Study on Communication and Natural Resource Management

Description
Responses to the realities reflected above are not new to NRM or community-based development. There have been significant changes to the methods and theoretical underpinnings of all kinds of community development over the past 30 or so years.

EXPERIENCE
T H E O R Y
Communicationand
Natural Resource
Management
cover_for_internet 31-07-2003 8:56 Pagina 1
Communication and Natural
Resource Management
Experience
Theory
Prepared by The Communication Initiative in collaboration with the
Communication for Development Group
Extension, Education and Communication Service
Research, Extension and Training Division
Sustainable Development Department
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome 2003
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All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this
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holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the
Chief, Publishing Management Service, Information Division, FAO,
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to
[email protected]
© FAO 2003
The designations employed and the presentation of material
in this information product do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or
development status of any country, territory, city or area or of
its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement v
Foreword vii
About the Authors ix
Introduction 1
• Using This Book
• A World of Finite Resources
• Critical Perspectives
• Changing Approaches to Natural Resource Management
• Communication for Development and Social Change
• Insight and Direction
Experience 1
Community Based Natural Resource Management – Namibia 10
• Theme: Principles and Action
• Learning Objective: To improve participants’ understanding
of the relationship between differing communication principles
for effective change, and the planning and organisation of their actions.
Experience 2
Pastoralist Communication – Kenya 25
• Theme: Voices and Action
• Learning Objective: To advance participants’ understanding
of effective communication strategies, where substantive action is
sourced in the voice and perspective of the people most affected.
Experience 3
Indigenous Forest Management – Cambodia 33
• Theme: Issue Analysis for Action
• Learning Objective: To expand participants’ skills at analyzing
the issues to be addressed by the communication initiative.
Experience 4
Recovering From Conflict – Viet Nam 41
• Theme: Contextual Analysis for Action
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• Learning Objective: To improve participants’ skills at analyzing
the contexts for change.
Experience 5
Internet Radio – Sri Lanka 44
• Theme: Culture and Action
• Learning Objective: To expand participants’ awareness
of the relationship between culture, context and strategy,
in developing effective communication initiatives.
Experience 6
Regional Networking – Costa Rica and Nicaragua 61
• Theme: Behavioural or Social Action
• Learning Objective: To develop participants’ ability to understand
the relation between individual behaviour change and
structural/social obstacles or supports to that change.
Experience 7
Creating Local Organic Markets – Turkey 71
• Theme: Education or Dialogue for Action
• Learning Objective: To improve participant’s ability to understand
key differences between approaches emphasising education
or dialogue and the programmatic implications of those emphases.
Experience 8
Environmental Education and Communication – El Salvador,
The Gambia, Jordan 77
• Theme: Innovation and Action
• Learning Objective: To heighten participants’ critical skills
at matching the requirements for action with the context for that action.
Drawing Your Own Conclusions 89
• Theme: Planning for Action
• Learning Objective: To prioritise the lessons of the previous
8 experiences and reflect on how they will impact on your own
future communication for development - natural resource
management work.
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v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements
FAO wishes to acknowledge the contribution of the Strategic Communication for
Sustainable Development Unit (DevCom-SDO) of the World Bank towards the produc-
tion of this book. DevCom-SDO is a technical group within the Communication for
Development Division whose goal is to introduce strategic communication as an inte-
grated component of policies and projects, and to ensure an efficient use of human
and financial resources. The Unit is also committed to the promotion of appropriate
communication concepts and tools and to capacity building initiatives in the field of
strategic communication for natural resource management.
For additional information please contact:
FAO: Senior Officer, Communication for Development Group, SDRE
[email protected]
www.fao.org/sd/kn1_en.htm
Communication Initiative: Chris Morry, Programme Director
[email protected]
World Bank: Lucia Grenna, Unit Head
DevCom – SDO – [email protected]
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Foreword
When FAO raised the idea of preparing a resource book in collaboration with The
Communication Initiative for people involved in communication and natural
resource management, it was clear that finding an approach that reflected the diver-
sity of thought, practice and local context would be a challenge. We hope that this doc-
ument meets that challenge by presenting experiences across cultural and theoretical
perspectives in such a way as to enable the reader to reflect on some of the shared
principles and lessons learned in this field.
For many years, under the definition of Communication for Development, FAO has
emphasized the critical role that participatory communication plays in involving com-
munities in rural development. Such a commitment to genuine participation requires
openness to the different ways of understanding and resolving problems that emerge
from the cultural, economic and agroecological realities of the communities involved.
During the past three decades the Communication for Development Group in the
Sustainable Department of FAO has integrated in several field projects the use of dif-
ferent communication approaches and media, and more recently new information and
communication technologies (ICTs), for community based rural development. These
experiences have shown that participatory communication processes can transform
the ability of rural stakeholders to fully manage local natural resources and to enable
community control over their environment.
The Communication Initiative has worked to increase the profile of communication
as a central element of successful development practise and to enable communication
practitioners to use peer review and real time information exchange to improve their
work. Through its ‘location’ as a crossroads for a range of information about, evalua-
tions on, and reviews of, communication projects, The Communication Initiative has
facilitated discussions across theoretical approaches, gathered information on grass-
roots initiatives from varied cultural and geographic settings and brought together prac-
titioners from very different backgrounds.
The two groups share an understanding of the centrality of communication for rural
development and social change, and a commitment to enhance rural people’s capac-
ities in managing communication processes. FAO is interested in exploring this in the
realm of natural resource management and rural development in order to strengthen
the work of communication practitioners. The Communication Initiative looks for ways
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FOREWORD
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to profile and share the varied communication approaches and methods being used
successfully in the field. Both institutions want to facilitate a process of mutual learn-
ing among different stakeholders interested in sharing experiences about communica-
tion for natural resource management.
The result of this effort is a unique and not easily categorized resource book –
Communication and Natural Resource Management: experience/theory. It is not
a work of theory and yet examines theoretical perspectives. It is not an account of best
practises and yet provides examples of interesting and useful initiatives. It is not a train-
ing manual and yet presents exercises and learning objectives. It looks at how experi-
ence is, and can be guided by theory and how theory can be derived from under-
standing experience. It challenges us to reflect on our own and others’ work by treat-
ing theoretical approaches as interchangeable tools within a variety of different com-
munication and natural resource management initiatives. It encourages the readers to
learn from each other.
We hope you enjoy reading this book and find it a useful tool when thinking about com-
munication for natural resource management and rural development from perspectives
that shed new light on old problems.
Ester Zulberti Warren Feek
Chief Director
Extension, Education and The Communication Initiative
Communication Service, FAO
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About the authors
Warren Feek is Director of The Communication Initiative. He has also worked with
UNICEF as lead on Health and HIV/AIDS Communication in New York, with The
Commonwealth Secretariat as Director of Programmes related to young people, and
with a major New Zealand Non Governmental Organization. He is a New Zealander
living in Canada with his partner and 3 children.
Chris Morry is Programme Director of The Communication Initiative. He has also
worked for Oxfam Canada where he was the Country Representative in Namibia
responsible for programmes focused on NGO capacity building, agricultural develop-
ment and rural health care. He now lives in Canada with his family.
The writing and preparation of this book has been a collaborative effort from the begin-
ning. There are many people who helped us by allowing us to use their experiences
in the field, there are others who helped point us towards essential reading and docu-
mentation, still others read portions of the document for us and offered advice and use-
ful criticism. We thank all of you for helping make this a better book than it would have
been without you while exonerating all of you from any role in its failings.
At FAO we would particularly like to thank Loy Van Crowder and Mario Acunzo who
provided great support throughout the process and critical thinking when we needed
it. We would also like to thank Denise Gray-Felder, Brian Byrd and their colleagues at
the Rockefeller Foundation for their insight on social change in action, Adelaida Trujillo,
Raphael Obregon, and Alfonso Gumucio Dagron for reading and commenting on the
entire document. It is better for their input though they share no blame for its short
commings. Others who provided us with information and/or read and commented on
portions of the documents are Brian T. B. Jones, Kitty Warnock, Claire Thompson, Luz
Marina Rizo, Juan Carlos Cruz, Lyes Ferroukhi, and Victor Ananias. Thanks also to
the World Conservation Union (IUCN) who helped us locate some of the documents
used in the book and a special thanks to several people at Kothmale radio who pro-
vided us with important updated information on their work, to the team at GreenCOM
who provided significant and useful input, to Freedom Nyamubaya for writing and let
us use her poetry, and to all those of you whom we have not mentioned but probably
should have.
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Introduction
USING THIS BOOK
This book has been written as a tool for people involved or interested in communica-
tion and natural resource management who seek a better understanding of how dif-
ferent theories and strategic change principles relate to actual practise. It is not, how-
ever, a book of theory nor is it an argument for one approach over another. Instead, it
relates a variety of theories and change principles in simplified, almost schematic form,
to a series of real initiatives in the field through interactive «experiences».
It asks that the reader become a participant in a process that requires reading and
analysing each initiative using different theoretical lenses. Each «experience» is organ-
ised around a theme, a learning objective, a description of an actual natural resource
management and communication initiative, and one or two theoretical lenses through
which to analyse the initiative. As you work through each «experience», you will be asked
questions about the theory and change principles and how they relate to the initiative. The
idea is not to «discover» the right approach but rather to create an interactive space that
enables you to reflect on what might work in your own context and also on how different
contexts may require different approaches, principles and theoretical frameworks.
The reader will find no examples of «best practice» in this book nor will you find step-
by-step examples of how to «do» natural resource management communication.
While there are clearly examples of good practise and well planned initiatives in this
and other places
1
this is a book about exploring the practical relation between theory
and practise and about being open to different perspectives and approaches. Its for-
mat is designed for you to interact with directly. Spaces are there for you to write in,
make margin notes on, and highlight elements that are relevant to you. It is also
designed to be easy to photocopy so you can make multiple copies for yourself or oth-
ers. We encourage you to use it in workshops as well as a tool for individual reflection.
We hope you enjoy it and find it useful.
A WORLD OF FINITE RESOURCES
Between 1970 and 1999 the natural wealth of the earth’s forests, freshwater ecosystems,
oceans and coasts declined by 33 percent.
2
Today, 58 percent of the world’s coral reefs
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and 34 percent of all fish species are at risk.
3
Within the next 25 years 48 countries
accounting for 35 percent of the world’s projected population will face water shortages.
4
Over the next 50 years the world’s population is estimated to grow by 50 percent to 9.3
billion. Virtually all of this growth will be in today’s developing countries. The 49 poorest
countries will see their populations grow from 668 million to 1.86 billion people.
5
This grim statistical list could go on and on. The world has not managed its natural
resources well and the problem will almost certainly get worse before it gets better.
Furthermore, though the poorest and most marginalised have the smallest «footprints»
when it comes to using the world’s resources, they are also those who are and will be
effected first and worst. Therefore, while long term solutions to the world’s major envi-
ronmental and food security problems depend significantly on action from the wealthy
and most industrialised countries (those with the largest «footprints»), day to day sur-
vival for the poor and marginalised will depend increasingly on the careful local man-
agement of natural resources in a context of increasing scarcity and demand. Add to
this the impact of AIDS which has already killed an estimated 7 million agricultural
workers and is predicted to kill another 16 million by 2020
6
and it is clear that the com-
ing years will present unprecedented challenges especially for the rural poor.
So, as journeys to find firewood get longer, maintaining the fertility of the soil gets hard-
er, catches of fish get smaller, and the hands to do the work get fewer, the need to
effectively manage natural resources has never been greater. Similarly, improving
communication as a tool to facilitate the better management of limited resources has
never been more critical. But, finding ways to sustainably and equitably steward and
share these resources will require dialogue and compromise at global, national and
local levels. Future benefits need to be weighed against immediate costs, and short-
term interests against long term sustainability.
This exploration of experiences, theories and methods, will provide opportunities to
reflect on the critical role that communication for development can play in supporting
essential processes of dialogue. We hope that it offers some insight into how best to
support the many actions that people are already taking, as they confront the chal-
lenges facing us all in a world of finite natural resources.
CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES
Let us begin by drawing out some key themes through the voices of a Zimbabwean
war veteran, development worker and poet, and some leading thinkers in the areas of
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Natural Resource Management (NRM) and communication for social change. In Dusk
of Dawn, a book of prose and poetry, Freedom Nyambaya writes:
A Career for Life
I am a retired soldier
not a retired revolutionary
I still walk around armed
with tools and ideas of how to grow more maize
There are still those of us
who consciously organise and create
Africa’s man-made problems and make
our suffering a career for interested scholars
7
From Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, M. Taghi Farvar, Jean Claude Nguinguiri and Vincent
Awa Ndangang, in the Co-management of Natural Resources: Organizing, Negotiating
and Learning-by-Doing:
«In the past, many traditional societies formed relatively closed systems in which nat-
ural resources were managed through complex interplays of reciprocities and solidar-
ities. Communal property was generally widespread, and constituted a crucial element
in the cohesion and sustainability of traditional resource management systems. Local
knowledge and skills, built through extended historical experience, were another cor-
nerstone. Most importantly, local communities tended to create themselves around a
body of natural resources that they could manage together….
The historical emergence of colonial powers and nation states, and their violent
assumption of authority over most common lands and natural resources led to the
demise of traditional resource management systems virtually everywhere. The mon-
etisation of economic exchange weakened local systems of reciprocity and solidarity,
as did the incorporation of local economies into increasingly global systems of refer-
ence. In addition, the rise in power of modern, expert-based, «scientific» practices
induced severe losses in local knowledge and skills. This generalised breakdown of
local NRM systems finally resulted in the disempowerment and «deresponsibilisation»
of local communities...
8
And again from Freedom Nyamubaya:
Shanty town beauty
She stood at the door step
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must have been five years or less
the begging eyes gazed from left to right
The kwashiokored tummy bulged out
of the torn dress
with marks that looked like the map of Africa
I realised it was not tattoo
but an accumulation of dust
run over by sweat
Pretty more than famous Cleopatra
everything equal
the girl would pass for Miss Africa
just another woman nature produced
but forgot to breast-feed
9
These two voices, while coming from radically different backgrounds, present us with
quite similar perspectives on the disempowerment of local communities, the impor-
tance of who «owns» development processes, and a sense of the mistrust and obsta-
cles to communication that have been created by colonialism, modernisation and glob-
alisation.
Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend et al. tell us of a series of external impositions on local com-
munities through colonial or state rule, the discounting of local knowledge in favour of
«scientific» knowledge, and in some cases the stripping away of local control in a
process they call «deresponsibilisation». These forms of disempowerment stripped
many local communities of the capacity and even the right to manage the resources
that had previously been the foundation of their existence and identity.
At the same time, and not surprisingly, these disempowering processes have generat-
ed mistrust and resistance. Freedom’s revolutionary commitment to the development
of tools and ideas to «grow more maize» and refusal to be objectified by scholars or
images of hunger and poverty, speaks to community frustration and anger, but more
importantly, to community strength and determination to reclaim what has been taken
away.
What they both say is that managing natural resources in the difficult times ahead will
require a clear recognition of the mistakes and abuses of the past. The «local» has to
have an influential, indeed powerful, seat at the NRM table, and previous patterns of
exclusion should be seen as having often been disastrous, both for local communities
and for the world as a whole.
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CHANGING APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
Responses to the realities reflected above are not new to NRM or community-based
development. There have been significant changes to the methods and theoretical
underpinnings of all kinds of community development over the past 30 or so years.
Much of this change is the result of reflection on experience, coupled with, and some-
times forced by, the insistence of local voices like Freedom’s, to be heard and reckoned
with.
During the 1970s, practitioners working with rural communities began to be disillu-
sioned with the lack of progress, the failure of many development activities, and all too
often, worsening conditions for the poor. It can be assumed that the communities
themselves were even more disillusioned though their voices were seldom heard.
Early work on NRM focussed on the lack of local knowledge and the need to improve
this through education, training and outside expert advice. Local practices were sur-
veyed to identify what had to change, but not surveyed for the local wealth of experi-
ence and knowledge.
To the extent that this amounted to a communication method, it was one in which local
people were questioned to discover gaps in their knowledge that could be filled by
expert outsiders. Knowledge was usually seen as technical, value neutral, and trans-
ferable across cultures and continents. If not quite a one-size-fits-all approach, it was
based more on a belief in the universal application of methods defined by agricultural
science than «less rigorous» approaches that emphasised the centrality of social and
cultural practise.
As it became clear that this approach was not delivering the progressive improvements
it promised, two key problems were identified. The first was lack of local support for
many of the activities and projects designed by outsiders – Freedom’s «interested
scholars» or the «modern experts» of Borrini-Feyerabend et al. The second was fail-
ure due to poor understanding by outsiders of local social and environmental condi-
tions, made worse by not acknowledging the value of local experience.
Identifying these problems led to new approaches to communicating with rural peo-
ple that sought a better understanding of their local situation, and involved them in
identifying the issues that affected them most directly. This led to the adoption of
techniques such as «Rapid Rural Appraisal» (RRA), which enabled development
workers and other outside «experts» to gather simple data quickly on issues iden-
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tified at the local level. It also allowed some participation of semi-literate and illit-
erate people.
While this was an improvement over the complex and specialised information gather-
ing of the past, it was still based on outsiders obtaining information, which was then
taken away for analysis and use in the preparation of development interventions. Local
opinions and ideas were gathered more effectively, but control and ownership
remained outside of the communities being «developed».
Nevertheless, techniques like RRA opened the door to involving communities further
– not just in data collection, but also in data analysis, problem identification and priori-
tisation, and eventually (though still not often enough) participation in defining, imple-
menting and evaluating development interventions.
This more inclusive approach became popularly known as Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA). The key insight of PRA was that both local communities and outside «experts»
had information and knowledge to share. It was assumed that outsiders knew relatively
little about local conditions, practices and resources, while community members often
lacked technical knowledge that would help them adapt to changing social, political and
natural environments. The important change was the identification of a two-way approach
to communication that respected the experience and knowledge of both «inside» and
«outside» participants, and gave the community a voice in setting development priorities.
PRA helped move the community back towards the centre of the development process
and sought to better understand and overcome the difficult and often contradictory
positions in which communities find themselves when facing issues of sustainable
resource use. But, as important as this process of enabling communities to take own-
ership of their own development was and is, it does not fully respond to the interde-
pendent context in which all development processes must work.
Consider the issues faced by communities in the relatively remote San Juan River Bi-
National Basin in Central America (see Experience # 6). These communities are in Costa
Rica and Nicaragua. The basin itself forms a natural ecological and social unit, and there
are many cultural links between its inhabitants on both sides of the border. The area is
also open to a variety of business activities, and depends on, or is affected significantly
by, decisions and policies made in the relatively distant capitals of the two countries.
No matter how participatory an approach may be within a local community, there are
many other factors that can impact the local management of resources. If business
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regulations are lacking, then unscrupulous and unsustainable practices that generate
little local benefit and much long-term damage can – and in the case of the San Juan
Basin did – occur. If governments make policies that do not take local needs and con-
cerns into account – or do not make policies at all – then local involvement and com-
mitment to the management of resources will be weaker or impossible.
The proper management of an area like the San Juan Basin requires the coordinated
participation of at least two national governments, local government, business and
local communities. To do this requires more than a commitment to participation at the
community level through processes like PRA; it requires meaningful participation at
multiple levels and across divides of geography, culture, education levels, income and
often fundamental interests.
For participatory approaches to succeed in this wider context of interdependent
influences another facet is required - a way to bring the necessary groups into con-
versation with each other, and to enable the poorest and most marginalised to have
a powerful/influential voice. In other words, a communication strategy that goes
beyond the relationship between «outside» development experts and «inside» com-
munity members.
Communication strategies that go beyond the local community retain the insights pro-
vided by approaches like PRA, but insist that equal importance be given to communi-
cation strategies dealing with the external contexts in which communities must func-
tion. This has been recognised in approaches like Participatory Rural Communication
Appraisal
10
and Co-management
11
.
The Namibia experience with Community Based Natural Resource Management
(see Experience 1) provides a good example of the importance of this kind of
expanded communication strategy. Here processes of «internal» communication
work together with parallel but linked processes of «outside» communication to
build participation and trust between different communities, levels of government
and policy makers.
Internally, Namibian communities had to find ways to separate and manage cattle and
wildlife, to stop poaching (a major economic activity of many of their own members),
to establish new forums for local and regional decision-making, and to learn skills and
adopt practices to manage resources in new ways. But for these to be successful, dif-
ferent communities had to share access to resources, traditional leaders had to make
co-ordinated decisions and share power, government planners had to listen to rural
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communities, and national leaders had to incorporate local ideas and priorities into
national policies.
This situation is not unique. In fact it can be argued that most development activities
require changes at the individual and local level as well as between communities, pol-
icy makers and private interests. Such changes require communication strategies that
look «in» and «out» at the same time, and that may involve quite different approaches
in different spheres. Unfortunately, while the situation is not unique, it is still rare to find
development initiatives that incorporate such communication strategies.
COMMUNICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL
CHANGE
This recognition that «the local» is embedded in complex relationships with other
actors and forces, has led to a related set of discussions on the role of communication
in the context of globalisation and new technologies. The Rockefeller Foundation has
initiated one of the more interesting of these discussions by involving people and
organisations from around the world, in an exploration of how to increase the impact
of communication as a tool in development processes given «globalisation» and new
communication technologies.
12
The discussion began from the premise that:
«…developments – in communications technologies, in political and media systems,
and in emerging development problems – suggest a greatly enhanced, radically differ-
ent role for communication in development programming.»
13
Three broad traditional roles were identified as having formed the core elements of
communication programming in development thinking and practise:
The first was to, «inform and persuade people to adopt… behaviours and practices…
beneficial to them.»
14
There are many familiar examples of this in HIV/AIDS, immuni-
sation, health and sanitation, reforestation, family planning, and soil and pest man-
agement, to name a few.
The second was to «enhance the image and profile of organisations involved in devel-
opment.»
15
This has been an important aspect of generating legitimacy for – mostly
northern – organisations and raising funds.
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The third was to «enable community consultation over specific initiatives.»
16
This can
be compared to Participatory Rural Appraisal discussed above, where the focus is
more on community participation and involvement in a particular intervention, than the
surrounding context of influencing issues and actors.
Each of the three traditional areas is important but not sufficient to respond to the
changing technological, political and economic context in which development occurs.
In order to be able to make change effectively «inside» a community, the surrounding
environment must also change, or at least be recognised and influenced.
This need to understand the surrounding context applies to communication theory and
method as much as it applies to the communities and people that communication ini-
tiatives seek to reach. In other words, communication thinking must also reflect on
itself and the environment it works in, and change its own behaviours and practices
accordingly. Within the discussion, some key contextual changes have been identified
which are significant enough to require reflection on communication theory and
method. These are the liberalisation and deregulation of the media, the emergence of
new technologies, and a new global and political environment.
Media Liberalisation
Media liberalisation has broken the hold of many government-run and dominated infor-
mation services, which have been the source of information for much of the world’s
population. The general trend since the end of the Cold War has been for governments
to relax controls and enact freedom of speech laws.
The impetus has come from a variety of sources, both within countries and interna-
tionally, through political pressure from citizens groups and international donors, and
economic pressure, as new trade regimes demand the opening up of national media
to competition.
These trends present a double-edged sword. On the one hand, countries which had
heavily censored and controlled media, have seen the emergence of often vibrant and
populist newspaper, radio and television outlets, while old government-controlled insti-
tutions have faded due to falling audiences and funding.
On the other hand, the door has been opened to unregulated media that can further
disempower the marginalised. Government self-congratulation and disinformation has
often been replaced with a diet of Western pop music, and irrelevant or inaccurate
news.
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This trend has created a new communication environment in which single media out-
lets have been replaced with many, in highly-fragmented markets with multiple audi-
ences. Getting the message out now requires paying attention to more outlets and
audience segments, and the additional problem of encouraging the new media to play
a role in development processes.
We can see some of this in the GreenCOM experience in El Salvador (see Experience
# 8), where training reporters to better understand environmental issues, was consid-
ered central to building greater awareness and commitment to environmental sustain-
ability. It is also reflected in the Kenyan Pastoralist experience (see Experience # 2),
where reporters were sensitised to the culture and lives of pastoralists, and encour-
aged to write stories about them, to help build understanding for their issues, and
reduce their marginalisation within Kenyan society.
New Technologies
The revolution in information and communication technologies is profound. The
Internet, e-mail, mobile phones, satellite and wireless, have all opened up communi-
cations in ways not thought possible even a few years ago. Countries with collapsing
telecommunications infrastructures can utilise cell phones, microwave and satellite
technologies, to upgrade and more affordably replace old systems, and provide phone
and Internet service to isolated rural areas.
These systems are helping to connect previously isolated people to information and
other communities. The Kothmale project in Sri Lanka (see Experience # 5), demon-
strates how community radio can be linked to the Internet, to provide access to infor-
mation on health and agriculture. Other initiatives in Kothmale show how connec-
tions are being made with surrounding villages and ethnic groups, creating the
potential for greater understanding and dialogue between people isolated by terrain
and culture.
However, as the FAO has pointed out, «a combination of inadequate national commu-
nications policies; insufficient infrastructure, connectivity access and high costs; a
scarcity of skilled ICT labour; and a lack of local content creation and applications (lan-
guage and software) hinder ICT appropriation by poor nations and by poor regions
within nations and especially by isolated rural communities»
17
.
This «digital divide» could grow and serve to further widen the gap between rich and
poor, the connected and the marginalised. Furthermore, increasing access to new
technologies is only part of a response to ICT marginalisation. As Alfonso Gumucio
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Dagron reminds us, «when we talk about technology we are only referring to instru-
ments, not to social, economic or cultural development. A knife is just a knife; it can
be used to hurt someone or to carve a beautiful wood sculpture. Content and utilisa-
tion is what makes the difference.»
18
There is great potential in many of the new technologies, but like media deregula-
tion, they are not in themselves good. The Internet for example, makes both amaz-
ing and terrible things possible. Its very openness means that it is used for both our
brightest and darkest dreams. It can be a place for tackling discrimination and
injustice head on, and it can be a place for the worst kinds of racism and exploita-
tion. It is also an instrument that is denied to many because of income, gender,
education, language and geographic barriers. Consider this set of UNDP statistics
from 1999:
• The typical Internet user worldwide is male, under 35 years old, with a university
education and high income, urban based and English speaking.
• A computer costs the average Bangladeshi more than eight years’ income, com-
pared with one month’s wage for the average American.
• English is used in almost 80 percent of websites. Yet fewer than one in ten peo-
ple worldwide speak the language.»
19
Others feel much more positive about the impact of the Internet and information com-
munication technologies (ICTs). For example, John Lawrence points out how:
«…in 1995, the Social Summit and the Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women
both engaged local communities in dialogue on crucial policy issues for the first time
via Internet (See Gurstein M. Community Informatics. Idea Publishing, Hershey
Pennsylvania 2000). The wealth of documentation on ICTs in the service of social
development and anti-poverty strategies following the Social Summit demonstrates
serious, local commitment by communities throughout the world. An important index
of the empowering potential of the Internet is the degree of resistance encountered in
autocratic societies. Also we should note the extraordinary contribution of the Internet
to reversing the «diaspora» effect in remoter, poorer or troubled regions (e.g. the 3
Pomegranate Network in Armenia http://www.3noor.org/nnplaunch.html ).
20
A recent study by the FAO’s Communication for Development Group on local appro-
priation of ICT’s found that:
On the one hand:
• there are a limited number of community driven ICT initiatives,
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INTRODUCTION
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• there is scarce visibility and coverage of grassroots driven ICT projects,
• most of the documentation on community ICT projects is relatively new because
the projects are new and few evaluations have been undertaken,
• the emphasis of ICT projects is more often on providing access to information than
on finding innovative ways to apply ICT’s to specific local needs,
• and the priorities of many ICT projects are influenced more by interests of exter-
nal organisations than local community based organisations.
While on the other hand ICT’s can:
• offer opportunities for two-way and horizontal communication,
• support bottom-up articulation of development needs,
• support, create and strengthen interactive and collaborative networks,
• support policy and advocacy,
• help build consensus,
• and enhance partnership with the media.
21
Whether sceptical or optimistic about the potential of these new technologies to spark
serious social change that benefits the poor and empowers the marginalised, there is
recognition that they can offer cheaper and more accessible communications, and pro-
vide increased opportunities for horizontal (as opposed to hierarchical) forms of dia-
logue and information sharing.
It is still too early to pass judgement on the potential of these technologies, but if the
central questions about «content» and «utilisation» are to be confronted, who better to
do so than those concerned with communication for social change?
Politics and Economy
The final set of trends identified through the Rockefeller discussion, concern changes
to the political and economic environment. One aspect of this has been the end of the
Cold War, and with it the emergence of more open political systems. Even states that
retain one-party systems or function as monarchies or theocracies are more open to
political debate and to greater freedom of expression.
This has been reinforced by the emergence of a global economy in which, «for the first
time in human history the entire planet is capitalist, since even the few remaining com-
mand economies are surviving or developing through their linkages to global, capital-
ist markets.»
22
This enclosure of the world within a single economic system is requir-
ing all governments to make adjustments, and one aspect of this process is to make
information more available. The global marketplace has helped create some of the
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impetus for government to deregulate media and relax freedom of speech laws. This
has been reinforced by the Internet, which has proven very difficult for even the most
authoritarian governments to regulate.
23
However, the globalisation of the capitalist system has also led to an increasing con-
centration of ownership in the communication field. For example, AOL/Time Warner
controls 32 percent of the US Internet service provider market
24
. This concentration of
ownership is compounded by the convergence of media and telecommunication indus-
tries in which a few very large multinational companies now control both transmission
systems and the programmes they carry. There are clear trends towards concentra-
tion and centralisation on the one hand, and fragmentation, coupled with the potential
for networked or horizontal communication on the other. While it is not clear how these
seemingly contradictory tendencies will work themselves out, they require that anyone
involved in communication watch them closely as they are about who controls the flow
of world information.
INSIGHTS AND DIRECTION
Discussions and debates about what these changes to the communication environ-
ment mean range around a few key insights. For our purposes – examining what expe-
rience and theory have to show us about the use of communication in natural resource
management (NRM) – the most telling points are:
1. There is a complex history of unequal power relationships and economic mar-
ginalisation in which community level development processes are embedded
and from which lessons can be drawn and better approaches to communication
built.
2. Preferred methods and approaches to communication in NRM, have moved from
«expert» outside advice provided for «recipient» communities, to the sharing of
knowledge in a process of mutual exchange, where the community determines its
own development priorities.
3. Local communities do not exist in isolation from wider contexts of social, political,
economic and environmental forces, and these need to be taken into account.
4. Most NRM initiatives require communication strategies for both internal and exter-
nal processes.
5. New communication technologies have increased the possibilities for marginalised
communities to access information, and to have their voices heard from local to
global levels.
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6. The obstacles to this access remain and should not be underestimated, as they
are caused by language, gender, poverty, geography, discrimination, and a variety
of other forms of marginalisation and disempowerment.
7. There are many experiments in the use of communication and NRM, but these are
as recent as the new technology or method employed, and can only show us par-
tial glimpses of what is possible and what is sustainable.
8. For every positive indication of how ICTs may create opportunities for those
involved in communication for social development, there are negative aspects that
must be kept in mind such as the digital divide, the concentration of ownership
over the means of communication, and who controls the content and utilisation of
communication tools and approaches.
In spite of these potential pitfalls, many people, communities and organisations around
the world, have begun to experiment with a variety of approaches to communication
and NRM that make use of inclusive methods and technologies (some new and some
traditional).
It is easy to feel we are at a point where there are more questions than answers, and
more uncertainty than clear direction. However, there are opportunities and possibili-
ties being created by people wherever they are engaged and lessons being learned in
the process of engagement. If the paths we should follow are not clearly marked the
general direction has been mapped and to paraphrase the words of Spanish poet
Antonio Machado «Traveller! there are no paths, paths are made by walking»
(Cantares XXIX). We hope that you will find the following «experiences» useful as tools
to explore other contexts and theoretical perspectives while gaining insight into your
own communication practise.
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Experience 1
Community Based Natural Resource
Management – Namibia
CBNRM IN NAMIBIA
Theme: Principles and Action
Learning Objective: To improve participants’ understanding of the relation-
ship between differing communication principles for effective change, and the
planning and organisation of their actions.
There are a number of very different principles on which to plan and organise a com-
munication activity related to NRM. Two different approaches follow the outline of this
experience in Namibia.
We suggest that you start by reading the Namibia experience. As you do, think about
the change principles that are central to it. We then outline two change approaches
and ask you to reflect, in relation to both the Namibia example and your own activities.
Project
Community Based Natural Resource Management in Namibia (CBNRM) is less a pro-
ject or programme, and more a process involving different actors and approaches over
time. It has focused on providing communal area residents with incentives to use their
resources sustainably, combining reform of policy and legislation, with implementation
at the community level.
Context
Namibia is the most arid African country south of the Sahara, with limited and unpre-
dictable rainfall, leading to regular drought and marginal agricultural yield. 66 percent
of its population of approximately 1.8 million live in rural areas, and are directly depen-
dent on harvesting natural resources. Per capita GDP is about $4 600, but income is
highly skewed between rich and poor, with the richest ten percent receiving 65 percent
of total income.
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Apartheid policies during South African colonial rule meant that at independence in
1990, 40.8 percent of the land had been allocated to black homelands supporting a
population of 1.2 million, while 43 percent (including all the most productive land) had
been allocated to white commercial farmers. Fourteen percent was allocated to con-
servation, and a small portion was unallocated.
Wildlife and forestry resources have been subject to strict state controls. In the past, local
residents had little legal access to these resources. In spite of the controls, wildlife num-
bers fell significantly. In many communal areas, forests are being cleared for shifting cul-
tivation, firewood and building materials. The state has been unable to regulate either
wildlife or forest resources, due to distances and limited government capacity.
Traditional mechanisms for land and resource allocation began to break down during
colonial and apartheid times. Since independence, government policy has continued
to erode the status and power of traditional leadership. This has lead to situations of
«open access» on much of Namibia’s communal land. Residents have been unable to
prevent others from settling and using resources, even when such use is detrimental
locally. People have tended to use what they can before someone else does.
Government and communities have recognised these problems for some time, and
considerable energy has gone into developing CBNRM. Experiments began as early
as the 1970s on commercial farms, expanded to communal lands in the late 1980s,
and accelerated in the post-independence atmosphere of open policy reform.
Issues/Problems
1. Poverty in rural communal areas.
2. Significant reduction of wildlife populations in communal areas, due to poaching
and drought.
3. Significant loss of forested areas.
4. Limited rural economic opportunities.
5. Small, widely separated communities with poor communication and little coopera-
tion.
6. Lack of state resources to patrol and monitor large inhospitable tracts of land.
Level
This project operates simultaneously at different levels and in mutually-reinforcing
ways. Projects at the community level act as pilots to test community identification of
issues and appropriate responses. Local experience is integrated into policy and leg-
islation development.
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In terms of communication needs, this means that several different approaches have
been adopted, and a number of technologies introduced to make it happen. In rural
areas, satellite radios have been put in place to enable communication between dis-
tant communities and game guards who monitor and track wildlife.
Many facilitated meetings have been required to work out differences and agree to
institutional frameworks. Sustainable resource management training has been con-
ducted for game guards and community members. Meetings have been co-ordinated
between communities and private tour and resort companies to build trust and negoti-
ate deals. At the government level, research has been planned and carried out.
Sensitisation has occurred regarding the importance of community participation in the
research and problem definition phase. Government has been encouraged to incor-
porate lessons from pilot projects and community experience, into the policy develop-
ment process. This in turn, has been fed back to communities for comment and under-
standing.
Process/Method
Chronologically, the process after independence went as follows:
1. 1990-92: the process began with socio-ecological surveys carried out by NGOs
with local experience to determine the key issues and problems from the per-
spective of effected communities.
2. This led to the development of several pilot community-based conservation pro-
jects, which were supported by foreign conservation NGOs.
3. This experience helped the government and Namibian NGOs to realise that poli-
cy and legislation would have to change to allow success. Throughout, the pilot
projects led the process of policy development.
4. 1992: A new draft policy was prepared giving rights over tourism and fire control
to communities that formed conservancies.
5. 1993: The United States Agency for International Development (US AID) became
involved through the Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Programme. This
enabled a national approach involving a partnership between national and local
government, NGOs and local communities.
6. 1995-96: Cabinet approved a new policy for conservancies and enabling legisla-
tion was passed.
7. 1997: The first communal area conservancy was legally recognised.
8. 1998: Three more conservancies were recognised, and the President officially
launched the Namibian Communal Area Conservancy Programme.
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9. 1999: Four more conservancies were approved in principle, and the LIFE pro-
gramme was extended for another five years.
10. By February 2001, fourteen communal area conservancies had been registered
and 40 were in the process of being formed.
Key aspects of the method were:
1. Building on lessons from earlier examples in Namibia.
In the 1970s, commercial farmers were given the right to control and profit from
wildlife on their farms, which led to the development of a multimillion dollar hunt-
ing and photo safari tourist industry.
In the 1980s, the Namibian NGO, Integrated Rural Development and Nature
Conservation (IRDNC) had already begun working in communal areas on NRM
with a focus on community empowerment.
2. Looking outside of Namibia for both negative and positive examples.
Particular emphasis was given to Zimbabwe’s Campfire experience, which point-
ed to the importance of communities benefiting directly from wildlife conservation
income rather than having the income go to government and then come back
through community programmes.
3. Learning from advances in theory and practice regarding community property
management through appropriate institutions that incorporated:
• A defined membership.
• A set of agreed operating and resource use rules.
• The ability to monitor and enforce the rules.
• Legitimacy from the community of resource users and the state.
4. Developing a two-way communication process between local communities, gov-
ernment officials and NGO’s that enabled joint identification and understanding of
problems and the joint development of solutions.
Key Players
1. Community leaders and resource users.
2. Local government workers and extension officers.
3. NGOs/Funders – IRDNC/US AID, World Wide Fund for Nature, the European Union.
4. Private sector tour and lodge operators.
5. Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism.
6. Namibian Cabinet and President.
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Results and Reflections
There are now fourteen legally gazetted conservancies and at least 40 other commu-
nities in the process of forming conservancies. This indicates that there is communal
support and that the pilot project experiences are widely known in the country.
While conservancies are just beginning to operate, and only a few contracts have been
signed with commercial hunting and photo safari operators, there are a number of pos-
itive and successful examples.
For instance, a conservancy in the Kunene Region Conservancy has an agreement
that has seen an upmarket tourist lodge built on its land. The Conservancy is involved
in overall policy making for the lodge, local people receive preferential hiring, and the
lodge provides training to ensure that local employees are also in management posi-
tions. Other benefits have come from hunting licenses, wages to community game
guards, and the ability to hunt surplus game.
A profit-sharing arrangement has resulted in contributions to the community develop-
ment fund of US$ 40 000 and in direct wages of US$ 69 000 between 1996 and 1998.
The direct wage numbers are quite substantial considering the low population and
even lower incomes in these areas, where a few hundred dollars per year can make a
significant difference to a family.
Non-financial benefits have included the empowerment and skills that come from the
conservancy development process. These are very important in a context where
apartheid has left many rural communities disempowered and dependent. Some of
the non-financial benefits include:
1. Adaptable institutions.
2. Defined and committed community membership.
3. Accountable leaders and participatory processes for making decisions and shar-
ing information.
4. Cohesive social units with a common purpose.
5. New skills in resource and business management.
6. Mechanisms for managing natural resources.
7. Experience and growing confidence in negotiating with outsiders.
8. Recognition from neighbours and outside authorities.
9. Pride and sense of control.
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Such building blocks may become tools for further social organisation around a range
of other resource management issues such as forests, farmland, water and har-
vestable wild products.
The process is still relatively new. There are high participation costs for communities
in terms of time spent in meetings, conflicts emerging as land and resource sharing
issues are discussed, frustrations waiting for government policy and legislation
changes, and new community issues arising from decision making about what to do
with community income. However, the growing numbers of communities involved
mean that many perceive the benefits to outweigh the costs. During 2001 conservan-
cies in different regions in Namibia began to form regional associations in order to pro-
vide greater communication and cooperation between individual conservancies shar-
ing similar interests and problems. These associations provide a platform for the con-
servancies to engage in advocacy at various levels, particularly with regard to lobby-
ing government for increased rights and recognition as full partners in natural resource
management. This is an important step as it means the communities will have their
own voice independent of the NGOs that have been supporting them, and will start to
form a significant political constituency.
COMMUNICATION AND CHANGE
Here are two contrasting views on how and why change takes place.
1. Paulo Freire
25
viewed change as coming from a process where dialogue led to
social commitment, and the constant dialectic between action and reflection. In
other words:
a) Dialogue: Lots of communication, discussion and debate, particularly
amongst those people most affected and engaged.
b) Social Commitment: People, individually and through organisations and
groups in which they are involved, commit themselves to change, and/or take
advantage of the opportunities they see for improving their livelihoods.
c) Action/Reflection: People take action and then review those actions to see
what happened. In the light of that assessment, they plan and undertake new
actions leading to further reflection on what happened and a continuing cycle
of action and reflection.
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2. Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs
26
developed
the following model for change:
Knowledge
Information, examples, data, etc.
Approval
From those around you, of the importance of the issues you wish to address, and
the importance of addressing them effectively.
Intention
To make it happen, genuinely desiring that the change will take place.
Practice
An action has to be undertaken.
Advocacy
Try to convince others about the desirability of their making the same choices and
taking the same actions.
Your Analysis of Natural Resource Management in Namibia
We suggest you refer to the Namibia experience above as you do this exercise. As you
review it, make notes in the boxes below to detail elements of the change strategy pur-
sued in Namibia, which are consistent with one of the principles for effective and sus-
tainable change outlined by either Freire or Johns Hopkins University CCP.
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22
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Change principle Elements of the Namibia NRM story
that reflect this change principle.
Dialogue
Social Commitment
Action/Reflection
Knowledge
Approval
Intention
Practice
Advocacy
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What conclusions do you draw about the main change and communication
strategies that underpinned this NRM initiative in Namibia?
What implications are there for your NRM strategies?
Supporting Document
Brian T. B. Jones, «Community Management of Natural Resources in Namibia»,
Scandinavian Seminar College’s Africa Project SSC Africa Project, paper no. 03 1999
– (View abstract at: http://www.cdr.dk/sscafrica/brudoc3.htm)
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Experience 2
Pastoralist Communication – Kenya
PANOS PASTORALIST COMMUNICATION PROJECT
Theme: Voices and Action
Learning Objective: To advance participants’ understanding of effective com-
munication strategies, where substantive action is sourced in the voice and
perspective of the people most affected.
Information follows on the Pastoralist Communication Programme in East Africa.
One component of this description is the Process/Method adopted. After reading
through the chapter, we encourage you to make some notes concerning the boxed
questions in the Process/Method section. These boxes reflect on the change strategies
and theories that are at the heart of this programme.
Project
The Panos supported Pastoralist Communications Programme aims to strengthen the
capacity of pastoralists to share information, debate development issues, and articu-
late their concerns and solutions, both among themselves and outwards to local
authorities, the wider national community and policy makers. The programme com-
bines the production of policy briefing papers, support for mass media journalists to
learn and write about pastoralist issues and lives, and community radio operated by
pastoralist groups.
Context
Seventy percent of Kenya’s land is arid or semi-arid and not suitable for agriculture.
The 20 percent of the population (about five million people) who live on it are mostly
pastoralists, and they produce a large part of the country’s meat supply. Like pastoral-
ists everywhere, they are suffering from a variety of problems including: impoverish-
ment and reduced capacity to survive natural disasters such as drought and flood;
severe competition for access to grazing land and water, often from new agricultural
25
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developments; displacement and alienation from land, more or less legal; low educa-
tional attainment; social problems such as drugs, especially among those who are set-
tled in urban areas; frequent violent conflict (cattle rustling, shootings, rape) between
different pastoralist groups, exacerbated by the ready availability of small arms; and
very poor access to human and animal health services.
The community radio element of this project has focused so far on the Borana, one of
six or seven different pastoralist peoples living in various parts of north and northeast
Kenya. Many Borana, and most of those directly involved in this programme, are set-
tled or semi-settled in urban areas, between four-hours and two-days drive from
Nairobi.
Issues/problems
1. Pastoralists are marginalised in national politics and development planning.
2. Their livelihoods are increasingly under threat and poverty is increasing.
3. Communication among themselves and between them and national authorities is
difficult, due to their mobility and remoteness, and the poorly-developed infra-
structure in their areas.
4. It is hard for them to assert their interests in the development debate, and ensure
that modernisation trends benefit, rather than further marginalise them.
Level
The programme operates at three levels: national policymakers (government and
NGO), general public attitudes and opinions, and most importantly, pastoralist com-
munities.
Process/method
1. Policy level: working with local pastoralist NGO and media partners, the project
produces Policy Briefing papers, carefully targeted at relevant decision makers,
and outlining policy changes that are achievable and realistic.
For example, a paper titled, «The Desertification Convention, pastoralists and its
implementation in Kenya», says that the degradation of Kenya’s arid lands is often
due to pastoralists maintaining too many livestock. They do this because of pover-
ty and their very poor access to markets, which depresses livestock prices. The
paper, aimed at Members of Parliament, calls for a national commitment to revive
the infrastructure – abattoirs, roads, veterinary and certification services – so that
pastoralists can better supply meat to domestic and export markets, reducing their
need to maintain very large herds.
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2. General public level: mass media journalists are supported to produce regular
media features on pastoralism, in consultation with pastoralist NGOs and
Community Based Organisations (CBOs), in order to address the general public’s
hostility towards pastoralists. The features raise awareness of pastoralist life and
issues, and present pastoralists in a positive light, as people who are addressing
problems and dealing with change. They are generally based on direct visits to
pastoralist communities, and include many different pastoralist voices – women
and men, old and young, leaders, ordinary people, etc.
«… opinion leader theory (Katz and Lazarsfeld 1955)…says that there are
two steps in information flow: from the media to opinion leaders, and from
leaders to the masses. Media audiences rely on the opinions of members
of their social networks rather solely or mainly on the mass media.»
27
Does the Pastoralist initiative conform to these principles?
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3. Community level: Six Borana community groups (three women’s groups, three
youth groups), in different parts of the country, are making their own radio pro-
grams, which are broadcast on the Borana language service of the national broad-
caster. After a five-day training workshop, the groups choose their own topics, con-
duct interviews with officials and leaders, and record music and dramas, using
basic cassette recorders. Their tapes are sent to Nairobi for minimal editing, and
broadcast.
The aim is to produce programmes on social and development topics that are of more
interest to Borana listeners than the regular state-produced material, airing the com-
munities’ own voices, ideas and debates. The programs hope to stimulate more debate
and action within the Borana community, and to strengthen their confidence to dia-
logue with officials, politicians and development agents.
«…Communication means a process of creating and stimulating under-
standing as the basis for development rather than information transmission
(Agunga 1997). Communication is the articulation of social relations among
people. People should not be forced to adopt new practices no matter how
beneficial they seem in the eyes of agencies and governments. Instead,
people needed to be encouraged to participate rather than adopt new prac-
tices based on information.»
28
Does the approach to working with the Pastoralist communities, as outlined
in this description,
a) Create and stimulate understanding as the basis for develop-
ment? Why?
or
b) Focus on information transmission? Why?
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Key players
a. Policy level: pastoralist representatives and advocates, national policy makers.
(Members of Parliament, etc.)
b. General public level: pastoralist organisations and individuals who provide sto-
ries and information to journalists; journalists who have developed understanding,
knowledge and interest in pastoralist issues; people who are willing to travel to
remote areas to gather material for stories; editors who publish the features
because they appreciate their quality of research, on-the-ground knowledge and
human interest.
c. Community level: the trained members of the community groups who are mak-
ing radio programmes, and a few local leaders and mobilisers who are involved
with, or supportive of the community groups.
«Participation does not always entail cooperation nor consensus. It can
often mean conflict and usually poses a threat to existent structures...Rigid
and general strategies for participation are neither possible nor desir-
able.»
29
Do you agree or disagree?
In the case of the Pastoralist programme, reviewing the whole of this docu-
ment (including the following sections), do you think that the participato-
ry elements sought consensus or conflict?
What is the approach within your initiatives?
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Results and reflection
1. Policy level: No briefing has yet been completed. The process of thinking through
the policy-change targets, and how best to communicate with them, has been
valuable. This process needs to be documented and disseminated among relevant
advocacy groups.
2. General public level: Print media features have been produced monthly for over
three years. Nearly every one has been published in at least one of the four main
daily papers (three in English, one in Swahili). They are varied and of good quali-
ty, and editors like them.
The impact has so far only been assessed informally, through talking to the
authors of the features themselves. The journalists are known and respected by
concerned officials and NGOs, and state that: urban newspaper readers are struck
by and interested in the features, which describe issues outside their experience;
pastoralist communities appreciate the way their concerns have been reported, at
least occasionally; some pastoralist CBOs have acquired the habit of contacting a
sympathetic journalist with other stories – for instance, returning a girl to school
when her parents have withdrawn her for early marriage; officials sometimes react
to exposure of inadequacies – for instance, the national veterinary service sent an
official to investigate allegations of improper sale of veterinary medicines, which
should have been provided for free. In another case, the national museum sent out
officials to study a weed that was newly invading pasture lands, following an arti-
cle which pointed out that they were taking no action to control this threat.
3. Community radio programmes: The three women’s groups have been very enthu-
siastic, producing tapes regularly for over a year. The youth groups have found it
more difficult to organise themselves for the work involved. All the groups were
pre-existing, and two of them are music and drama groups.
Topics covered so far include land rights and access, livestock health and market-
ing, education particularly of girls, AIDS, girls’ rights and early marriage, and con-
flict. Topics selected by the six groups to cover in the next phase are conflict, AIDS
and the environment.
In this next phase, the groups will receive some training from a conflict resolution
specialist, so that they can produce a series of more focussed and effective pro-
grammes on conflict prevention, based on better analysis of the causes of con-
flicts, and more refined thinking about effective conflict-prevention strategies.
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The programme is likely to move towards more coordinated planning by the six
groups about topics and messages, to avoid repetition, and to develop further
depth of analysis. As with conflict prevention, training might be offered on other
topics, if the groups wish it, to strengthen their access to information, and skills in
developing messages.
Data on impact has come mainly from the groups themselves, during a mid-project
review workshop. They say they are proud to be educating their communities, and they
are willing to overcome considerable difficulties to do so (e.g. husbands who object to
their wives moving around among the community interviewing strangers.)
Some anecdotes show that impact on audiences is starting to emerge. For instance:
«One of the radio programmes on HIV-AIDS made a local leader in Kula-Mawe, a loca-
tion in Isiolo, declare his HIV status in a public baraza. When the chief was later asked
why he took that bold step, he said the HIV-AIDS pandemic is no longer a secret, but
an issue of national concern. He said he had listened keenly to a program on the radio
on the issue, and said even the rural populace needs to be warned. He said the first
step is to accept one’s status, and stop the disease from spreading further by educat-
ing the community.» (Spontaneous testimony given by a trainee researcher during the
training workshop for the audience survey).
Another indicator of success is that a major NGO working with pastoralists all over
Kenya, is planning to adopt the methodology as part of its national work on AIDS and
conflict.
An audience survey was carried out in March, 2001, to assess the size of listenership
among the Borana. Three hundred questionnaires were conducted with a random
sample in three separate Borana areas. An initial look at the results suggests a very
large proportion have listened to the programs. The biggest constraint seems to be the
very poor state of the national broadcaster’s transmission facilities, which are badly in
need of renovation.
This project is far from being self-sustaining. The six groups involved at present need
support from a full-time coordinator, with some additional outside inputs for radio-skills
training. There is also technical editing/broadcasting input from Kenya Broadcasting
Corporation. (Borana Service)
Outside input on the topics the groups choose to cover might also be desirable –
the groups’ capacity to access information themselves is limited, as many of them
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are illiterate, few have a high level of education, and they are fairly remote from
sources of information.
Supporting Documents
Silvio Waisbord Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies and Strategies in
Development Communication: Convergences and Differences. Prepared for the
Rockefeller Foundation 2001. Available on The Communication Initiative website at
http://www.comminit.com/stsilviocomm/sld-2881.html
Kitty Warnock. Note for The Communication Initiative. Panos, London May 15
th
2001.
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Experience 3
Indigenous Forest Management –
Cambodia
CBNRM AMONGST INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN RATANAKI
PROVINCE
Theme: Issue Analysis for Action
Learning Objective: To expand participants’ skills at analyzing the issues to
be addressed by the communication initiative.
Please review the experience below. Then attempt to re-describe and debate this
experience according to the analytical process described in the «problem tree»
approach within Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal.
30
You will find this
process at the end of the experience.
Project
This project supports indigenous people living in the highland jungles of Cambodia’s
Ratanakiri Province, to control and sustainably earn a livelihood from the forests they
have traditionally inhabited.
The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) initiated the project in 1996.
In 1997, the Centre combined forces with the Cambodia Area Rehabilitation and
Regeneration Project (CARERE), a rural development project funded by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Context
Long after the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime in 1979, rebels lurked in the jungles of
Ratanakiri, a province in northeast Cambodia. Outsiders stayed away from the forest,
which meant that the forest remained intact. However in the early 1990s, the situation
changed. The rebels gradually gave up their arms – and the logging trucks started to
arrive.
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They came by the hundreds, rumbling up and down the country’s main highway – a
narrow red dirt road – taking loads of lumber across the border to Viet Nam. Settlers
from other parts of Cambodia also poured into Ratanakiri, and investors bought up
huge tracts of land to grow cash crops. Jungle gave way to plantations and fields, and
forest resources began to disappear.
This has created serious problems – particularly for indigenous people, who rely on the
forest for their livelihood. Although most of Cambodia’s population is Khmer, in
Ratanakiri province almost three-quarters of the population belongs to an ethnic
minority. The province’s six ethnic minorities are collectively known as Highlanders. In
the traditionally hierarchical society of Cambodia, these people had never spoken up
for their rights – until they became involved in a CBNRM project.
Many Highlanders rely exclusively on the forest to survive. As Seu Chelone, a woman
who lives in Som Thom Commune explains: «We need firewood, vegetables, fruit,
mushrooms, bamboo shoots, and we can have these things from the forest. We see
the forest as our market.»
Issues/Problems
1. After years of relative isolation due to the area’s occupation by Khmer Rouge
rebels, the area has opened up, bringing logging and cash cropping, and with
them the loss of jungle and forest resources.
2. The local ethnic minorities or «Highlanders» make up the majority of the
province’s population, but are traditionally discriminated against in Cambodian
society.
3. Many of these people depend on the forest and jungle for their livelihoods, but
these livelihoods are now at risk as forest companies and settlers move into the
area to take trees and clear land for cash crops.
Level
Cambodian researchers work with community members, whom they train to map local
resources and document local knowledge. The communities have used the knowledge
and training to lobby provincial and national governments about land use permits, and
laws protecting indigenous people’s right to possess and use public land and support
their traditional livelihood practices.
Process/Method
In the project, Highlanders from three communes (Som Thom, Yeak Lom and Ochum)
began working with Cambodian researchers to map forest resources, and document
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indigenous knowledge of the forest. A core team of community members received tech-
nical training in mapping skills, and participatory action research techniques. This team
then trained villagers, showing them how to record observations and collect data in the
field. Villagers created land use maps, sketching boundaries and documenting land uses.
Their findings were verified by the research team, which used global positioning systems
(GPS) to double-check that privately owned land had not been inadvertently included.
Results and Reflections
«We wondered if they went and cut the forest just anywhere,» says Nehm Sovanna,
the national team leader for the Ratanakiri project. «But we found there is a very clear
mechanism for using their natural resources and protecting them. They have specific
areas for swidden agriculture where they rotate crops. In swidden agriculture, you cut
the forest, you burn it, you cultivate it, and then you move and let the forest grow back
for ten to 20 years. There is also the wildlife forest, watershed forest and spirit [or
sacred] forest.»
Highlanders protect the tall trees of the spirit forests: to cut them is to invite disaster.
According to traditional beliefs, «If you cut down a tree from the spirit forest, something
bad will happen,» explains a villager. «For example, maybe a tiger might eat you.»
When researchers examined one of the spirit forests, they realised this area would not
regenerate if it were cut. The soil was not fertile enough and the area was too exposed
to wind and rain. «We found out that, yes, it is right: you really cannot cut the spirit for-
est,» says Mr. Sovanna.
This finding bolstered the Highlanders’ confidence in their traditional mechanisms for
managing forest resources, which had broken down as loggers, investors and settlers
moved to Ratanakiri. Tempted by offers of cash, some Highlanders were leading log-
gers to the best trees or selling their land – their only resource – to speculators. In
addition, outsiders started farming land the Highlanders had left fallow.
To help gain recognition for traditional management systems, part of the project
focused on documenting boundaries of traditional resource areas. Villagers also
agreed on rules and regulations for community forest management. They set fines for
anyone in the village who cuts trees – or helps others to do so. Researchers and vil-
lagers also began investigating ways to increase agricultural production.
In 1996 however, the cash-strapped Government of Cambodia had granted a palm oil
company a concession of 20 000 hectares – right in the middle of the Highlanders’
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land. Local people were not consulted. By 1998, over the objections of the communi-
ty, intensive logging was taking place in the commune – and the spirit forests were not
to be spared.
John Ashish, a local researcher with the project, describes a confrontation between a
villager and a logger: «One villager had chosen a tree from the forest and marked it to
claim it. He was going to use this tree to build his house. When the loggers came in,
he stood by his tree and tried to stop them from cutting it. He said, «This is my tree.
I marked it to build my house.» The logger replied: «We don’t want to hear from you.
You are nothing.» The tree was cut down.»
Yet the villagers were mobilised by the project – and they had research results to make
their case. They had also established a relationship with the provincial government,
because the project was implemented in close cooperation with the Department of the
Environment.
At a provincial workshop in 1999, villagers explained their land use map and illustrat-
ed how they depended on the forest. Governor Kham Kheun was impressed: «The
government does not have a clear land use plan. In Ratanakiri, we can see that the
villagers have made the kind of plan we need, based on a classification of the types of
soil in the forest.»
«We want to help the community protect its natural resources,» he added. Governor
Kheun, who grew up in Ratanakiri, went to bat for the Highlanders with the national
government. In July 2000, the palm oil concession was drastically reduced – to 5 000
hectares. At the same time, the Governor also endorsed Som Thom community
forestry, effectively signing the forest to the community for management.
The provincial government now sees the CBNRM project as a model and wants to
extend it into other areas. The Department of the Environment has already
received several requests from other communities to participate. Moreover,
because of the project, both OXFAM and the UNDP hired lawyers who worked with
the project participants to help draft a new land law that reflects issues affecting
Highlanders, such as indigenous people’s communal rights. A Cambodian helped
to lobby the case for Highlanders at a ministerial level, and with other non-govern-
mental and international organisations. The bill was adopted by the Council of
Ministers, and is now before the National Assembly. If it is approved, indigenous
communities will have the legal right to possess and use public land to support their
traditional livelihood practices.
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«Villagers are changing their way of thinking,» says Sal Yutch, a village development
chief. «We can see that the only way to safeguard our resources is to work together
as a community.»
On the following page you will find a «problem tree» exercise. Please fol-
low these steps while answering the questions in the exercise:
1. Choose a project example that you know well and that has some of
the same elements as the initiative in this experience.
2. Now starting at the top of the tree work your way through the ques-
tions to the roots.
3. While you are doing this consider that the top of the tree represents
immediate but sometimes symptomatic issues, the trunk gets to core
problems that are often within the grasp of the local community to
respond to, the roots get at fundamental and often important social,
cultural or economic questions – these are often only partially in the
control of any community to respond to – e.g. gender relations, world
trade regimes, environmental degradation.
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Experience 3 - CBNRM AMONGST INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN RATANAKI PROVINCE
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THE PROBLEM TREE
38
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
The effects: the leaves and branches of the tree
The most immediate issues, concerns and problems.
What are the issues and problems that are of concern to people?
Why are they concerns?
For Ratanakiri, Cambodia For your initiative
The problem: the trunk of the tree
The core problems that need to be
addressed.
What are the major problems?
Why they are the major problem?
For Ratanakiri, Cambodia
For your initiative
The causes: the roots of the tree
The main sources and reasons for the problems that need to be addressed.
Why do these problems exist?
For Ratanakiri, Cambodia For your initiative
CNRMexpTheory.qxd 24-07-2003 15:53 Pagina 38
Is it ok to have an initiative that does not tackle the problems at all these levels?
Supporting Documents/Contacts
Lisa Waldick. Staking a Claim in Cambodia’s Highlands. Reports: Science from the
developing world. International Development Research Centre March 30 2001.
http://www.idrc.ca/reports/read_article_english.cfm?article_num=910
Claire Thompson, Research Officer, CBNRM program initiative, International
Development Research Centre (IDRC); PO Box 8500, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
[email protected] 613 236 6163 ext 2069
For further information contact: [email protected] or visit the IDRC website at www.idrc.ca
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Experience 4
Recovering from Conflict
– Viet Nam
IMPROVING NRM IN THE HONG HA COMMUNE
Theme: Contextual Analysis for Action
Learning Objective: To improve participants’ skills at analyzing the contexts
for change.
Please review this experience in Viet Nam with a colleague or friend.
Before reading the project description, we encourage you to focus on the contexts for
change highlighted below in the boxes on the left-hand side. In the boxes on the right-
hand side, write three or four questions you would ask, if you were to review a com-
munication and change initiative from the perspective in the left-hand box. Then, as a
pair, work through the Hong Na commune example asking your questions at appropri-
ate times.
41
Experience 4 - IMPROVING NRM IN THE HONG HA COMMUNE
Social Features
• Interpersonal relationships.
• Behavioural expectations in terms
of gender, age, class, social
position.
• Expectations regarding who has
access to knowledge and
information.
Your Questions
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42
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Ethical and Spiritual Features
The influence of significant moral and
spiritual belief systems which form
the basis of personal and shared
values.
Your Questions
Cultural Features
The behaviours and attitudes
considered acceptable in given
contexts.
Your Questions
CNRMexpTheory.qxd 24-07-2003 15:53 Pagina 42
43
Experience 4 - IMPROVING NRM IN THE HONG HA COMMUNE
Legal Features
Laws determining what people can
and cannot do, and activities to
encourage observance of those laws.
Your Questions
Political Features
Systems of governance in which
change will have to take place. For
example, in structure, political
commitment, reliability, transparency,
or capacity.
Your Questions
CNRMexpTheory.qxd 24-07-2003 15:53 Pagina 43
Project
This project works to reduce hunger and poverty in the Hong Ha Commune, by iden-
tifying ways to respond to the deforestation caused by defoliants and bombs during the
Viet Nam War. The deforestation has led to devastating floods and the replacement of
native vegetation by invasive grass species.
To address these problems, researchers at the Hue University of Agriculture and
Forestry, are using participatory research methods to help local residents identify pri-
orities, and develop innovative responses to their needs. Launched in 1998, with sup-
port from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the project team
has also received technical support from the International Center for International
Agriculture (CIAT), and the University of British Columbia.
Context
Located on a branch of the former Ho Chi Minh Trail, a military-supply route used in
the 1960s and 1970s by the North Vietnamese Army, the Hong Ha Commune - encom-
passing five villages - is the poorest of 21 communes in the Aluoi District of central Viet
Nam. More than 45 percent of local households lack enough income to stave off
hunger all year round.
44
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Resource Features
What is required to make things
happen - covers human, financial
and material resources, community
knowledge and skills, and items for
exchange.
Your Questions
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The Hong Ha Commune is at the source of the Bo River, which supplies the agricultural
plain of Thua Thien Province. During the war, the region was a frequent target of chem-
ical defoliants and bombs, which destroyed much of its natural forest cover. Today, the
native vegetation has been replaced by invasive imperata grasses, which are difficult to
remove but must be cleared for agriculture or agroforestry. Moreover, the deforestation
has led to devastating floods, both in the Aluoi District and in downstream areas.
The project evolved out of an earlier initiative conducted from 1994 to 1997, in the
Xuan Loc Commune of Viet Nam’s Hue Province. In this work, the research team
helped local farmers improve their land management practices. The project introduced
ecologically-sustainable agricultural techniques and higher-yielding crops, including
new varieties of rice, cassava, mung bean, black bean and groundnuts. Some of the
most useful techniques from this initiative have since been applied to the Hong Ha
Commune project.
Traditionally, Hong Ha residents have depended primarily on slash-and-burn, other-
wise known as swidden agriculture, for their livelihood. Other food sources have
included hunting, animal husbandry and the gathering of forest products.
According to Le Van An, the project leader and Deputy Head of the Department of
Science and International Relations at Hue University, the main goals are to gradually
replace swidden agriculture with a home garden economy, limit forest destruction,
diversify crop production and increase household income.
Issues/Problems
1. Effects of war-time use of chemical defoliants and bombs have left the area defor-
ested and susceptible to invader species and flood.
2. This has made agriculture and agroforestry much more difficult.
3. More than 45 percent of local households lack enough income to stave off hunger
all year round.
Level
University and technical expert researchers work closely with participating local
households chosen through a survey, and a representative of each of the communes’
villages and ethnic groups.
Process/Method
As a first step, the research team conducted surveys to assess the state of water,
soil, agriculture, forestry, livestock and human resources in the region. The results
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showed that local residents face numerous obstacles ranging from a lack of capital
for investing in agricultural production to inaccessible markets. These factors make it
hard for farmers to sell their produce at decent prices. They are also hampered by:
a limited number of crop-growing options, low-yield rice strains, inefficient pig rear-
ing, low female participation rates in decision making, limited education, rapid pop-
ulation growth, decreasing natural resources, severe flooding, and unstable water
resources.
Based on this survey, 17 households were initially selected for participation in the pro-
ject. They included families from both the commune’s five villages and its five ethnic
groups. During planning meetings involving the research team and participating farm-
ers, the partners agreed to conduct joint farmer-scientist trials to develop higher-yield-
ing crops, and a strain of crossbred pigs that are better suited to the local environment.
They also decided to introduce a greater variety of high-quality agricultural products for
both field agriculture and home gardens.
Results and Reflections
While generally successful, the trials have not been problem-free. A flood damaged the
trial crops and fish ponds. «Now the crops are harvested earlier before the rainy season,
and are grown higher up in the mountain,» says Le Van Hua, the commune’s Chairman.
As part of its efforts, the university has held training courses to help participants
improve their pig raising, rice management and cassava growing skills. These lessons
have been disseminated further through farmer-to-farmer visits, which are considered
very useful by local villagers.
Meanwhile, some residents have shared their experiences in gardening, livestock ris-
ing and fish ponds, and have started to experiment with new crops such as pineap-
ples, black peppers and bamboo. As a result, the number of participating households
is now more than 200.
Community members are increasing their food self-sufficiency and making better use
of their land. «Before there was always a lack of food, now there’s enough,» notes
Quynh Dien, a male farmer who participated in the trials.
«We now have high-yield rice, cassava, fish, pigs and a better standard of living,» adds
Mrs. Quyng Vuong. «I received a loan from the project. I bought fertilizer, pesticides
and fingerlings. I’ve repaid the loan and used the profit to buy food, and send my chil-
dren to school.»
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«Every household wants to take part [in the training sessions]. When there is a train-
ing session with one family, many more come to learn,» says Nguyen Hoai Nam, the
commune’s Communist Party leader. «Now we know how and when to use fertilizer.
We know how to use pig sties, instead of letting pigs roam in the forest.»
Among its goals, the project has strived to involve local women in agricultural produc-
tion. For example, the local women’s union has hosted workshops on farming meth-
ods. «Before, women were shy and didn’t speak in meetings. We didn’t know much
about livestock and rice production. Now we speak what we think and share our expe-
riences,» says Quynh Vuong.
According to Le Van An, the farmers have played a key and enthusiastic role in the pro-
ject’s successes, by sharing their agricultural knowledge with the scientific team, and
by participating in project planning, implementation and management - a major depar-
ture from previous government programs.
For example, local villagers participated in planning sessions concerning the con-
struction of an irrigation system and a kindergarten. In the process, their own confi-
dence and belief in their abilities has increased. «Farmers feel those activities belong
to them, not just the researchers (and government officials), and are very excited,» he
says. Meanwhile, «the project has strengthened the research capacity of university
staff. We have much to learn from the participatory approach.»
One problem that still needs to be addressed concerns property rights - local residents
lack full authority to manage the commune’s natural resources. «We have organized
meetings and invited people from provincial and district offices to discuss this. The
way ahead is to develop a bottom up approach,» argues Van An.
«We would like to spread our success story to other villages in the mountains,» he
concludes.
As a pair, work through the Hong Na commune example asking your
questions at appropriate times.
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Supporting Documents/Contacts
Miriam Martinez & Nick Wilson. «Improving NRM in Viet Nam’s Hong Ha Commune»
Reports: Science from the developing world. International Development Research
Centre February 2001.
http://www.idrc.ca/reports/read_article_english.cfm?article_num=870
Claire Thompson, Research Officer, CBNRM Program Initiative, International
Development Research Centre (IDRC); PO Box 8500, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
[email protected] 613 236 6163 ext 2069
For further information contact: [email protected] or visit the IDRC website at www.idrc.ca
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Experience 5
Internet Radio – Sri Lanka
KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO
WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Theme: Culture and Action
Learning Objective: To expand participants’ awareness of the relationship
between culture, context and strategy, in developing effective communication
initiatives.
Different cultures can have very different approaches to communication for change.
Before reviewing the Kothmale initiative outlined below, please consider the following
insights into the Aristotelian and Buddhist approaches to change. These two
approaches
31
have significant and differing implications for communication strategies.
49
Experience 5 - KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Aristotelian Model
1. Emphasis on communicator.
2. Influencing is a central concept.
3. There is a focus on control.
4. The emphasis is on outward
processes from the communicator
to the world or audience.
5. The relationship between the
communicator and the receiver of
information is assymetrical – the
communicator controls the
message.
6. Stresses intellect and rational
action.
Buddhist Model
1. Emphasis on receiver.
2. Understanding is a central concept.
3. There is a focus on choice.
4. The emphasis is on both outward
and inward processes – the
message and how the receiver
perceives and interprets the
message.
5. The relationship between the
communication and the receiver of
information is symetrical – the
receivers’ understanding of the
communication is as important as
the original message.
6. Stress empathy and
understanding
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The text below describing the Kothmale Internet Community Radio Project www.koth-
male.net/ is flanked by two columns that are labelled Buddhist and Aristotelian. We
suggest that as you read this text, when you come across elements of the strategy that
match an aspect of either of these approaches, that you tick next to the appropriate
section. You might also want to add a brief explanation for your tick. An example is pro-
vided. Following this will be a short series of questions asking you to reflect on your
own principles for effective communications and those embedded in the Kothmale
experience.
50
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
Project
The Kothmale Community Radio Internet
Project (KCRIP) builds on the success of
the Kothmale community radio station
and programming. The Internet project
focuses on assessing the potential
benefits of new communication
technologies to remote areas. UNESCO
is implementing it in collaboration with
the Ministry of Posts,
Telecommunications and the Media, the
Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, the
Sri Lanka Telecommunication Regulatory
Commission, and the University of
Colombo.
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51
Experience 5 - KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
Example:
The station was set
up to give people
information, so the
emphasis was on an
asymmetrical
relation between
communicator and
receiver.
Context:
The Kothmale Community Radio station is
located at the top of a mountain in the
central region of Sri Lanka, in an area that
is mostly rural with small farms, rice
paddies and tea plantations scattered
between dense forest and small villages. It
began broadcasting in February 1989. At
the time, the Mahaweli Authority (a
governmental development body
operating in the central region), had
relocated more than 2,900 families for Sri
Lankas’ second-largest damming project.
Many people in the region lost their crops
and farming land. The Mahaweli
Authority set up the station with
the objective of giving information
to people who had been
relocated. The station was also used to
provide information about self-employment
and health.
By February 1991, the station aired only
three days per week, with three hours of
transmission each day. In 1999, the
station moved to its current larger location
in Mawathura, and broadcasts extended
to eight hours per day. The morning
broadcast was commercialised, so the
station would collect approximately 75
percent of its operational costs from the
commercial revenue. Financial
management remained with the Sri Lanka
Broadcasting Corporation.
In 1998, UNESCO supported a new
component, KCRIP, to provide Internet
access to remote and rural regions of Sri
Lanka using computers and a regional
radio broadcast.
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52
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
Issues/Problems:
1. Much of Asia’s poverty is
concentrated in rural areas with
limited access to information.
Improved access to information is
seen as an important tool that can
enable communities to improve and
diversify their rural livelihoods and
manage their resources better.
2. Kothmale is quite isolated and
depends on radio.
3. The community members involved
felt that access to information from
around the world would be of benefit,
but that this could only be
accomplished if there was an
intermediary between the local
people and the information available
on the Web, such as trained local
people at the radio station.
4. Youth in the villages lacked access to
computers and technologies that they
believed they needed to participate in
a world dominated by new
communications technologies.
Level:
This project is focused at the community
level of Kothmale and the 25 km radius
of its broadcast range. However, it
works in partnership with the University
of Colombo and the Sri Lanka Ministry of
Posts, Telecommunications and the
Media. It is seen as a pilot project that
may be reproduced in other
communities.
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53
Experience 5 - KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
Process/Method:
There are three basic features in this
project which combine new information
technologies with conventional radio.
1. A radio programme allows people to
«Radio Browse» the Internet, with the
information gathered interpreted in
the local languages. Here, a daily
two-hour radio programme has
community broadcasters interpreting
information from select Internet sites.
The listeners direct queries to the
radio station to find specific
information from the Internet. The
advantage is that the radio provides
the requested information in the local
languages, making Internet
information accessible to those who
do not understand English.
2. A mini Internet Service Provider (ISP)
offers free local Internet access
through the community radio.
Besides an Internet Café at the
station, there are two free Internet
access points at Gampola and
Nawalapitiya community libraries. This
has been very useful for the
community, as ISPs are usually
located in capital cities, and rural
users have had to pay long-distance
telephone charges to access the
Internet. This provides cheaper local
telephone access plus use at
community libraries is free. These
library access points are also used as
direct links to the radio station, to
produce and air live programmes.
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54
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
3. A community database is being
developed as requested information is
gathered and stored. The community
radio is also developing its own
computer database, deriving information
requested by community members from
the Internet. Much of the information on
this Web site is available in the local
languages, and is an attempt to solve
the problem of non-availability of Internet
information suitable to local rural needs.
A collection of CD-ROMs will also be
made available for community use.
The project allows for direct Internet
access, mostly used by young people,
and indirect access, where listeners of
the FM Radio are able to write in
questions or provide topics for the radio
station to broadcast. Trained volunteers
research and gather information from
the Internet and CD-ROMs, and
translate it into Sinhala and Tamil.
All but three of the weekly broadcasts
are in the Sinhala language, since the
area has an ethnic breakdown of around
70 percent Sinhala. There are also large
Tamil and Muslim communities. In
January 1999, the station began
including weekly Tamil broadcasts.
The questions are responded to through
various radio programs including: one on
human rights, a women’s programme, a
children’s programme, one on health, and
international news. Gradually all the data
will be available for other community
radio stations and citizens via the Web
site. Furthermore, the station will
broadcast online so other community
radio stations throughout Sri Lanka can
utilise it.
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55
Experience 5 - KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
A Friday evening program is particularly
popular. A local lawyer hosts it and
volunteers help with the research during
the week. His topics have included
international cultural belief systems and
practices, world leaders and social
movements, law and change, and
scientific masters throughout history.
The staff and volunteers frequently visit
the communities to do field recordings
and live broadcasts. This direct
communication is important, as many
people are geographically remote. The
station is able to bridge the
communication gap by interacting with
the community through live and recorded
broadcasts. Music is a very important
aspect of Sri Lanka culture and each day
traditional songs are aired. Buddhist
prayer is also broadcast every evening
and on full moon Poya days.
Letters to the station average 50 per day
(more on weekends). These letters
include poetry, drama, history, songs and
local event information. Members of the
Kothmale FM listeners club deliver daily
news summaries.
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COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
Key Players:
1. Local community members and
volunteers at the radio station.
2. Local libraries.
3. Local Government and NGO
workers.
4. National Government Ministries.
Results and Reflections
Students of the access centres are
designing their own Web sites, using the
Internet for research and school projects,
and obtaining information on educational
grants and institutions.
Other members of the community have
been able to directly access information
regarding health, human rights,
agriculture and other issues affecting
their daily lives. Some examples are:
• One man was extremely upset when
his son was diagnosed with
Hirchsprung disease. He was able to
get information and advice from
experts in other countries.
• A local school teacher was able to
interact with teachers around the world
about short wave radio teaching, and
apply this knowledge to a very remote
school.
• A local farmer, who hoped to expand
his market by raising geese, was
delighted with the housing diagrams
and feeding information he was able to
gather from the Internet.
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Experience 5 - KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
The radio programme has also
supported blood donation campaigns,
an exhibition on self-employment, an
information campaign to prevent a cow
disease epidemic, a fundraiser for local
hospitals, and a library book donation
drive.
Providing information on human rights
has been an important area of focus that
has been made easier with convenient
access to the Internet. Two local
students, Madhushini Nilmabandara and
Nilma Samrakool, do a weekly program
on human rights. The University of
Colombo’s Human Rights Centre funds
their program: «People were not aware
of their human rights. So we give them
information... how to take action to
protect it. Now we have set up human
rights clubs in schools and do programs
with them (on radio).» The students
come to the station to produce
programs. They perform dramas about
children’s and women’s rights, and
discuss issues related to war in Sri
Lanka.
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58
COMMUNICATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT • EXPERIENCE/THEORY
Aristotelian
Communication
Principles
Buddhist
Communication
Principles
Project Description
Problems
The initial Kothmale radio project seems
to be the one still addressing the
problems of the rural population. The
Internet component is mainly benefiting
those that own a telephone line and can
call in, or those that speak English and
can browse the Web by themselves.
The domination of the Web by the
English language is a barrier to access,
but the help of bilingual speakers from
the community has assisted programme
producers. Doctors, lawyers and
teachers get involved in the program;
they extract information from the Internet
and interpret it for the listeners.
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For your culture, please list the five principles for effective communication that would
be the equivalents of those described for Aristotelian and Buddhist cultures. Even if
you consider yourself part of the Aristotelian or Buddhist traditions, it might be helpful
to undertake this exercise. Perhaps you will reach different conclusions.
What conclusions do you draw about the principles that underpin the Kothmale
communication strategy?
59
Experience 5 - KOTHMALE INTERNET COMMUNITY RADIO WWW.KOTHMALE.NET
Aristotelian
Model
Buddhist
Model
Your Cultural Context
1. Emphasis on
communicator.
2. Influencing is a central
concept.
3. There is a focus on
control.
4. The emphasis is on
outward processes
from the
communicator to the
world or audience.
5. The relationship
between the
communicator and the
receiver of information
is assymetrical – the
communicator controls
the message.
6. Stresses intellect and
rational action.
1. Emphasis on receiver.
2. Understanding is a
central concept.
3. There is a focus on
choice.
4. The emphasis is on
both outward and
inward processes –
the message and how
the receiver perceives
and interprets the
message.
5. The relationship
between the
communication and
the receiver of
information is
symetrical – the
receivers’
understanding of the
communication is as
important as the
original message.
6. Stress empathy and
understanding
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Do you agree or disagree that these were the best principles on which to base
that work? Why?
What conclusions do you draw for your own work?
Supporting Documents
Kothmale Community Radio Sri Lanka. UNESCO.
http://www.unesco.org/webworld/com_media/society_com_media.html#3 .
The Kothmale Web site: http://www.kothmale.net/ .
Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, Making Waves: Stories of Particpatory Communication for
Social Change, The Rockefeller Foundation 2001. pp.127-132.
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Experience 6
Regional Networking – Costa Rica
and Nicaragua
THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COMMUNICATION
INITIATIVE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
(ICCADES) – COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS IN THE SAN
JUAN RIVER BI-NATIONAL BASIN.
Theme: Behavioural or Social Action
Learning Objective: To develop participants’ ability to understand the rela-
tion between individual behaviour change and structural/social obstacles or
supports to that change.
Before reading the ICCADES experience, please review the information in the follow-
ing two boxes. Each highlights an approach to communication and change. After
reviewing them, note in the blank box your intuitive feel for which of these two expla-
nations is correct, and any elaboration or change you would make to that theory. Then
review the ICCADES experience, noting as you go through the communication and
change principles, the theory on which it is based. There are small boxes at regular
intervals through the text to prompt you.
Theory of Reasoned Action
«…there is one primary determinant of behaviour, namely the person’s
intention to perform it. This intention is itself viewed as a function of two
determinants:
a. the person’s attitude toward performing the behaviour (based on
his/her beliefs about the consequences [and benefits] of performing
the behaviour…); and
b. the person’s perception of the social (or normative) pressure exerted
upon him or her to perform the behaviour.»
32
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Your Preference? Why?
Project
ICCADES is a Central American effort to facilitate at the local level participatory com-
munication towards sustainable development. It synthesizes several communication
experiences and innovations in Central America. It functions as a regional network
bringing together individuals, communication centres and media organisations from
the whole region of Central America, to unite their efforts, and exchange information
on the role of communication for local development.
Theory of Community-Level Structural Models
«Environmental forces beyond the control of the individual constrain or
help the knowledge-behaviour link: (for example)
• Presence or absence of legal restrictions
• Wage scales - which define what proportion of people will have the
resources for making behaviour changes such as improved nutrition,
travel to health clinics for immunization, or keeping children in school.
• Access – for example to services such as health clinics, schools, and
affordable transportation.
Each of these would make it either harder or easier for an individual who
learned about a practice to realise it.»
33
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ICCADES has been supporting the creation of an alternative development model for
the San Juan River Basin between Costa Rica and Nicaragua by helping local com-
munities to design and implement their own strategies for the sustainable development
of the basin. Funding for this support has come primarily from the FAO’s Forests, Trees
and People Programme in Central America, and the Agriculture Frontier Programme
of the European Union.
We will use the context provided by the San Juan River Basin experience to shed light
on the larger ICCADES project.
Context
The San Juan River Basin serves as a natural border between Costa Rica and
Nicaragua. It is an ecological and social unit with its own cultural identity resulting from
strong links among the inhabitants. Despite its natural potential, the area is economi-
cally undeveloped. It is far from administrative centres, politically isolated, and exploit-
ed by private business interests. It is recognized as an area of natural beauty to be
conserved for its bio-diversity, but local communities have not felt in control over its
development.
The situation is characterized by social and economic marginalisation that has led to
very weak communication links between the communities and government institutions.
The only time the area makes the news is when there is a natural catastrophe or vio-
lent crime. This has strengthened the «outside» perspective that local people are
objects to be pitied and helped, or controlled. The area’s potential its rich social
dynamics have become invisible to decision makers in the cities.
Yet the basin is of obvious regional importance to both countries, and over the years
different development projects have been attempted. In the 1980s, the Integrated
System of Protected Areas for Peace (SI-A-PAZ) was established to work with local
communities to protect the area’s natural resources. Local proposals however, met
with indifference from both national governments. The result was an expansion of
unsustainable activity by private investors, who established citrus plantations, logging
and strip mining, creating considerable environmental degradation, with few benefits
flowing to local residents.
Responding to this failure, local producers, NGOs and government, decided to come
together to create a strong local initiative to save SI-A-PAZ. Processes on both sides
of the border have produced converging proposals for a sustainable development
model.
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In Nicaragua, the Consejo para el Desarrollo Sostenible del Rio San Juan (CODECO)
is coordinating the effort. In Costa Rica, it is the Plataforma Campesina para el
Desarrollo de la Zona Norte.
In 1998, ICCADES began supporting this process of dynamic communication between
local communities, government and similar initiatives in Central America. The goal was
to further the discussions and set the stage for the development and implementation
of local plans for sustainable development of the basin.
Issues/Problems
1. The area is important as a border, a river basin, and for its wealth of natural
resources.
2. It forms a natural ecological zone and its inhabitants share a cultural identity.
3. It is isolated, underdeveloped and overexploited, which has led to economic, polit-
ical and social marginalisation of local communities.
4. National government indifference, coupled with a lack of confidence in the local
communities’ ability to implement sustainable development plans, has furthered
the marginalisation.
5. Unregulated private investment has created high levels of environmental destruc-
tion and little local benefit.
6. Attempts to create sustainable development initiatives have been made without
success since the 1980s, but the experience has more recently led to the emer-
gence of promising local proposals.
Considering the 2 theoretical approaches to communication and change what
do you think are the key obstacles to change in this initiative and which theory
would you find most appropriate?
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Level
ICCADES works with local communities, organisations and government, along with
national and regional bodies. It works with individuals, communication centres, and
media organisations from the entire Central American region. In the San Juan River
Basin, it works with local communities, government and media (mostly radio); cross-
border organisations; and national groups and government.
Process/Method
At the local level, communities and organisations are brought together in dialogue,
using locally-trained facilitators and radio stations.
At a bi-national level, communication activities spread information about local initia-
tives «upwards and outwards» to influence political, legal and technical decision mak-
ing processes. They also work to raise awareness in both countries, about the need
for legislation that supports the sustainable management of natural resources, and
local economic development.
At a regional (Central American) level, ICCADES supports improved exchange of com-
munity experiences through peasant gatherings, systematisation of activities, and the
evaluation of communication processes and their political, legal and technical effects.
Is the change process in this initiative oriented around individual behaviour
change or social/structural change or both? What elements of the initiative lead
you to this conclusion?
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ICCADES objectives are:
1. To encourage communication processes among organisations at local, region-
al and national levels, so they contribute effectively to decision making in the
region.
2. To make visible the dynamics and proposals of local efforts for sustainable devel-
opment, giving priority to shared experiences and processes.
3. To strengthen the communication capacities of ICCADES’ partners.
4. To help organisations build a common agenda for local sustainable development
within Central America.
To achieve these objectives, ICCADES works with partners to:
1. Highlight the need for collaboration among communication organisations.
2. Integrate local residents into sustainable development communication processes.
3. Promote information services and technology.
4. Coordinate the exchange of experiences, and provide assistance for participatory
communication.
5. Systematize and publish the results of successful local experiences, so these can
be shared and known.
6. Monitor and evaluate the results and impact of communication activities in the
communities.
The principles and values guiding the collaborative work of ICCADES’ partners include
commitments to:
1. Balance people’s needs with long-term sustainable natural resource use.
2. Strengthen people’s participation in local sustainable development.
3. Support local decision-making processes guided by residents’ own cultural values,
and respectful contributions from foreign agents.
4. Respond to the needs and interests of local organisations through participatory
communication, and active participation in all initiatives.
5. Be confident and share what we are and what we have, with all our limitations and
potentials.
6. Share information and working spaces.
7. Strengthen local partners’ work, by basing all activities on agreements among the
partners of each country.
8. Recognize the residents as the main leaders who remain prominent actors in the
training, production and systematisation of all our activities.
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Key Players
1. Community leaders.
2. Local facilitators trained by the project.
3. Local environmental NGOs and producer, peasant and community organisations
from both countries.
4. Local radio stations.
5. National legislative leaders and institutions.
6. Regional groupings of peasants, communication centres and media organisations.
Results and Reflections
At the level of the San Juan River Basin
The ICCADES strategy in the river basin is to work with communication activities, guid-
ed by goals that have been established by local people. The belief is that such strate-
gies make local development needs clear while providing mechanisms to verify the
work according to agreed goals.
In this way, local communication strategies can evolve, and become tools that help
consolidate community interests, and identify related issues that require attention.
Such local communication strategies form the roots, from which can grow regional
processes of participatory communication for sustainable development. They provide
a basis for «convergence and wide coverage - like a strong trunk that supports the
branches of a great tree».
One of the main lessons drawn from the experience of ICCADES in the Rio San Juan
area, is that radio stations have a tendency to focus on technical aspects of radio com-
munication, and lose focus on the social importance of their work. It is therefore impor-
tant to work simultaneously on strategies for local development and communication, so
as to keep radio organisations in phase with local community organisations.
Based on this lesson, ICCADES is initiating a training programme in communication and
rural development for local facilitators. This will be implemented by one of its members, the
Centro de Comunicación Voces Nuestras, based in Costa Rica. These facilitators will help
to implement the communities’ strategies. Improving the capacities, both technical and
social, of the nine local radio stations of the river basin, will complement this approach.
At the level of the Central American Region
ICCADES’ strength is derived from the association of various communication and
other Central American organisations. The main challenge will be to consolidate, and
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continue to coordinate the work of these organisations at a regional level. At national
levels, the challenge will be to continue to promote associative and collaborative
processes, such as partnerships and strategic alliances between various communica-
tion organisations, and actors involved in local development, such as community-
based organisations.
Examples of how ICCADES plans to meet these challenges are:
1. In collaboration with La Universidad de las regiones Autonomas del Caribe (URA-
CAN), training and capacity building in communication strategies, to assist the
local development of radio stations, and Afro-Caribbean communities on the
Atlantic coast of Nicaragua.
2. A Central American regional training programme in communication, for local
development of local facilitators. Voces Nuestras, the communication centre that
will implement this programme, is expected to train facilitators in each country of
the region.
3. Investigating the possibility of building upon and developing at the regional level,
the concept of radio novels as a pedagogical tool.
4. Replicating, through radio stations across Central America, a competition to pro-
mote innovative local sustainable development initiatives. This was started sever-
al years ago by the Nicaraguan radio programme, La Hora de la Naturaleza.
ICCADES recognizes it is a relatively recent initiative, and will look to learn from simi-
lar experiences around the world. It welcomes discussion and opportunities to share
ideas and experiences with others.
Considering the ICCADES initiative, what assumptions does it make about how
social change occurs and what are the main elements of the initiative that sup-
port this change?
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In what ways is the initiative similar or different from the Theory of Reasoned
Action and the Theory of Community-Level Structural Models?
Supporting Documents and Contacts
Luz Marina Rizo, Juan Carlos Cruz, & Lyes Ferroukhi. “Communication for Sustainable
Local Development in Central America: An Experience of Working with the
Communities’ Perspective in the San Juan River Binational Basin”. Forests, Trees and
People Newsletter No. 40/41.
http://www-trees.slu.se/newsl/40/40lyes.pdf
Luz Marina Rizo is an environmental journalist from Nicaragua. On two occasions she
has received the National Prize of Environmental Journalism. She currently acts as the
ICCADES’ facilitator in her country.
E-mail address: [email protected].
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Juan Carlos Cruz is a Costa Rican environmental journalist, aasociated to Centro de
Comunicación Voces Nuestras. He presently works as consultant for UNICEF.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Lyès Ferroukhi has worked as Associate Professional Officer for FAO and is present-
ly working as free lance consultant on community forestry issues.
E-mail address: [email protected]
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Experience 7
Creating Local Organic Markets –
Turkey
BUGDAY
34
: BUILDING MARKETS FOR ORGANIC
PRODUCE
Theme: Education or Dialogue for Action
Learning Objective: To improve participant’s ability to understand key differ-
ences between approaches emphasising education or dialogue and the pro-
grammatic implications of those emphases.
The role and importance of information and education for change is often debated and
discussed. Do change strategies based on «educating» people produce long-lasting
results, or is a process of debate, dialogue and action by those most affected, more
effective?
As you review this initiative, we encourage you to think of alternative strategies that
could have been pursued. If you were responsible for the strategy of Bugday, what
would you have done – what actions would you take? At the end of this experience,
we ask you to assess your ideas against the course taken by Bugday.
Project
This project supports the development of a national organic food industry. Through
education, and cost-effective ways to stimulate local production and consumption of
organically grown and processed foods, it seeks to develop an industry to improve the
livelihoods of farmers and the health of consumers.
Context
Over the past 50 years, traditional agricultural practices in Turkey have given way to
conventional monoculture using pesticides and synthetic chemicals that many feel
have led to increasing environmental and human health problems.
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While traditional agriculture used organic methods, the idea of organic certification is
very new in Turkey. It began in 1995, with a few organic dried fruit projects controlled
and traded by several European companies. These initial projects grew quickly in step
with growing markets in Europe and provided benefits for foreign producers, traders
and consumers. The increased number of organic producers also had a positive
impact on the environment where organic farming took place.
However, there was virtually no internal Turkish market for organic produce until 1997
at which time it accounted for less than one percent of agricultural products consumed.
For advocates of organic production, this meant that local people were denied access
to foods that would improve both environmental conditions and health.
Bugday – an organisation that operates a centre for ecological living – recognized that
the growth of organic farming for foreign markets created an opportunity to introduce
organic products to Turkey. But this could not happen if organic agriculture was seen
only as a business opportunity, and not also as an opportunity to improve the quality
of life for Turkish consumers.
To realize both opportunities, Bugday felt consumers would have to be educated about
the value of organic foods, and cost-effective ways to stimulate increased local pro-
duction and consumption would have to be found.
Issues/Problems
1. Traditional organic agriculture had been almost entirely supplanted by conven-
tional monoculture production.
2. Organic produce represented less than one percent of all produce consumed in
Turkey.
3. Conventional agricultural practices were creating health and environment prob-
lems to producers and consumers.
4. Foreign markets and companies were developing local organic production, but this
was not consumed locally.
5. The idea of organic certification and the value of organic foods was not widely
known or understood in Turkey.
Level
Bugday works primarily with consumers and producers, providing information on the
value of organic foods to health and the environment, and the importance of rural life
and tradition. It works largely through education to producers, consumers, traders and
processors.
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Can you think of alternative actions Bugday could take to achieve the same
objectives?
From what you understand of Bugday’s approach do you think it is primarily
focussed on education or dialogue? Why?
Process/Method
Bugday began to promote certified organic products at their centre for ecological liv-
ing. Before certification was widespread, they sold non-certified traditional village
products that had been produced organically. To introduce the concept of certification,
they started by selling local organic products processed by export companies. Initially,
because of the lack of awareness of the benefits of eating organic produce, there was
not enough local support for a Turkey-based processing and packaging operation.
To build local support Bugday organized public meetings, panels at conferences, gath-
erings of consumers and farmers, and published articles in the national press, pro-
moting what had already become a growing organic movement. They also began to
publish their own bi-monthly magazine to provide information on healthier and more
environmentally-sustainable products, and also to promote the cultural values of
organic agriculture. The magazine now has a readership of over 6 000 people in
Turkey and parts of Western Europe.
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To practically test the growth and strength of the Turkish market, Bugday also set up
stores. The first were supported by an environmental NGO, but these quickly gave way
to small private businesses. The overall approach was a combination of education and
marketing, combining sound business and farming principles, with the promotion of
positive cultural, environmental and health values.
Would Bugday’s process of building local support look different if it had chosen
a different change strategy? If so, how?
Results and Reflections
Bugday started with few staff and resources, but has grown quickly. Once they felt the
market was ready, they opened a store in Istanbul. In 1999, they opened four new
stores in different parts of Turkey. By 2000, Bugday was in contact with dozens of peo-
ple wanting to open their own stores around the country.
In early 2000, three export companies began to package and sell nearly 70 different
organic products within Turkey. This has led investors to explore the development of a
local organic production and processing industry.
Bugday has become a reference point for organic production in Turkey, and offers
advice and consulting on a volunteer basis to new entrepreneurs in the organics busi-
ness. It supports an emerging environmental movement that synthesizes environ-
mental sustainability with business opportunities, through a network of professionals,
volunteers and supporters within and outside the country.
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By mid-2000, there were over 50 sales points for organic agriculture, and every month
three or four new stores were being launched. Catering companies have started to
seek the advise of Bugday on organic ingredients, and organic dishes are appearing
at festivals, meetings and restaurants. Farmers use Bugday for new ideas, resulting in
the regular appearance of new products in the Turkish market.
Developing a market for organic produce requires more than farmers cultivating the
supply. The organics industry requires a strong consumer base. Since there is often
a premium for organic produce, educating consumers about its benefits is essential.
In Turkey, Bugday has used organic agriculture as a facet of a larger strategy to re-
value rural life, and the traditions and crafts that make Turkey unique.
By demonstrating the viability of a strong, locally-supported market for organically
grown and processed foods, Bugday has shown that environmental sustainability can
also sustain people’s health and livelihoods. This has paved the way in Turkey for a
deeper look at issues like fair trade and socially-responsible business. With farmers,
producers and consumers onboard, Bugday has the support to introduce further envi-
ronmental innovations in Turkey.
Re-read the last paragraph
Bugday has been successful in achieving many of its objectives. Please analyse
the approach taken so far, Bugday’s plans to «take a deeper look at issues like fair
trade and socially responsible business», and its ongoing objective of supporting
traditional rural culture.
Do you think it should maintain its present strategy or adopt a different one? Why,
and if you think the strategy should change, what changes would you suggest?
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Supporting Documents/Contacts
Ashoka (February 2001). The Turning Tide: The People, Principles, and Strategies
Creating Ecological Balance. Environmental Innovations Workshop and Conference.
http://www.ashoka.org/global/ei_book.cfm .
For further information contact:
Victor Ananias
Bugday
Kalcin Sokak, Kitapci Han no:15 kat:2
Eminonu Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected] www.bugday.org
Yasmina Zaidman
1700 North Moore St
Suite 2000 Arlington, VA 22209-1939
USA
[email protected] http://www.ashoka.org/home/index.cfm
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Experience 8
Environmental Education and
Communication Project: El
Salvador, The Gambia, and Jordan
GREENCOM: THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND
COMMUNICATION PROJECT OF USAID
Theme: Innovation and Action
Learning Objective: To heighten participants’ critical skills at matching the
requirements for action with the context for that action.
Innovation is an essential component of any communication and change process. In
reviewing the GreenCOM experience below, we encourage you to reflect on the issue
of innovation in relation to NRM.
Following the description of this experience there is an introduction to two approaches
to sustainable change related to culture and innovation. Reflect on them in relation to
the GreenCOM experience and your own work.
Project
US AID launched GreenCOM in 1993, to work in tandem with other projects across
sectors and regions, to achieve a range of strategic environmental and education
objectives. Its mission is to change human practises to better the environment through
the use of strategic communication and education.
Its goals are to:
• Go beyond «raising awareness» to help individuals and groups acquire knowledge
and skills to change behaviours around specific environmental issues;
• Lay a broad foundation for critical problem solving and long-range resource plan-
ning through environmental education;
• Promote more rapid, targeted behaviour change through communication and
social marketing;
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• Work toward long-term sustainability through the integration of education and
communication capacities within local institutions;
• Address the specific roles that men and women play in natural resource manage-
ment.
GreenCOM seeks to empower people and communities to protect and conserve their
environment by:
• Developing practises and sharing research strategies, methods and tools;
• Strengthening partnerships among stakeholders;
• Building networks of environmental education and communication practitioners,
and stimulating environmentally positive practises.
GreenCOM has worked on over 30 projects, in 28 countries over the past 8 years, with
a wide range of partners in an effort to create synergies between the activities of US
AID Missions and the projects they support. The aim is to develop projects that are
responsive to the needs of each partner and that use education, communication, and
behaviour science tools to promote improved environmental practises. GreenCOM
provides an on-line resource centre of environmental education materials, an internal
portal allowing workgroups to communicate, a journal for practitioners and a series of
publications on how to implement effective strategic communication initiatives.
Context
US AID had been involved in environmental education and communication (EE&C)
projects in many places. GreenCOM was established to create synergy between and
among these development activities and to bring together multiple tools, methods and
strategies developed across US AID missions and projects, and from a variety of part-
ners and experts.
GreenCOM has sought to play a multifaceted role for US AID EE&C programmes by:
1. Providing direct EE&C support to field operations.
2. Carrying out field-driven applied and practical research.
3. Sharing state of the art methodologies and materials with people around the world
through a resource centre, website, newsletter, as well as publications and occa-
sional symposia.
Issues/Problems
1. US AID felt a need to coordinate and build synergy between its EE&C projects.
2. In many countries environmental issues were becoming worse and local capacity
had to be strengthened significantly.
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3. Changing behaviour to impact positively on environmental issues involves more
than the provision of information. Behaviour change involves a complex combina-
tion of strategies and methods.
4. EE&C projects drew on several disciplines and techniques that could be brought
together to increase the success of future projects.
Level
This is a global project working through the US AID structure of Missions, projects and
country partnerships. It works at national levels with governments, and at regional or
local levels with partner NGOs. It also works directly with projects at all levels, provid-
ing support, design, monitoring, and evaluation.
Process/Method
The fundamental question informing GreenCOM in any EE&C project has been why
do people who take positive environmental actions often have no better understanding
than those who do not? What causes people to act?
GreenCOM starts from the perspective that knowledge and attitudes regarding the
environment are not the critical areas of focus for EE&C. The determining factor is
behaviour. While shifts in knowledge and attitudes support behaviour change,
GreenCOM believes there is no cause and effect relation between them.
The programme pulls together the following processes, objectives and principles of
social marketing, environmental and education communication, and public participation:
1. Social Marketing using a five-step process:
• Assessment: Why do people behave the way they do?
• Design and Plan: Compare the assessment to the project goals, and design a
message.
• Pre-test and Revise: Campaign items are pre-tested and then revised.
• Implementation: The messages are delivered through the channels selected.
• Monitor and Evaluate: Behaviour is monitored and evaluated, and this is fed
back into the campaign.
2. Environmental Communication, which draws on social marketing theories,
using this four-step process:
• Goal: Start by determining what behaviours the project will change.
• Audience: Determine what groups’ behaviour is to be changed.
• Medium: Determine the «media diet» of the target audience.
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• Message: Decide on and prepare the message.
3. Environmental Education which focuses on critical skills rather than behaviour
change – how to think, not what to think. Using five objectives:
• Awareness: Learning about the environment and becoming sensitive to the
issues.
• Knowledge: Experience the environment and its problems.
• Attitude: Instil values of concern for the environment.
• Skills: Develop skills to identify and solve environmental problems.
• Participation: Encourage active involvement in solving problems.
4. Public Participation requires stakeholders to participate in research, develop-
ment of messages, programme design, decision-making and implementation. The
need for public participation is a basic tenet of GreenCOM’s strategies and is seen as
important because:
• The complexity and specificity of environmental issues means that outside
experts are unlikely to have answers that are relevant to local contexts.
• Processes of increasing democratisation around the world have led to grow-
ing community wariness of solutions developed without strong and ongoing
community participation in the design of their own communication strategies
and messages.
• Enabling such community participation not only improves project impact and
credibility but develops community skills and capacities to do similar work in
the future.
GreenCOM approaches to public participation seek to go beyond project design to involve
stakeholders in collecting formative research, decision making and project implementa-
tion. The incorporation of increasingly participatory approaches has also led to the use of
new communication tools such as community resource centres, radio, and websites.
Key Players
1. GreenCOM staff.
2. US AID Missions and NGO partners.
3. Local NGOs and communities participating in projects.
Results and Reflections
Three experiences from GreenCOM:
1. El Salvador. This rebuilding project began in 1994 after the war had left the
country’s physical and natural environment badly degraded. The country had
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no environmental education in schools, no environmental information on the
media, no government agency charged with environmental concerns, and a
rapidly growing population. GreenCOM was brought in to promote a five-year
campaign to increase environmental awareness and management throughout
the country.
By the end of the five years El Salvador had:
• A national environmental education strategy.
• Environmental education as a major theme of K-12 schooling.
• Established environmental education at the university level.
• An active environmental press.
The development of the national environmental education strategy was the first
step, and it focused on three areas:
• Formal education through the school and university system.
• Informal education working with literacy and adult education projects, park
interpreters, museum exhibits and community organisations.
• Informal education through the mass media.
GreenCOM worked with the government, to make the environment one of eight cen-
tral themes for education; to prepare environmental education materials for teaching
throughout standard subjects like science and math; and to train teachers.
In the universities, training was provided to professors, courses were «greened»
where the instructors expressed interest, and a mandatory course was instituted
on national environmental problems.
Informal education was supported by establishing environmental education units;
training legislators, decision-makers and technicians on the issues, and how to
design, execute and evaluate environmental projects; and establishing interpreta-
tive trails and information centres at parks.
Key staff from environmental NGOs were trained in participatory techniques,
design and evaluation of environmental programmes and education materials, and
monitoring and evaluation.
Informal education was also promoted through sensitisation meetings with media
owners and managers, training and support to reporters, and rewards offered to
journalists for the best environmental reporting.
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2. The Gambia: This project began in 1995 and operated over a short time frame
with limited resources. Run by the National Environmental Agency, this was an
awards programme offered to the best environmental projects in eight cate-
gories including business, schools and voluntary organisations. Over 200 indi-
viduals and groups entered and many more were exposed through media cov-
erage, community meetings and awards ceremonies. The programme was well
advertised and reached out to all parts of the country. Specific groups were
identified for special appeals, such as farmers, community leaders, school
administrators and teachers.
Each component from sensitisation to awards ceremonies, was used for education
and awareness raising. Evaluation criteria were carefully decided and used.
Results have included new programmes and an infrastructure for decentralized
environmental management.
3. Jordan: This project began in 1994 with a Jordanian NGO, the Royal Society
for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN). Jordan has extreme water shortage
problems and growing dependency on other countries that control upstream
river flows. The project focused on developing curriculum to improve water con-
servation, at which Jordanians are already quite good. With a 92 percent loss
of rainfall to evaporation, hydropower in Israel and Syria reducing river flow,
high population growth, modernisation increasing demands, and rationing a
way of life, Jordan is looking for changes in individual behaviour to conserve
every drop. This was done by:
• Research to understand the population’s perceptions of water scarcity.
• Designing and targeting curriculum to the knowledge gaps identified above.
• Taking gender into account, and using different approaches for girls and boys.
• Ensuring the participation of Jordanian educators.
The research resulted in a better understanding of Jordanian perceptions of water
problems, from a historical and gender perspective. The identification of knowl-
edge gaps indicated that the best intervention would be a water-conservation cur-
riculum for the RSCN’s network of secondary-school environmental youth clubs.
The curriculum consisted of five units:
• The water cycle in nature, and water sources in Jordan.
• Reduction of household water use.
• Ground and surface water.
• Ground and surface water pollution.
• Home gardens and irrigation.
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The curriculum was developed in an interactive process with Jordanian teachers
from a variety of teaching specialities. Content was based on information from
interviews with teachers, students and administrators, and existing curricula from
other parts of the world. The curriculum was tested against control groups and
showed good results amongst the environmental groups, and also the families of
these students. Ninety percent of teachers who used the curriculum materials
said they would use them again.
Communication and change
Here are two theoretical statements expressing different underlying principles on cul-
ture and innovation. Each has implications for how change is effectively initiated:
Everett Rogers
35
Rogers elaborated the «Diffusion of Innovation» Theory in the 1960s. This theory has
been one of the most influential models for development communication. Rogers argued
that innovations diffuse over time according to individuals’ stages. …Rogers posited five
stages through which an individual passes in the adoption of innovations: awareness,
knowledge and interest, decision, trial, and adoption/rejection. According to
Rogers, development communications entailed a «process by which an idea is trans-
ferred from a source to a receiver with the intent to change his behaviour. Usually the
source wants to alter the receiver’s knowledge of some idea, create or change his atti-
tude toward the idea, or persuade him to adopt the idea as part of his regular behaviour.»
Populations were divided in different groups according to their propensity to incorporate
innovations and timing in actually adopting them. Rogers proposed that early adopters
act as models to emulate and generate a climate of acceptance and an appetite for
change, and those who are slow to adopt are laggards. This latter category was
assumed to describe the vast majority of the population in the Third World.
Later in his career Rogers recognized that his early views had individualistic and psycho-
logical biases. It was necessary to be sensitive to the specific sociocultural environment
in which «communication» took place... The stages model remained but the top-down per-
spective according to which innovations diffuse from above needed modification.
Communication was no longer focused on persuasion (transmission of information
between individuals and groups), but was understood as a «process by which participants
create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding».
Martin-Barbero
36
«In the redefinition of culture, the clue lies in the understanding of the communicative
nature of culture, understanding culture as a process that is productive of meaning, not
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just as a «circulator» of information. Thus, the receiver is not just a decoder to whom
the TV broadcaster transmits a «message» but also a «producer». « [1993]
The emphasis here is on culture – more specifically the ways in which people define
their own culture. Culture is dynamic – it continues to be redefined as people «produce
new meanings». People are the producers of change, not receivers and communica-
tors of messages. By implication, people in their social settings drive the change
process.
What do you think are the main differences between these two perspectives
about how to effectively initiate change?
Your analysis of GreenCOM
We encourage you to review the GreenCOM project and list elements that you think
reflect Rogers’ 5 steps.
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85
Experience 8 - GREENCOM
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CNRMexpTheory.qxd 24-07-2003 15:53 Pagina 85
Do the elements you have identified above reflect the views of Rogers’ later
work? If so how? if not why?
Now consider the statement by Martin-Barbero and identify 2 or 3 areas where you
think the GreenCOM project emphasizes the importance of culture and locally dri-
ven and controlled communication and change processes.
Do you think Rogers Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Martin-Barbero’s under-
standing of culture as a producer of meaning are compatible? Give reasons for
your answer.
1.
2.
3.
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Which of the two approaches provides the better framework for enabling inno-
vation and matching requirements for action with the context for that action?
Why?
What conclusions do you draw about the mission, goals and methods that
underpin GreenCOM’s strategy?
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Supporting Documents
Academy for Educational Development (2000). Environmental Education and
Communication for a Sustainable World: Handbook for International Practitioners.
Washington. Available at http://www.greencom.org/greencom/books.asp
«Living with the Rubbish Queen - Telenovelas, Culture and Modernity in Brazil» by
Thomas Tufte. Published by University of Luton Press - 2001 p 16.
Silvio Waisbord Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies and Strategies in
Development Communication: Convergences and Differences. Prepared for the
Rockefeller Foundation 2001. Available on The Communication Initiative website at
http://www.comminit.com/stsilviocomm/sld-2881.html
Considering the Theme and Learning Objectives for this experience
please list one or more lessons you think are important for your
own work. Please list these on the chart in «Drawing Your Own
Conclusions» p89.
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Drawing Your Own Conclusions
Theme: Planning for Action
Learning Objective: To prioritise the lessons of the previous 8 experiences
and reflect on how they will impact your future communication for develop-
ment and NRM work.
Below is a chart on which you can write the key lessons or important points you were
asked to note down at the end of each experience.
Experience 1
Community Based Natural Resource Management – Namibia
Theme: Principles and Action
Learning Objective: To improve participants’ understanding of the relation-
ship between differing communication principles for effective change, and
the planning and organisation of their actions.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
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Experience 3
Indigenous Forest Management – Cambodia
Theme: Issue Analysis for Action
Learning Objective: To expand participants’ skills at analyzing the issues
to be addressed by the communication initiative.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
Experience 2
Pastoralist Communication – Kenya
Theme: Voices and Action
Learning Objective: To advance participants’ understanding of effective
communication strategies, where substantive action is sourced in the voice
and perspective of the people most affected.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
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DRAWING YOUR OWN CONCLUSIONS
Experience 5
Internet Radio - Sri Lanka
Theme: Culture and Action
Learning Objective: To expand participants’ awareness of the relationship
between culture, context and strategy, in developing effective communica-
tion initiatives.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
Experience 4
Recovering from Conflict – Viet Nam
Theme: Contextual Analysis for Action
Learning Objective: To improve participants’ skills at analyzing the con-
texts for change.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
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Experience 7
Creating Local Organic Markets – Turkey
Theme: Education or Dialogue for Action
Learning Objective: To improve participant’s ability to understand key dif-
ferences between approaches emphasising education or dialogue and the
programmatic implications of those emphases.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
Experience 6
Regional Networking – Costa Rica and Nicaragua
Theme: Behavioural or Social Action
Learning Objective: To develop participants’ ability to understand the rela-
tion between individual behaviour change and structural/social obstacles or
supports to that change.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
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Consider the list you’ve made above and ask yourself whether these lessons will cause
you to change the way you approach your work in the future. If the answer is yes make
a few notes below about how your work will change.
Experience 8
Environmental Education and Communication Project: El Salvador,
The Gambia, and Jordan
Theme: Innovation and Action
Learning Objective: To heighten participants’ critical skills at matching the
requirements for action with the context for that action.
My key lessons:
1.
2.
3.
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Now consider the list again in terms of what you think are the most important lessons
to keep in mind in your future work. List them below in order of priority:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
etc
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NOTES
1 See for example, Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, Making Waves: Stories of
Particpatory Communication for Social Change (The Rockefeller Foundation)
2001. Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, M. Taghi Farvar, Jean Claude Nguinguiri,
Vincent Awa Ndangang, Co-management of Natural Resources: Organizing,
Negotiating and Learning-by-Doing. (Heidelberg, Germany) 2001. Chike
Anyaegbunam, Paolo Mefalopulos, Titus Moetsabi, Participatory Rural
Communication Appraisal: Starting with the people (Harare) 1998. A concise
article on this was prepared for SD Dimensions by Phillippe Van der Stichele
which can be viewed at: http://www.fao.org/sd/cddirect/cdan0015.htm
Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, Dianne Buchan ed., Beyond Fences: Seeking Social
Sustainability in Conservation Vol 1 and 2 (IUCN, Gland Switzerland and
Cambridge UK) 1997. Thomas Barton, Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, Alex de
Sherbinin, Patricio Warren, Our People, Our Resources (IUCN Gland
Switzerland) 1997.
2 Claude Martin, «How Big is Your Footprint?» World Wildlife Fund Global Network
Newsroom, October 2000
http://www.panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/news.cfm?uNewsId=2154&uLangId=1
3 «Trends Point to Gains in Human Development, While Many Negative Human
Impacts on Vital Ecosystems are Increasing», Sustainable Development
Information Service Global Trends, World Resource Institute 2000
http://www.wri.org/wri/trends/index.html
4 «Solutions for a Water Short World», Population Reports: Volume XXVI,
Number 1 The Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, September 1998
5 «Footprints and Milestones: Population and Environmental Change,» UNFPA
State of World Population 2001
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2001/presskit/english/summaryen.htm
6 «FAO Fact Sheet: AIDS A Threat to Rural Africa»
http://www.fao.org/Focus/E/aids/aids6-e.htm
95
NOTES
CNRMexpTheory.qxd 24-07-2003 15:53 Pagina 95
7 Freedom Nyamubaya, «A Career for Life,» Dusk of Dawn. College Press
Publishers, Zimbabwe 1995. p. 29.
8 Borrini-Feyeraband op. cit. pp. 1,2.
9 Freedom Nyamubaya, «Shanty town beauty,» op. cit. p. 34.
10 Anyaegbunam op. cit. See also Brenda Dervin and Robert Huesca, «Reaching
for the communicating in participatory communication: A meta-theoretical
analysis» The Journal of International Communication 4:2 December 1997. and
Gary Coldevin, «Participatory communication and adult learning for rural
development» SD Dimensions November 2001
http://www.fao.org/sd/2001/kn1104_en.htm
11 Borrini-Feyerabend 2001 op. cit.
12 Denise Gray-Felder & James Dean, Communication For Social Change: A
Position Paper and Conference Report. (New York.: The Rockefeller Foundation,
1999) and Silvio Waisbord Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies and
Strategies in Development Communication: Convergences and Differences.
Prepared for the Rockefeller Foundation 2001. Available on The Communication
Initiative website at http://www.comminit.com/stsilviocomm/sld-2881.html
13 Denise Gray-Felder & James Dean op. cit. p. 11.
14 ibid.
15 ibid.
16 ibid. p. 12.
17 Sabine Isabel Michiels & L. Van Crowder, «Discovering the «Magic Box»: Local
appropriation of information and communication technologies (ICTs).» SD
Dimensions (FAO Communication for Development Group June 2001). P. 4.
http://www.fao.org/sd/2001/kn0602a_en.htm
18 See the Making Waves Chat Forum
http://www.comminit.com/majordomo/makingwaves/msg00032.html on The
Communication Initiative http://www.comminit.com/.
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19 Base Line http://www.comminit.com/BaseLineArchives/sld-22.html on The
Communication Initiative http://www.comminit.com
20 Making Waves Chat Forum op. cit.
http://www.comminit.com/majordomo/makingwaves/msg00035.html
21 Sabine Isabel Michiels & L. Van Crowder, op. cit.
22 Denise Gray-Felder & James Dean op. cit. quotation from Manuel Castells, p. 24.
23 Communication News http://www.comminit.com/TempoArchives/sld-1690.html
and http://www.comminit.com/TempoArchives/sld-1420.html/
24 Base Line Archives http://www.comminit.com/BaseLineArchives/sld-2246.html
25 Thomas Tufte. Living with the Rubbish Queen – Telenovelas, Culture and
Modernity in Brazil, University of Luton Press - 2001 p. 11
26 Phyllis Tilson Piotrow, D. Lawrence Kincaid, Jose G. II Rimon, & Ward Rinehart,
Health Communication - Lessons from Family Planning and Reproductive
Health, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Center for Communication
Programs 1997 p. 23.
27 Silvio Waisbord, op. cit.
28 ibid.
29 ibid.
30 Anyaegbunam, Mefalopulos, & Moetsabi. Participatory Rural CommunicatIon
Appraisal – Starting with the People. SADC Center of Communication for
Development and FAO Regional Project.
31 A Buddhist Approach to Development. Communications Systems for Planning
Change. Pp. 48 and 49.
32 M. Fishbein Summarising Fishbein & Ajzen (1975), Ajzen & Fishbein (1980),
Fishbein, Middlestadt & Hitchcock (1991) in Developing Effective Behavior
Change Interventions. University Of Illinois. p. 4.
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33 Robert Hornick. Alternative Models of Behavior Change. Working Paper 131.
Annenburg School for Communication 1990 p. 3 and 4.
34 Bugday means «wheat» in Turkish.
35 Silvio Waisbord, op. cit.
36 Thomas Tufte op cit. p. 16 for excerpt only see:
http://www.comminit.com/ctheories/sld-3151.html
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