summary of Career Transitions Research………………………………….…..5 Study Respondents and Career Transitions Included in Study………………..13 Qualitative Data Structure Overview …………………………………………19 Career Transition Magnitude Analysis by Pattern Code, Provisional Code….21 Network Member Career Range……………………………………………....31 Pilot Study Variable Means, SDs, and Intercorrelations.………………..……44 Quantitative Study Variable Means, SDs, and Intercorrelations.......................52 Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict Factor Analysis………..……55 Organizational Satisfaction, Strong Coworker Ties, and Social and Personal Turbulence Factor Analysis……………………………………………..……..56 10. Opportunity Evaluation Factor Analysis………………………………………57 11. Magnitude Factor Analysis…………………………………………………….57 12. Reidentification and Disengagement Factor Analysis…………………………58 13. Path Coefficients for Alternative Model.............................................................62 14. Summary of Hypotheses and Findings………………………………………...68 15. Trusted Other Variable Means, SDs and Intercorrelations…………………….71
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List of Figures
1. Biographical Narrative for Interviewee #105 – Michelle………………….13 2. Theoretical Framework for the Determination of Career Transition Magnitude.....................................................................................................39 3. Path Diagram for Original Conceptual Model……………………………..60 4. Path Diagram for Alternative Model………………………………………61 5. Path Diagram with Control Variables……………………………………...67 6. Trusted Other Analysis Path Diagram……………………………………..73 7. Cycle of Career Transition Magnitude Determination……………………..81
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Chapter 1: Introduction
“Most people who have made big career changes have heard loved ones tell them, ‘You’re out of your mind.’ Sabotage is not their intention, but a shared history has entrenched certain expectations, and reinventing oneself can amount to breaking the implicit ‘contract,’”(Ibarra, 2003, p. 121) Although there is increasing interest in career transitions, we know relatively little about how the magnitude or size of career transitions is chosen especially, as suggested in the above quote, why individuals choose to make “big career changes” that expose one to social censure and changing or modifying one’s identity (“reinventing oneself”). Career transition magnitude is defined by how novel or far reaching the personal and professional adjustments are required to make the transition a reality (Nicholson & West, 1989). Because the nature of the personal and professional adjustments differ as a function of transition size, it is also likely that the process and consequences of transition differ as a function of size (Bruce & Scott, 1994; Kirschenbaum & Weisberg, 2002; Latack, 1984; Louis, 1980; Stephens, 1994). Given the potentially increasing number and size of career transitions (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; DeFillippi & Arthur, 1994) and the importance of career identity in how people define the global self (Hall, 2002; Baker & Aldrich, 1996), addressing issues of career transition magnitude and career identity change is critical. Unfortunately, our current understanding of career transitions and career identity may be insufficient to help us understand the career transition process as it relates to the determination of career transition size. First, there is a dearth of literature on the subject of career transition magnitude. In general, when career 1
transition has been studied in the literature, the empirical studies have tended to focus on career change that is internal to a single organization. Although almost twenty years ago Nicholson and West (1989) stated that career transition magnitude is an important topic for future career transition research, Table 1 demonstrates that the research has been focused primarily on career transitions that are internal to organizations. This table was constructed by conducting queries of the Social Sciences Citation Index using the terms career and transition, work role and transition, and job and transition. The list is compiled from articles in ten peer reviewed, well respected journals that publish careers research: Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Organization Science, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes and Personnel Psychology. In the fifty-seven studies that met the criterion imposed on the search, only 8 (14%) discussed occupational change or transitions to a different profession. The vast majority (63%) of the studies discussed internal mobility or turnover (studies of transitions between organizations that do not specifically address career transition magnitude). In a similar manner, the literature on changes in career identity is primarily on professional adaptation to new roles (Ibarra, 1999, Pratt, Rockmann & Kaufmann, forthcoming) and it is not clear that insights concerning adaptation to roles within organization or even within professions can be transferred to adaptation to roles within new organizations or new professions. For example, research on professional
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adaptation is rooted in identity theory and, as a result, examines the impact of others perceptions of the individual on identity construction within the same profession. To illustrate, in Ibarra’s (1999) influential research on provisional selves, the participants are junior consultants or bankers that move from serving in analytic roles to more senior roles managing client relationships in thesame organization . However, it is not clear that the perceptions of others plays a similar role when people are deconstructing and reconstructing the self (Ebaugh, 1988) and the required changes in identity are more substantial such as leaving medicine or the priesthood to pursue entirely different careers including those of less status. Further, career transition research to date, even that which looks at sizeable career transitions (Ibarra, 2003) may not be sufficient to explain the serial, voluntary career transitions of varying magnitude that occur within the careers of many individuals. As a result, the literature currently offers career transition “snippets” rather than a holistic understanding of career transition, career identity and how one makes sense of their career. The purpose of this dissertation is to build and enrich theory around how individuals determine the size of a given career transition and “reinvent” their career identity to make such a career transition and therefore I examine the process of career transitions in two ways. First, in an exploratory qualitative study, I examine careers over the life course in alignment with early pioneers of career theory who suggested that “career” includes institutionalized roles as well as avocations where individuals are sometimes moving vertically but the career is not limited to vertical movement (Barley, 1989) and therefore I use biographical narratives to gain a better
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understanding of how individuals construct, navigate and make sense of the career over time rather than cross-sectionally. Second, I test a model based on the results of the exploratory qualitative study by quantitatively measuring the behaviors and perceptions of individuals concerning a current career transition. Although my interest is in building and enriching theory, I begin this dissertation by providing a brief theoretical review of career transition and career transition magnitude in Chapter 2.
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Table 1 Summary of Career Transitions Research
Type of Transition Internal mobility - promotions, level changes, job rotation, developmental experiences Number of Studies and Citation 16 Zhao & Zhou, 2004; Ibarra, 1999; Mael, Waldman, & Mulqueen, 2001; Singh & Greenhaus, 2004; Finegold, Mohrman, & Spreitzer, 2002, Ostroff & Clark, 2001; McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994; Murrell, Frieze, & Olson, 1996; Miner, 1987; Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994; Bruce & Scott, 1994; Miner & Robinson, 1994; Ohlott, Ruderman, & McCauley, 1994; Kondratuk, Hausdorf, Korabik, & Rosin, 2004; Latack, 1984; Prince, 2003 4 Noe & Barber, 1993, Eby & Dematteo, 2000, Feldman & Bolino, 1998, Munton & West, 1995 3 Kraimer & Wayne, 2004, Gregersen & Stroh, 1997, Gregersen & Black, 1996 2 Singh & Greenhaus, 2004, Bruce & Scott, 1994 2 Raghuram, Wiesenfeld, & Garud, 2003, Raghuram, Garud, Wiesenfeld, & Gupta, 2001 2 Thompson & Van de Ven, 2002, Wrzesniewski, 2001 5 Singh & Greenhaus, 2004, Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003, Ashford & Black, 1996, Chao, O'Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein, & Gardner, 1994, Jackson, Stone, & Alvarez, 1992 7 Pearce & Randel, 2004, Higgins, 2001, Kondratuk et al., 2004, Blau, 2000, Blau & Lunz, 1998, Lynn, Cao, & Horn, 1996, Blau, Tatum, & Ward-Cook, 2003 8 Smart & Peterson, 1997, Blau, 2000, Blau & Lunz, 1998, Oleski & Subick, 1996, Snape & Redman, 2003, Lee, Carswell, & Allen, 2000, Lynn et al., 1996, Blau et al., 2003 2 Robson, Wholey, & Barefield, 1996, Miner & Robinson, 1994 3 Feldman, 1994, Blau, 2000, Blau & Lunz, 1998 2 Stephens, 1994, Arnold & Nicholson, 1991 1 Mirvis & Hall, 1994
Internal mobility geography/relocation Internal mobility - expatriate adjustment/repatriation Internal mobility change in function Internal change (telecommuting work style changes) Role change brought on by organizational change (physicians that change from practitioner to employee) Organizational entry
Change in organization (move from one organization to another)
Change in “field” (move from one occupation or profession to another) External mobility (unknown destination) Retirement Psychological orientation Nonwork roles
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Chapter 2: Literature Review and Exploratory Qualitative Study
Career Transitions and Magnitude: A Brief Review Studies involving career transition magnitude have been few (Latack, 1984; Bruce & Scott, 1994), thus, the construct has not been well defined. One of the earliest definitions is provided by Nicholson and West (1989) who define career transition magnitude1 in terms of the demands placed on the individual, that is, the novelty or radicalness of the career change in relation to one’s current career role. Therefore, magnitude may be defined along a continuum ranging from low magnitudes, where there are minimal demands associated with transition, to high magnitudes where the change is dramatic. For example, a career transition involving intraorganizational movement such as changing from one job to another within the same function is a relatively low magnitude transition while a career transition that breaks industry or occupational boundaries would be characterized as a high magnitude transition. I further refine the definition of career magnitude to reflect that the demands associated with career transition magnitude can be thought of in terms of changes in career competencies: knowing why, knowing what and knowing whom (DeFillippi & Arthur, 1994, 1996). Knowing why competencies speak to identity or the beliefs, values and definition of self applied in the career context. Knowing what refers to the knowledge and skills associated with a particular career experience. Finally, knowing whom competencies reflect the relationships needed to learn and facilitate career growth. Thus, career transitions of low and high magnitude are differentiated by the
1
Nicholson uses the term amplitude to discuss the size of a career transition in terms of how radical or novel the change is compared with the previous career role.
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degree to which a change in career choice or a new career role will demand significant investments in new relationships, skills, knowledge and changes in the career identity. Several theories implicitly or explicitly address the process of career transition and examine how or why individuals make career transitions of varying magnitudes. From these literatures, I identified three theories as especially helpful in understanding career transition magnitude: career and role transitions, social network theory and role exit theory. Though I ultimately found that each perspective provides insights into how individuals determine the magnitude of the transition they will pursue, none are adequate to explain my findings. This is due, in part to the fact that career magnitude is rarely discussed in studies of career transition (Bruce & Scott, 1994; Kirschenbaum & Weisberg, 2002; Latack, 1984; Nicholson & West, 1989). Career/Role Transitions. Research on career and role transition suggest that the process of career transition is cyclical comprised of preparation for the change, initial sensemaking once one is in the new role (encounter) followed by adjustment to provide for greater fit between the individual and the new role. Finally, the individual settles into the new role (stabilization) and the cycle begins again with preparation for entrance into the next role (Nicholson, 1984, 1987, Nicholson & West, 1989). In this literature, transitions are largely inter-organizational and role changes are imposed upon individuals. In contrast Rhodes and Doering’s (1983, 1993) work on career change process does examine movement to a new occupation but defines this type of career change as atypical career movement and does not examine “job change” such as promotions at all. Thus, much of the transition literature stops short of examining
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how the career transition may be affected by changes in career magnitude ranging from promotion to voluntary changes in profession or movement outside of an organization. The research on career and role transitions also discusses identity change as a function of role change. According to Nicholson (1984), an individual may change their values, goals and self concept (absorption), may make changes in the assumed role (determination) or may experience and enact personal and role changes (exploration). Ibarra contributes significantly to this literature by examining the process of career transition and noting that individuals experiment with identity by observing others, determining identities that “match”, and imitating and adapting those identities to discover the self best suited for the new role. While this research describes the process of identity construction, it focuses on identity as an outcome of transition but says little about identity change as an antecedent of career choice or how identity change might determine the size of career changes. Social Network Theory. A second literature that either implicitly or explicitly deals with career transition magnitude is research on social networks. Research on social networks and careers has investigated the relationship between network structure and career change. For example, Granovetter’s (1973) seminal work on the strength of weak ties demonstrated that connections between individuals served as conduits for career information, specifically, career opportunities. Recent social networks/careers research has also explored the relationship of career range (the diversity in the social network) to career change. Higgins (2001) found that individuals with broad career networks were more likely to change careers than
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individuals with narrow career networks. She speculates that the positive relationship between network range and career change is the result of the importation of both opportunity and identity information. Further, there is recognition that social networks are critical to the understanding of one’s career identity. “Social identity emerges through network processes: the people around us are active players in the co-creation of who we are at work. Our work identities are created, deployed and altered in social interactions with others” (Ibarra, Kilduff, & Tsai, 2005, p. 363). However, little is said of how social interactions and changes in work identities may influence the size or magnitude of the career transition that one chooses. Role Exit Theory. A third literature that deals with the process of career transition and career transition magnitude more directly is role exit theory. Ebaugh defines role exit as “the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity and the reestablishment of an identity in a new role that takes into account one’s ex-role” (p. 1). For example, Ebaugh studied ex-nuns, women who left the cloister to marry or pursue secular careers. Ebaugh also argues that there are two major steps in the role exit process: disengagement and re-identification.2 Disengagement, defined as withdrawing from relationships associated with the role exited, is characterized by a reduction in the number ofrelationships associated with the role that is being left, less frequent contact with individuals
Ebaugh (1988) actually uses the terms disidentification. However, that term is used by organizational scholars to describe antagonism toward one’s connection with an organization (Bhattacharya & Elsbach, 2002; Elsbach & Bhattacharya, 2001). Therefore, I choose the term re-identification to give the sense of disconnecting from and establishing a new career identity as well as to avoid confusion with the definition of disidentitifaction used in prior organizational studies.
2
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associated with that role and a decrease in the quality or intimacy of the interaction with individuals associated with the role one is leaving (Kahn, 1990). The role exit process also includes re-identification. Re-identification occurs when individuals shift identities, that is, define themselves according to the current role less and adopt a definition of self consistent with the role they are adopting. Thus, individuals may shift reference groups and internalize the norms and values of the desired group showing greater identification with the new group and the desired role. However, to date, careers researchers have done little investigation of how role exit and the concomitant changes in identity influence the size of career transition. Thus, while research in role exit theory, career/role transitions and social network theory is promising, these concepts remain a loose set of confederates providing little insight into the relationship between career identity and career transition magnitude determination. I seek to redress this shortcoming by building theory on how career transition magnitude is determined and career transitions of various magnitudes are pursued. METHODS Sample and Participants The aim of this section of the dissertation is to build theory in the area of career transition and to extend existing theory on career transitions and determination of career transition magnitude. I adopt the view held by Nicholson and West that “career” describes the sense that individuals make of their work histories or sequence of work experiences and, as a result, qualitative research is uniquely positioned to provide an opportunity to explore the ways individuals come to understand their
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careers (Miles & Huberman, 1994) by capturing the individuals perceptions of their careers in their own words. In order to build and elaborate theory, I searched for participants that could offer variety across the types of career transition magnitude possible (Stake, 2000). That is, the sample for the exploratory qualitative study contains individuals that have experienced at least two career transitions of varying magnitudes. Therefore, there are individuals within the sample who have made career transitions of large magnitude as well as those that have experienced transitions of small magnitude. Further, individuals were obtained through snowball sampling (Visser, Krosnick, & Lavrakas, 2000). In snowball sampling, respondents are asked to identify individuals that would also serve as good study respondents. While snowball sampling does not ensure a random sample of respondents, it is an excellent method to gather study subjects for theory building when the sampling characteristic is somewhat uncommon. Therefore, I asked my initial respondents if they knew of other people who had made significant career transitions in an attempt to locate people who would have experienced transitions of varying magnitudes. Table 2.1 describes each respondent and their career transitions. Data collection was accomplished through two complementary processes: biographical narratives and semi-structured interviews. Interviews and biographical information were collected from 12 individuals. These narratives covered 42 career transitions or approximately 3.5 career transitions per person. 33% or 4 of the participants were male. 58% or 7 of the participants were married. The individuals
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within the sample were all over 30 years of age. All the participants in the sample had a bachelor’s degree. Most also had advanced degrees (83% or 10 participants). Although this study involves a small number of respondents, the number of cases or transitions analyzed (42) provides for a rich understanding of career transition magnitude and the dual data collection methods help to establish theoretical saturation which is defined as occurring when new data fits into categories that have been previously defined (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Charmaz, 2000). I read through each of the biographical narratives developing preliminary codes and their properties. Then, I conducted semi-structured interviews with respondents. The codes developed during the analysis of the biographical narratives were used and described in the analysis of the semi-structured interviews. I provide a detailed review of the data collection methods below. Biographical Narratives. To complete the biographical narrative, participants were asked to think about their career history as a book. They were asked to write an introduction to the story that provides an overview and any background that might be relevant to the reader. Next, the individuals were instructed to think of each career transition as a chapter in the book and to describe when the transition occurred (age), and provide a title for each chapter. Finally, they were asked to write an epilogue where they reflected on the experiences and discussed the sense they have made of the story and where they believed their career was headed next. The length of the biographical narratives ranged from 1 to 8 pages. A short sample narrative is provided in Figure 2.1.
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Table 2.1 Study Respondents and Career Transitions Included in Study
Name John Transition 1 From chemistry major (college and first job) to industrial sales From college to variety of psychology jobs and Master’s From political science major (college and first job) to seminary From law student to first job in law firm Moving within organization to various jobs and departments (analyst) From variety of jobs to college administrati on From priest to jobs with the state From musician and promoter to law student From college to series of temp jobs Transition 2 From industrial sales to academia Transition 3 Transition 4 Transition 5 Transition 6
Mary
Barbara
From counselor (master’s degree) to PhD psychologist From seminary to work at nonprofit
From full time to part time psychologist and new organization From nonprofit to stay-athome parenting
From stay at home parenting to coordinator
From coordinator to psychologist with an organization (PhD)
From psychologist to private practice
Susan
Michelle
Moving within law firm practice areas From analyst to manager
From lawyer to priest
Shelby
Derrick
Ken
From college admin to PhD program in college admin From jobs with the state to professor From law student to lawyer
From manager back to various jobs and departments (analyst) From PhD program to college admin
From analyst to private law practice
From college admin to HR
From professor to retirement From lawyer to lawyer in a different firm From nonprofit to part-time work From lawyer to consultant, author From parttime work to entrepreneur
Sheila
From series of temp jobs to non-profit
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Paul
Marilyn
From engineering to MBA From fulltime to contract lawyer From aviation mechanic to aviation safety
Jessica
From MBA to entrepreneur From contract lawyer to doctoral student From aviation safety to aviation law
From entrepreneur to academia
To different law firms within aviation law
From private law firms to the federal government
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Intro to career history I started working on a job that influenced my career choices early – in high school, when I was employed as a student reporter for a regional newspaper. This was meaningful because I had always been told I was a good writer, and planned to major in Journalism upon entering college, which I did (Communications major). I have remained an active writer throughout my career, and it plays a major role in my current profession as a lawyer. State and Age Pre-career stage, 16 Realizing necessity of college degree, 19 Post-college secretarial work, 21 Planning for graduate school, 22 Move to Atlanta, 23 Enrollment in Grad school, 25 Receipt of M.P.A. degree, 27 Federal employment, 27-43 Graduation from law school, 33 Transition from management, 27 Complete upheaval & confusion, 37-43 Resignation & entrepreneurship, 43 Chapter Title Evolving as a Journalist Not just a Kelly Girl The Wyatt Years No Plan, No Future Overqualified Secretary On My Way First Real Job – Presidential Mgt Internship The Land of Opportunity First managerial position First “Failure” Escape Reborn: Charting my own course
Epilogue Stepping out from a secure job, starting my own practice and thereby finding my own way has proved more exciting, “right”, and timely that I could have imagined. I have found new opportunities, colleagues, confidence and even a meshing with my singing avocation. I have learned to trust my intuition, to take a chance, to realize that opportunities are there for the taking. There are some sacrifices; I took a 60% pay cut. But I hope, and believe, the monetary rewards are forthcoming. The rewards of freedom and meaning are already being realized. I have no regrets, except perhaps that I had done it sooner, and had take care of a few more financial details first. The future holds whatever I can handle and attempt. It amazes me that within six months of resigning from my job I have almost more clients than I can handle, have gained visibility and prominence within my new arena, and am thinking of ways to manage growth while expanding. Amazing. At the same time, the amount of work for which I am now responsible can be overwhelming, and requires management as well. Yet when I think of what I was managing before – frustration, a sense of aimlessness and insignificance, feeling I had maximized my potential 20 years before retirement, disconnectedness from my work in particular and career success in general – the tradeoff seems more than fair! I am grateful to have made the transition, and anticipate a bright and challenging career future. Figure 2.1. Biographical Narrative of Interviewee #105 - Michelle
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Semi-structured Interviews. After I received the biographical narrative, I conducted interviews with each respondent. The interviews took place face-to-face as well as by telephone. The interviews ranged from approximately 60-120 minutes. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim3. Additionally, I took detailed notes of each interview. The interviews selectively discussed transitions based on magnitude and recency. I took this approach to maximize the value of the information collected in the limited interview time frames. Although interview protocols were modified during data collection to take advantage of emerging themes (Spradley, 1979), common to each interviews were questions about: a) the meaningfulness of the career choice to the individual and significant others (career identity centrality), b) career transition considerations, c) descriptions of defining moments and subsequent career exit behaviors, d) network characteristics and network member reactions to career transition decisions and e) consequences associated with the career transition. Data Analysis In an iterative fashion, I analyzed the qualitative data by traveling back and forth between the data and theory as a structure of theoretical arguments emerged (Miles & Huberman, 1994, Pratt et al forthcoming). This analysis utilized three major steps. Step 1: Creating a provisional “start list” of codes. This list was based on a preliminary conceptual framework derived from the literature review as suggested by
3
One interview was not recorded because of technical difficulties (interview #104). However, the notes were sent electronically to the respondent to ensure accuracy. The respondent provided a review and additional information as requested.
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Miles and Huberman (1994). I initially conceptualized career transition magnitude as being driven primarily by the individual’s career identity. However, I also posited that the opinions of significant others have an influence on the size of career transitions and that the actual size of a career transition is influenced by the exit behaviors individuals engage in as they consider career transition. Contact summary sheets were written up after each of the first nine interviews to allow reflection on emerging concepts and themes (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The information surfaced by the use of the contact summary sheets was used to establish new codes as well as questions that should be used in subsequent interviews. As new codes were added, I reviewed transcripts and biographical narratives to determine if there was data that fit into the new codes. This review of data led to the clarification of code definitions as well as abandoning other codes. Step 2: Between case analysis of provisional codes and creating pattern codes. To develop pattern codes, I examined the summary sheets across interviews and looked for common themes between informants as well as differences among informants with transitions of varying magnitudes. “Pattern codes are explanatory or inferential codes that identify an emergent them, configuration or explanation…they are a sort of mega codes (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 69). For example, as I looked across informants it became clear that career transitions of large magnitude take longer and are discussed by respondents as “gradual” (42% of transitions involving profession or occupational change) and preceded by a career transition considerations of various size (47% of transitions involving profession or occupational change had statements concerning career transition considerations)
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while smaller transitions such as promotion were described as gradual less frequently (16%) and considerations were discussed in fewer cases (33%). Step 3. Developing constructs and a theoretical framework. Once pattern codes were developed, I formed theoretical categories and initial propositions concerning the relationship between these categories. Additionally, I examined the data for “conceptual analogues” (Miles & Huberman, 1994) in the extant literature to provide support for the emergent conceptual framework. For example, the consideration of career transitions of various magnitudes seemed to be a part of career growth and career identity development (Hall, 2002). Career growth is defined as “the actual creation of new aspects of the self, in the career area” (p. 72). Thus, I hypothesized that career transition considerations are positively related to behaviors associated with reshaping the career identity (re-identification) and disengagement activities that move the individual toward development of the self and the career. The process that I followed is summarized in Table 2.2. This shows the provisional codes, pattern codes, and the key constructs of the theoretical framework. The framework describes the process of career transition magnitude determination.
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Table 2.2. Qualitative Data Structure Overview
Provisional Codes Statements that indicate career identity centrality or that the career was meaningful to the individual (e.g. “seeing direct impacts” on clients, “rewarding”, “passionate”) Pattern Codes There are many things that indicate the meaningfulness of the career to an individual’s definition self such as allows authenticity, balance, or a return to earlier selves, etc. Individuals also discuss the importance of other identities in global self-concept which may conflict with career identity. Key Constructs Definitions of self: Career identity centrality Identity conflict
Statements about the work environment offering (or failing to offer) validating experiences, challenge, fit, freedom, job satisfaction, prestige, positive or negative ties, etc.
Statements about factors that external or societal factors that pushed respondents in to pursing a career transition that was considered Statements concerning exit behaviors Active behaviors such as borrowing money, counseling, taking courses or enrolling in degree programs, experimentation, job hunting, joining or becoming more active in professional organizations, reading, relationship building, seeking role models, sabbaticals, simultaneous roles, talking, transitioning work, etc. Many people indicate that the responses of network members were important in transition magnitude. Additionally, dynamism in the careers of others as well as the role models in the network influenced magnitude of transition considerations. Considerations come in all magnitudes and are the result of self-reflection, information from counselors and others, gradual as there is constant evaluation and exploration, learning about career and learning about self resulting in career growth and personal development Statements that indicate how individuals evaluate career alternatives such as whether it allows some expression of an avocation, family concerns may play a role in evaluation (both financial, geography), spouse’s move, insecurities, money (or not money), other perspectives, spiritual considerations Statements about “bad” decisions, realizations about self or career path post transition, regrets, worry as well as hope for becoming the person that they want to be, excitement, optimism, pride, satisfaction, social, and thanksgiving.
Validation and Violation of Self: Organizational satisfaction and Strong coworker ties Challenges to Self: Social and personal turbulence Experimenting with Self: Reidentfication and Disengagement
Statements concerning the response of network members to cues of career transition Statements that indicate consideration of possible career alternatives (“I considered working for another firm”, “considered teaching”)
Reflections of Self: Network structure and response Magnitude considerations
Opportunity evaluation
Statements concerning the negative and positive consequences of career transitions
Transition sensemaking
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I continue with a brief overview of my findings and this chapter concludes with the hypotheses used in the quantitative study of the process of career transition magnitude determination. FINDINGS Upon looking at the data from the respondents, two main findings emerged. First, there are differences in the process of career transition as a function of magnitude. As noted in Table 2.3 (a truncated version of the magnitude pattern coding provided in its entirety in Appendix E), some constructs were mentioned in high magnitude transition cases more frequently than in those of low magnitude transition cases. Second, Table 2.2 reflects career identity plays a strong role in the process of career transitions and especially in transitions of increasing magnitude such that even organizational or societal events, for example, were seen as validations, violations, or challenges to the understanding of self (Appendix E).
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Table 2.3. Career Transition Magnitude Analysis by Pattern Code, Provisional Code
Magnitude Description of Transition
5 Changing professions
Sample Transition
Analyst to lawyer, from aviation mechanic to aviation lawyer Remaining as a psychologist but changing organizations Analyst to lawyer, from aviation mechanic to aviation lawyer Analyst to lawyer, from aviation mechanic to aviation lawyer Transitioning from career as “student” to pursuing career path dictated by major – law student to lawyer Moving within an single organization to a number of positions Remaining as a psychologist but changing organizations
# of transitions with magnitude
20
Pattern Code
Exit behaviors
Code
Borrow money
# transitions with code
2
% transitions with code
10
3
Changing organizations
7
Exit behaviors
Career counseling
2
29
5
Changing professions
20
Exit behaviors
Career counseling
5
20
5
Changing professions
20
Exit behaviors
Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc. Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc
9
45
1
Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11
Exit behaviors
4
36
2
Changing functions
3
Exit behaviors
Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc Taking courses or pursuing certification, etc.
1
33
3
Changing organizations
7
Exit behaviors
2
29
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In describing the process of career transition magnitude determination, I begin with a discussion of career identity and identity conflict which provide insight into how individuals evaluated opportunities and the magnitude of transitions considered. I continue by addressing how the context and attitudes toward the work and social context such as organizational satisfaction, social and personal turbulence, relationships with coworkers, and network influences correlate with opportunity evaluation and transition consideration magnitude. Finally, I discuss the relationship of opportunity evaluation and transition consideration magnitude to disengagement and re-identification. I conclude the chapter proposing a theoretical framework and hypotheses that build theory in the area of career transition magnitude and provide a basis for testing in Chapter 3. Definitions of self: Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict What shapes career path and transition decisions? Much careers research suggests that career decisions are an outgrowth of an understanding of the self (Hall, 2002; Holland, 1985;Roe, 1957; Super, 1957, 1990). Scholars have used a number of different terms to capture individuals’ career identity such as occupational identity (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999), professional identity (Ibarra, 1999) and career subidentity (Hall, 1971, 2002). In this dissertation, the term “career identity” is defined as the cognitive representation of the self derived from past work experiences, beliefs, values, attributes and motives that define the individual in terms of their work roles. This definition is consistent with the meanings that underlie all three terms as well as definitions of identity and self-schema (Markus, 1977). A career identity may be considered central when the career identity is important to one’s global definition of
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self and dominates other identities in one’s view of self (Rosenberg, 1979; Stryker & Burke, 2000; Stryker & Serpe, 1994). Logically, we can expect career identity centrality to play a central role in the evaluation of transition opportunities and the magnitude of transitions considered. One illustration of how career identity centrality influences the magnitude of intended career transitions from my data is Marilyn, a former lawyer currently pursuing a doctorate in industrial psychology as a foundation for a career in academia. As she ends her degree program and contemplates her next career transition, she states thatshe is learning toward position s at teaching universities or consulting firms rather than research universities because the identity as a researcher is not a central identity. It’s kind of like the law, it hasn’t been something that drove me, like there’s no, I don’t have this real intrinsic interest in it, so I just kind of do it. However, an individual has many important identities such as a parent identity or daughter identity (Hall, 1986) and it is likely that at times the demands of one identity cause conflict with the demands of another important identity (Settles, Sellers, & Damas Jr., 2002). Therefore, while the career identity and it’s centrality in one’s definition of self will influence career decision making, it is only one identity in a hierarchy of identities such that conflicts between identities may also drive career decision making (Lobel & St. Clair, 1992; McCall & Simmons, 1966). For example, during Mary’s career transition from a full time university counseling psychologist to a part-time university counseling psychologist in a chapter
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she titled “Motherhood…changes everything”, she found a conflict between her identity as a new mother and as a career woman. I was one of those people, and my boss even remembers me, I remember before I had [her son], I said, “no, I like what I do, I’ll definitely go back to work full time” and a month into maternity leave, I said, “I have to get out of this house and I want to go back to work’ and because I like what I do, I’ve always liked what I do, and I want to have that professional life. So, I knew that very early on but I also didn’t want to go back to the intensity [of the university counseling center]. I didn’t want to go back to full time work. Finally, as magnitude increases, it appears that many of the codes associated with centrality are mentioned with decreasing frequency (Appendix E). For example, individuals who changed professions mentioned the importance of authenticity in 58% of cases while individuals involved in changing functions or changing organizations mentioned influencing in 67% and 63% of cases respectively. This may be due to the high degree of centrality of a current career choice such that the person cannot imagine being defined by a career choice that is significantly different (recall that changes high in magnitude equal significant changes in knowing what, knowing whom and knowing why). These data suggest that definitions of self, demonstrated in career identity centrality and identity conflict, play an important role in the magnitude of intended transitions (considerations) and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Therefore: Hypothesis 1a: Career identity centrality is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities.
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Hypothesis 1b: Career identity centrality is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 1c: Identity conflict is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Hypothesis 1d: Identity conflict is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Validation and Violation of Self: Organizational Satisfaction and Strong Coworker Ties How does the process of magnitude determination unfold? Many individuals seemed to struggle with particular choices along the career path experiencing a type of career identity violation or seeking career identity validation. These struggles are often captured in the biographical narrative titles chosen such as: “Bench chemistry ain’t for me”, “I am who I was meant to be”, “The golden handcuffs are too tight”, “The negreto (the darkness)”, “Finding a new path”, “Reborn: Charting my own course” and “Finding my own voice.” Often, violations and validations of the self in a current career choice became defining experiences leading to transition and were linked to organizational satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) and strong positive (or negative) coworker ties. To illustrate: I felt it was far beneath what I was capable of and uninteresting if nothing else. [Michelle – organizational dissatisfaction]
I was really hiding [being inauthentic] ‘cause I didn’t really like them that much and I didn’t like being there. [Ken – negative coworker ties]
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The identity and self-concept literature shows that individuals tend toward self-enhancement and self-verification and, as a result, selectwork situations where their values are reflected and their sense of self worth will be validated (Crocker & Park, 2000; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, 2005; Schneider, 1987). Intriguingly, research shows that even when an individual has a negative self-concept, they will still seek self-verification choosing situations and interaction partners that validate the self-concept (McNulty & Swann, 1994; Swann, 1987;Swann & Hill, 1982; Swann, Stein-Seroussi, & Geisler, 1992). Indeed, the qualitative data seems to suggest that the statements signifying violation of the self-concept or a need for verification of the self-concept increased as a function of magnitude. For example, 42% of the cases involving profession change mentioned misfit while those changing organizations or functions mentioned misfit in 38% and 33% of the cases. Thus, it appearsthat the greater the degree of fit and the more satisfied one is with the current organizational context including relationship to coworkers, the less likely the individual is to favorably evaluate career transition opportunities or to make career transitions of significant magnitude. Hypothesis 2a: Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Hypothesis 2b: Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 2c: Strong coworker ties are negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities.
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Hypothesis 2d: Strong coworker ties are negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Challenges to Understanding of Self: Social and Personal Turbulence How do factors in the wider environment influence one’s career path? Hall (1986) suggests that there are “triggers” that signal an opportunity for choice resulting in exploration and possibly, changes in the career path. These triggers include changes in society, major external events or personal life changes such as changes in an individual’s family or health. More recently, Wrzniewski (2002) discusses how the bombing of the World Trade Center on September 11 changed work meanings for many individuals and became the impetus for changes in the career path. Individuals in my study discussed the importance of both social and personal turbulence in challenging their current understandings of self and the direction that the career path should take in the future. This is the time, not only of the assassinations but the Viet Nam moratorium and things like that so just suddenly feeling that maybe it wasn’t me, maybe I just needed to be in a different place [Barbara]
At that time, the aviation work, you know, aviation was in bad shape before 9/11 and then after 9/11, the aviation work was just non-existent. The firm, or no, the airlines and stuff, anybody in aviation basically couldn’t afford to pay the firm [Jessica]
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I do realize part of what was wrong was I got impatient and that impatience was driven by…the death of [wife’s] father. I was very close to him, and her moving here, my desire to be with her and I think I had a secret desire to be with her also for my own self, not just be husband and be supportive but also because I was hurting about that as well. [Ken] Thus, social and personal turbulence triggers are indicated in the favorable evaluation of career opportunities. Additionally, in general, more statements indicating the influence of social and personal turbulence were present in transitions of higher magnitude than in those of lower magnitude. Therefore, I predict: Hypothesis 3a: Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Hypothesis 3b: Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Reflections of Self: Network Structure and Response. How do others influence the determination of career transition magnitude? From the earliest hypotheses concerning identity, scholars have suggested that our beliefs about who others think we are have a profound impact on our own selfconceptions (McCall & Simmons, 19966; Roberts, Dutton, Spreitzer, Heaphy, & Quinn, 2005; Tice & Wallace, 2003). This is clearly seen in Cooley’s (1902) description of the looking glass self or the self that is constructed and reconstructed as a result of glimpsing the self through interaction with significant others. Career identities are constructed in a similar manner with the reflected appraisal of others influencing one’s view of the self including one’s strengths and weaknesses (Ibarra,
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1999; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Roberts et al, 2005). In Ibarra’s insightful study of junior consultants and bankers transitioning into new roles, she found the following: External parties also confer identity by providing social signals about who one is becoming. By gauging others’ reaction to their behavior, people learn more about who they and who they want to be…others’ reactions lead junior members to come to think of themselves in new terms and begin to act and feel accordingly.” [Ibarra, 1999, p. 781] The respondents in my study suggested that the evaluations of others on the career had a significant impact on career transitions considered and pursuit of career transitions. For example, Michelle, an analyst for the federal government suggests that she did not like the reflection she saw in the eyes of others and that lead to pursuit of a profession change: Interviewer: Was it [her work for the federal government] meaningful to other people in your life? Michelle: I never thought that, no. I think that’s one of the reasons that I sought a law degree. Additionally, respondents found that as they considered career transitions of significant magnitude, they often received a great deal of encouragement and affirmation from significant others. Such positive responses from the network seemed to facilitate career transitions of significant magnitude. To illustrate: I would actually say he was one of the people that planted the seed that I could really do this, would be my own therapist as well as my friend. Then
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lots of people who offered whatever help I needed to get started [Barbara on transition to private practice] Role models also seemed to play a significant role in magnitude as suggested by Markus and Nurius (1986), the career transitions of others were instructive: “what others are now, I could become”, (p. 954). I had some good friends who had done the same thing [transitioning because they wanted more life balance]. Sol they were good role models, just kind of forging the way and saying ‘no, this is what I want.’ [Mary on transition to part time work following birth of first child]
I have always…gravitated towards these articles and magazines…spotlighting somebody who made a transition. I always made a mental note of people who, you know, just up and quit their jobs and why and how well they did afterwards. So, I was influenced by that to read that you know, people can do it and many people have done it. You can do it, too. [Michelle on transition from analyst with federal government to private law practice] Often, the role models are from a variety of career types suggesting that greater diversity in the variety of career contexts may have an influence on career transition magnitude and the evaluation of opportunities. Indeed, research by Higgins (2001) found that network diversity directly affected career change. Although her empirical results did not fully examine why, she did report that network membership yielded no increases in the number of opportunities leading to career change. Instead, she posited that a diverse network changed one’s thinking about career and career
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opportunities. My data seems to support this supposition because in the cases where individuals identified networks, those with diverse networks made the greatest transitions (Table 2.4). In this table, range represents the percentage of network members from different occupations or professions. Hypothesis 4a: Network career range is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 4b: Network career range is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities, that is, transition opportunities will be evaluated more favorably when network career range is high.
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Table 2.4. Network Member Career Range
Interviewee and most recent transition John – industrial sales to academia Mary – full time psychologist to part time psychologist Barbara – full time psychologist to psychologist in private practice Susan – attorney to Episcopalian priest Shelby – doctoral student in college administration/ college administrator to human resource professional Ken – attorney to consultant, author Member 1 and career choice Equipment sales Psychologist Member 2 and career choice Entrepreneur Psychologist and mother Member 3 and career choice University business school professor Psychologist and mother Member 4 and career choice Psychologist Industrial sales Member 5 and career choice Maintenance manager Member 6 and career choice Range
100% 25%
Professor
Homemaker
Therapist/psychologist
Psychologist
40%
Attorney
Attorney
Professor
Actress
Attorney
Doctoral student/women studies
50%
Professor
Professor
Vice president (at a university)
33%
Pastor
Doctoral student
Was hesitant to name influences on decision making, felt that decision was not influenced by others in general
100%
Other Respondents
Either identified only one network member or did not identity a network, did not feel that the career network exerted influence
NA
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Consideration of Possible Selves: Magnitude of Intended Transitions Ibarra’s (1999) research on role transitions found that a key step in professional adaptation was identifying possible selves. Possible selves are defined by Markus and Nurius (1986) as “the ideal selves that we would very much like to become” (p. 954) but also the selves that we want to avoid becoming. Therefore, in my construction of the interview protocol, I asked individuals to tell me about career transitions that they considered to get an idea of the possible selves that individuals were constructing and the size of the career transition that results from these visions of self. This link between possible selves and the magnitude of intended career transitions is crucial because it determines the motivation or the direction, intensity and persistence with which individuals will move toward desired career transitions (Locke, 1997; Markus & Nurius, 1986). The participants seemed to conceive of a number of possible selves: I thought maybe about more teaching but I knew I really didn’t want to go in route of tenure track, publications, things like that. That didn’t seem to be the direction. So, I think it became sort of an obvious decision to start out on my own practice. [Barbara on transition to private practice]
When she left the firm, she wasn’t sure that she would leave the law. Considered teaching but didn’t have the publications…also considered being part time in seminary while still full time at the firm, considered and applied for jobs at non-profits. [Susan on transition to priesthood, from fi eld notes]
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I explored all kinds of careers…I considered going into another program. I just did a lot of things to explore what my next step would be. I considered…different types of fields. [Shelby on transition from doctoral program in college administration to human resource management]
Oh, I considered so many things! Running my own catering business, going and getting my MBA…what else did I think of? I tried to think of everything and anything that you know, seemed interesting to me. [Marilyn on transition from attorney to doctoral program in organizational/industrial psychology] Therefore, career transition considerations and the magnitude of intended career transitions motivate career transition behavior and enables determination of transition magnitude for “ultimate” transition. Opportunity Evaluation Turnover research has long suggested that the decision to make changes in the career path is mediated by the evaluation of opportunities using criteria such as ease of movement, availability of alternatives, and the possibility of values attainment in a new career choice (March & Simon, 1958; Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, & Meglino, 1979, Maertz & Campion, 2004). Further, Markus and Nurius (1986) found that possible selves are antecedents to behavior; however, this relationship is mediated by beliefs about what is possible and the importance of these beliefs. So, the favorability of an opportunity for achieving important goals or achieving values congruence will determine whether individuals engage in behaviors that lead to career transition.
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In my study, participants conducted a variety of evaluations considering opportunities, money, avocations, values and other important factors. For example, consider Paul’s evaluation of entrepreneurship versus taking a prestigious job with large, Fortune 100 firms: So, I told my wife, ‘well, let’s do this for maybe three years and if it doesn’t work out I’m sure I could go to Bank of America or something. I could go back and interview again.’ So, I felt kind of safe. [Paul on transitioning into entrepreneurship] In some cases, such as Jessica’s, the individual has a career dream and each career transition is evaluated on the basis of how it may help her to achieve the dream: The aviation work…began to dry up and I found myself doing less and less aviation and I’m thinking…I can’t continue to do this because this is going to weaken my long term goal. I need to get as much aviation experience as I possibly can. So…the second firm that I went to had a very, very thriving aviation transactional work practice [Jessica on transition to another firm] Individuals may also evaluate their strengths and whether a transition would make better use of their skills, talents and aptitudes. I just started evaluating what I might be good at. It didn’t seem like it was chemistry, enough to be wealthy [John on transition away from chemistry and toward industrial sales]
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Money also played an important role in opportunity evaluation. Although individuals may have transitioned and accepted less money, money was an issue that had to be considered. I was afraid…what was I going to do for money, for my mortgage or my livelihood…my practice was a practice that was started as a side business. It was never designed to support me financially. I’m a single woman. I have no other source of financial support. So, it was, I was certainly concerned about money. [Michelle on transition to private law practice]
These golden handcuffs…I was able to make a good income. You know, why risk that…it would have been easier if I was making less money at my primary job. That would’ve made it easier [John on transition from industrial sales to academia] Experimenting with Self: Re-identification and Disengagement. How do individuals engage in the process of career transition and fix on a specific career magnitude and direction? Although the antecedents mentioned above (such as organizational satisfaction, social and personal turbulence, network range) have an impact on opportunity evaluation and the magnitude of the intended career transition, research shows that experimentation or trying out new roles facilitates transition (Ebaugh, 1988; Ibarra, 1999). Ibarra (2003) suggest that individuals often engage in liminal experiences to assist in career transitions: “sabbaticals, vacations and leisure activity, for example are temporal means of gaining freedom from institutional obligations and, therefore, freedom to play with new ideas” (p. 3). The
36
participants in my study engaged in a variety of behaviors aimed at transition “play” and reconceiving the self such as career counseling, enrolling in courses or degree programs, joining or becoming active in professional organizations, developing relationships, and talking possible career transitions through with others. For example: I was just tired of trying to figure it out and so that’s why I hired this guy. I was like, someone has to help me figure this out…I remember him vaguely pushing a little bit on like, what other areas of law but he also seemed to think…based on my testing outcomes…there was a huge opportunity for me to find something that really suited me. [Marilyn on the transition from attorney to academia]
Well, first, I went back for my MBA. So, there is an example of how you can tell it was building for years because I wasn’t going back to get my MBA to become a better salesman. You know, I was trying to do something that I thought would get me out of the industrial sales [John on transition from industrial sales to academia]
There’s this girl…I had met through a friend at a part like years before and listening to what she did, what she was studying, I was like, ‘oh, that’s so interesting. What is that?’ and it kind of popped back into my head…because I was interested in psychology…I went and called her up and took her to lunch [Marilyn on the transition from attorney to academia]
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Moreover, statements concerning re-identification and disengagement behaviors tend to be correlated with larger transitions. For example, statements about returning to school or taking certification courses are mentioned in 47% of the cases involving profession changes and only 33% of those seeking changes in level and 25% of those changing organizations. Similarly, individuals that changed professions talked more about simultaneous career experiences such as starting a business on the side or taking a part time job (53% of cases) than those that changed organizations or changed levels (38% and 17% of cases respectively). Therefore, the data suggest that career transition magnitude and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities are related to disengagement and re-identification behaviors. Hypothesis 5a: The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to disengagement. Hypothesis 5b: The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to re-identification. Hypothesis 6a: The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to disengagement. Hypothesis 6b. The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to reidentification. Transition Sensemaking Hall, Zhu and Yan (2002) ask the following insightful question regarding career sensemaking: How can one change in a way that keeps one true to one’s career history and basic values but still engenders a fundamental transformation of identity that
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is congruent with the new adaptive behavior unfolding over time and that is still integrated with one’s earlier identity? [Hall, Zhu & Yan, 2002, p. 160] Role exit research (Ebaugh, 1988) and my data may help to answer this question by focusing on role residual, that is, the carrying of a previous career identity into the transition. Ebaugh refers to role residual as “hangover identity” (p. 173) and found that professionals or individuals in highly visible roles (e.g. celebrities) experienced a greater degree of role residual than non-professionals. In a similar manner, individuals within my sample that experienced transitions of great magnitude discussed a greater degree of role residual. For example, Jessica who was once an aviation mechanic and became an aviation attorney expressed feelings that she never really left aviation mechanics. Derrick, a former Catholic priest carries the Catholic identity, such that it precluded him from becoming an Episcopalian priest, as well as the “minister” identity, as he continues to look for ministry opportunities in his work and his volunteer work as a lay leader in the Catholic church. Ken, a former musician and music promoter who is now an attorney and consultant discusses role residual in this way: Well, when you look at the resume’ and/or the Bio, it appears I shifted careers, but I didn’t really view it as shifting careers at the time. In fact, even looking back, I still don’t because I didn’t really decide to stop doing music… I wasn’t the guy who was playing and decided, ‘ I don’t want to play any more, I want to be a lawyer.’ I’m actually still playing and looking forward to going back into um, music on a more regular basis, probably as early as next
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year. I want to produce a CD and really pick up where I left off before I went to law school. Hall and his colleagues suggest that individuals that are competent in career change make sense of career change through response learning or reading external signals to understand the environment and its requirements, identity exploration or uncovering knowledge about the self and integrative potential or seeing the congruence between the transition and the self. Many of the individuals in the qualitative sample seemed to make sense of the career according to these principles. For example, previous career transitions were considered unsuccessful when the individuals did not see congruence between the career choice and the self. I shouldn’t have taken it to be honest with you. One of the things that I talk about in this book [in a book he is writing on dating] is how people fall within one of three zones of compatibility…one is the red zone, zero to minimum compatibility, the other is the yellow zone, which is moderate to high…and the green zone is maximum and what you want obviously is maximum compatibility and if you don’t find that, you should move on and so when looking back at the job, this job was like yellow to red. It was even like a high yellow. It was like a yellow to a red and I knew that, but I convinced myself that it was the right thing to do. [Ken on his transition from a very prestigious attorney role to entrepreneurship, consulting] In other cases, individuals are making sense of the career by reflecting on what they have learned about themselves or the career choice that leads them to believe they are now in the right place.
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I’ve been progressing slowly to me…it’s almost like you’ve heard them say before, people without a vision will perish but I’ve got my eye on the prize. I feel like I’m really moving. [Shelby on transition from doctoral program to human resource management] On the other hand, making a transition does not alleviate all worries. Often individuals in the study expressed the realization that the career change may not be able to live up to all of their expectations or they may not be as competent in the new career path as they would like. However, there is a sense of openness or hope about the future as demonstrated by Marilyn as she discusses why she titles the final chapter “Finding my own voice”: …really listening and kind of believing the kind of things that I’m good at and interested in, that I don’t have to be in the same mind as other people. I don’t even have to be as good as other people. I just need to be happy with how much I’m doing, whether it be less or more than people around me are doing, how much time I reserve for myself…to do other things that I like [Marilyn on the transition from attorney to academia] Additionally, relationships often changed or ended as a result of transition. In some cases, there was regret about the change in the relationship. Yet, individuals seemed to feel that relationship change was inevitable especially if the relationships were not close (e.g. relationships with coworkers). Finally, in many cases, the relationships changed for the better or the ties were maintained despite geographical or organizational boundaries.
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The people that I worked with at that firm, they are among my best friends. I mean, even now I still keep in touch with them…you spend a lot of time with people. You develop very close relationships and so…I love these people dearly and I still…e-mail them back and forth every day, just about, I’m getting an email from somebody at my first firm [Jessica on organizational transition from one law firm to another law firm] Therefore, while there are a range of possible outcomes for transitions of varying magnitude, individuals seemed to make sense of the career in ways that are dependent, to some extent, on career transition magnitude such that those experiencing large transitions discussed a greater degree of role residual (demonstrated in the need to create the image of a consistent self) as well as expressed more hope, learning about the self and satisfaction than individuals with small magnitude transitions. Theoretical Framework Figure 2.2 is a summary of my main findings to help make sense of the concepts and their relationships. This illustration reflects how identity, network relationships and the determination of career transition magnitude are intricately linked as described in Table 2.1.
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Definitions of self: Career identity and identity conflict Validation and violations of self: Organizational satisfaction and strong coworker ties Challenges to self: Social and personal turbulence Reflections of self: Network structure and member response Magnitude of intended career transition
Favorable evaluation of transition opportunities
Experimenting with self: Reidentification and disengagement
Magnitude of actual career transition
Transition sensemaking
Figure 2.1. Theoretical framework for determination of career transition magnitude This initial study suggests that the process of career transition magnitude determination is set in motion by four stimuli involving the self: the definition of the self through career identity and identity conflicts, the validation or violation of the self through organizational satisfaction and coworker ties, the presence of challenges to the way that one sees the world and the place of the self in it through social and personal turbulence and the reflection of the self through network members and their responses. As suggested throughout the data analysis and in Figure 2.2, the career identity (self) as well as theinfluence of network members is heavily implicated in the determination of career transition magnitude and the evaluation of career transition opportunities. Further, mediators of career transition magnitude determination include the magnitude of intended career transitions and the favorable evaluation of career opportunities. I found that individuals considered a variety of career transitions as
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possible intended career transitions and the magnitude of those considerations varied. Additionally, transition opportunities were evaluated using several criteria (such as money, availability of alternatives) and those that were most favorable led to experimenting with the self through re-identification and disengagement behaviors. Re-identification and disengagement behavior are a function of the magnitude of the intended consideration and lead to the magnitude of the actual career transition. In the next chapter, I discuss the methodology underlying the development of measures and the testing of hypotheses 1-6b.
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Chapter 3: Methods
In chapter 1 of this dissertation, I described the data collection methods that would be used to build theory and test hypotheses in this research. In chapter 3, I describe the methodology of the pilot study used to examine the psychometrics of the measures that will used to assess the central concepts of the conceptual framework (Figure 2.1, p. 43) derived from my qualitative research as well as the path analysis that will be used to test hypothesis 1-6b taken from the underlying conceptual framework. I begin with a brief description of the pilot study.
PILOT STUDY Study Purpose The pilot study was conducted to ensure the reliability of scales to be used in hypothesis testing. Therefore, I tested scales that were created based on the qualitative analysis as well as testing scales used in previous published research. Additionally, I performed principal components analysis and an assessment of the content validity of constructs discussed in the model. Descriptive statistics characterizing the variables examined in the pilot study are provided in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Pilot Study Variables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Variable Sex Race Education Org. Tenure Prof. Tenure Centrality Disengagement Re-identification Organizational Satisfaction Social and Personal Turbulence Strong Co-Worker Ties Opportunity Evaluation Magnitude M 0.65 3.64 3.43 2.30 3.00 3.88 2.73 2.79 3.43 2.47 3.78 2.94 3.36 SD 0.487 0.727 0.507 0.974 1.348 0.951 0.682 0.792 1.005 0.832 1.099 0.625 .0977 1 (-) -.12 -.10 -.05 .07 -.25 .20 -.18 -.39 -.06 -.23 -.27 .11 (-) -.30 .08 -.02 -.17 .18 -.24 .01 -.27 -.10 -.13 -.36 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(-) -.10 -.26 .36 .13 .26 -.10 .57* .20 .03 .41
(-) .59** .00 .16 -.16 .03 .00 .26 .07 -.30
(-) -.14 -.26 -.25 .26 -.08 .19 .12 -.15
(.933) -.05 .09 .60** .07 .65** -.22 -.17
(.930) .11 -.19 .14 -.24 -.40 .04
(.837) .10 .39 -.24 -.00 .43*
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Table 3.1. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Pilot Study Variables
9. 10. Variable Organizational Satisfaction Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties Opportunity Evaluation Magnitude M 3.43 2.47 SD 1.005 0.832 9 (.853) .00 10 11 12 13
(.787)
11. 12. 13.
3.78 2.94 3.36
1.099 0.625 .0977
.35 -.07 -.08
-.17 -.02 .26
(.903) .06 -.24 (.893) .24 (.640)
* - significant at .05 level
** - significant at .01 level
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Participants and Procedures The participants in the pilot study were MBA students at a university in the Northeast. A pilot survey, based on the results of The qualitative study, was administered to students electronically. MBAs were considered an appropriate sample as many MBA students rate career enhancement (such as increasing earning potential and improved career options) as driving the perceived value of the MBA degree (GMAC, 2005). I administered the pilot survey to students in two small summer classes and received twenty-five useable surveys, a response rate of 65%. In terms of sample demographics, 63% of respondents were female. The racial composition of respondents was: 71% White, 12.5% Asian, and 8% African American. Measures and Results Career identity centrality. Career identity centrality refers to the importance of a career identity to an individual and the extent to which that identity occupies a prominent place within the individual’s global definition of self. Ashmore and his colleagues have praised the identity scale provided by Luhtanen and Crocker as “perhaps the purest operational definition of explicit [identity] importance” (p.88). Thus, my measure of career identity centrality used an adaptation of the work of Luhtanen and Crocker (1992). An example item derived from Luhtanen and Crocker’s scale is “In general, my current line of work is an important part of my self image.” The career identity centrality scale is composed of 5 items on a 5-point Likert scale. The reliability of the scores of this scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .933.
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Disengagement. The disengagement scale measures the behaviors that individuals engage in as they consider or actively pursue a career transition. The items I developed are based on Ebaugh’s (1988) qualitative study of role exits and I also build on the work of Arthur, Claman & DeFillippi (1995) and Parker, Arthur and Inkson (2004) on career investments and career communities. The disengagement items used in the quantitative study asked individuals to consider the extent to which they are disconnecting from the current career choice. Two sample items are: “I spend less time with co-workers from my current line of work” and “I attend fewer occupational functions (professional organization meetings, etc) for my current line of work”. Individuals were asked to respond to four items using a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The resulting reliability was acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = .930). Re-identification. The re-identification career exit behavior scale is intended to measure the process of learning professional values, behaviors and social knowledge for a desired career choice in anticipation of career transition. It is based on Ebaugh’s (1988) qualitative and theoretical work on role exits while also building on the experiences of individuals interviewed in my qualitative study. Items in the measure include “I have joined an organization associated with the line of work that I desire” and “I am attending training classes or a certification program to prepare me for the line of work that I desire” and are measured with a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The resulting reliability was an acceptable .837.
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Organizational satisfaction. Based on the findings of the qualitative study, I added scales to measure the influence that one’s work organization, changes in one’s environment (social and personal turbulence) as well as relationships with co-workers have on career transition magnitude. The organizational satisfaction scale consists of five items from Martins, Eddleston & Viega (2002) and a modification of an embeddedness item from Lee and his colleagues (2004). Primarily, these items measure an individual’s contentment with career status, career progress and the current job. A sample item is “I feel I am a good fit for my current organization”. The reliability of the items of this scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .853. Social and personal turbulence. The social and personal turbulence scale consists of six items based on the results of the qualitative study. The items in the scale measure the dynamism in one’s environment such as downsizing, changes in the economy and momentous events (for example, national or personal tragedies) have on career decision making. A sample item is “A change in my family (such as the birth of a child or needing to care for elderly parents) has been a motivation for career change”. The reliability of the scale scores was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .787. Strong coworker ties. Finally, the strong coworker ties scale consists of four items. These items were adapted from Chao and colleagues’ research (1994) assessing the extent to which an individual has positive relationships within their work group. A sample item is “I consider many of my co-workers as my friends”. The reliability of the scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .903.
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The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. The opportunity evaluation scale measures the extent to which expected benefits and costs associated with a career transition make the opportunity attractive to an individual. I assessed this concept with a modification of a scale used by Hom & Kinicki (2001) that includes four items for each type of career transition (20 items total). These items ask the individual to assess the chances, on a scale of 0-100%, that a given career transition would provide an expected outcome such as increased career satisfaction, more balance between family and career, and greater career opportunities. The reliability of the scale was acceptable with a Cronbach’s alpha of .903. Convergent and Discriminant validity I performed correlational analyses among the study variables to determine convergent and discriminate validity because some measures consisted of new items developed from information received in the qualitative study. My first investigation involved re-identification and disengagement. I expected medium correlations of the two variables in the range of .30 - .50 consistent with the results of qualitative studies examining conditions of role engagement and identity construction which suggest that the social processes of engagement and the cognitive processes of identification are linked in the construction of identity, so much so in fact, that cognitive and social processes have often been confounded (Kahn, 1990; Pratt, Rockman & Kauffman, forthcoming). The correlation between disengagement and re - identification (r = .11) is lower than expected, however, this may be a function of my attempts to differentiate the constructs in item development as well as small sample size which may have yielded a non-representative result.
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Next, I examined the correlation between organizational satisfaction, social and personal turbulence and strong coworker ties. I expected that there would be a small to moderate relationship between organizational satisfaction and strong coworker ties consistent with Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sabylnski and Erez’(2001) research on job embeddedness which shows that the degree of attachment to an organization is related to the links that an individual has with the organization, including co-worker relationships, as well as organizational characteristics that cause one to feel comfortable or a fit with the organization (r = .22; p < .01). The relationship I found between organization satisfaction and strong coworker ties was similar and marginally significant (r = .35; p < .10.). Additionally, social and personal turbulence is not related to organizational satisfaction (r = -.00, p = n.s.) and strong coworker ties are weakly related to social and personal turbulence (r = -.17, p = n.s.) suggesting that the constructs are distinct (Table 3.9). In summary, the pilot study showed that (a) all of the scales exhibited good reliability, and (b) that each of the constructs demonstrated content validity and therefore the instruments may be used in hypothesis testing. HYPOTHESIS TESTING Study Purpose The objective of the final study was to test the hypotheses proposed in the theoretical model developed from the qualitative data and analyses. Descriptives and internal consistency reliabilities for the quantitative study are provided in Table 3.2. Participants and Procedures
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The potential sample for this study consisted of approximately 1,010 individuals comprised of MBA students at the University of Maryland (650 students) and attendees of the PhD Project Conference originally surveyed in November (360 individuals). I e-mailed invitations to the lists provided by the university and PhD project, however, 59 of e-mail addresses were returned as undeliverable leaving a potential sample of 618 University of Maryland students and 333 PhD Project participants (951 total invitees). 206 surveys were completed and returned from the University of Maryland sample providing for a response rate of 33%. The return rate from the PhD Project sample was considerably smaller with 47 respondents (response rate = 14%). This yielded a total sample of 253 and a response rate of 27%. In the combined group (University of Maryland and PhD Project participants), 34% of respondents were female. The racial composition of the respondents in the combined group was: 51% White, 18 % African American, 9.5 % Hispanic-American/Latino, and 16% AsianAmerican. 48% percent of the individuals in the sample had bachelor’s degrees while another 48% had post-graduate degrees. 64% had been with their current organization for 1-5 years. Professional tenure was more varied than the tenure distribution with individuals having been in the current occupation/profession for less than one year (10%), 1-2 years (11.5%), 3-5 years (38%), 6-10 years (30%) and more than 10 years (10%). Fifty-eight percent (58%) of respondents were between 20-30 years of age.
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Table 3.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Study Variables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Variable Sex Race Education Org Tenure Prof Tenure Network Range Magnitude – Participant Central Identity Conflict Org Satisfaction Social and personal turbulence Strong coworker ties Disengagement Re-identification Opportunity Evaluation M 0.35 3.56 3.53 2.03 3.19 3.78 9.61 3.44 2.67 3.08 1.86 SD 0.47 0.92 0.549 0.70 1.09 1.94 3.11 0.98 1.01 0.96 0.91 1 (-) -.07 .16** .00 -.00 .10 -.01 .00 .05 .02 .11 2 (-) -.19** -.06 -.17** .03 -.08 -.09 -.01 .07 -.06 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(-) -.08 .00 -.04 .08 .06 .02 .04 .02
(-) .34** -.03 .13* .03 -.01 -.11 .02
(-) .11 .09 .16 -.08 -.09 -.00
(-) .16* -.04 -.06 .00 .06
(.72) -.24** .08 -.27** .17** (.89) -.02 .49** -.08
(.92) -.00 .28**
12. 13. 14. 15.
3.79 2.63 1.88 2.21
0.81 1.03 0.86 0.60
-.02 .02 .09 .10
.02 -.08 -.11 -.15*
.02 .06 .17** .17**
-.03 .04 .09 -.06
-.04 -.01 -.09 .07
.04 -.03 -.033 -.02
-.12 .32** .244** .13*
.26** -.15* -.07 .04
-.05 .17** .04 .16*
* - significant at .05 level
** - significant at .01 level
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Table 3.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Study Variables
Variable 10. Org Satisfaction 11. Social and personal turbulence 12. Strong coworker ties 13. Disengagement 14. Re-identification 15. Opportunity Evaluation
M 3.08 1.86 3.79 2.63 1.88 2.21 0.96 0.91 0.81 1.03 0.86 0.60
SD (.82) .02
10 (.81)
11
12
13
14
15
.31** -.24** -.07 -.05
-.11 .13* .26** .10
(.80) -.25** -.07 -.02
(.86) .22** .20**
(.78) .08
(.87)
* - significant at .05 level
** - significant at .01 level
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Chapter 4: Results
Overview The results section is divided into six sections. In the first section, exploratory factor analysis results are presented for all variables. In the next five sections, analyses and results for each of the hypotheses (social network influences, identity centrality, identity conflict, social and personal turbulence, strong coworker ties, organizational satisfaction, magnitude, and opportunity evaluation) are presented. A summary table containing all hypotheses and results can be found in Table 4.9. Factor Analyses I used factor analysis in the quantitative study to provide evidence that the items used were good indicators of the constructs studied such as centrality, magnitude and opportunity evaluation. Definitions of self: Career Identity and Identity conflict The items used to measure career identity centrality and identity conflict were entered into a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation where I sought to confirm that there were two distinct factors. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 4.1. Two factors explaining 63% of the variance were extracted. The items loaded cleanly on each of the factors as predicted with no cross loading.
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Table 4.1. Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict Factor Analysis Item Central1 Central2 Central3 Central4 Central5 Idcon1 Idcon2 Idcon3 Idcon4 Idcon5 Idcon6 Idcon7 Factor 1 – Oblique -.125 .051 .029 -.061 .023 .810 .783 .800 .753 .779 .835 .772 Factor 2 Oblique .749 .830 .646 .824 .870 .167 .059 -.020 -.023 -.029 -.152 -.106
Validations, Violations and Challenges to self: Organizational satisfaction, strong coworker ties, and social and personal turbulence The items measuring social and personal turbulence, organizational satisfaction, and strong coworker ties were entered into a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation to verify the existence of three distinct constructs. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 4.2. Three factors explaining 50% of the variance were extracted. The items loaded cleanly on each of the factors as predicted with no cross loading.
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Table 4.2. Organizational Satisfaction, Strong Coworker Ties, and Social and Personal Turbulence Factor Analysis Item Orgsat1 Orgsat2 Orgsat3 Orgsat4 Orgsat5 Socper1 Socper2 Socper3 Socper4 Socper5 Socper6 Cowork1 Cowork2 Cowork3 Cowork4 Factor 1 Oblique .743 .786 .683 .572 .553 -.375 -.365 .092 .088 -.001 .176 .144 .158 .102 .212 Factor 2 Oblique .023 .016 -.030 -.067 .055 .705 .682 .544 .708 .622 .644 -.050 -.013 -.051 -.088 Factor 3 Oblique .112 .145 .211 .231 .066 .142 .150 -.150 -.192 .011 -.108 .651 .727 .833 .534
Opportunity Evaluation All opportunity evaluation items were entered into a principal axis factor analysis. The results of these analyses can be found in Table 4.3. One factor explaining 32% of the variance was extracted.
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Table 4.3a Opportunity Evaluation Factor Analysis Item Cpeval3 Cpeval4 Cpeval5 Cpeval6 Cjeval3 Cjeval4 Cjeval5 Cjeval6 Cfeval3 Cfeval4 Cfeval5 Cfeval6 Coeval3 Coeval4 Coeval5 Coeval6 Cieval3 Cieval4 Cieval5 Cieval6 Factor 1 .299 .462 .413 .302 .295 .550 .611 .322 .485 .665 .658 .487 .556 .714 .782 .527 .375 .656 .663 .417
The Magnitude of Intended Career Transition Principal axis factor was also used to ensure that all of the magnitude items loaded on a single factor. Indeed, a single factor explaining 54% of the variance was extracted. The results are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4. Magnitude Factor Analysis Item Mag1 Mag2 Mag3 Mag4 Factor Loadings .622 .440 .735 .694
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Experimenting with self: Reidentification and disengagement (exit behaviors) The exit behaviors that I studied were disengagement and re-identification. All exit behavior items were entered into a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation. The result of this analysis can be found in Table 4.5. Two factors explaining 50% of the variance were extracted. Table 4.5. Reidentification and Disengagement Factor Analysis Item Diseng1 Diseng2 Diseng3 Diseng4 Deid1 Deid2 Deid3 Deid4 Deid5 Deid6 Deid7 Deid8 Factor 1 – Oblique .094 .194 .145 .136 .687 .716 .574 .445 .584 .432 .402 .532 Factor 2 – Oblique .837 .676 .846 .693 .103 .086 .093 .185 .104 .158 .039 .104
Path Analysis I used path analysis to test the hypotheses because path analysis allows for a better understanding of the sources of variance, such as relationships between independent variables, which is not possible in regression. I believed, based on the qualitative analysis as well as the correlational data, that there were important relationships between some independent variables, such as organizational satisfaction and strong coworker ties. Additionally, interpersonal relationships (such as coworker ties) are theorized to have a causal relationship to identity (Cooley, 1902; McCall &
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Simmons, 1966). Path analysis allows researchers to address concerns about such relationships. The path model analyzed is shown in Figure 4.2. The chi-square test for this model was significant ( 2 (13, N=253) = 25.76, p < .05). However, the model indicates a moderate degree of fit (CFI = .928, NFI = .884, RMSEA = .073) where the RMSEA and NFI indices are not quite within Hu and Bentler’s (1999) recommendations. Therefore, I tested a alternative model with a covariance added between disengagement and re-identification as suggested by the correlational and LaGrange multiplier test. Additionally, the LaGrange multiplier test suggested that the addition of direct paths from some independent variables to disengagement and re-identification would improve the model fit. The model fit improves significantly when I add the covariance and suggested paths (CFI = 1.000, NFI = .966, RMSEA = .000). Additionally, the difference between the chi-squares of the two models are significant ( 2 (3, N=253) = 17.58, p < .01). Therefore, the
alternative model (shown in Figure 4.3) is the better model. The dashed lines in the model diagram represent non-significant paths while the solid lines are significant paths. All test statistics and path coefficients for the alternative model are shown in Table 4.6. This table shows all of the variables hypothesized to explain variance in the dependent and mediator variables, the extent of the effects of the variables (shown in the path coefficients column) and the statistical significance of those relationships (t-test statistic).
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Career Identity Centrality Identity Conflict Organizational Satisfaction Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties Network Range Magnitude of Intended Career Transition Disengagement Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity
Reidentification
Figure. 4.2. Path Diagram for Original Conceptual Model
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Identity Conflict
Career Identity Centrality
Organizational Satisfaction Network Range
Magnitude of Intended Career Transition
Disengagement
Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties
Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity
Reidentification
Figure 4.3. Path Diagram for Alternative Model.
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Table 4.6. Path Coefficients for Alternative Model of Career Transition Model Dependent Predictors Variable Disengagement Opportunity evaluation Magnitude Identity conflict Strong coworker ties ReOpportunity evaluation identification Magnitude Social and personal turbulence Opportunity Network range evaluation Career identity centrality Identity conflict Organizational satisfaction Social and personal turbulence Strong coworker ties Magnitude Network range Career identity centrality Identity conflict Organizational satisfaction Social and personal turbulence Strong coworker ties Path t -Test Coefficients Statistic .210 1.684 .258 3.622* .162 2.359* -.218 -2.653* .187 1.958 .288 5.102* .167 2.707* .011 .140 .058 -.093 .058 -.035 .079 -.071 .031 -.253 .265 .001 0.524 2.926* 1.393 -1.877 1.216 -0.683 2.332* -0.907 0.455 -3.142* 3.427* 0.018 SE .125 .071 .069 .082 .096 .450 .062 .021 .048 .041 .049 .047 .051 .034 .078 .068 .081 .077 .083 R2 .161
.212
.068
.193
* t - Test statistic is significant at the .05 level Career Identity Centrality and Identity Conflict Hypothesis 1 proposed relationships between the internal factors, career identity centrality and identity conflict, and the intermediate variables (career transition magnitude and opportunity evaluation).
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Career identity centrality, the magnitude of intended career transition and opportunity evaluation. I hypothesized that career identity centrality is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities positing that individuals who have define themselves according to a current career identity would be less likely to consider transition favorably or consider transitions that involved significant change in the career competencies (knowing whom, knowing what and knowing why). However, the relationship between career identity centrality and the magnitude of intended career transition was not supported (hypothesis 1b). Hypothesis 1a posited that career identity centrality is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. However, the analysis shows that career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities (t = 2.92, p < .05). Therefore, while the direction of the hypothesis was not supported, the influence of career identity centrality on the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities was demonstrated. Identity conflict, the magnitude of intended career transition and opportunity evaluation. Hypothesis 1d, which states that identity conflict is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition, was not supported by the data. Similarly, hypothesis 1c which states that identity conflict is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities was not supported by the data. Social and Personal Turbulence, Organizational Satisfaction, and Strong Coworker Ties
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Hypothesis 2 and 3 proposed relationships between social and personal turbulence, organizational satisfaction, and strong coworker ties and the intermediate variables, opportunity evaluation and the magnitude of intended career transition. Organizational satisfaction, strong coworker ties, social and personal turbulence and opportunity evaluation. Specifically, hypothesis 3a states that social and personal turbulence is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This hypothesis was not supported. In contrast, hypothesis 2a states that organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This hypothesis was also not supported. Hypothesis 2c states that strong coworker ties are negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. However, support for this hypothesis was not found. Organizational satisfaction, strong coworker ties, social and personal turbulence and the magnitude of intended career transition. Hypothesis 3b posits that social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. This hypothesis was supported (t = 3.41, p < .05). Similarly, hypothesis 2b which states that organizational satisfaction is negatively related to career transition magnitude was supported by these data (t = -3.14, p < .05). Finally, the relationship predicted between strong coworker ties and the magnitude of intended career transition was not supported (hypothesis 2d). Network Range Hypothesis 4 involved tests of the relationship of network career range to the intermediate variables, the magnitude of career transitions considered and opportunity evaluation. According to the model, diversity in one’s social network is positively
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related the magnitude of transitions considered (hypothesis 4a) as well as the favorability of opportunity evaluation (hypothesis 4b). Hypothesis 4a is supported. Magnitude is positively related to career range (t = 2.37, p <.05). However, the relationship between opportunity evaluation and network range was not supported by these data. Disengagement and Reidentification I posited that disengagement and re-identification are influenced by the magnitude of career transitions considered and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Specifically, hypotheses 5a and 5b state that the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to disengagement and re-identification. However, these hypotheses are not supported by the data. Hypotheses 6a and 6b posit that the magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to career disengagement and re-identification. Indeed, the magnitude of the career transition considered is positively related to disengagement (t = 3.62, p < .05) and reidentification (t = 5.17, p < .05). Additionally, the career exit behaviors are directly influenced by some of the independent variables rather than the total mediation suggested by the model. Specifically, identity conflict is positively related to disengagement (t = 2.35, p < .05). Strong coworker ties have a significant negative relationship to disengagement (t = -2.65, p < .05). Finally, social and personal turbulence is positively related to re-identification (t = 2.50, p < .05). Control Variables Finally, I examined the relationship between the control variables (gender, race, education, income, professional tenure and organizational tenure), the
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intermediate variables (magnitude and opportunity evaluation), and the dependent variables (disengagement and re-identification). According to the correlation table, only two of the control variables showed any significant relationships with the study variables – race and education (Table 3.12). Therefore, I entered these variables into the path analysis with paths to the intermediate variables, opportunity evaluation and the magnitude of intended career transition (Figure 4.4). However, the fit statistics for the model including race and education are not an improvement over the original model ( 2 (69, N=253) = 80.91, CFI = .948; RMSEA = .032; AIC = -57.09).
Additionally, the same pattern of relationships is found, that is, significant t-values are unchanged in the model containing the control variables. Therefore, the model shown in Figure 4.4 without control variables is the better model based on the fit statistics and the summary table (Table 4.9) containing all hypotheses and results is based on this model.
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Identity Conflict Career Identity Centrality Organizational Satisfaction Network Range Social and Personal Turbulence Strong CoWorker Ties Race Education Level Consideration Magnitude Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity Disengagement
Reidentification
Figure 4.4. Path Diagram for Model with Control Variables
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Table 4.9. Summary of Hypotheses and Findings
Hypothesis 1a. Career identity centrality is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. Finding Not supported; career identity centrality was positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities Not supported Not supported Not supported Not supported Supported Not supported Not supported Not supported Supported Supported Not supported
1b. Career identity centrality is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 1c. Identity conflict is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. 1d. Identity conflict is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 2a. Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. 2b. Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 2c. Strong co-worker ties are negatively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. 2d. Strong co-worker ties are negatively related to career transition magnitude. 3a. Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities 3b. Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. 4a. Network career range is positively related to career transition magnitude. 4b. Network career range is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities, that is, transition opportunities will be evaluated more favorably when network range is high. 5a. The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to disengagement. 5b. The favorable evaluation of transition opportunities is positively related to re-identification 6a. The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to disengagement. 6b. The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to re-identification. Supported Mediated Relationships: Identity conflict is positively related to disengagement. Strong coworker ties are negatively related to disengagement. Social and personal turbulence is positively related to reidentification
Not supported Not supported Supported Supported Partial rather than full support
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TRUSTED OTHER ANALYSIS In this section, I describe the methodology of a “trusted other” study conducted because data collection from a single source can pose a potential problem in behavioral analysis (Posdsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003), therefore, the trusted other serves as a second source of data concerning the career transition process. The sample in this study is small (33 individuals), thus the results of this analysis are exploratory providing further evidence for the findings discussed in the hypothesis testing section. Participants and Procedures The participants in the trusted other survey were individuals identified by the MBA student respondents based on the following prompt: In this section, we ask that you provide the e-mail address of a trusted other to provide a different perspective on the actions that you have taken during your consideration process. Please select someone who you trust with information about your decision making process. Forty-nine percent (123) of the MBA respondents provided a trusted other email address. Twenty-seven of the trusted other surveys were returned as undeliverable reducing the potential trusted other sample to 96. Thirty - three of the remaining individuals named as trusted others (34%) responded to the survey. Therefore, the results provided here are exploratory in nature rather than formal hypothesis testing. Descriptives and internal consistency reliabilities for the quantitative study are provided in Table 4.10. Measures and Results
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Disengagement. The disengagement scale measures the behaviors that individuals engage in as they consider or actively pursue a career transition. The disengagement items used in the trusted other survey asked individuals to consider the extent to which their friend is disconnecting from the current career choice. Two sample items are: “They spend less time with co-workers from their current line of work” and “They attend fewer occupational functions (professional organization meetings, etc) for their current line of work”. Individuals were asked to respond to four items using a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The resulting reliability was acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = .807). Re-identification. The re-identification career exit behavior scale is intended to measure the process of learning professional values, behaviors and social knowledge for a desired career choice in anticipation of career transition. Items in the measure include “They have joined an organization associated with the line of work that they desire” and “They are attending training classes or a certification program to prepare them for the line of work that they desire” and are measured with a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. The reliability of this scale was acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .807. Career transition magnitude. In this section of the survey, I asked individuals to provide qualitative and quantitative assessments of magnitude. First, trusted others were asked to give a qualitative description of the transition that their friend has made:
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Please describe the transition that your friend has made. For example, "John was a chemical engineer. He is now an elementary school teacher." If your friend has not made a career change, please write "no change" here. Thirteen of the thirty-three trusted others reported that the respondents had made no change (39%). Next, the trusted others were asked to rate the magnitude of the career transition using a nine item scale which measures the career transition in terms of changes required in the career competencies (knowledge and skill, relationships, and values and goals). A sample item is “To what extent did your friend’s career change necessitate a change in knowledge or skill.” The Cronbach’s alpha for the magnitude scale is acceptable with a coefficient alpha of .802. Table 4.11. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alphas, and Correlations of Trusted Other Responses (N = 33)
Variable 1. Disengagement (TO) 2. Reidentification (TO) 3. Magnitude (TO) 4. Range (R) 5. Identity Conflict (R) 6. Career Identity Centrality (R) 7. Organizational Satisfaction (R) 8. Strong Coworker Ties (R) 9. Social and Personal Turbulence (R) 10. Reidentification (R) 11. Disengagement (R) 12. Favorable Evaluation of Transition Opportunity (R) 13. Magnitude (R) M 2.77 3.15 3.76 4.29 2.53 3.30 2.90 3.91 2.20 2.53 2.81 2.58 3.33 SD .924 .831 .669 1.756 .843 .872 1.016 .768 .866 .781 .989 .589 .865 1 (.807) .335* .269 .182 .153 .077 .060 .272 .476** .059 .315* -.165 .350** 2 (.807) .530** .044 .346* -.194 -.320* -.111 .116 .426** .004 -.075 .192 3
(.802) -.268 .394* -.050 -.304 .563** .321 .242 .091 .130 .160
TO = Trusted other; R = respondent (All respondent variables were measured using MBA students and PhD Project participants)
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* - significant at .10 level
** - significant at .05 level
*** - significant at .01 level
Analysis First, I explored the relationship between the respondents assessments of disengagement and reidentification with the trusted others assessments of disengagement, reidentification and magnitude by examining the correlations. Due to the sample size and the exploratory nature of these investigations, I considered a relationship at the .10 level as indicating significance. The relationship between the two parties assessment of reidentification (r = .429, p < .05) and disengagement (r = .315, p < .10) is significant and in the predicted direction. However, the correlation between the respondents’ assessment of magnitude and that of the trusted other is not significant (r = .160, p > .10). One possible explanation for this result is that the respondents were asked to assess the magnitude of a desired transition while the trusted other is asked to provide information on the actual transition. While there is a delay of approximately 4 months between data collection from the respondent and the trusted other, it is likely that there was not enough time for the individual to make the desired transition. Indeed, according to the data gathered from the trusted others, 39% of the respondents made no change at all in this time period. Next, I analyzed the data with path analysis to provide insights on the career transition process using data from both the respondent and the trusted other. The model analyzed is shown in Figure 4.6. I selected these variables to maximize the sample size-free parameter ratio and because the model posits that disengagement and reidentification are directly impacted by the magnitude of transition considered and the favorable evaluation of opportunities. Therefore, the model I tested examines the relationships between the disengagement and reidentification behaviors respondents 74
report engaging in and the exit behaviors that trusted others observe the respondent perform as well as how the observed behaviors relate to the magnitude of actual transition.
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Disengagement (Respondent)
Disengagement (Trusted Other) Magnitude (Trusted Other)
Reidentification (Respondent)
Reidentification (Trusted Other)
Figure 4.5. Trusted Other Analysis Path Diagram The path analysis of the model in Figure 4.5 showed that this model fit the data very well. The fit statistics for this model were as follows: chi square ( 2), 4.99 with 5 degrees of freedom; comparative fit index (CFI), 1.00; root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), .00; and Akaike information criterion (AIC), -5.010. I compared this with a model where the error variances for the trusted other disengagement and trusted other reidentification variables were allowed to covary. I added this error covariance because some of the items used to measure disengagement and reidentification are similar in gauging the degree to which the individual is making changes in relationships and how one spends their time as they consider career transition. Additionally, the LaGrange multiplier test indicated that the error terms for disengagement and reidentification should be covaried. After adding the error covariances, the change in the chi square statistic was significant at the .10 level, providing support for the alternative model ( 2 = 3.69, df = 1). The
fit statistics for the alternative model adding the error covariance were as follows: chi square ( 2), 1.29 with 4 degrees of freedom; comparative fit index (CFI), 1.00; root
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mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), .00; and Akaike information criterion (AIC), -6.70. Therefore, the model with the error covariances is the better model. Reidentification (behaviors as reported by the respondent) was directly and positively related to reidentification behaviors observed by the trusted other (t = .434, p < .05). However, disengagement behaviors reported by the respondent did not show a relationship to those observed by the trusted other. Finally, reidentification behaviors observed by the trusted other were positively related to the magnitude of actual transition (t = .451, p < .05). Disengagement behaviors were not significantly related to actual transition magnitude. Evidence from my studies regarding the determination of career transition magnitude can be summarized, then, as follows: (1) Career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. (2) Organizational satisfaction is negatively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. (3) Social and personal turbulence is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. (4) Network career range is positively related to the magnitude of intended career transition. (5) The magnitude of intended career transition is positively related to disengagement and re-identification.
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Chapter 5: Discussion
I began my dissertation by discussing how the magnitude of career transition is often implied but has been rarely researched. My research contributes to our understanding of the process of career transition magnitude determination by describing the importance of the career identity and social networks in the process. Specifically, I found four major stimuli that influence the magnitude of intended career transitions (or the generation of career transition considerations): (1) definitions of the self including multiple identities and the centrality of the work identity in the global view of self, (2) validation and violation of the self experienced in organizational and occupational settings, (3) challenges to the self as a result of social and personal turbulence which called in to question one’s understanding of the world and one’s place in the world, and (4) reflections of self as seen through the eyes of network members including social comparisons made as a result of network range and dynamism (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Although most of the hypotheses involving the magnitude of intended career transition were supported, few of the relationships between the study variables and the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities were supported. It seems plausible that a methodological issue, specifically, the cross sectional design of the quantitative study may account for these results. That is, the favorable evaluation of opportunities may occur after one has engaged in the experimentation afforded by exit behaviors. Indeed, it appears one of the purposes of disengagement and reidentification is to gain information about a possible career transition or career path. Therefore, in the relatively short time frames of my study, individuals simplymay not 78
have had enough time to invoke their career exit strategy and move to the favorable evaluation of an opportunity that one would ultimately pursue. Despite the unsupported hypotheses concerning the favorable evaluation of opportunities, the results concerning the magnitude of intended career transition found in both the quantitative and qualitative studies are provocative and in identifying the influences to the determination of career transition magnitude, I contribute to career theory building and offer new insights for practitioners. Implications for theory: Toward a Model of Career Transition Magnitude I began my dissertation with an overview of three sets of theories that touch upon the notion of career transition magnitude determination. I return to those here and discuss how my studies build or extend theory in these areas as they are related to the development of a career transition magnitude model. Career/Role Transitions. My research builds and extends research in the area of career and role transitions in two ways. First, in discussing the process of
career transition, I complement the work of Nicholson and colleagues (1984, 1987) by showing that the transition process does seem to be cyclical with individuals making a series of career transitions comprised of preparation (including disengagement and re-identification behaviors), encounter, attempts at adjustment and stabilization. However, because Nicholson’s research and theorizing is centered on organizational careers, career transitions are studied independently of magnitude and as a result, we lose sight of how the cycle may operate differently as a function of transition size. Therefore, my data adds to our understanding of the transition cycle
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by suggesting thatthe preparation for the change as well as the sensemaking following career transition (indicative of Nicholson’s encounter and adjustment stages) isquitedifferent depending on the magnitude of transition. In almost all cases, the number of statements indicating disengagement and re-identification behaviors is higher for transitions of greater magnitude such as changing organizations or professions as compared to promotions or changing functions within the same organization. Further, statements expressing consequences suggest differences in sensemaking such that individuals making transitions of higher magnitude such as changing organizations or professions discussed more frequently feelings of hope, learning about themselves, satisfaction with the transition and thanksgiving for being able to make the transition. Second, in much of the literature, identity changes are discussed as an outcome of role and career transition, however, my data shows that identity changes within a career choice are an antecedent of career transition and are central to career transition magnitude determination. This complements Hall’s theories of career identity growth (1971, 2002) which posit that the accumulation of experiences and competencies during one’s careers results in the “creation of new aspects of the self, in the career area” (p. 59) and some of the new aspects of the self become so valued that occupational choices are sought which give these aspects of the self opportunities for expression. The qualitative and quantitative studies demonstrate that several self sub-processes (validation and violation of self, challenges to self and reflection of self) influence identity development and career transition magnitude.
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I also extend research on career identity by finding career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This result seems to stand in contrast to Hall’s propositions that career identity is linked to a particular career role or career area (1971, 2002) and thus, as individuals are successful in a role, we should expect greater congruence between the career identity and the role or career choice. This theorizing led me to expect, that if there is greater congruence between the role and the identity, an individual would be loathe to leave a job or career choice that allows a great deal of identity expression. However, my findings suggest that career identity is not linked to an understanding of oneself in a given role but rather one’s understanding of who one is or should be at work in a broader sense. Therefore, my data demonstrates that the more central career identity is to one’s global definition of self, the more likely one is to search for a career that really is definitive of self, that is, the individual is constantly engaged in career development, “the quest for what one truly is and wants to do” (Hall, 2002, p. 171). Social Network Theory. My work extends and bridges studies on careers and social networks. While research that integrates social network and careers theories have examined what individuals “do” (Kilduff, 1990; Higgins, 2001), less research discusses how or why network structure and network member responses influence the size of career choices. That is , my data surfaces three factors involved in the creation of the “looking-glass” reflection that serves as an input to career transition magnitude determination. First, statements concerning network member responses (such as affirmation and support ) are generally higher for transitions of higher magnitude. This finding suggests that individuals either seek or are more
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attuned to positive responses from network members for higher magnitude transitions and that these positive responses serve as reflections that the individual is on the right track in terms of career. Second, perceptions of the career’s meaningfulness to network members are important in determination of magnitude (recall how Michelle felt inclined toward law school because she felt that her career in the Federal government was not meaningful to others). Indeed, meaningfulness to others is mentioned more frequently by those that made large transitions rather than small transitions with many of the statements referring to the consequences of transition, that is, significant others found the new role very meaningful. Third, role models are important in surfacing possible selves which also have an influence on transition magnitude. Again, statements about role models are made more frequently with higher magnitude transitions. Thus, reflections of self are transmitted through network members influencing the size of transition. This is further verified by the quantitative study where network range is positively related to magnitude of intended career transition. However, I would not paint a picture that career transitions are met with little or no opposition. On the contrary, statements concerning discouragement are observed with greater frequency in cases of profession change as are statements of relationships ending or changing. I believe this extends research on how and why networks change over time. For example, Ibarra, Kilduff and Tsai (2005) review the literature integrating networks, identity and career change suggesting that transitioning individuals engage in tasks to shape their social networks to reflect who they are becoming. This is consistent with identity research that finds the self-
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verification motive (Swann, 1987, 1992; Swann & Ely, 1984; Swann & Hill, 1982) is so strong that people create networks that verify the self rather than those that do not. In my research, I clarify this process to some extent by showing how this occurs. For example, people avoid talking with people who might be negative toward the career transition. In this way, transitioners disengage, at least to some extent for some time period, in order to become firm in the transition. However, transitioners are not the only architects of the changing network, sometimes significant others choose to the end the relationships because the person is acting in unexpected or unapproved ways. Finally, individuals do not sever all relationships with individuals that express disapproval of the transitions (such as family members), instead transitioners often decided that these dissenting opinions are not important to them and worked instead to help the dissenting individual understand that the career transition is a reflection of the “true” self or is the right career path and such actions are consistent with the selfverification literature (Swann & Ely, 1984; Swann & Hill, 1982) Role Exit Theory. Finally, my research adds to the role exit literature which has often been overlooked in career studies (Ebaugh, 1988). Career identities are a significant part of how one defines the self such that saying what you “do” in career terms becomes a signal of “who you are” (Hall, 1971, 2002), therefore, leaving a career path to pursue a new career path may involve a substantial change in the way one defines the self as well as how others see the transitioner. Indeed, while much of the career research does incorporate the socialization literature, it is increasingly important as individual engage in fewer organizational careers to consider role exit theory because the identity construction process associated with the transition may
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not be informed by an organizational entity (e.g. individuals that leave organizations to become entrepreneurs, contract workers, to follow an avocation or for stay-at-home parenting). Therefore, as demonstrated by my research, career changes of significant magnitude have different antecedents, exit behaviors and consequences and the process of transition may be better explained by integrating role exit theoryand the literature on socialization (cf. Ibarra, 2003). Indeed, comparing role exit theory and my data provides a starting place for the development of a stage model of career transition magnitude determination. For example, Ebaugh (1988) suggests two processes in role exit: 1) a process involving the process of forming first doubts and transforming those into alternatives to the currents role and 2) the process of actually exiting where the individual experiences a turning point which results in actions leading to role exit. However, my qualitative and quantitative data, consistent with Ibarra’s (2003) research, suggest that transitioners engage in experimentation with the self and evaluation of transition opportunities follow these experiments. Moreover, my qualitative data suggest that only definitions of the self influenced the favorable evaluation of opportunities (as opposed to experimentation as well as violations, validations, challenges to and reflections on the self). Therefore, I would argue that career transition magnitude is determined by a transition cycle that is similar to Nicholson’s but also differs in significant ways as it incorporates role exit theory, Ibarra’s research (2003) and the findings from my data.
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First Doubts: violations, validations, and challenges to self
Transition sensemaking
Magnitude of intended career transition
Opportunity evaluation and determination of transition magnitude
Experimenting with self: Re-identification and disengagement
Definitions of self: Career identity and career identity centrality
Reflections of self: Network structure and network member response
Figure 5.1. Cycle of Career Transition Magnitude Determination First doubts and magnitude of intended career transition. Ebaugh (1988) defines first doubts as reinterpretations of a role brought about by a variety of events. My data suggest that this reinterpretation is catalyzed by violations as well as validations and challenges to the self brought on by organizational dissatisfaction (or satisfaction), negative (or positive) coworker ties and changes in the environment (including catastrophic events such as September 11). Individuals who engaged in large magnitude transitions express lower degrees of fit, job satisfaction and made more statements concerning misfit, stigma, and job dissatisfaction. Experimenting with self and self-definition. I would further argue that as individuals experience these first doubts, they consider career transitions of various magnitudes and cue others to the possibility of change through career experiments. The cues and experiments invoke the responses of others which lead to changes in self definition (Cooley, 1902; Ibarra, 2002, 2003; Roberts et al, 2005; Tice &
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Wallace, 2003). These experiments were sometimes small such as reading about new careers or enrolling in courses but often were quite substantial such as starting a practice on the side while working full time. Experiments were a way of keeping one’s “career sanity”, as suggested by Michelle who moved from being an analyst with the federal government to her own law practice, but even if the experiment was not initially intended to become a substitute for the current career role, it often created changes in self-definition that became the impetus for career change (Ibarra, 2003) Opportunity evaluation and determination of actual career transition magnitude. My quantitative research demonstrated that the major influence on opportunity evaluation is career identity centrality or the importance of career identity in the global definition of self. Further, the qualitative suggest that individuals evaluate the career opportunities using a variety of criteria such as their sense of the strengths and weaknesses, financial concerns, family obligations, and spiritual values or experiences. Also, the strength of the “straw” or turning point experience become fuel for the opportunity evaluation process and the ultimate determination of career transition magnitude. This is consistent with Ibarra’s (2002, p. 47) research on career transitions where she states the following: “Across my many interviews, a striking discovery was that such moments tended to occur late in the transition process, only after much trial and tribulation. Rather than catalyzing change, defining moments helped people make sense of changes that had long been unfolding.” Transition sensemaking. Finally, an individuallearns to live with career change by making sense of the career change. As Ibarra suggests above, part of this
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sensemaking is in the “straw” story but that is only early sensemaking. My research suggests that even years later, individuals continue sensemaking and they have moved on from the straw story to making sense of what has happened since they’ve made the transition. As discussed in the qualitative results suggestion of this dissertation, a key part of the sensemaking for many individuals is creating a sense of self-consistency, that is seeing that this the self being expressed in the current role is a self that always existed but finds better expression today than it could it in the past. Thus, Ebaugh’s concept of role residual is important in understanding career transition, especially those of greater magnitude. Often, an individual will even go back to early career selves, possibly childhood selves, to establish this sense of self consistency. Consider Barbara’s statement concerning her career journey: I used to be very sure that I chose this path because it was an outcome of [her husband's] death but when I went through this, I really, really realized that I may have exaggerated that influence and underestimated the influence of the childhood fantasies because the more I thought about it, teaching and nursing, you know as childhood stuff...it ended up being pretty much what I do. Practical Implications Career Counseling. I believe that my study has practical implications for professionals and nonprofessionals alike who today are inclined to feel that career is critical to self-definition and that it is a fundamental right to have work that fits self and even goes beyond self to fit into a higher purpose such as contributing to the good of society or family (Hall, 1996; Muirhead, 2004). However, as suggested by Ibarra
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(2002, 2003), traditional career counseling may not provide good advice on how to make career transitions, especially those of significant magnitude that enable an individual to throw off the shackles of an ill fitting career and embrace one that can lead to psychological success and fulfillment. Yet, my data demonstrates that career counseling as an exit behavior is more common among individuals making substantial career transitions such as changing professions or changing organizations than individuals changing functions or levels within an organization. Therefore, I suggest that career counselors concerned about helping clients to make the career transitions that they are seeking might consider using the stage process of career transition magnitude suggested in this dissertation. For example, individuals should be encouraged to think of career transitions of various magnitudes rather than being directed to a set of career transitions based on personality or other self-assessment inventories. It is likely that clients are already considering transitions that are small and big but may not feel comfortable expressing big transitions if an inventory suggests a direction that is inconsistent with such a career transition consideration. Next, the counselor might suggest that the individual try experiments related to those considerations including forming relationships, taking a course, membership in a professional organization, a sabbatical or some type of simultaneous engagement in the career consideration such as starting a side business or working part time. Further, because of the role self plays in career transition magnitude determination, the counselor may also suggest use of best reflected self strategies (Roberts et al, 2005) where the individual asks others when they are at their best.
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Roberts and her colleagues have created a tool that may be used within an organization for aiding career development; however, such strategies and tools may prove helpful in career transitions as well. To illustrate, an individual may distribute the tool within their career advice network (i.e. not only coworkers) creating a picture of when they are at their best as a Sunday school teacher, parent, volunteer, engineer, as well as in other important roles. Then, the individual and counselor may interpret the results together, creating a portrait and definition of the self that may be used in determining what career transition size is required to lead to expression of the “best” self. Finally, the counselor should engage the individual in writing a biographical narrative, much like the ones written by participants in my qualitative study. This provides an opportunity for sensemaking, determining what opportunities are best and understanding the events that catalyzed career transition. Organizational Career Development. While the organizational career landscape has changed and many suggest that organizational careers are dead (Pieperl, 2005; Hall, 2002), one thing remains true: organizations want to attract and retain the best and brightest. My research demonstrates that individuals are often seeking to have careers that are more reflective of the self and the self that they wish to become. Therefore, organizations may consider facilitating and encouraging job crafting which is described as attempts by individuals to change work meanings by changing work tasks, working relationships or both in an attempt to create meaningful work (Wrzniewski, 2001). Thus, organizations may find that allowing individuals to craft jobs within the workplace helps to reduce the need for individuals to engage in
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career transitions of significant size and enables retention of key employees. Wrzniewski makes it clear that organizations indirectly impact job crafting by creating empowering work environments and sharing strategic goals that provide a framework for individuals to imbue their jobs with meaning. Thus, organizational leaders should engage valued members in discussions of the organization’s strategic mission and goals as well as encouraging experimentation and self-determination. Indeed, recent research suggests that organizational commitment was positively related to supervisory career support including advice and encouragement while intentions to leave were negatively related to supervisory career support (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005). Limitations and Future Research Although this study used qualitative and quantitative analysis to explore the hypothesized relationships, my results must be interpreted in light of some methodological limitations. First, the qualitative research demonstrated that career transitions are gradual in nature often involving extensive time periods between career transition intention and actual career transition. This finding caused me to change the design of thequantitative study from a longitudinal (over the course of nine months) to a concurrent one. Therefore, the resulting cross sectional design likely prevents a more complete understanding of the causal relations in the career transition process. Additionally, the qualitative study seems to have a disproportionate number of women in the sample as snowball sampling does not guarantee a random sample. However, while a limitation, the quantitative study found no gender effects for the study variables suggesting that this is not a serious
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limitation. Finally, as previously discussed, the hypotheses generated on the basis of the qualitative data concerning the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities were not supported in the quantitative analysis. While this is a limitation, the time frames of the two studies (qualitative study is longitudinal in nature covering an individual’s entire career while the quantitative study is cross-sectional) may explain the lack of significant findings. Further, the study is limited by the use of a single source for the primary hypothesis testing. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff’s (2003) review of behavior science research highlights important issues and provides remedies for the potential biases created by common source bias. They suggest that one of the best ways to eliminate common source bias is to collect data from more than one source. I designed this research with this in remedy in mind and asked study respondents to provide the e-mail of a trusted other familiar with their thoughts of transition so that I could send them a survey measuring specific criterion variables. However, only 49% of the respondents (123 people) provided a trusted other e-mail address. The results gathered from the trusted other source, while limited by the sample size, do provide compelling, although preliminary evidence that exit behaviors are related to actual career transition magnitude. Several strengths of this research offset the above limitations. First, I used qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to explore the career transition process. In combination these methodologies provided a richer and more complex view of the factors contributing to the determination ofcareer transition magnitude and the internal and external validity of the model. Second, the qualitative analysis
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is longitudinal in the sense that biographical narratives provide the entire career history to date. This data was painstakingly analyzed to show the relationship of career transition magnitude to the independent variables and mediators in the model. Finally, my dissertation also generated a number of fruitful directions for future research investigating the magnitude of career transitions. First, my research proposes a cyclical model of career transition magnitude determination. Further work is needed to investigate this model longitudinally and quantitatively. My quantitative research ended with the determination of transition magnitude and, because of the cross sectional nature of the study, could not explore opportunity evaluation and transition sensemaking. Second, my findings suggest contrary to predictions that career identity centrality is positively related to the favorable evaluation of transition opportunities. This result suggests that even when individuals see their current career role as defining them, opportunities of various magnitudes are still attractive. Future research should further explore career identity centrality as being a multifaceted concept composed of the current career role identity as well as visions of a future possible career self that motivates both large and small career transitions. Next, the studies have implications for research on protean careers. In the future, studies could examine career identity centrality and opportunity evaluation to build a picture of how identity drives or influences the pursuit of the protean career. That is, if career identity centrality is multifaceted and composed of future selves, then its effects on the favorable evaluation of opportunities may result from
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individuals’ assessment of how such opportunities impact the likelihood of becoming the ideal self (as suggested in Jessica’s quote on p. 35). Finally, future research should explore the link found between network range and the favorable evaluation of opportunities, specifically examining how career diversity within a network may impact individual’s understanding of their career options perhaps by using methodologies such as verbal protocol analysis that enable researchers to identify the set of rules that individuals use in evaluating career choices. In conclusion, my dissertation contributes to the literature explicating the factors that contribute to magnitude, illuminating how the evaluation of career opportunities and the magnitude of intended career transition influence exit behaviors and proposing a stage model of career transition magnitude determination. Future research, building on these studies, can enable a greater understanding of career transition magnitude and the roles that identity and networks play in shaping career choices
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Appendix A: Biographical Narrative Instrument
Purpose: The purpose of writing this narrative is to ask you to think about your career history and engage in interpreting the events and relating the meanings that led to various career transitions.
Instructions: Every person’s life can be written as a book. I’d like for you to focus on your life in terms of your career, that is, when you started working. First, write an introduction to this book. An introduction generally provides a sense of the story and any background information that might be helpful to the reader. Next, think about the chapters of this book. I have here a sample to help you in this task. Write down the years in the first column - from the day you took you first job. When did the first stage end? Write it here. Then go on to the next chapters, and put down the age that each one begins and ends for you. Go on till you reach your present age. You can use any number of chapters or stages that you find suitable to your own life. Do not limit yourself to traditional jobs. If you left a job to attend college or graduate school to influence your career, include this as a career stage. If you left a job to become a full-time care-giver for a child, parent or spouse, include this as a career stage. If you left a job to engage in full time ministry or volunteer work, include this as a career stage as well.
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After you have written out all of the chapters, think about a title you would give each one of these chapters, and write it in the next column. See the example below. Finally, write an epilogue for the book. Now that you’ve thought through your career history, what insights does it yield? What does the future hold?
Stages and Age Pre-career stage, 15 First real job, 23 Searching, 27
Chapter Title The Burger Chef Years Discovering Engineering Finding Where I Belong
Thank you for your thoughtful participation! I look forward to our upcoming interview.
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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
During the interview, I will focus on the following questions for each stage in a semi-structured manner. Therefore, if I find that the participant needs prompting, I will also ask appropriate follow up questions to get a more detailed answer. a. Identification of personal identity, centrality and commitment i. Tell me about the position that you held at this stage. ii. Was it personally meaningful? What made it personally meaningful? What was important to you about this job at the time? What about it resonated with you (or failed to resonate) with you? iii. Was it meaningful to trusted others as well as to you? iv. In what ways was it important to you that you occupied this role? v. What concerns did you have about leaving this role? In what ways did leaving the role influence how you thought about yourself? The role? vi. Would you say people saw you as a success in that line of work? Was that important to you? vii. In what ways could leaving that line of work be interpreted as failure? Was that important to you? viii. Did the concern that you may be seen as a “failure” have any influence of your choice to leave that line of work? The line of work that you aspired to enter? In what way(s)? b. Identification of career transition considerations
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i. Is there a defining moment that led you to leave this line of work (or was it a gradual decision)? Was it you that changed or the job that changed or something else (prompters – networks, family, etc)? ii. What exactly were you thinking at this time? iii. When you decided to leave this job, what did you consider doing next? iv. Why did you consider this? v. Did you go on to do what you considered doing? How exactly did that unfold? vi. What stopped you/pushed you into doing the thing that you considered (or not doing the thing that you considered)? vii. Can you summarize for yourself the reason that you choose to terminate this stage when you did? c. Identification of role exit behaviors i. What sort of things did you do when you knew you wanted to terminate this stage in your life? ii. Did you let others know that you wanted to terminate this stage? How did you do that (in what ways did you let others know that you were planning to end this stage in your life)? iii. Are there any relationships that ended when you ended this stage in your life? Why did these relationships end? d. Identification of social network characteristics
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i. Were there trusted people, friends and/or advisors, who influenced your decision-making? Who were they (friends, close friends, acquaintance, advisors, mentors, etc.)? How did they influence you? ii. “Did these trusted people know each other?” iii. “What sort of careers/jobs were these trusted people engaged in?” iv. “Were any of the trusted people in your life also terminating their careers?” e. Identification of social network member responses i. How did trusted people in your life respond when you let them know that you wanted to end this stage in your career? ii. Which of the trusted people were supportive? How did they express support? iii. Which of the trusted people were not supportive? How did they express disapproval? iv. Did you lose some friends or did the friendship/relationship with trusted people change when (as) you made this transition?” f. Identification of actual career transition i. So, the next chapter is “xyz”? What prompted you to make that decision? ii. Were you satisfied with this decision? iii. Did anything change in terms of how you thought about yourself as a result of this change? What changed?
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Closing. At this juncture, I will thank the respondent, ask him or her if there are any questions, reiterate that all responses are confidential and discuss the next phase in the project. Additionally, I will ask if they know of individuals that have undergone transitions that might be interested in participating in the study.
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Appendix C: Pilot and Quantitative Study Instruments
Career Transitions Survey
The purpose of the Career Transitions study is to gain a greater understanding of the process of career transition and how career identity and interpersonal relationships influence that process. Please complete the survey in the order in which the questions are listed. Within each part, you will see a set of directions that explain how to complete the items that follow. Please read these directions carefully as you proceed through the survey. It will help make the results more meaningful if you respond to items that ask about “your current line of work” by thinking about the same line of work throughout the survey as the one that you write in as your response to the first question on page 4. Upon request, you will receive a feedback report summarizing the survey responses during the spring of 2005. To analyze the data, however, we need your explicit permission, which involves you reading and completing the consent form on the next page. Please note that completing this form, which allows us to analyze your data in a completely confidential aggregate form, is completely voluntary. Completing this form, however, enables us to provide you a more detailed account of career transition processes. If you have any questions about the survey process, please contact M. Susan Taylor ([email protected]); 301-405-2240 or Holly Slay ([email protected]); 301405-9541. We greatly appreciate your cooperation!
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INFORMED CONSENT FORM FOR PARTICIPANTS Title of Project: Career Transitions Study Statement of Age: I state that I am over 18 years of age and wish to participate in a program of research being conducted by Ms. Holly Slay in the Department of Management and Organization at the University of Maryland, College Park. Purpose: The purpose of this research is to better understand how career identity and interpersonal relationships influence career transitions. Procedures: The procedure involves completing the attached survey. The survey asks questions about four general areas: 1) my view of my current career, 2) my interaction with significant others concerning my career, 3) career transitions that I am considering and actions I am taking and 4) any actual career transition(s) made by the end of the survey period. Sample demographic questions include things such as age, race, and gender. Interaction with significant others will be assessed using sample questions such as "Please write the initials of people who you go to for advice about job related topics or information about career opportunities. List as many or as few people as you think are relevant and circle "Know" or "Does Not Know" indicating whether or not these individuals know each other." Questions concerning career transitions that you are considering include "Please respond to how often you do the following . . . think of completely changing my line of work." Finally, actual career transition is measured by questions such as "I have accepted a new job within my current company." If I agree that my responses be used in an aggregate, confidential form for research purposes, I can provide my permission by signing my name on page 2 indicating that I am providing my consent to the researchers to use my data for the research described here. I will receive feedback based on my participation. Confidentiality: All information collected is strictly confidential and will only be seen by the Student Investigator. I understand that neither my name nor my individual responses will be reported or disclosed in any form by the researcher. Only the researchers have access to this information and use this information solely for the purpose of tracking responses over time. All responses will be transferred to a database within two months of the survey administration. The original paper copies will be destroyed within three months of the final survey administration. Risks: I understand that as I review my career history in responding to the questions in the survey, there is a minimal risk that I may reflect on experiences have been unpleasant or distressing. I know that I am free to skip any questions that cause such a reaction. Additionally, I will be asked to provide the e-mail address of a "trusted other". While the confidentiality of all information provided on this survey is guaranteed, it is possible that my "trusted other" could share information concerning my career transition thoughts with someone else. It is recommended that I choose this person very carefully. Initials: _____________ Date: ______ Page 1 of 2
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Benefits, Freedom to Withdraw, and Ability to Ask Questions: For participating in this research, I may request a feedback report based on my responses and those provided by my trusted other. The research that will be based on my data aggregated with data from other participants will help the investigator learn more about career transitions. I am free to ask questions, I can choose to not respond to questions, and/or withdraw from participation without any penalty. Additionally, I understand that a raffle will be conducted as a small token of your appreciation. Individuals who participate in all three surveys will be entered into raffle for an Apple Ipod (or other technological device of my choice with a value of up to $200). Printed name of participant:__________________________________ Signature of participant:___________________________________ Date: _______________________________
Principal investigator: M. Susan Taylor [email protected] 4518 Van Munching Hall University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (301) 405-2240 Student investigator: Holly S. Slay [email protected] 4523 Van Munching Hall University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (301) 405-5941 If you have questions about your rights as a research participant or wish to report a researchrelated injury, please contact: Institutional Review Board Office, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (email): [email protected]; (telephone) 301-405-4212. Page 2 of 2
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1. Career Identification a. In terms of my current line of work, I consider myself to be a __________________________________________________________.
Please fill in the blank with your personal definition of your line of work. For example, "in terms of my current line of work, I consider myself to be a chemical engineer". Please keep this line of work in mind throughout the questionnaire whenever the term "current line of work" is used.
b. If you are currently a full time student or unemployed, please type here the occupation or line of work that you were in before you became a full time student or unemployed. _________________________________________________________. Your current line of work In this section, we ask you to tell us a little about how you feel about your current line of work. Read each statement carefully. For each statement, please choose the number that best represents your opinion where 5 = strongly agree, 4 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree In general, my current line of work is an 5 4 3 2 1 important part of my self-image. I have a strong sense of belonging to my 5 4 3 2 1 current line of work. I have a strong attachment to other 5 4 3 2 1 people in my current line of work. Being in my current line of work is an 5 4 3 2 1 important reflection of who I am. I strongly identify with my current line 5 4 3 2 1 of work. Your life outside of work In this section, we ask you to tell us about how your work interacts with your activities and responsibilities outside of work such as your family, community activities and other interests. For each statement, please choose the number that best represents your opinion where 5 = strongly agree, 4 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree My work schedule often conflicts with 5 4 3 2 1 my family life.
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On the job I have so much work to do that it takes away from my personal interests. My job contributes fully to achieve my personal ambitions. My work takes up time that I’d like to spend with my family. My job makes it difficult to be the kind of spouse or parent I’d like to be. The work I do is not contributing toward achieving my personal goals. My present job gives me little time for extracurricular activities (appointments, studies, recreation, etc.) My personal interests remain neglected due to my involvement with work. The work I do is not contributing towards achieving my personal ambitions and aspirations. At times I feel helpless that I cannot strike a balance between work and family demands.
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2. Would you have rated the statements in #2 or 3 differently in the past? If so, what has changed?
3. Please provide your opinion on the following statements concerning your current line of work. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree In general, I am satisfied with my career 5 4 3 2 1 status. In general, I am satisfied with my 5 4 3 2 1 present job. I feel that my progress toward 5 4 3 2 1 promotion is satisfactory. I feel that I am a good fit for my current 5 4 3 2 1
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organization. In general, I am satisfied with my 5 salary.
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4. Would you have rated the statements in #5 differently in the past? If so, what has changed in your organization, job or career progress?
5. Please provide your perspective on the following statements that consider how events outside of work may impact your decision-making. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree Downsizing and cost cutting within my 5 4 3 2 1 industry have made me consider career transition seriously. Changes in the economy (such as more 5 4 3 2 1 jobs in the technology sector, outsourcing, etc.) have had an influence on my decision to consider a career change. I am considering career transition 5 4 3 2 1 seriously because of a recent geographic move (for example, a spouse’s job required relocation). The death of a friend or loved one has 5 4 3 2 1 caused me to consider changes in my life including a career transition. A change in my family (such as the 5 4 3 2 1 birth of a child or needing to care for elderly parents) has been a motivation for a career change. Tragic social events (such as 5 4 3 2 1 September 11, the tsunami in Asia) have placed a spotlight on my life and career that has caused me to consider career transition more seriously.
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6. Please provide an example of the event(s) that is(are) stimulating your interest in career change.
7. Please provide your opinion on the statements below concerning your relationship to your current co-workers. strongl y agree I consider many of my co-workers as my friends. I am usually included in social gettogethers given by other people in the organization. Within my work group, I would be easily identified as “one of the gang.” I feel that people at work respect me a great deal. 5 5 some what agree 4 4 neither somewhat agree nor disagree disagree 3 2 3 2 strongly disagree 1 1
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8. Would you have rated the statements in #9 differently in the past? If so, what has changed in your relationships with your co-workers?
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9. Career Transition Considerations In this section, please respond to the following possible career transitions by thinking of the frequency with which you consider this type of career transition (5 = very often, 1 = never). In the second column, indicate the certainty with which you think you will pursue this type of career transition (5 = virtually certain and 1 = entirely uncertain). You will notice some redundancy in the statements. This is to ensure measurement accuracy. Thank you for your patience as you respond to the statements. Below, we have provided the definition of terms used in these statements to assist you in responding to them. Occupation – line of work such as engineering. An example of an occupation change is leaving engineering to become a secondary school teacher. Function – dominant organizational area such as production, accounting, marketing, R&D, etc. An example of a functional change is leaving accounting to work in marketing. Industry – group of firms producing products that are similar or substitutable. An example of changing industries is leaving a pharmaceuticals to work in the automobile industry. Please respond to how often and with what level of certainty you do the following . . . 1. . . . think of completely changing my occupation. 2. . . . search internal job postings to make a job change outside of my function (engineering, marketing, etc). 3. . . . consider seeking a promotion within my current function in my current organization. 4. . . . consider seeking a job at another organization at about the same level as my current job. 5. . . . search job boards or other resources for opportunities outside of my current organization. 6. . . . consider entrepreneurial or other opportunities that would result in a change in occupation. 7. . . . consider taking a similar job (same level, same function) but in a different industry. 8. . . . consider changing functions within my current organization. 9. . . . apply for positions in different industries. 10. . . . consider seeking a higher status/level job within my current organization. 11. . . . consider career growth outside of my current organization. 12. . . . consider taking a job that would be in a different occupation. 13. . . . consider exploring career growth in a different function within my current organization. 14. . . . search internal job postings for higher level positions within my current company. 15. . . . consider the possibilities for career growth outside of my current industry. Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Certainty 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
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If you had to choose only one of the career transition considerations listed above (#115), which would you do tomorrow? (You may list the number or write out the consideration you’ve chosen.) Although you may have considered several of these transitions, in this question, we are asking you to narrow to the one that is so compelling that you would pursue it tomorrow. If you are NOT considering career transition at this time, please state that on the line below. ____________________________________________________________________
10. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent would the option you wrote in the line above ( #11) . . . A great deal Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with everyday? Require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)? 5 4 3 2 Not a great deal 1
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11. Career Transition Behavior In this section, we ask you to think about things that you have done within THE LAST SIX MONTHS as you have considered a possible career transition. Read each statement carefully. For each statement, please choose the number that best represents your opinion where 5 = strongly agree, 4 = somewhat agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. strongly somewhat neither somewhat strongly agree agree agree disagree disagree nor disagree I spend less time with co-workers from 5 4 3 2 1 my current line of work. I attend fewer occupational functions 5 4 3 2 1 (professional organization meetings, etc.) for my current line of work. I have decreased the frequency that I 5 4 3 2 1 talk to co-workers and friends from my
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current line of work. Because I am considering a transition, I have decreased the amount of personal information that I share with co-workers and friends from my current line of work. I have joined an organization associated the line of work that I desire. I have subscribed to journals or magazines associated with the line of work that I desire. I am attending training classes or a certification programs to prepare me for the line of work that I desire. I have talked to friends or relatives about beginning a new career. I have visited a career or placement counselor. I am “moonlighting” or have started working part-time to provide me with experience in a desired profession or career choice. I have requested a special assignment (project team, etc.) to provide me with experiences that will help me make a career transition. I have requested a sabbatical or leave of absence to pursue a possible career transition or follow a calling (such as a short term mission trip, etc.)
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12. The following statements ask you to evaluate career transition opportunities in terms of their costs and benefits. Please estimate the chances that the career transition would yield the list outcomes on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 = 0% chance that the transition would result in the outcome and 5 = 100% chance that the transition will result in that outcome. Changing Occupations 5 100% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 80% 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 60% 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 40% 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
Changing Levels (receiving a promotion) within my current organization 5 4 3 2 100% 80% 60% 40%
1 0%
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Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction
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Changing functions within my current organization 5 4 100% 80% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 60% 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 40% 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
Changing organizations but keeping essentially the same occupation 5 4 3 2 100% 80% 60% 40% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0% 1 1 1 1 1 1
Changing Industries but keeping essentially the same occupation 5 4 3 100% 80% 60% Reduced family income Job insecurity Greater career opportunities Less stress More family and personal time Greater career satisfaction 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 40% 2 2 2 2 2 2
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13. In column 1, please create a list of people you go to for advice about job related topics or
information about career opportunities. Please list the most important people that you go to for advice based on the frequency you discuss your career with them as well as the weight you attach to their advice. Only list up to 20 of the most important people. This list may include family or friends if you talk with them about job related topics or career opportunities. Next, in column 2, indicate the names of other individuals on the list that the focal individual knows. For example: Person A on my list is Debbie. Her initials will go in column 1. She knows Robin, Cheryl, and Joan who are also on my list. In column 2, I will write their initials on the person A line. Network Members Column 1 Please place the names/initials of people Column 2 List the names or initials of other individuals within your
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you go to for career advice in this box. EG: Person A Person A Person B Person C Person D Person E Person F Person G Person H Person I Person J Person K Person L Person M Person N Person O Person P Person Q Person R Person S Person T Debbie
network (individuals listed in Column 1) that this person knows. Robin, Cheryl, Joan
14. Please list the initials of the people in your advice network (list in the same order as
above) and their line of work. For example: Person A, Debbie, dentist. In the third column, indicate the closeness of your relationship with each individual where 1 = not close at all and 3 = very close. Network Members Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Names or initials Line of work. Closeness of Relationship EG: Person A Debbie Dentist 1 2 3 Person A 1 2 3 Person B 1 2 3 Person C 1 2 3 Person D 1 2 3 Person E 1 2 3 Person F 1 2 3 Person G 1 2 3 Person H 1 2 3 Person I 1 2 3 Person J 1 2 3 Person K 1 2 3 Person L 1 2 3 Person M 1 2 3 Person N 1 2 3 Person O 1 2 3 Person P 1 2 3
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Person Q Person R Person S Person T
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15. Career Transition In this section of the survey, we ask you to respond to statements concerning any recent career transition. a. Respond to the statements under #18 and #19 if you have transitioned or will transition within your current company/organization within the last/next 6 months. b. Respond to the statements under #20 and #21 if you have transitioned or will transition to a different company/organization within the last/next 6 months. c. Respond to the statements under #22 and #23 if you have changed or will change occupations or professions within the last/next 6 months. 16. Transition within your current company/organization Please answer the following questions ONLY if you have made/will make a transition within your current company/organization within the next 6 months. I have accepted a new job within my current company Yes The job that I have accepted is a promotion. Yes The job that I have accepted is in a different function than my current/previous Yes job (for example, your current/previous job is in the engineering function, the new job is in the marketing function). No No No
17. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent does the transition within your company or organization . . . A great deal Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill 5 4 requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with 5 4 everyday? Require membership in a new or in 5 4 additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different 5 4 values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)? Not a great deal 1
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GOTO the demographic information section below. SKIP #20-24.
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18. Transition to a different company or organization Please answer the following questions ONLY if you are making a transition to a different organization or company within the last six months. I have accepted a job in a different organization The job that I have accepted is in the same occupation as my current/previous job (for example, you are an engineer with your current/previous employer and you will be an engineer at the new employer). The job that I have accepted is in a different function than my current/previous job (for example, at my current employer, I am in engineering, at the new employer, I will be in marketing). The job that I have accepted is in a different industry than my current/previous job (for example, your current employer is in the pharmaceutical industry, the new employer is in the automotive industry). Yes Yes No No
Yes
No
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19. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent does the transition that you made to a different company or organization . . . A great deal Not a great deal 1
Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with everyday? Require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)?
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GOTO the demographic information section below. SKIP #22-24.
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20. Transition to a different line of work or occupation Please answer this set of questions ONLY if you have made a transition to a different line of work or occupation. I have accepted a job in a different occupation or profession. Yes No
21. Please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent does the transition to a different line of work or occupation . . . A great deal Not a great deal 1
Necessitate a change in knowledge or skill requiring you to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? Create a change in who you work with everyday? Require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, Academy of Management, etc.)? Create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as serving God or others; influence people or institutions, etc.)?
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22. If you have made a career change that is not covered by questions 18, 20 or 22, please describe it here.
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Demographic Information Please provide the following demographic information about yourself. How long have you been in your current occupation/line of work? Less than one year 1 -2 years 3-5 years 6-10 years More than 10 years How would you describe your ethnicity What is your annual income? Less than $20,000 and/or race? $20,000 - $39,999 If none of the choices are a good description of you race and/or ethnicity, please provide a $40,000 - $59,999 better description under "Other". $60,000 - $79,999 $80,000 - $99,999 Native American/Alaska Native Greater than $100,000 Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islander African American/Black Caucasian/White Hispanic/Latino What is your gender? Male Female Other: Please indicate your highest educational How old are you? 20 – 30 years old level attained Some college - no degree 31 – 40 years old Two-year college degree (Associates) 41 – 50 years old Four year college degree (Bachelors) 51 – 60 years old Post graduate degree - Master's Degree Greater than 60 years old Advanced degree - Ph.D., JD, etc. How long have you worked with your What is your expected annual income following the transition you chose in #11? current company? Less than one year Less than $20,000 1 -5 years $20,000 - $39,999 6-10 years $40,000 - $59,999 11-15 years $60,000 - $79,999 16-20 years $80,000 - $99,999 21-25 years Greater than $100,000 26-30 years More than 30 years Trusted Other In this section, we ask that you provide the email address of a trusted other to provide a different perspective on the actions that you have taken during your consideration process. Please select someone who you trust with information about your decision making process:
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Email ___________________________
address:
Appendix D: Trusted Other Survey
Welcome to the Career Transitions Survey The purpose of the Career Transitions study is to gain a greater understanding of the process of career transition and how career identity and interpersonal relationships influence that process. You were named as a "trusted other" by a friend to provide information on their career transition process. Please complete the survey in the order in which the questions are listed. Within each part, you will see a set of directions that explain how to complete the items that follow. Please read these directions carefully as you proceed through the survey. There is one (1) page in total in this survey. Although we anticipate that it will take you only 10-20 minutes to complete the survey, you may exit the survey and return later to complete subsequent parts, if desired. To analyze the data, we need your explicit permission, which involves you reading and completing the consent form displayed next (after you click the continue button). Please note that completing this form, which allows us to analyze your data in a completely confidential aggregate form, is completely voluntary. If you have any questions about the survey process, please contact Holly Slay ([email protected], 585-475-7237) or M. Susan Taylor ([email protected]; 301-4052240). If you experience any technical problems with the survey itself, please direct your questions or problems to Holly Slay . We greatly appreciate your cooperation!
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Career Transition Behavior
In this section, we ask you to think about things that your friend has done within the last six months as they have considered a possible career transition. Please consider things that you have discussed previously or you have witnessed them do (rather than interviewing them using this survey). Read each statement carefully. For each statement, fill in the circle with the response that best represents your friend's behavior in the last six months.
1– strongly disagree They spend less time with coworkers from their current line of work They attend fewer occupational functions (professional organization meetings, etc) for their current line of work. They have decreased the frequency that they talk to coworkers and friends from their current line of work. Because they are considering a transition, they have decreased the amount of personal information that they share with coworkers and friends from current line of work. They have joined an organization associated with the line of work that they desire. They have subscribed to journals or magazines associated with the line of work that they desire. They are attending tranining classes or a certification program to prepare them for the line of work that they desire. They have talked to friends or relatives about beginning a new career. They have visited a career or placement counselor. They are "moonlighting" or have started working part-time to provide them with experience in a desired profession or career choice. They have requested a special assignment (project team, etc.) to provide them with experiences that will help them make a career transition. They have requested a sabbatical or leave of absence to pursue a possible career transition or follow a 2– somewhat disagree 3 – neither agree nor disagree 4– somewhat agree 5– strongly agree
119
calling (such as short-term mission trip, etc.)
. The items below were used to indicate the type of career transition made by the focal individual.
Yes They have accepted a new job within their current company/organization. The job that they have accepted is a promotion. The job that they have accepted is in a different function than their current/previous job (for example, their current/previous job is in the engineering function, the new job is in the marketing function). They have accepted a job in a different company/organization The job that they have accepted is in the same occupation as their current/previous job (for example, your friend was an engineer with their previous/current organization and they will be an engineer at the new employer) The job that they have accepted is in a different function than their current job (for example, at their current/previous employer, they are in engineering, at the new employer, they will be in marketing) The job that they have accepted is in a different industry than their current/previous job (for example, their current/previous employer is in the pharmaceutical industry, the new employer is in the automotive industry). They have accepted a job in a different occupation or profession. No
Please describe the transition that your friend has made. For example, "John was a chemical engineer. He is now an elementary school teacher." If your friend has not made a career change, please write "no change" here.
____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
120
Based on the description of your friend's career transition that you typed in # 9 above, please respond to the following items using a scale of 1 (not a great deal) to 5 (a great deal). To what extent did your friend's career change . . .
1– strongly disagree 2– somewhat disagree 3– neither agree nor disagree 4– somewhat agree 5– strongly agree
. . . necessitate a change in knowledge or skill? . . . create a change in who they work with everyday? . . . require membership in a new or in additional professional organizations (such as the American Bar Association, American Medical Association, etc.)? . . . create an opportunity to focus on different values or goals (such as helping others, personal development, etc.)? . . . require them to enroll in a certification course, obtain an advanced degree or engage in extensive retraining? . . . require the development of new areas of expertise? . . . necessitate the development of new relationships to accomplish their work? . . . require the adoption of a new or different code of conduct? . . . enables them to engage in achieving new or different purposes (profit maximization, the development of others, etc.)?
121
Appendix E – Magnitude Pattern Coding
Magnitude Description of magnitude Sample transition within this magnitude code Pattern/ # of transition Mega Code cases with this magnitude 20 definitions of self Code #of cases using code % of cases using code 35.00
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work
age
7
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
age
1
9.09
authenticity authenticity
5 2
71.43 66.67
authenticity
12
60.00
122
area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
authenticity
2
18.18
balance (seeking) balance (seeking)
3 1
42.86 33.33
balance (seeking)
5
25.00
20 definitions of self
calling
2
10.00
123
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 definitions of self
career choice is meaningful to self
14
70.00
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
5 Changing Professions
career choice is meaningful to self career choice is meaningful to self career choice is meaningful to self career choice is not meaningful to self
7
63.64
4
57.14
1
33.33
8
40.00
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
7 definitions of self 11 definitions of self
career choice is not meaningful to self career choice is not meaningful to self
2
28.57
3
27.27
124
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
failure and/or sense of self as failure failure and/or sense of self as failure
4
57.14
8
40.00
2 Changing functions
3 definitions of self 11 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
failure and/or sense of self as failure failure and/or sense of self as failure feeling of being lost
1
33.33
2
18.18
4
20.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self
feeling of being lost feeling of being lost
2
18.18
1
14.29
125
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 definitions of self
importance of positively influencing others in career choice (such as educator, priest, etc.) importance of positively influencing others in career choice (such as educator, priest, etc.) importance of positively influencing others in career choice (such as educator, priest, etc.) reflections on early career dreams reflections on early career dreams
11
55.00
7 definitions of self
2
28.57
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 definitions of self
3
27.27
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 definitions of self 7 definitions of self
1
33.33
2
28.57
126
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 definitions of self
reflections on early career dreams
5
25.00
11 definitions of self 11 definitions of self
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 definitions of self
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
20 definitions of self
reflections on early career dreams sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices
1
9.09
4
36.36
1
33.33
6
30.00
127
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 definitions of self
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 definitions of self
sense of insecurity or intimidation about some career choices statements about having good self esteem re: career
2
28.57
8
40.00
11 definitions of self 7 definitions of self 20 definitions of self
statements about having good self esteem re: career statements about having good self esteem re: career success or feeling that one is a success
3
27.27
1
14.29
13
65.00
3 Changing organizations
7 definitions of self
success or feeling that one is a success
4
57.14
128
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 definitions of self 3 definitions of self 20 Exit Behaviors
success or feeling that one is a success success or feeling that one is a success Borrow money
6
54.55
1
33.33
2
10.00
7 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
Career related counseling Career related counseling
2 5
28.57 25.00
20 Exit Behaviors
Courses or degree/ certification programs
9
45.00
129
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 Exit Behaviors
3 Exit Behaviors
3 Changing organizations
7 Exit Behaviors
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
7 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
Courses or degree/ certification programs Courses or degree/ certification programs Courses or degree/ certification programs developing relationships to change careers developing relationships to change careers
4
36.36
1
33.33
2
28.57
3
42.86
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 Exit Behaviors 11 Exit Behaviors
developing relationships to change careers Experiments with jobs usually within company
3
27.27
4
36.36
130
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 Exit Behaviors
Experiments with jobs usually within company
7
35.00
3 Exit Behaviors 7 Exit Behaviors 7 Exit Behaviors 3 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
Experiments with jobs usually within company Experiments with jobs usually within company job hunting job hunting
1
33.33
1
14.29
5 2
71.43 66.67
5 Changing Professions
job hunting
7
35.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 Exit Behaviors
job hunting
3
27.27
131
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own
7 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
membership in professional organization membership in professional organization
1
14.29
2
10.00
3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
7 Exit Behaviors 3 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
5 Changing Professions
not talking or avoiding talking with others not talking or avoiding talking with others not talking or avoiding talking with others
3
42.86
1
33.33
4
20.00
5 Changing Professions
20 Exit Behaviors
reading about possible career changes
3
15.00
132
practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 Exit Behaviors 7 Exit Behaviors 11 Exit Behaviors 20 Exit Behaviors
reading about possible career changes sabbatical sabbatical
1
9.09
1 1
14.29 9.09
simultaneous career experiences such as starting business or part time work
10
50.00
7 Exit Behaviors
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 Exit Behaviors
simultaneous career experiences such as starting business or part time work simultaneous career experiences such as starting business or part
3
42.86
1
9.09
133
time work
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 Exit Behaviors
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own
20 Exit Behaviors
talking with others about possible career transition talking with others about possible career transition
5
71.43
10
50.00
3 Exit Behaviors
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
11 Exit Behaviors
20 Exit Behaviors
talking with others about possible career transition talking with others about possible career transition transferring work to others
1
33.33
1
9.09
3
15.00
134
practice
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 Exit Behaviors
writing articles for journals, etc.
1
5.00
7 magnitude
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 magnitude
possible or intended career transitions, considerations possible or intended career transitions, considerations
4
57.14
9
45.00
11 magnitude
possible or intended career transitions, considerations
4
36.36
135
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
affirmation
7
35.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
affirmation
1
14.29
affirmation
1
9.09
career choice is meaningful to others
12
60.00
3 Changing organizations
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response
career choice is meaningful to others career choice is meaningful to others
4
57.14
5
45.45
136
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
5 Changing Professions
3 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
career choice is not meaningful to others career choice is not meaningful to others
1
33.33
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
11 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
career choice is not meaningful to others discouragement from others regarding career choice
1
9.09
8
40.00
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
3 network range and member response 7 network range and member response
discouragement from others regarding career choice discouragement from others regarding career choice
1
33.33
2
28.57
137
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
5 Changing Professions
7 network range and member response 3 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
dynamism
4
57.14
dynamism
1
33.33
dynamism
4
20.00
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
3 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
encouragement
2
66.67
encouragement
3
42.86
encouragement
8
40.00
138
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
encouragement
3
27.27
opinions of others are important
10
50.00
3 Changing organizations
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response
opinions of others are important
2
28.57
opinions of others are important
1
9.09
opinions of others are not important
3
42.86
opinions of others are not important
2
18.18
139
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
opinions of others are not important
3
15.00
5 Changing Professions
3 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
positive mentor
1
33.33
positive mentor
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 3 network range and member response
positive mentor
2
18.18
relationship change
3
42.86
relationship change
1
33.33
140
5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
relationship change
5
25.00
20 network range and member response
relationship ended
7
35.00
3 Changing organizations
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 3 network range and member response
relationship ended
1
33.33
relationship ended
1
14.29
reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice
2
66.67
141
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 network range and member response
reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice
4
20.00
7 network range and member response 11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice reputation within organization or field had an influence on career choice role models
1
14.29
1
9.09
2
28.57
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
role models
4
20.00
142
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 network range and member response 7 network range and member response 20 network range and member response
role models
1
9.09
support from significant others
4
57.14
support from significant others
10
50.00
11 network range and member response 20 opportunity evaluation
support from significant others
5
45.45
career change was gradual
8
40.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 opportunity career change evaluation was gradual
2
18.18
143
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc. 20 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc.
2
66.67
12
60.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work
7 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc. 11 opportunity evaluation evaluation discussion of trying to sort through options using pros or cons, etc. 20 opportunity money was a evaluation consideration
4
57.14
6
54.55
11
55.00
144
area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 opportunity money was a evaluation consideration 7 opportunity evaluation 7 opportunity evaluation 20 opportunity evaluation money was a consideration money was NOT a consideration money was NOT a consideration
5
45.45
3 4 8
42.86 57.14 40.00
11 opportunity money was NOT evaluation a consideration 20 opportunity opportunity to evaluation incorporate avocation
2
18.18
4
20.00
145
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 opportunity opportunity to evaluation incorporate avocation 11 opportunity opportunity was evaluation present 7 opportunity evaluation 20 opportunity evaluation opportunity was present opportunity was present
1
14.29
7
63.64
4 8
57.14 40.00
2 Changing functions
3 opportunity opportunity was evaluation present 20 opportunity spiritual or evaluation religious experience
1
33.33
5 Changing Professions
7
35.00
3 Changing organizations
7 opportunity spiritual or evaluation religious experience
1
14.29
146
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
11 opportunity spiritual or evaluation religious experience 7 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment 20 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment
1
9.09
4
57.14
11
55.00
2 Changing functions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
3 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment 11 opportunity straw experience evaluation or defining moment 20 sense expresses worry making about career change
1
33.33
2
18.18
4
20.00
3 Changing organizations
7 sense making
feels thankful for chance to make career change
2
28.57
147
5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
20 sense making
feels thankful for chance to make career change
2
10.00
20 sense making
hope following transition
10
50.00
7 sense making 3 sense making 11 sense making
hope following transition hope following transition individual experienced pride in self as a result of transition individual experienced pride in self as a result of transition
3 1
42.86 33.33
4
36.36
3 sense making
1
33.33
148
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 sense making
individual experienced pride in self as a result of transition
2
10.00
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 sense making
individual expresses satisfaction with transition individual expresses satisfaction with transition
3
42.86
8
40.00
3 sense making
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 sense making
individual expresses satisfaction with transition individual expresses satisfaction with transition
1
33.33
2
18.18
149
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 sense making
individual learned about self through experiences
9
45.00
7 sense making
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
11 sense making
3 sense making
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work
20 sense making
individual learned about self through experiences individual learned about self through experiences individual learned about the profession or field through experiences individual learned about the profession or field through experiences individual learned about the profession or field through experiences
3
42.86
4
36.36
2
66.67
4
57.14
10
50.00
150
area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 sense making
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 sense making
3 Changing organizations
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 sense making
individual learned about the profession or field through experiences individual voices some regrets concerning transition individual voices some regrets concerning transition individual voices some regrets concerning transition
5
45.45
1
33.33
2
28.57
5
25.00
11 sense making
individual voices some regrets concerning transition
1
9.09
151
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 sense making
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 sense making
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 sense making
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 sense making
realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition realization that career transition may not solve all issues, post transition
2
66.67
4
36.36
2
28.57
5
25.00
3 sense making 7 sense making 7 social and personal turbulence
transition was considered a bad decision transition was considered a bad decision family obligations
1
33.33
1
14.29
3
42.86
152
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 social and personal turbulence
family obligations
3
15.00
11 social and personal turbulence 3 social and personal turbulence 7 social and personal turbulence 20 social and personal turbulence
family obligations geographic move
1
9.09
1
33.33
geographic move
2
28.57
influence of societal events
4
20.00
3 Changing organizations
7 social and personal turbulence
personal tragedy
3
42.86
153
5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own
20 social and personal turbulence
personal tragedy
2
10.00
3 validation
11 validation
7 validation
20 validation
feelings of fit with career, organization feelings of fit with career, organization feelings of fit with career, organization feelings of fit with career, organization
2
66.67
6
54.55
2
28.57
5
25.00
5 Changing Professions
20 validation
organization, profession is prestigious
10
50.00
154
practice
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 2 Changing functions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions, from aviation mechanics to aviation safety Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 validation
7 validation
3 validation
organization, profession is prestigious organization, profession is prestigious Positive Ties
5
45.45
2
28.57
2
66.67
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
7 validation 20 validation
Positive Ties Positive Ties
4 11
57.14 55.00
2 Changing functions
3 validation
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 validation
satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks
2
66.67
6
54.55
155
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
7 validation
20 validation
satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks satisfaction with career choice, especially tasks
3
42.86
8
40.00
5 Changing Professions
20 validation/ violation
freedom is available or sought
10
50.00
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 2 Changing functions
7 validation/ violation 11 validation/ violation 3 validation/ violation
freedom is available or sought freedom is available or sought mergers or reorganizations influenced career plans
3
42.86
3
27.27
2
66.67
156
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice
11 validation/ violation
20 validation/ violation
mergers or reorganizations influenced career plans mergers or reorganizations influenced career plans
1
9.09
1
5.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
11 validation/ violation 20 validation/ violation
stability was important to individual stability was important to individual
2
18.18
3
15.00
5 Changing Professions
20 validation/ violation
work is challenging
2
10.00
157
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
11 validation/ violation 11 violation
work is challenging experiences discrimination experiences discrimination
1
9.09
2
18.18
20 violation
2
10.00
3 violation
expresses job dissatisfaction expresses job dissatisfaction expresses job dissatisfaction
2
66.67
7 violation 20 violation
4 10
57.14 50.00
11 violation
expresses job dissatisfaction
3
27.27
158
3 Changing organizations
Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
7 violation
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions
3 violation
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
20 violation
expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc. expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc. expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc.
5
71.43
2
66.67
5
25.00
11 violation
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 violation
expresses job frustrations, especially policies, politics, etc. feelings of having reached a plateau feelings of having reached a plateau
2
18.18
1
33.33
7 violation
2
28.57
159
5 Changing Professions
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations
pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
20 violation
feelings of having reached a plateau
5
25.00
11 violation
feelings of having reached a plateau feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers
2
18.18
20 violation
9
45.00
7 violation
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 violation
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 violation
feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers feelings of misfit with organization, job, coworkers
3
42.86
1
33.33
3
27.27
160
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 violation
7 violation
20 violation
individual is denied a career opportunity individual is denied a career opportunity individual is denied a career opportunity
2
66.67
3
42.86
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 3 Changing organizations 5 Changing Professions
11 violation
7 violation
20 violation
individual is denied a career opportunity individual is seeking greater career control individual is seeking greater career control
2
18.18
3
42.86
6
30.00
1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
11 violation
individual is seeking greater career control
2
18.18
161
2 Changing functions
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion 5 Changing Professions
5 Changing Professions
3 Changing organizations 1 Changing levels or seeking a promotion
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions, from aviation mechanics to aviation safety Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice transitioning from career as "student" to following career path determined by major, schooling
3 violation
Negative Ties
2
66.67
7 violation 11 violation
Negative Ties Negative Ties
4 2
57.14 18.18
20 violation
Negative Ties
3
15.00
20 violation
perceptions that job, organization carries a stigma
3
15.00
7 violation
11 violation
perceptions that job, organization carries a stigma perceptions that job, organization carries a stigma
1
14.29
1
9.09
162
2 Changing functions
Moving around within the organization to a number of different positions pursuing graduate education in a different field and going on to employment in that area - such as from aviation safety to aviation law or becoming an entrepreneur in a different area than previous work area - analyst to lawyer in own practice Remaining as a psychologist moving into private practice
3 violation
5 Changing Professions
20 violation
threatened with job loss, being fired, downsizing, etc. threatened with job loss, being fired, downsizing, etc.
1
33.33
3
15.00
3 Changing organizations
7 violation
threatened with job loss, being fired, downsizing, etc.
1
14.29
163
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