Description
Satisfying customers is one of the main objectives of every business. The message is obvious satisfied customers improve business and dissatisfied customers impair business. Customer satisfaction is an asset that should be monitored and managed just like any physical asset.
Stru?ni rad Škola biznisa
Broj 3/2011
UDC 005.21
005.345/.346
Karolina Ilieska*
KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS
A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
Abstract: Satisfying customers is one of the main objectives of every business. Te message is obvious –
satisfed customers improve business and dissatisfed customers impair business.
Customer satisfaction is an asset that should be monitored and managed just like any physical asset. Terefore,
businesses that hope to prosper will realize the importance of this concept, putting together a functional and
appropriate operational defnition. Tis further extends into the efective collection, analysis, and application of
customer satisfaction information. Tere are several possible uses of information about customer satisfaction:
– to present the current standing of customer satisfaction;
– to identify important customer requirements;
– to monitor customer satisfaction results over time;
– to provide comparisons to other organizations;
– to determine the efectiveness of business practices;
Development of consumer satisfaction indicators- One way of approaching this issue is by creating a
‘hierarchy’ of factors:
– First of all, there are the measurable ‘factors’ or ‘criteria’ related to consumer satisfaction.
Tese are called the manifest variables.
– Secondly, a number of related manifest variables have been aggregated into ‘latent variables’.
A latent variable refects a relatively complex dimension of consumer satisfaction that cannot
be measured directly.
Most existing national customer satisfaction measurement systems produce such an index for consumer
satisfaction.
CSI results provide:
– an economic indicator of the quality of economic output;
– calculation of the net present value of their company’s customer base as an asset over time;
– information for strategic business applications;
– a predictor of consumer spending & corporate earnings.
Te model for measurement of customer satisfaction is a cause-and-efect model with indices for drivers
of satisfaction on the lef side (customer expectations, perceived quality, and perceived value), satisfaction
in the center, and outcomes of satisfaction on the right side (customer complaints and customer loyalty,
including customer retention and price tolerance).
Key words: knowledge, customer, satisfaction, strategic management, model
* Karolina Ilieska, PhD, Faculty of Economics-Prilep, R.Macedonia, [email protected]
Karolina Ilieska
KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW
STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 145
POZNAVANJE POTREBA KUPACA KAO OSNOVA
ZA NOVI STRATEŠKI MENADŽMENT
Sažetak: Udovoljavanje kupcima je osnovni cilj svakog posla. Poruka je jasna, zadovoljne mušterije
unapre?uju posao, a nezadovoljne mušterije ga usporavaju. Zadovoljstvo kupaca je imovina koju treba
nadgledati i kontrolisati baš kao i bilo koju fzi?ku imovinu. Stoga kompanije koje žele da napreduju
moraju da shvate važnost ovog koncepta, spajaju?i zajedno funkcionalnu i odgovaraju?u radnu defniciju.
Ovo se nadalje proširuje u efkasno sakupljanje, analizu i primenu informacija vezanih za potrebe kupaca.
Postoji nekoliko mogu?ih upotreba informacija o potrebama kupaca:
– prikazivanje trenutnog stanja zadovoljstva kupaca
– prepoznavanje važnih zahteva kupaca
– nadgledanje rezultata postignutih u oblasti zadovoljstva kupaca tokom vremena
– pružanje pore?enja drugim organizacijama
– utvr?ivanje uspešnosti poslovnih praksi.
Razvoj pokazatelja zadovoljstva kupaca – jedan od pristupa ovom problemu je stvaranje hijerarhije
faktora:
– Prvo, postoje merljivi faktori ili kriterijumi povezani sa zadovoljstvom kupaca. Oni se zovu
manifestovane promenljive.
– Kao drugo, odre?eni broj manifestovanih promenljivih grupisan je u latentne promenljive.
Latentna promenljiva odnosi se na relativno kompleksnu dimenziju zadovoljstva kupaca
koja ne može da bude direktno izmerena.
Ve?ina postoje?ih nacionalnih sistema za merenje zadovoljstva kupaca daje takav indeks zadovoljstva
kupaca.
IZK rezultati pružaju:
– ekonomske pokazatelje kvaliteta ekonomskog dohotka
– prora?unavanje trenutne neto vrednosti baze kupaca njihove kompanije kao imovine tokom
vremena
– informacije za strateške poslovne primene
– predvi?anje potrošnje kupaca i zarade korporacije.
Model merenja zadovoljstva kupaca je uzro?no-posledi?ni model sa pokazateljima motivacije
zadovoljstva sa leve strane (o?ekivanja kupaca, vidljivi kvalitet i vidljiva cena), zadovoljstvom u sredini, a
ishodima zadovoljstva sa desne strane (žalbe kupaca, lojalnost kupaca, uklju?uju?i i zadržavanje kupaca
i toleranciju prema cenama).
Klju?ne re?i: poznavanje, kupac, zadovoljstvo, strateški menadžment, model
1. INTRODUCTION
Satisfying customers is one of the main objectives of every business. Businesses recognize
that keeping current customers is more proftable than having to win new ones to replace
those lost.
146 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Customer satisfaction is an asset that should be monitored and managed just like any
physical asset.
Management and marketing theorists underscore the importance of customer
satisfaction for a business’s success (McColl-Kennedy & Schneider, 2000; Reichheld
& Sasser, 1990). Accordingly, the prestigious Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
Award recognizes the role of customer satisfaction as the central component of the
award process (Dutka, 1993). Some recent statistics demonstrate the benefts of good
customer satisfaction and the costs of poor customer satisfaction on businesses.
Good customer satisfaction has an efect on the proftability of nearly every business.
For example, when customers perceive good product/service, each will typically tell
nine to ten people. It is estimated that nearly one half of American business is built
upon this informal, “word-of-mouth” communication (Gitomer, 1998; Reck, 1991).
Improvement in customer retention by even a few percentage points can increase profts
by 25 percent or more (Grifn, 1995).
Terefore, businesses that hope to prosper will realize the importance of this concept,
putting together a functional and appropriate operational defnition.
Te primary issue with developing an operational defnition with the specifc components
of customer satisfaction is to clearly identify the nature of the organization’s business.
2. WHAT IS CUSTOMER SATISFACTION?
A widely accepted defnition of ‘satisfaction’ is: ‘Satisfaction is the consumer’s fulflment
response. It is a judgement that a product or service feature, or the product of service
itself, provided (or is providing) a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulflment,
including levels of under-or-over fulflment.
In less ‘technical’ terms: satisfaction is the consumer’s assessment of a product or
service in terms of the extent to which that product or service has met his/her needs or
expectations.
Failure to meet needs and expectations is assumed to result in dissatisfaction with the
product or service.
Depending on the context, the meaning of ‘consumer satisfaction’ may difer:
Consumer satisfaction may relate to a particular feature or characteristic of a product or
service, or alternatively it may relate to the product/service as a whole.
In general, it is the satisfaction about the product/service as a whole that merits attention,
since this satisfaction infuences the consumers’ future buying and consuming behaviour.
Yet it is also important to understand the factors that contribute to (dis)satisfaction.
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 147
Ofen, dissatisfaction about one particular feature of a service (e.g. the unfriendliness of
staf) leads to dissatisfaction about the service as a whole, even if the satisfaction about
the other features is high.
Another conceptual distinction within measures of consumer satisfaction is whether
they relate to satisfaction about a single ‘service encounter’ or rather refect ‘cumulative
satisfaction’.
Most existing national customer satisfaction indexes are based on the measurement of
cumulative satisfaction. Tis implies that diferent elements are part of the consumer’s
assessment, from their pre-purchase intentions up to their loyalty towards a particular
provider.
Another potentially important distinction is between consumer satisfaction about a
particular supplier, and consumer satisfaction about the sector as a whole. For instance,
one may be quite satisfed with the oferings and performance level of a particular mobile
phone operator, but in general feel uncomfortable with the pricing and marketing
strategy as a whole.
Most national customer satisfaction indexes measure the satisfaction level for the sector
as a whole. Yet they do this by calculating a weighted average for the satisfaction about
individual suppliers.
3. USES OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION INFORMATION
Tere are several possible uses of information about customer satisfaction (Dutka,
1993). Some include:
1. Customer satisfaction results can help to present the current standing of customer
satisfaction.
Tis utilization ofen goes beyond reporting statistical data such as mean, range, and
standard deviation. Tese descriptive data can assist in identifying specifc strengths
and weaknesses in satisfaction dimensions, the specifc items under each, as well as
information about overall scores. However, diferent types of data analysis can be used
to identify not only aggregate but also individual information. From here emerges the
distinct patterns or gaps between diferent individuals, groups, or among particular
items.
2. Customer satisfaction results can help to identify important customer requirements.
Identifcation of the specifc customer requirements for achieving satisfaction is useful
at a very fundamental level. An organization is able to clearly focus eforts in those
areas that are most important to the customer. Distinguishing those requirements most
148 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
valued by customers allows for pinpointing eforts for service modifcations as well as
further data collection. Comparisons of specifc items to the satisfaction dimension or
overall score can assist in determination of those items that are more closely linked with
satisfaction.
3. Customer satisfaction results can help to monitor customer satisfaction results over
time.
Quite simply, the same information gathered at diferent points in time can assist
in identifcation of trends and patterns that develop as an organization evolves and
changes. Furthermore, this can be helpful in demonstrating the levels of efectiveness
of interventions, services and so forth at particular points in history. What may work
during a certain point in time may not at another. Tis temporal collection and
comparison of information allows for an organization to adapt and modify services and
products to meet the changing requirements of its customers.
4. Customer satisfaction results can help to provide comparisons to other organizations.
Comparisons either within an organization by department or sub-group as well as with
outside agencies can provide a wealth of information. Tis includes not only structural
and organizational strengths and weaknesses, but also efectiveness of product/service
components and product/service delivery. Tis can assist in coordination of planned
changes specifc to each area, as opposed to general, “blanket” approaches. Also, this can
give a perspective of how one organization is performing in relation to others, namely
one’s competition. Tis gives the customer the information necessary to make informed
choices and selections.
5. Customer satisfaction results can help to determine the efectiveness of business
practices.
Data gathered from customer satisfaction studies can provide valuable and accurate
information that can assist in evaluation of product/service components and delivery.
Products/services can be altered to become more efective, and business practices can
be altered to meet the standards of excellence within a certain business. In essence
this is the comparison of a particular item against a standard predetermined by the
customer. Tose scores above the standard are positive, while those below are in need
of improvement. Tis enables more thoughtful and considered prioritization of any
possible plans of action.
Te message is clear: customer satisfaction is essential for the success – and continued
success – of any business. Not only does positive customer satisfaction help business,
but also a lack of satisfaction takes an even bigger toll on the bottom line. For an
organization to remain solvent, information regarding customer satisfaction must be
adequately collected and analyzed.
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Karolina Ilieska | 149
3.1 MANIFEST AND LATENT VARIABLES
Measuring consumer satisfaction is, in principle, relatively straightforward: a
representative sample of consumers is asked to what extent they are satisfed or dissatisfed
about a particular product/service. In general, such satisfaction is measured on ordinal
scales (e.g. not at all satisfed – not fully satisfed – more or less satisfed – quite satisfed
– very satisfed) or simple numerical scales (e.g. from 0 to 4 or from 1 to 10).
Ofen it is also useful to know why consumers are (dis)satisfed, i.e. to understand which
factors or criteria contribute positively or negatively to the measured level of satisfaction.
Understanding what makes a consumer happy or unhappy allows suppliers and policy-
makers to implement appropriate action.
Tose who are interested in measuring consumer satisfaction are usually also interested
in its implications. For instance, will a consumer continue to use the same supplier or
will he/she switch to an alternative? Currently, the prediction of consumer behaviour –
in particular their loyalty towards the supplier – is what most suppliers are interested in,
rather than the satisfaction itself.
Identifying and measuring such factors is, however, not straightforward. Indeed, there
are many factors that afect and/or are related to consumer satisfaction. For a typical
product/service, as many as thirty or so of these factors may have to be considered.
Moreover, these factors difer between products, services and sectors; and individuals
may rank the relative importance of these factors in diferent ways.
Whilst these problems can be overcome when focusing on a particular environment
(e.g. a specifc product or service for a specifc target group), some trade-ofs have to be
made when designing a tool that allows valid comparisons across user groups, countries
and sectors.
One way of approaching this issue is by creating a ‘hierarchy’ of factors:
First of all, there are the measurable ‘factors’ or ‘criteria’ related to consumer satisfaction
(e.g. prompt service, adequate opening hours, competitive pricing, etc). Tese are called
the manifest variables. Each manifest variable corresponds to a question in the survey to
the consumers. Many of these manifest variables are similar across sectors, but some are
specifc. Even if they are identical, their importance may vary between sectors.
Secondly, a number of related manifest variables have been aggregated into ‘latent
variables’. A latent variable refects a relatively complex dimension of consumer
satisfaction that cannot be measured directly. Examples of such latent variables are
quality, price and image.
Tis approach is consistent with methodologies used elsewhere. It has several advantages.
150 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Firstly, at the level of the latent variables, a model can be constructed that is identical
across sectors and countries. Tus, it becomes meaningful to make comparisons between
countries and sectors.
Secondly, when using latent variables, the model can remain stable over a considerable
period of time, hence increasing comparability of results. Specifc survey questions and
manifest variables may change over time and across sectors, but the model at the level of
latent variables remains unafected.
Lastly, provided the latent variables have been chosen appropriately and have been
labelled in a meaningful way, the use of latent variables makes it possible to explain the
key elements afecting consumer satisfaction, without undue reference to a long list of
very specifc characteristics.
From a practical point of view, it is also useful to qualify the latent variables (and the
underlying manifest variables) according to their explanatory power. Tey can be
categorised into three groups:
‘Explanatory variables’: these are the factors that directly infuence consumer satisfaction.
In the literature, theses explanatory variables are also referred to as ‘antecedents’, ‘causes
of satisfaction’ or ‘input factors’.
‘Resultant variables’: these are the measures of overall consumer satisfaction. In general,
there are only a very few such manifest variables.
‘Consequent variables’: these represent the consequences of the consumer (dis)
satisfaction, and express concretely the outcomes from the consumer satisfaction/
dissatisfaction.
Other terms that can be found are ‘consequences’ or ‘outcomes of satisfaction’.
4. INDICATORS AND INDEXES
Most existing national customer satisfaction measurement systems produce such an
index for consumer satisfaction. Te index is ofen available at several levels, which are
then aggregated to produce an overall, nationwide and cross-sector index.
For instance, the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) includes four levels:
– A national customer satisfaction index
– Indices for seven broad areas of the economy
– Indices for 39 economic sectors
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Karolina Ilieska | 151
– Indices for over 200 major companies and government agencies within
these sectors.
An ‘indicator’ is also a statistical fgure capturing a given situation. Te term ‘indicator’
refers to a quantitative measure that provides a simple and reliable basis or assessing
a feature (e.g. consumer satisfaction or an aspect of it) and measuring the related
performance, processes and outcomes over time. A useful indicator allows comparisons
over time, across sectors and countries. An indicator could be derived from a single
quantitative measure, or rather be based on the measures of several manifest variables.
An indicator may even be related to a single customer.
Again, we found no agreed and universally accepted defnition of both terms – and
their diference. What it is…?
An economic tool:
– For creating Industry standards
– For companies to use as a benchmark
– For consumers to use to make better informed purchasing decisions
Te ACSI is based upon information compiled from customer evaluations of goods and
services. Later we will learn from the ACSI Model how customer satisfaction can lead to
either customer loyalty or complaints.
Te Result:
– ACSI produces company-level satisfaction scores
– Produces scores for the causes and consequences of customer satisfaction,
and their relationships.
ACSI results provide:
– an economic indicator of the quality of economic output
– calculation of the net present value of their company’s customer base as an
asset over time information for strategic business applications
– a predictor of consumer spending & corporate earnings
Te ACSI approach includes a number of features that can also be found in other similar
national indexes:
– It is based on an econometric model with measures of an index of satisfaction
and measures of related indices for latent variables that are general enough
to be comparable across companies, industries and sectors.
152 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
– Customer satisfaction itself is measured as a latent variable using several
manifest variables (questions).
– Customer satisfaction is embedded in a system of cause-and-efect
relationships. Tis serves to validate the index.
– Finally, a primary objective is to estimate the efect of ACSI on customer
loyalty, a construct of universal importance for future business performance.
5. THE ACSI MODEL
Te American Customer Satisfaction Index uses customer interviews as input to a multi-
equation econometric model developed at the University of Michigan’s Ross School
of Business. Te model for measurement of customer satisfaction is a cause-and-efect
model with indices for drivers of satisfaction on the lef side (customer expectations,
perceived quality, and perceived value), satisfaction in the center, and outcomes of
satisfaction on the right side (customer complaints and customer loyalty, including
customer retention and price tolerance).
However there was one text by Professor Claes Fornell and his colleagues in their research
on American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) (Fornell et al., (1996). Referring to
Anderson & Fornell (2000), the ACSI framework was mathematically notated as:
3 3
1 1
3
1
100
9
i
i i
i i
i
i
w x w
ACSI
w
= =
=
?
= ×
? ?
?
(1)
where
i
w s
are the unstandardised regression weights and
i
x s
are the manifesting
variables.
Te ACSI was based on an exogenous construct for customer satisfaction, ie customer
expectations. Since customer expectations were the only exogenous construct in the
model, equation (1) prevailed. To make it short but concise, the ACSI was equated based
on a single exogenous construct. Should there be more than one exogenous construct;
equation (1) required further extension. Te construction of the service quality index
was fundamentally based on the framework of ACSI.
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 153
Figure 1: Te ACSI model
Source: Fornell et al. (1996)
Referring to Figure 1, the structural model of this paper had 2 exogenous constructs.
When calculating the index encompassing 2 correlated exogenous constructs, it was
crucial to highlight the partial efects of one another on the criterion. Te correlation
among exogenous constructs efected the multiple correlations (R) on the criterion. As
a result, the total variance explained (R
2
) of the criterion had to be adjusted for R as well.
First let this equation be notated as:
z z x x
s s s ? ? = +
$
(2)
where s
z
and s
x
were the standardised estimates on constructs 1 and 2 respectively
(note: Tey represented the constructs Intangible and Tangible). s
^
was the standardised
predicted estimates for the criterion while y
z
and y
x
were the standardised regressions
weights for exogenous constructs 1 and 2 respectively. Ten let y
z
and y
x
be respectively
notated as:
2
1
yz yx zx
z
zx
r r ?
?
?
?
=
?
(3)
2
1
yx yz zx
x
zx
r r ?
?
?
?
=
?
(4)
where ? was the correlation of exogenous constructs and r
y
was the bivariate correlations
of constructs 1 and 2 respectively.
154 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Assuming the R
2
of customer satisfaction (criterion) was linearly regressed on the
exogenous constructs, the degree of changes in service quality would depend of the
changes in these constructs. Consequently, the product/service quality index would also
change based on the impact of these exogenous constructs. Terefore let the product/
service quality index be expressed as a function of ?, ? and I. Consequently, let
3 3
1 1
3
1
100
9
i
i i
i i
z
i
i
w z w
I
w
= =
=
?
× =
? ?
?
and
3 3
1 1
3
1
100
9
i
i i
i i
x
i
i
w x w
I
w
= =
=
?
× =
? ?
?
(5)
Hence the notation:
( ) ( )
z yz x yx
z x
z yz x yx z yz x yx
r r
SQI I I
r r r r
? ?
? ? ? ?
= +
+ +
(6)
or
( )
1
z yz z x yx x
z yz x yx
SQI r I r I
r r
? ?
? ?
? ?
= +
? ?
? ?
+
? ? (7)
Te indexes are multivariable components measured by several questions that
are weighted within the model. Te questions assess customer evaluations of the
determinants of each index. Indexes are reported on a 0 to 100 scale. Te survey and
modeling methodology quantifes the strength of the efect of the index on the lef to
the one to which the arrow points on the right. Tese arrows represent “impacts.” Te
ACSI model is self-weighting to maximize the explanation of customer satisfaction
(ACSI) on customer loyalty. Looking at the indexes and impacts, users can determine
which drivers of satisfaction, if improved, would have the most efect on customer
loyalty.
5.1 ELEMENTS OF THE ACSI MODEL
1. Customer Expectations-Customer expectations is a measure of the customer’s
anticipation of the quality of a company’s products or services. Expectations
represent both prior consumption experience, which includes some nonexperiential
information like advertising and word-of-mouth, and a forecast of the company’s ability
to deliver quality in the future.
Customer expectation -customers experiences with product or service and information
about it: media, advertising, salesperson, word of mouth from other customers,
customers expectation infuence the evaluation of quality and forecast how well the
product or service will perform.
2. Perceived Quality-Perceived quality is a measure of the customer’s evaluation via
recent consumption experience of the quality of a company’s products or services.
Quality is measured in terms of both customization, which is the degree to which a
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 155
product or service meets the customer’s individual needs, and reliability, which is the
frequency with which things go wrong with the product or service. Tree questions
measure the perceived quality: overall quality, reliability, the extent to which a product
or service meets the customers needs. Perceived quality proves to have the greatest
impact on customer satisfaction.
3. Perceived Value- Perceived value is a measure of quality relative to price paid.
Although price (value for money) is ofen very important to the customer’s frst
purchase, it usually has a somewhat smaller impact on satisfaction for repeat purchases.
Two questions measure the perceived value: overall price given quality, overall quality
given price. Perceived price is usually only important in the frst purchase decision.
4. Customer Complaints- Customer complaints are measured as a percentage of
respondents who indicate they have complained to a company directly about a product
or service within a specifed time frame. Satisfaction has a negative relationship with
customer complaints, as the more satisfed the customers, the less likely they are to
complain. Customer complaint activity is measured as the percentage of respondents
who reported a problem with a company’s product or service within a specifed time
frame. Satisfaction has an inverse relationship to customer complaints.
5. Customer Loyalty
Customer loyalty is a combination of the customer’s professed likelihood to repurchase
from the same supplier in the future, and the likelihood to purchase a company’s
products or services at various price points (price tolerance). Customer loyalty is the
critical component of the model as it stands as a proxy for proftability.
Customer loyalty is measured through questions on the likelihood to purchase a
company’s products or services at various price points. Customer satisfaction has a
positive efect on loyalty, but the magnitude of that efect varies greatly across companies
and industries
LITERATURE
[1] Anderson, E., & Fornell, C., (2000) Foundations of the American Customer
Satisfaction Index, “Total Quality Management”, 11 (7) (869-883)
[2] Best, R., (2005) Market Based Management, (4
th
International 3d.).
Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.
[3] Cullen, R., (2001) Perspectives on user satisfaction surveys, “Library Trends”, 49
(4)(662-687).
156 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
[4] Dutka, A., (1993) AMA Handbook for Customer Satisfaction. Chicago, NTC
Publishing.
[5] Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D, Anderson, E.W, Cha, J., & Bryant, B.E., (1996) Te
American Customer Satisfaction Index: Nature, purpose, and fndings, “Journal
of Marketing”, 60 (4)(7-18)
[6] Gitomer, J., (1998) Customer satisfaction is worthless, customer loyalty is priceless:
How to make customers love you, keep them coming back, and tell everyone they
know. Austin,TX: Bard Press.
[7] Grifn, J., (1995) Customer loyalty: How to earn it, how to keep it. New York:
Lexington Books.
[8] Ilieska, K.,Risteska, A., Miladinoski, S., (2002) Marketing Information System,
Bitola
[9] Ilieska, K., (2009) Services Marketing, Bitola
[10] McColl-Kennedy, J., & Schneider, U., (2000) Measuring customer satisfaction:
why, what and how, “Total Quality Management”, 11 (7) (1-14).
[11] Reichheld, F. & Sasser, W.E., Jr., (1990) Zero defections: Quality comes to
services. In J.J. Sviokla & B.P. Shapiro (Eds.), “Keeping customers”, Boston:
Harvard Business Review (pp. 311-324)
[12] Reck, R.R., (1991) Turn your customers into your sales force. New York, Prentice
Hall Press.
[13] Sureshchander, G.S., Rajendran, C., & Kamalanabhan, T.J., (2001) Customer
perceptions of service quality: A critique, “Total Quality Management”, 12(1)
(111-125).
Primljeno: 17.09.2011.
Odobreno: 24.09.2011.
doc_809423104.pdf
Satisfying customers is one of the main objectives of every business. The message is obvious satisfied customers improve business and dissatisfied customers impair business. Customer satisfaction is an asset that should be monitored and managed just like any physical asset.
Stru?ni rad Škola biznisa
Broj 3/2011
UDC 005.21
005.345/.346
Karolina Ilieska*
KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS
A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
Abstract: Satisfying customers is one of the main objectives of every business. Te message is obvious –
satisfed customers improve business and dissatisfed customers impair business.
Customer satisfaction is an asset that should be monitored and managed just like any physical asset. Terefore,
businesses that hope to prosper will realize the importance of this concept, putting together a functional and
appropriate operational defnition. Tis further extends into the efective collection, analysis, and application of
customer satisfaction information. Tere are several possible uses of information about customer satisfaction:
– to present the current standing of customer satisfaction;
– to identify important customer requirements;
– to monitor customer satisfaction results over time;
– to provide comparisons to other organizations;
– to determine the efectiveness of business practices;
Development of consumer satisfaction indicators- One way of approaching this issue is by creating a
‘hierarchy’ of factors:
– First of all, there are the measurable ‘factors’ or ‘criteria’ related to consumer satisfaction.
Tese are called the manifest variables.
– Secondly, a number of related manifest variables have been aggregated into ‘latent variables’.
A latent variable refects a relatively complex dimension of consumer satisfaction that cannot
be measured directly.
Most existing national customer satisfaction measurement systems produce such an index for consumer
satisfaction.
CSI results provide:
– an economic indicator of the quality of economic output;
– calculation of the net present value of their company’s customer base as an asset over time;
– information for strategic business applications;
– a predictor of consumer spending & corporate earnings.
Te model for measurement of customer satisfaction is a cause-and-efect model with indices for drivers
of satisfaction on the lef side (customer expectations, perceived quality, and perceived value), satisfaction
in the center, and outcomes of satisfaction on the right side (customer complaints and customer loyalty,
including customer retention and price tolerance).
Key words: knowledge, customer, satisfaction, strategic management, model
* Karolina Ilieska, PhD, Faculty of Economics-Prilep, R.Macedonia, [email protected]
Karolina Ilieska
KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW
STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 145
POZNAVANJE POTREBA KUPACA KAO OSNOVA
ZA NOVI STRATEŠKI MENADŽMENT
Sažetak: Udovoljavanje kupcima je osnovni cilj svakog posla. Poruka je jasna, zadovoljne mušterije
unapre?uju posao, a nezadovoljne mušterije ga usporavaju. Zadovoljstvo kupaca je imovina koju treba
nadgledati i kontrolisati baš kao i bilo koju fzi?ku imovinu. Stoga kompanije koje žele da napreduju
moraju da shvate važnost ovog koncepta, spajaju?i zajedno funkcionalnu i odgovaraju?u radnu defniciju.
Ovo se nadalje proširuje u efkasno sakupljanje, analizu i primenu informacija vezanih za potrebe kupaca.
Postoji nekoliko mogu?ih upotreba informacija o potrebama kupaca:
– prikazivanje trenutnog stanja zadovoljstva kupaca
– prepoznavanje važnih zahteva kupaca
– nadgledanje rezultata postignutih u oblasti zadovoljstva kupaca tokom vremena
– pružanje pore?enja drugim organizacijama
– utvr?ivanje uspešnosti poslovnih praksi.
Razvoj pokazatelja zadovoljstva kupaca – jedan od pristupa ovom problemu je stvaranje hijerarhije
faktora:
– Prvo, postoje merljivi faktori ili kriterijumi povezani sa zadovoljstvom kupaca. Oni se zovu
manifestovane promenljive.
– Kao drugo, odre?eni broj manifestovanih promenljivih grupisan je u latentne promenljive.
Latentna promenljiva odnosi se na relativno kompleksnu dimenziju zadovoljstva kupaca
koja ne može da bude direktno izmerena.
Ve?ina postoje?ih nacionalnih sistema za merenje zadovoljstva kupaca daje takav indeks zadovoljstva
kupaca.
IZK rezultati pružaju:
– ekonomske pokazatelje kvaliteta ekonomskog dohotka
– prora?unavanje trenutne neto vrednosti baze kupaca njihove kompanije kao imovine tokom
vremena
– informacije za strateške poslovne primene
– predvi?anje potrošnje kupaca i zarade korporacije.
Model merenja zadovoljstva kupaca je uzro?no-posledi?ni model sa pokazateljima motivacije
zadovoljstva sa leve strane (o?ekivanja kupaca, vidljivi kvalitet i vidljiva cena), zadovoljstvom u sredini, a
ishodima zadovoljstva sa desne strane (žalbe kupaca, lojalnost kupaca, uklju?uju?i i zadržavanje kupaca
i toleranciju prema cenama).
Klju?ne re?i: poznavanje, kupac, zadovoljstvo, strateški menadžment, model
1. INTRODUCTION
Satisfying customers is one of the main objectives of every business. Businesses recognize
that keeping current customers is more proftable than having to win new ones to replace
those lost.
146 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
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Customer satisfaction is an asset that should be monitored and managed just like any
physical asset.
Management and marketing theorists underscore the importance of customer
satisfaction for a business’s success (McColl-Kennedy & Schneider, 2000; Reichheld
& Sasser, 1990). Accordingly, the prestigious Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
Award recognizes the role of customer satisfaction as the central component of the
award process (Dutka, 1993). Some recent statistics demonstrate the benefts of good
customer satisfaction and the costs of poor customer satisfaction on businesses.
Good customer satisfaction has an efect on the proftability of nearly every business.
For example, when customers perceive good product/service, each will typically tell
nine to ten people. It is estimated that nearly one half of American business is built
upon this informal, “word-of-mouth” communication (Gitomer, 1998; Reck, 1991).
Improvement in customer retention by even a few percentage points can increase profts
by 25 percent or more (Grifn, 1995).
Terefore, businesses that hope to prosper will realize the importance of this concept,
putting together a functional and appropriate operational defnition.
Te primary issue with developing an operational defnition with the specifc components
of customer satisfaction is to clearly identify the nature of the organization’s business.
2. WHAT IS CUSTOMER SATISFACTION?
A widely accepted defnition of ‘satisfaction’ is: ‘Satisfaction is the consumer’s fulflment
response. It is a judgement that a product or service feature, or the product of service
itself, provided (or is providing) a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulflment,
including levels of under-or-over fulflment.
In less ‘technical’ terms: satisfaction is the consumer’s assessment of a product or
service in terms of the extent to which that product or service has met his/her needs or
expectations.
Failure to meet needs and expectations is assumed to result in dissatisfaction with the
product or service.
Depending on the context, the meaning of ‘consumer satisfaction’ may difer:
Consumer satisfaction may relate to a particular feature or characteristic of a product or
service, or alternatively it may relate to the product/service as a whole.
In general, it is the satisfaction about the product/service as a whole that merits attention,
since this satisfaction infuences the consumers’ future buying and consuming behaviour.
Yet it is also important to understand the factors that contribute to (dis)satisfaction.
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 147
Ofen, dissatisfaction about one particular feature of a service (e.g. the unfriendliness of
staf) leads to dissatisfaction about the service as a whole, even if the satisfaction about
the other features is high.
Another conceptual distinction within measures of consumer satisfaction is whether
they relate to satisfaction about a single ‘service encounter’ or rather refect ‘cumulative
satisfaction’.
Most existing national customer satisfaction indexes are based on the measurement of
cumulative satisfaction. Tis implies that diferent elements are part of the consumer’s
assessment, from their pre-purchase intentions up to their loyalty towards a particular
provider.
Another potentially important distinction is between consumer satisfaction about a
particular supplier, and consumer satisfaction about the sector as a whole. For instance,
one may be quite satisfed with the oferings and performance level of a particular mobile
phone operator, but in general feel uncomfortable with the pricing and marketing
strategy as a whole.
Most national customer satisfaction indexes measure the satisfaction level for the sector
as a whole. Yet they do this by calculating a weighted average for the satisfaction about
individual suppliers.
3. USES OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION INFORMATION
Tere are several possible uses of information about customer satisfaction (Dutka,
1993). Some include:
1. Customer satisfaction results can help to present the current standing of customer
satisfaction.
Tis utilization ofen goes beyond reporting statistical data such as mean, range, and
standard deviation. Tese descriptive data can assist in identifying specifc strengths
and weaknesses in satisfaction dimensions, the specifc items under each, as well as
information about overall scores. However, diferent types of data analysis can be used
to identify not only aggregate but also individual information. From here emerges the
distinct patterns or gaps between diferent individuals, groups, or among particular
items.
2. Customer satisfaction results can help to identify important customer requirements.
Identifcation of the specifc customer requirements for achieving satisfaction is useful
at a very fundamental level. An organization is able to clearly focus eforts in those
areas that are most important to the customer. Distinguishing those requirements most
148 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
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valued by customers allows for pinpointing eforts for service modifcations as well as
further data collection. Comparisons of specifc items to the satisfaction dimension or
overall score can assist in determination of those items that are more closely linked with
satisfaction.
3. Customer satisfaction results can help to monitor customer satisfaction results over
time.
Quite simply, the same information gathered at diferent points in time can assist
in identifcation of trends and patterns that develop as an organization evolves and
changes. Furthermore, this can be helpful in demonstrating the levels of efectiveness
of interventions, services and so forth at particular points in history. What may work
during a certain point in time may not at another. Tis temporal collection and
comparison of information allows for an organization to adapt and modify services and
products to meet the changing requirements of its customers.
4. Customer satisfaction results can help to provide comparisons to other organizations.
Comparisons either within an organization by department or sub-group as well as with
outside agencies can provide a wealth of information. Tis includes not only structural
and organizational strengths and weaknesses, but also efectiveness of product/service
components and product/service delivery. Tis can assist in coordination of planned
changes specifc to each area, as opposed to general, “blanket” approaches. Also, this can
give a perspective of how one organization is performing in relation to others, namely
one’s competition. Tis gives the customer the information necessary to make informed
choices and selections.
5. Customer satisfaction results can help to determine the efectiveness of business
practices.
Data gathered from customer satisfaction studies can provide valuable and accurate
information that can assist in evaluation of product/service components and delivery.
Products/services can be altered to become more efective, and business practices can
be altered to meet the standards of excellence within a certain business. In essence
this is the comparison of a particular item against a standard predetermined by the
customer. Tose scores above the standard are positive, while those below are in need
of improvement. Tis enables more thoughtful and considered prioritization of any
possible plans of action.
Te message is clear: customer satisfaction is essential for the success – and continued
success – of any business. Not only does positive customer satisfaction help business,
but also a lack of satisfaction takes an even bigger toll on the bottom line. For an
organization to remain solvent, information regarding customer satisfaction must be
adequately collected and analyzed.
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Karolina Ilieska | 149
3.1 MANIFEST AND LATENT VARIABLES
Measuring consumer satisfaction is, in principle, relatively straightforward: a
representative sample of consumers is asked to what extent they are satisfed or dissatisfed
about a particular product/service. In general, such satisfaction is measured on ordinal
scales (e.g. not at all satisfed – not fully satisfed – more or less satisfed – quite satisfed
– very satisfed) or simple numerical scales (e.g. from 0 to 4 or from 1 to 10).
Ofen it is also useful to know why consumers are (dis)satisfed, i.e. to understand which
factors or criteria contribute positively or negatively to the measured level of satisfaction.
Understanding what makes a consumer happy or unhappy allows suppliers and policy-
makers to implement appropriate action.
Tose who are interested in measuring consumer satisfaction are usually also interested
in its implications. For instance, will a consumer continue to use the same supplier or
will he/she switch to an alternative? Currently, the prediction of consumer behaviour –
in particular their loyalty towards the supplier – is what most suppliers are interested in,
rather than the satisfaction itself.
Identifying and measuring such factors is, however, not straightforward. Indeed, there
are many factors that afect and/or are related to consumer satisfaction. For a typical
product/service, as many as thirty or so of these factors may have to be considered.
Moreover, these factors difer between products, services and sectors; and individuals
may rank the relative importance of these factors in diferent ways.
Whilst these problems can be overcome when focusing on a particular environment
(e.g. a specifc product or service for a specifc target group), some trade-ofs have to be
made when designing a tool that allows valid comparisons across user groups, countries
and sectors.
One way of approaching this issue is by creating a ‘hierarchy’ of factors:
First of all, there are the measurable ‘factors’ or ‘criteria’ related to consumer satisfaction
(e.g. prompt service, adequate opening hours, competitive pricing, etc). Tese are called
the manifest variables. Each manifest variable corresponds to a question in the survey to
the consumers. Many of these manifest variables are similar across sectors, but some are
specifc. Even if they are identical, their importance may vary between sectors.
Secondly, a number of related manifest variables have been aggregated into ‘latent
variables’. A latent variable refects a relatively complex dimension of consumer
satisfaction that cannot be measured directly. Examples of such latent variables are
quality, price and image.
Tis approach is consistent with methodologies used elsewhere. It has several advantages.
150 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
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Firstly, at the level of the latent variables, a model can be constructed that is identical
across sectors and countries. Tus, it becomes meaningful to make comparisons between
countries and sectors.
Secondly, when using latent variables, the model can remain stable over a considerable
period of time, hence increasing comparability of results. Specifc survey questions and
manifest variables may change over time and across sectors, but the model at the level of
latent variables remains unafected.
Lastly, provided the latent variables have been chosen appropriately and have been
labelled in a meaningful way, the use of latent variables makes it possible to explain the
key elements afecting consumer satisfaction, without undue reference to a long list of
very specifc characteristics.
From a practical point of view, it is also useful to qualify the latent variables (and the
underlying manifest variables) according to their explanatory power. Tey can be
categorised into three groups:
‘Explanatory variables’: these are the factors that directly infuence consumer satisfaction.
In the literature, theses explanatory variables are also referred to as ‘antecedents’, ‘causes
of satisfaction’ or ‘input factors’.
‘Resultant variables’: these are the measures of overall consumer satisfaction. In general,
there are only a very few such manifest variables.
‘Consequent variables’: these represent the consequences of the consumer (dis)
satisfaction, and express concretely the outcomes from the consumer satisfaction/
dissatisfaction.
Other terms that can be found are ‘consequences’ or ‘outcomes of satisfaction’.
4. INDICATORS AND INDEXES
Most existing national customer satisfaction measurement systems produce such an
index for consumer satisfaction. Te index is ofen available at several levels, which are
then aggregated to produce an overall, nationwide and cross-sector index.
For instance, the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) includes four levels:
– A national customer satisfaction index
– Indices for seven broad areas of the economy
– Indices for 39 economic sectors
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Karolina Ilieska | 151
– Indices for over 200 major companies and government agencies within
these sectors.
An ‘indicator’ is also a statistical fgure capturing a given situation. Te term ‘indicator’
refers to a quantitative measure that provides a simple and reliable basis or assessing
a feature (e.g. consumer satisfaction or an aspect of it) and measuring the related
performance, processes and outcomes over time. A useful indicator allows comparisons
over time, across sectors and countries. An indicator could be derived from a single
quantitative measure, or rather be based on the measures of several manifest variables.
An indicator may even be related to a single customer.
Again, we found no agreed and universally accepted defnition of both terms – and
their diference. What it is…?
An economic tool:
– For creating Industry standards
– For companies to use as a benchmark
– For consumers to use to make better informed purchasing decisions
Te ACSI is based upon information compiled from customer evaluations of goods and
services. Later we will learn from the ACSI Model how customer satisfaction can lead to
either customer loyalty or complaints.
Te Result:
– ACSI produces company-level satisfaction scores
– Produces scores for the causes and consequences of customer satisfaction,
and their relationships.
ACSI results provide:
– an economic indicator of the quality of economic output
– calculation of the net present value of their company’s customer base as an
asset over time information for strategic business applications
– a predictor of consumer spending & corporate earnings
Te ACSI approach includes a number of features that can also be found in other similar
national indexes:
– It is based on an econometric model with measures of an index of satisfaction
and measures of related indices for latent variables that are general enough
to be comparable across companies, industries and sectors.
152 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
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– Customer satisfaction itself is measured as a latent variable using several
manifest variables (questions).
– Customer satisfaction is embedded in a system of cause-and-efect
relationships. Tis serves to validate the index.
– Finally, a primary objective is to estimate the efect of ACSI on customer
loyalty, a construct of universal importance for future business performance.
5. THE ACSI MODEL
Te American Customer Satisfaction Index uses customer interviews as input to a multi-
equation econometric model developed at the University of Michigan’s Ross School
of Business. Te model for measurement of customer satisfaction is a cause-and-efect
model with indices for drivers of satisfaction on the lef side (customer expectations,
perceived quality, and perceived value), satisfaction in the center, and outcomes of
satisfaction on the right side (customer complaints and customer loyalty, including
customer retention and price tolerance).
However there was one text by Professor Claes Fornell and his colleagues in their research
on American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) (Fornell et al., (1996). Referring to
Anderson & Fornell (2000), the ACSI framework was mathematically notated as:
3 3
1 1
3
1
100
9
i
i i
i i
i
i
w x w
ACSI
w
= =
=
?
= ×
? ?
?
(1)
where
i
w s
are the unstandardised regression weights and
i
x s
are the manifesting
variables.
Te ACSI was based on an exogenous construct for customer satisfaction, ie customer
expectations. Since customer expectations were the only exogenous construct in the
model, equation (1) prevailed. To make it short but concise, the ACSI was equated based
on a single exogenous construct. Should there be more than one exogenous construct;
equation (1) required further extension. Te construction of the service quality index
was fundamentally based on the framework of ACSI.
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Karolina Ilieska | 153
Figure 1: Te ACSI model
Source: Fornell et al. (1996)
Referring to Figure 1, the structural model of this paper had 2 exogenous constructs.
When calculating the index encompassing 2 correlated exogenous constructs, it was
crucial to highlight the partial efects of one another on the criterion. Te correlation
among exogenous constructs efected the multiple correlations (R) on the criterion. As
a result, the total variance explained (R
2
) of the criterion had to be adjusted for R as well.
First let this equation be notated as:
z z x x
s s s ? ? = +
$
(2)
where s
z
and s
x
were the standardised estimates on constructs 1 and 2 respectively
(note: Tey represented the constructs Intangible and Tangible). s
^
was the standardised
predicted estimates for the criterion while y
z
and y
x
were the standardised regressions
weights for exogenous constructs 1 and 2 respectively. Ten let y
z
and y
x
be respectively
notated as:
2
1
yz yx zx
z
zx
r r ?
?
?
?
=
?
(3)
2
1
yx yz zx
x
zx
r r ?
?
?
?
=
?
(4)
where ? was the correlation of exogenous constructs and r
y
was the bivariate correlations
of constructs 1 and 2 respectively.
154 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Assuming the R
2
of customer satisfaction (criterion) was linearly regressed on the
exogenous constructs, the degree of changes in service quality would depend of the
changes in these constructs. Consequently, the product/service quality index would also
change based on the impact of these exogenous constructs. Terefore let the product/
service quality index be expressed as a function of ?, ? and I. Consequently, let
3 3
1 1
3
1
100
9
i
i i
i i
z
i
i
w z w
I
w
= =
=
?
× =
? ?
?
and
3 3
1 1
3
1
100
9
i
i i
i i
x
i
i
w x w
I
w
= =
=
?
× =
? ?
?
(5)
Hence the notation:
( ) ( )
z yz x yx
z x
z yz x yx z yz x yx
r r
SQI I I
r r r r
? ?
? ? ? ?
= +
+ +
(6)
or
( )
1
z yz z x yx x
z yz x yx
SQI r I r I
r r
? ?
? ?
? ?
= +
? ?
? ?
+
? ? (7)
Te indexes are multivariable components measured by several questions that
are weighted within the model. Te questions assess customer evaluations of the
determinants of each index. Indexes are reported on a 0 to 100 scale. Te survey and
modeling methodology quantifes the strength of the efect of the index on the lef to
the one to which the arrow points on the right. Tese arrows represent “impacts.” Te
ACSI model is self-weighting to maximize the explanation of customer satisfaction
(ACSI) on customer loyalty. Looking at the indexes and impacts, users can determine
which drivers of satisfaction, if improved, would have the most efect on customer
loyalty.
5.1 ELEMENTS OF THE ACSI MODEL
1. Customer Expectations-Customer expectations is a measure of the customer’s
anticipation of the quality of a company’s products or services. Expectations
represent both prior consumption experience, which includes some nonexperiential
information like advertising and word-of-mouth, and a forecast of the company’s ability
to deliver quality in the future.
Customer expectation -customers experiences with product or service and information
about it: media, advertising, salesperson, word of mouth from other customers,
customers expectation infuence the evaluation of quality and forecast how well the
product or service will perform.
2. Perceived Quality-Perceived quality is a measure of the customer’s evaluation via
recent consumption experience of the quality of a company’s products or services.
Quality is measured in terms of both customization, which is the degree to which a
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
Karolina Ilieska | 155
product or service meets the customer’s individual needs, and reliability, which is the
frequency with which things go wrong with the product or service. Tree questions
measure the perceived quality: overall quality, reliability, the extent to which a product
or service meets the customers needs. Perceived quality proves to have the greatest
impact on customer satisfaction.
3. Perceived Value- Perceived value is a measure of quality relative to price paid.
Although price (value for money) is ofen very important to the customer’s frst
purchase, it usually has a somewhat smaller impact on satisfaction for repeat purchases.
Two questions measure the perceived value: overall price given quality, overall quality
given price. Perceived price is usually only important in the frst purchase decision.
4. Customer Complaints- Customer complaints are measured as a percentage of
respondents who indicate they have complained to a company directly about a product
or service within a specifed time frame. Satisfaction has a negative relationship with
customer complaints, as the more satisfed the customers, the less likely they are to
complain. Customer complaint activity is measured as the percentage of respondents
who reported a problem with a company’s product or service within a specifed time
frame. Satisfaction has an inverse relationship to customer complaints.
5. Customer Loyalty
Customer loyalty is a combination of the customer’s professed likelihood to repurchase
from the same supplier in the future, and the likelihood to purchase a company’s
products or services at various price points (price tolerance). Customer loyalty is the
critical component of the model as it stands as a proxy for proftability.
Customer loyalty is measured through questions on the likelihood to purchase a
company’s products or services at various price points. Customer satisfaction has a
positive efect on loyalty, but the magnitude of that efect varies greatly across companies
and industries
LITERATURE
[1] Anderson, E., & Fornell, C., (2000) Foundations of the American Customer
Satisfaction Index, “Total Quality Management”, 11 (7) (869-883)
[2] Best, R., (2005) Market Based Management, (4
th
International 3d.).
Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.
[3] Cullen, R., (2001) Perspectives on user satisfaction surveys, “Library Trends”, 49
(4)(662-687).
156 | KNOWLEDGE FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION – AS A BASE FOR NEW STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
ŠKOLA BIZNISA
[4] Dutka, A., (1993) AMA Handbook for Customer Satisfaction. Chicago, NTC
Publishing.
[5] Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D, Anderson, E.W, Cha, J., & Bryant, B.E., (1996) Te
American Customer Satisfaction Index: Nature, purpose, and fndings, “Journal
of Marketing”, 60 (4)(7-18)
[6] Gitomer, J., (1998) Customer satisfaction is worthless, customer loyalty is priceless:
How to make customers love you, keep them coming back, and tell everyone they
know. Austin,TX: Bard Press.
[7] Grifn, J., (1995) Customer loyalty: How to earn it, how to keep it. New York:
Lexington Books.
[8] Ilieska, K.,Risteska, A., Miladinoski, S., (2002) Marketing Information System,
Bitola
[9] Ilieska, K., (2009) Services Marketing, Bitola
[10] McColl-Kennedy, J., & Schneider, U., (2000) Measuring customer satisfaction:
why, what and how, “Total Quality Management”, 11 (7) (1-14).
[11] Reichheld, F. & Sasser, W.E., Jr., (1990) Zero defections: Quality comes to
services. In J.J. Sviokla & B.P. Shapiro (Eds.), “Keeping customers”, Boston:
Harvard Business Review (pp. 311-324)
[12] Reck, R.R., (1991) Turn your customers into your sales force. New York, Prentice
Hall Press.
[13] Sureshchander, G.S., Rajendran, C., & Kamalanabhan, T.J., (2001) Customer
perceptions of service quality: A critique, “Total Quality Management”, 12(1)
(111-125).
Primljeno: 17.09.2011.
Odobreno: 24.09.2011.
doc_809423104.pdf