SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data are data that were developed for some purpose other than helping to solve the problem at hand. Secondary data can be gathered quickly and is inexpensive as compared to primary data. Even when reports or publications are ordered, the time involved is generally less than the time required to collect original data.
A thorough search on secondary data will often provide sufficient information to resolve the problem. In some cases where the secondary data cannot solve the problem, they can often help to structure the problem and eliminate some variables from consideration. Or, it may be possible to utilize the secondary data in conjunction with primary data. Secondary data can provide a complete or partial solution to many problems and help in structuring other problems. They tend to cost substantially less than primary data and can be collected in less time also.
Problems Encountered with Secondary Data
Before secondary data are applied to a particular marketing problem, their relevance and accuracy must be assessed.
Relevancy refers to the extent to which the data fits the information needs of research problem. Even when the data covers the same general topic as that required by the research problem, they may not fit the requirements of the problem.
Three general problem’s reduces the relevance of data that would otherwise be useful. They are:
1) There is often a difference in the units of measurement. E.g. many retail decisions require detailed information on the characteristics of the population within their trade area. However, the available population statistics may focus on countries, cities or census tracts that do not match the trade area of the retail outlet.
2) The second general problem that can reduce relevancy of secondary data is the definition of classes. E.g. a manufacturer may have a product that appeals to children 8 to 12 years old. If available secondary data are based on age categories 5 to 9 and 10 to 14, the firm will have a hard time utilizing it.
3) The final major factor that is affecting relevancy is time. Generally, research problems require current, if not future, data. Most secondary data, on the other hand, have been in existence for some time. E.g. complete census reports are not available for several years. Data are frequently collected one to three years prior to its publication.
Accuracy is the second major concern of the user of secondary data. The real problem is not inaccuracy, it is the difficulty of determining how inaccurate the data is likely to be.
While using secondary data, the original source should be used if possible. This is important because, the original report is generally more complete than the second or third reports. Secondly using original source allows the data to be examined in context and may provide a better basis for assessing the competence and motivation of the collector.
Sources of Secondary Data
There are two general sources of secondary data – internal sources and external sources. Internal data are available within the firm whereas external sources provide data that are developed outside the firm.
Internal Sources
Internal sources include sales record, sales force reports, operating statements, budgets, previous research reports and the likes. The most useful type of internal information is generally sales data. But, unfortunately many companies do not collect or maintain sales data in the manner that allows the researcher to tap their full potential. Such records, if properly utilized, allows the researcher to isolate profitable and unprofitable customers, territories, and product lines, to identify developing trends and perhaps to measure the effects of manipulations of marketing mix variables.
Internal data must be collected in a usable format and must be analyzed to be of value. Many firms have useful but unutilized data. By changing the format of collection forms (sales invoices, salesman call reports, etc) other useful data can be often collected. They are available and inexpensive; internal data are the best information buy.
External Sources
Numerous sources external to the firm may produce data relevant to the firm’s requirements. There are four types of general external secondary information, they are:
1) Trade associations
2) Government Agencies
3) Other published sources, and
4) Syndicated services
a) Trade Associations
Trade associations frequently publish or maintain detailed information on industry sales, operating characteristics, growth patterns and the like. They may also conduct special studies of factors relevant to their industry. Since trade associations have good reputation for not revealing data on individual firms as well as good working relationships with the firms in the industry, they may be able to secure information that may be unavailable to other researchers. These materials may be published in the form of annual reports or as special reports.
b) Government agencies
Federal, state and local government agencies produce a massive amount of data that is of relevance to marketers. The federal government maintains five major agencies whose primary function is the collection and dissemination of statistical data, they are:
a) Bureau of Census
b) Bureau of Labor Statistics
c) National Center for Educational Statistics
d) National Center for Health Statistics, and
e) Statistical Reporting Service, Department of Agriculture
There are also a number of specialized analytic and research agencies, numerous administrative and regulatory agencies.
These sources produce two types of data
a) Statistics focused on people are produced. These include demographics, vital and health statistics, labor and social conditions.
b) The second broad category focuses on economic activity – commerce, finance, agriculture and the like.
Both types of data are widely used by business firms as an aid in decision-making.
The data available may be standardized, such as census data, or it may be in the form of special reports. Census publications are one of the most widely used sources of secondary data.
c) Other published Sources
There is virtually endless array of periodicals, books, dissertations, newspapers and the like, that contain information relevant to marketing decisions.
d) Syndicated Services
A number of firms regularly collect data of relevance to marketers that they sell on a subscription basis. Two types of syndicated services are widely used by marketing researchers – channel information and omnibus surveys.
Channel information is available to the firm at four levels – manufacturers, intermediaries, retailers and consumers.
A manufacturers sales and shipment are generally available only through the firms own internal records. Therefore, although a firm can monitor its own activities at this level, it can only infer the output of other manufacturing firms.
At the intermediary or wholesale level, several syndicated firms provide information on the flow of products and brands to retail outlets.
Store audits provide data on the movement of brands through retail outlets.
At the consumer level, consumer panels provide data on both purchasing pattern and media habits.
Omnibus surveys collect data that are useful to a number of subscribers from a series of independent samples.
Data Collection Methods
USES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
The task of data collection begins after problem has been identified.
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz, primary data and secondary.
The primary data are those, which are collected afresh and for first time and thus happens to be original in character.
The secondary are those which have been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through statistical process.
The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using for his study.
The method collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.
There are several ways of collecting primary data.
They are:
1. Observation method
2. Interview method
3. Through questionnaires
4. Through schedules
OTHER PRIMARY METHODS
Warranty cards
Distributors audits
Pantry audits
Consumer panels
Using mechanical devices
Through projective techniques
Depth interviews
Content analysis
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data means that are already available that is they refer to the data, which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may be either published or unpublished data usually published data are available in:
Various publications of the central, state and local government
Various publications of foreign government or of international bodies and their subsidiary organization.
Technical and trade journals
Books magazines and newspapers
Reports publication of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stocks exchanges etc
Reports prepared by various scholars’ universities economists etc in different field
Public records and statistics, historical documents and other sources of publish information. The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholar’s research workers. Trade organization, labor bureaus and other public/private organizations
Researcher must be careful in using data .he must make a minute because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or maybe be inadequate in the context of a problem which the researcher wants to study.
It is observed that it is never safe to take publishes statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitation.
Before using secondary data following characteristics must be kept in mind
Reliability of data: finding out such things about the said data can test the reliability
Who collected the data
What were the sources of data
Were they colleted by using proper method
at what time were they collected
Was there any bias of the complier
What level f accuracy was desired
Was it achieved?
Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found in another enquiry. Hence if the available data are found to be suitable, they should not be used by the researcher .in the context, the researcher must be very carefully scrutinize the definition of various units and terms of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. similarly the object scope and nature of a original enquiry must also be studied .if the researcher finds differences the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should be used.
Adequacy of the data: if the level of accuracy achieved in data found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
TYPES OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
-- OBSERVATIONS AND SURVEYS
1) OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher when it serves a formulated research purpose is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Under the observation method the information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from respondent
EXAMPLE
In a study relating to consumer behaviour the investigator instead of asking the brand of wristwatch used by the respondent may himself look for the watch.
ADVANTAGES
1. The method eliminates subjective bias
2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is current happening it is not complicated either by past behaviour or future intentions and attitudes.
3. This method is independent of respondent willingness to respondents as such is relatively less demanded of active co-operation on the part of the respondents as happens to be the case in interview or the questionnaire method.
4. This method is particularly suitable in studies, which deal with subjects who are not capable giving verbal reports of their feeling for one reason or the other.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Its s an expensive method
2. The information provided by this method is very limited.
3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
4. The fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
2) SURVEYS
Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for events to happen Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are primarily concerned with present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to current conditions.
1. Survey type researches usually have larger samples because percentages of responses generally happen to be low, as low as 20 to 30%, especially in mailed questionnaire studies. Thus, the survey method gathers data relatively from the large number of cases at a peculiar time; it is essentially cross-sectional.
2. Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies, usually appropriate in case of social and behavioral sciences because many types of behavior that interest researcher cannot be arranged in realistic setting.
3. Surveys are example of field research and are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing analysis of the relationship between non-manipulated variables.
4. Surveys may either be census or sample surveys. They may also be classified as social surveys, economic surveys, public opinion surveys. Whatever be their type, the method of data collection happens to be either observation or interview or questionnaire or opinionnaire or some projective technique. Case method may as well be used.
5. In case of surveys, research design must be rigid, must make economical provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability, the aim happens to be to obtain complete and accurate information.
6. Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in the universe can be studied through surveys.
STRUCTURED Vs UNSTRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION
The data collection through questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows;
Structured disguised
Structured - nondisguised
Non-structured - disguised
Non structured - nondisguised
Note : non disguised data collection is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect method .
Structured data collection
A structured data collection is a formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the questions strictly in accordance with pre- arranged order. For e.g. this method can be used when the information is based on the expenditures of the consumer on different types of clothing like. Cotton woolen or synthetic, etc.
This structured questionnaire can be of two types, disguised and non- disguised, based on whether the object or the purpose of the survey is revealed to the respondent.
The main advantage of this method is that, the information can be collected in a systematic and orderly manner.
However when it comes to personal questions, this method seems to be less effective.
Structured disguised: - in this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview, because he feels that by revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get defeated.
Structured - nondisguised: - in this case the everything is pre- arranged and the researcher reveals the objective of the survey to the respondent. This is the most widely followed approach in market research. This is because it is generally felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence, so that he can realize the relevance and give desired information.
Non-structured data collection
It is a kind of data collection method where the data to be collected is not pre- arranged or not listed in a proper structured format. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the researcher to ask the respondent, in the way he feels fit. The researcher only has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be asked. Such a method is devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of freedom to collect the data in the order he wants. Normally this kind of method is used in exploratory research
This kind of data collection is most suitable when it comes to personal or motivational factors.
Again here there are two main types of non-structured methods of data collection.
(1) Non structured disguised: - again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent
(2) Non structured - non-disguised: - like in case of structured non- disguised, the respondent is taken into confidence by revealing the purpose of the survey.
CONCLUSION: The researcher should use the already viable data only when he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting information. At times there may be wealth of usable information in the already available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with due precaution.
Selection of appropriate methods for data collection:
Nature scope and object of enquiry: this constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method .the method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted in the researcher, this factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available are to be used not yet available are to be collected.
Availability of funds: availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When the funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method. Finance in fact is big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation
Time factor: availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher thus affects the selection of the method by which the data is collected.
Precision required: precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.
STEPS IN QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
A Questionnaire is often the heart of a survey operation. If the heart is not properly set up then the whole operation is bound to fail. Thus studying the main objective of the questionnaire is important. There are two main objectives in designing a questionnaire:
1. To maximize the proportion of subjects answering our questionnaire that is, the response rate: To maximize our response rate, we have to consider carefully how we administer the questionnaire, establish rapport, and explain the purpose of the survey. The length of the questionnaire should be appropriate.
2. To obtain accurate relevant information for our survey: In order to obtain accurate relevant information, we have to give some thought to what questions we ask, how we ask them, the order we ask them in, and the general layout of the questionnaire.
Thus the most important parameters in questionnaire designing can be described as:
1. Question Content
2. Question Phrasing
3. Question Sequencing
4. Question Layout
1.Question content: For each question in the questionnaire, we should pay attention to how well it addresses the content we are trying to get at.
Deciding what to ask there are three potential types of information:
Information we are primarily interested in that is, dependent variables.
Information which might explain the dependent variables-that is, independent variables.
Other factors related to both dependent and independent factors, which may distort the results and have to be adjusted for - that is, confounding variables.
Thus while forming the question content the following question must be answered appropriately.
Is the Question Necessary/Useful?
Examine each question to see if there is a need to ask it at all and if you need to ask it at the level of detail you currently have.
Do Respondents Have the Needed Information?
Look at each question to see whether the respondent is likely to have the necessary information to be able to answer the question.
Does the Question Need to be More Specific?
Sometimes the questions are too general and the information we obtain is more difficult to interpret.
Is Question Biased or Loaded?
One danger in question writing is that your own biases and blind spots may affect the wording.
Will Respondents Answer Truthfully?
For each question see whether the respondent will have any difficulty answering the question truthfully. If there is some reason why they may not, consider rewording the question.
2. Question phrasing: The way questions are phrased is important and there are some general rules for constructing good questions in a questionnaire.
Use short and simple sentences
Short, simple sentences are generally less confusing and ambiguous than long, complex ones. As a rule of thumb, most sentences should contain one or two clauses.
Ask for only one piece of information at a time
For example, "Please rate the lecture in terms of its content and presentation" asks for two pieces of information at the same time. It should be divided into two parts: "Please rate the lecture in terms of (a) its content, (b) its presentation."
Avoid negatives if possible
Negatives should be used only sparingly. For example, instead of asking students whether they agree with the statement, "Small group teaching should not be abolished," the statement should be rephrased as, "Small group teaching should continue." Double negatives should always be avoided.
Ask precise questions
Questions may be ambiguous because a word or term may have a different meaning.
Level of details
It is important to ask for the exact level of details required. On the one hand, you might not be able to fulfill the purposes of the survey if you omit to ask essential details. On the other hand, it is important to avoid unnecessary details. People are less inclined to complete long questionnaires. This is particularly important for confidential sensitive information, such as personal financial matters or marital relationship issues.
Minimize bias
People tend to answer questions in a way they perceive to be socially desired or expected by the questioner and they often look for clues in the questions
3. Question sequencing: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher must pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire.
• A proper question sequence reduces the chances of the questions being misunderstood
• The question sequence must be clear and smooth- moving, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.
• The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation.
• Following the opening questions are the question that are rally vital to the research problem and a connecting thread should run through successive questions.
• Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable information would have been obtained.
• The order of the questions is also important. Some general rules are:
-Go from general to particular.
-Go from easy to difficult.
-Go from factual to abstract.
-Start with closed format questions.
-Start with questions relevant to the main subject.
-Do not start with demographic and personal questions.
4.Question layout:
• Questions should form a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.
• Questions should basically meet the following standards
-Should be easily understood
-Should be simple
-Should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondents way of thinking.
• Items on a questionnaire should be grouped into logically coherent sections. Grouping questions that are similar will make the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will feel more comfortable. Questions that use the same response formats, or those that cover a specific topic should appear together.
• Each question should follow comfortably from the previous question. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Transitions between questions should be smooth. Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates.
Conclusion: Questionnaire design is a long process that demands careful attention. Design begins with an understanding of the capabilities of a questionnaire and how they can help the research. If it is determined that a questionnaire is to be used, the greatest care goes into the planning of the objectives. Questionnaires are like any scientific experiment. One does not collect data and then see if they found something interesting. One forms a hypothesis and an experiment that will help prove or disprove the hypothesis.
Questionnaires are versatile, allowing the collection of both subjective and objective data through the use of open or closed format questions. However, a questionnaire is only as good as the questions it contains. Mindful review and testing is necessary to weed out minor mistakes that can cause great changes in meaning and interpretation. When these guidelines are followed, the questionnaire becomes a powerful and economic evaluation tool.
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
1) PERSONAL INTERVIEW
An interviewer asking questions generally face-to-face to other persons conducts personal interview. This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be an indirect oral investigation. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
Advantages
1. More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
2. Interviewer can overcome any resistance, if any, of the respondents; this interview can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of he population.
3. There is greater flexibility as questions can be restructured as when needed, especially in the unstructured interviews.
4. Observation method can supplement verbal recording of answers.
5. Personal information can be obtained easily in this method.
6. Sample control can be maintained, as non-response generally remains low.
7. Unlike mailed questionnaire, the interviewer can usually control which persons will answer the questions.
8. The interviewer can catch the respondent off-guard and thus record the spontaneous reactions.
9. The language of the interview can be changed according to the education level of the respondent.
10. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about respondent's personal characteristics and environment, which helps while interpreting, results.
Disadvantages
1. It can be quite expensive method, especially when large and widespread geographical sample is taken.
2. Possibility of bias of interviewer and respondent is maximum.
3. Certain respondents such as important officials cannot be approachable under this method.
4. It is time-consuming especially when sample is large and re-calls o respondents are to be made.
5. Sometimes the presence of he interview can over-stimulate he respondent and he may give imaginary answers to make the interview interesting.
6. Under the interview method the organization required for selection, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
7. Interviewing at times may introduce systematic errors.
8. Interview presupposes a proper rapport with respondents for free and frank responses, which is not always possible.
2) TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
This method of collecting information consists contacting information consists contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important role in industrial surveys in developed regions.
Advantages
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mail method.
2. It is faster in obtaining information than other methods.
3. It is cheaper compared to personal interviews; here the cost per response is very low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are economic and simple.
5. There is higher rate of response than mailing method
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. Access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason to other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Wider distribution of sample is possible.
Disadvantages
1. Little time is given to respondents to answer, as these types of interviews do not last for more than 5 minutes.
2. Survey is restricted to people who have telephones.
3. Cost plays a major part in extensive geographical coverage.
4. It is not suitable for interviews having comprehensive answers to various questions.
5. Some extent of interviewer's bias exists.
6. Questions have to be short and probes are difficult to handle.
3) COMMERCIAL SURVEYS
Commercial surveys can be divided into three types: Periodic, Panel and Shared surveys. Each of them are discussed below
Periodic surveys
Periodic surveys are conducted at regular intervals, ranging from weekly to annually held surveys. They use a new sample of respondents for each survey, focusing on the same topic and allowing the analysis of trends over a period. Periodic surveys are conducted by mail, personal interview and telephone.
The disadvantage here could be that when periodic surveys are conducted at known intervals, they might affect the behavior being measured.
An example of this kind of surveys could be TRPs.
Panel surveys
Panel surveys, sometimes called interval panels, are conducted among a group of respondents who have agreed to respond to a number of mail, telephone or occasionally personal interviews over time. These need not occur regularly. But a continuous panel or panel data (explained more in panels) refers to a group of individuals who agree to report specified behaviors over time.
The advantages of this method are
The research firm initially collects all the personal information about the respondents and does not waste time again in collecting this information during interviews. This increases the quality of the research data.
The response rate can be as high as 70% - 90%.
Shared surveys
Shared surveys, sometimes referred to as omnibus surveys, are administered by a research firm and consist of questions supplied by multiple clients. Such surveys can involve mail, telephone, or personal interviews. The respondents may be drawn from either an interval panel or random selection.
The main advantage here is the cost factor.
4) AUDITS
Audits involve the physical inspection of inventories, sales receipts, shelf facing and other aspects of marketing mix to determine sales, market share, relative price, distribution and other relevant information. The different types of audits are store audits, product audits and retail distribution audits.
Store audits
The basis for the store audit of retail stores sales is the simple accounting arithmetic of
Opening inventory
+ Net purchases (receipts-transfers out-returned inventory +transfers in)
- Closing inventory
= Sales
These audits provide sales data on packaged products. The clients receive report on the sales of their own brand and of competitor's brands, the resulting market shares, prices, shelf facing and other important information.
Product audits
Product audits are similar to store audits but focuses on products rather than store samples. Although they provide similar information as of store audits it differs as in it tries to cover all the types of retail outlets that handle a product category.
Retail distribution audits
Retail distribution audits are similar to store audits however these audits do not measure inventory sales: instead they are observational studies at the retail level. Field agents enter stores unannounced and without permission. They observe and record the brands present, price, shelf facings and other relevant data for selected product categories.
5) PANELS
A panel is a group of individuals or organizations that have agreed to provide information to researcher over a period of time. A continuous panel, the focus of this section, has agreed to report specified behaviors on regular basis. There are 2 types of panels: retail and consumer, consumer further divided into diary panels and electronic panels.
Retail panel
In this method data is collected from the checkout scanner tapes of a sample of supermarkets and other retailers that use electronic scanning systems. For this to happen the product should carry the Universal Product Code (UPC) often referred to as bar code.
The advantages of this method are
1. Greater frequency
2. Elimination of breakage and pilferage being counted as sales
3. More accurate price information
The disadvantages are
1. Only big supermarkets have scanners
2. The quality of scanner data is dependent on checkout clerk. For e.g. if a person is buying 5 packets of packaged milk. In that case the clerk may put only 1 in the scanner and then multiply it by 5. So the rest 4 wont come in the scanner's data.
Consumer panels
Diary panels
A diary panel as the name implies, is a panel of households who continuously record in a diary their purchase of selected products. It is used for those product categories for which purchasing is frequent like food and personal care products.
Electronic panels
Electronic panels are composed of households whose television viewing behavior is recorded electronically. The sets were wired to household meters. The meters were connected to a central computer by a telephone line and automatically recorded when the set was turned on and the station to which it is turned on.
The problem here is that it is difficult to understand whom all and how many people were watching and what their demographics are.
6) Mail Questionnaire
Advantages
1. It is easier to approach a large no. Of respondents spread all over the world through post.
2. A mail questionnaire is free from any interviewer’s bias and errors, which may undermine the reliability and validity of the results emerging from the survey.
3. A mail questionnaire will not have any distribution bias as it will not show any particular preference or dislike for a certain individual or household.
4. When the questions asked to the respondents need time to be answered and needs some thinking, mail questionnaire is ideal.
5. Mail Questionnaire saves time in collecting the desired information as a large no. Of respondents can be approached all over the country.
6. It saves money as cost of traveling, boarding and lodging of interviewers is not to be incurred.
7. There is no difficulty in having central supervision and control over the survey operations over a large region.
8. It avoids the bias arising from any inhibitions in answering questions. (During some personal questions the respondents may hesitate to answer them in the presence of the interviewer)
9. It will not have the problem of non-contacts in the strict sense, as might be the case in personal interviews when the interviewer finds that the respondent, being away from home is not available.
Limitations
1. It is not suitable when questions are difficult & complicated. In such a case the help of interviewer is required to offer some introductory explanation to the respondent.
2. When the objective is to get the spontaneous answers of the respondent or his own answers uninfluenced by others who may influence his thinking.
3. It is not possible to verify whether the respondent himself has filled in the questionnaire. (e.g.: If a questionnaire is targeted to a housewife she may ask her husband to fill it up on her behalf). This can result into incorrect answers.
4. In case there is any ambiguity or any inconsistency in the answers it will be difficult for the researcher to make use of such questionnaire, as he has to accept it.
5. The respondent may go through his answers after he has filled in the entire questionnaire and may make certain modification in his original answers as a result of which these answers cannot be regarded as independent.
6. It does not allow the researcher to supplement the information by his personal observations.
7. A mail questionnaire normally has a relatively poor response compared to a questionnaire canvassed personally.
Secondary data are data that were developed for some purpose other than helping to solve the problem at hand. Secondary data can be gathered quickly and is inexpensive as compared to primary data. Even when reports or publications are ordered, the time involved is generally less than the time required to collect original data.
A thorough search on secondary data will often provide sufficient information to resolve the problem. In some cases where the secondary data cannot solve the problem, they can often help to structure the problem and eliminate some variables from consideration. Or, it may be possible to utilize the secondary data in conjunction with primary data. Secondary data can provide a complete or partial solution to many problems and help in structuring other problems. They tend to cost substantially less than primary data and can be collected in less time also.
Problems Encountered with Secondary Data
Before secondary data are applied to a particular marketing problem, their relevance and accuracy must be assessed.
Relevancy refers to the extent to which the data fits the information needs of research problem. Even when the data covers the same general topic as that required by the research problem, they may not fit the requirements of the problem.
Three general problem’s reduces the relevance of data that would otherwise be useful. They are:
1) There is often a difference in the units of measurement. E.g. many retail decisions require detailed information on the characteristics of the population within their trade area. However, the available population statistics may focus on countries, cities or census tracts that do not match the trade area of the retail outlet.
2) The second general problem that can reduce relevancy of secondary data is the definition of classes. E.g. a manufacturer may have a product that appeals to children 8 to 12 years old. If available secondary data are based on age categories 5 to 9 and 10 to 14, the firm will have a hard time utilizing it.
3) The final major factor that is affecting relevancy is time. Generally, research problems require current, if not future, data. Most secondary data, on the other hand, have been in existence for some time. E.g. complete census reports are not available for several years. Data are frequently collected one to three years prior to its publication.
Accuracy is the second major concern of the user of secondary data. The real problem is not inaccuracy, it is the difficulty of determining how inaccurate the data is likely to be.
While using secondary data, the original source should be used if possible. This is important because, the original report is generally more complete than the second or third reports. Secondly using original source allows the data to be examined in context and may provide a better basis for assessing the competence and motivation of the collector.
Sources of Secondary Data
There are two general sources of secondary data – internal sources and external sources. Internal data are available within the firm whereas external sources provide data that are developed outside the firm.
Internal Sources
Internal sources include sales record, sales force reports, operating statements, budgets, previous research reports and the likes. The most useful type of internal information is generally sales data. But, unfortunately many companies do not collect or maintain sales data in the manner that allows the researcher to tap their full potential. Such records, if properly utilized, allows the researcher to isolate profitable and unprofitable customers, territories, and product lines, to identify developing trends and perhaps to measure the effects of manipulations of marketing mix variables.
Internal data must be collected in a usable format and must be analyzed to be of value. Many firms have useful but unutilized data. By changing the format of collection forms (sales invoices, salesman call reports, etc) other useful data can be often collected. They are available and inexpensive; internal data are the best information buy.
External Sources
Numerous sources external to the firm may produce data relevant to the firm’s requirements. There are four types of general external secondary information, they are:
1) Trade associations
2) Government Agencies
3) Other published sources, and
4) Syndicated services
a) Trade Associations
Trade associations frequently publish or maintain detailed information on industry sales, operating characteristics, growth patterns and the like. They may also conduct special studies of factors relevant to their industry. Since trade associations have good reputation for not revealing data on individual firms as well as good working relationships with the firms in the industry, they may be able to secure information that may be unavailable to other researchers. These materials may be published in the form of annual reports or as special reports.
b) Government agencies
Federal, state and local government agencies produce a massive amount of data that is of relevance to marketers. The federal government maintains five major agencies whose primary function is the collection and dissemination of statistical data, they are:
a) Bureau of Census
b) Bureau of Labor Statistics
c) National Center for Educational Statistics
d) National Center for Health Statistics, and
e) Statistical Reporting Service, Department of Agriculture
There are also a number of specialized analytic and research agencies, numerous administrative and regulatory agencies.
These sources produce two types of data
a) Statistics focused on people are produced. These include demographics, vital and health statistics, labor and social conditions.
b) The second broad category focuses on economic activity – commerce, finance, agriculture and the like.
Both types of data are widely used by business firms as an aid in decision-making.
The data available may be standardized, such as census data, or it may be in the form of special reports. Census publications are one of the most widely used sources of secondary data.
c) Other published Sources
There is virtually endless array of periodicals, books, dissertations, newspapers and the like, that contain information relevant to marketing decisions.
d) Syndicated Services
A number of firms regularly collect data of relevance to marketers that they sell on a subscription basis. Two types of syndicated services are widely used by marketing researchers – channel information and omnibus surveys.
Channel information is available to the firm at four levels – manufacturers, intermediaries, retailers and consumers.
A manufacturers sales and shipment are generally available only through the firms own internal records. Therefore, although a firm can monitor its own activities at this level, it can only infer the output of other manufacturing firms.
At the intermediary or wholesale level, several syndicated firms provide information on the flow of products and brands to retail outlets.
Store audits provide data on the movement of brands through retail outlets.
At the consumer level, consumer panels provide data on both purchasing pattern and media habits.
Omnibus surveys collect data that are useful to a number of subscribers from a series of independent samples.
Data Collection Methods
USES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
The task of data collection begins after problem has been identified.
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz, primary data and secondary.
The primary data are those, which are collected afresh and for first time and thus happens to be original in character.
The secondary are those which have been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through statistical process.
The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using for his study.
The method collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.
There are several ways of collecting primary data.
They are:
1. Observation method
2. Interview method
3. Through questionnaires
4. Through schedules
OTHER PRIMARY METHODS
Warranty cards
Distributors audits
Pantry audits
Consumer panels
Using mechanical devices
Through projective techniques
Depth interviews
Content analysis
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data means that are already available that is they refer to the data, which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may be either published or unpublished data usually published data are available in:
Various publications of the central, state and local government
Various publications of foreign government or of international bodies and their subsidiary organization.
Technical and trade journals
Books magazines and newspapers
Reports publication of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stocks exchanges etc
Reports prepared by various scholars’ universities economists etc in different field
Public records and statistics, historical documents and other sources of publish information. The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholar’s research workers. Trade organization, labor bureaus and other public/private organizations
Researcher must be careful in using data .he must make a minute because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or maybe be inadequate in the context of a problem which the researcher wants to study.
It is observed that it is never safe to take publishes statistics at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitation.
Before using secondary data following characteristics must be kept in mind
Reliability of data: finding out such things about the said data can test the reliability
Who collected the data
What were the sources of data
Were they colleted by using proper method
at what time were they collected
Was there any bias of the complier
What level f accuracy was desired
Was it achieved?
Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found in another enquiry. Hence if the available data are found to be suitable, they should not be used by the researcher .in the context, the researcher must be very carefully scrutinize the definition of various units and terms of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. similarly the object scope and nature of a original enquiry must also be studied .if the researcher finds differences the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should be used.
Adequacy of the data: if the level of accuracy achieved in data found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
TYPES OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
-- OBSERVATIONS AND SURVEYS
1) OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher when it serves a formulated research purpose is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Under the observation method the information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation without asking from respondent
EXAMPLE
In a study relating to consumer behaviour the investigator instead of asking the brand of wristwatch used by the respondent may himself look for the watch.
ADVANTAGES
1. The method eliminates subjective bias
2. The information obtained under this method relates to what is current happening it is not complicated either by past behaviour or future intentions and attitudes.
3. This method is independent of respondent willingness to respondents as such is relatively less demanded of active co-operation on the part of the respondents as happens to be the case in interview or the questionnaire method.
4. This method is particularly suitable in studies, which deal with subjects who are not capable giving verbal reports of their feeling for one reason or the other.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Its s an expensive method
2. The information provided by this method is very limited.
3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
4. The fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
2) SURVEYS
Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for events to happen Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are primarily concerned with present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to current conditions.
1. Survey type researches usually have larger samples because percentages of responses generally happen to be low, as low as 20 to 30%, especially in mailed questionnaire studies. Thus, the survey method gathers data relatively from the large number of cases at a peculiar time; it is essentially cross-sectional.
2. Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies, usually appropriate in case of social and behavioral sciences because many types of behavior that interest researcher cannot be arranged in realistic setting.
3. Surveys are example of field research and are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing analysis of the relationship between non-manipulated variables.
4. Surveys may either be census or sample surveys. They may also be classified as social surveys, economic surveys, public opinion surveys. Whatever be their type, the method of data collection happens to be either observation or interview or questionnaire or opinionnaire or some projective technique. Case method may as well be used.
5. In case of surveys, research design must be rigid, must make economical provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability, the aim happens to be to obtain complete and accurate information.
6. Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in the universe can be studied through surveys.
STRUCTURED Vs UNSTRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION
The data collection through questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows;
Structured disguised
Structured - nondisguised
Non-structured - disguised
Non structured - nondisguised
Note : non disguised data collection is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect method .
Structured data collection
A structured data collection is a formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the questions strictly in accordance with pre- arranged order. For e.g. this method can be used when the information is based on the expenditures of the consumer on different types of clothing like. Cotton woolen or synthetic, etc.
This structured questionnaire can be of two types, disguised and non- disguised, based on whether the object or the purpose of the survey is revealed to the respondent.
The main advantage of this method is that, the information can be collected in a systematic and orderly manner.
However when it comes to personal questions, this method seems to be less effective.
Structured disguised: - in this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview, because he feels that by revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get defeated.
Structured - nondisguised: - in this case the everything is pre- arranged and the researcher reveals the objective of the survey to the respondent. This is the most widely followed approach in market research. This is because it is generally felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence, so that he can realize the relevance and give desired information.
Non-structured data collection
It is a kind of data collection method where the data to be collected is not pre- arranged or not listed in a proper structured format. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the researcher to ask the respondent, in the way he feels fit. The researcher only has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be asked. Such a method is devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of freedom to collect the data in the order he wants. Normally this kind of method is used in exploratory research
This kind of data collection is most suitable when it comes to personal or motivational factors.
Again here there are two main types of non-structured methods of data collection.
(1) Non structured disguised: - again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent
(2) Non structured - non-disguised: - like in case of structured non- disguised, the respondent is taken into confidence by revealing the purpose of the survey.
CONCLUSION: The researcher should use the already viable data only when he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting information. At times there may be wealth of usable information in the already available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with due precaution.
Selection of appropriate methods for data collection:
Nature scope and object of enquiry: this constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method .the method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted in the researcher, this factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available are to be used not yet available are to be collected.
Availability of funds: availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When the funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method. Finance in fact is big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation
Time factor: availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher thus affects the selection of the method by which the data is collected.
Precision required: precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.
STEPS IN QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
A Questionnaire is often the heart of a survey operation. If the heart is not properly set up then the whole operation is bound to fail. Thus studying the main objective of the questionnaire is important. There are two main objectives in designing a questionnaire:
1. To maximize the proportion of subjects answering our questionnaire that is, the response rate: To maximize our response rate, we have to consider carefully how we administer the questionnaire, establish rapport, and explain the purpose of the survey. The length of the questionnaire should be appropriate.
2. To obtain accurate relevant information for our survey: In order to obtain accurate relevant information, we have to give some thought to what questions we ask, how we ask them, the order we ask them in, and the general layout of the questionnaire.
Thus the most important parameters in questionnaire designing can be described as:
1. Question Content
2. Question Phrasing
3. Question Sequencing
4. Question Layout
1.Question content: For each question in the questionnaire, we should pay attention to how well it addresses the content we are trying to get at.
Deciding what to ask there are three potential types of information:
Information we are primarily interested in that is, dependent variables.
Information which might explain the dependent variables-that is, independent variables.
Other factors related to both dependent and independent factors, which may distort the results and have to be adjusted for - that is, confounding variables.
Thus while forming the question content the following question must be answered appropriately.
Is the Question Necessary/Useful?
Examine each question to see if there is a need to ask it at all and if you need to ask it at the level of detail you currently have.
Do Respondents Have the Needed Information?
Look at each question to see whether the respondent is likely to have the necessary information to be able to answer the question.
Does the Question Need to be More Specific?
Sometimes the questions are too general and the information we obtain is more difficult to interpret.
Is Question Biased or Loaded?
One danger in question writing is that your own biases and blind spots may affect the wording.
Will Respondents Answer Truthfully?
For each question see whether the respondent will have any difficulty answering the question truthfully. If there is some reason why they may not, consider rewording the question.
2. Question phrasing: The way questions are phrased is important and there are some general rules for constructing good questions in a questionnaire.
Use short and simple sentences
Short, simple sentences are generally less confusing and ambiguous than long, complex ones. As a rule of thumb, most sentences should contain one or two clauses.
Ask for only one piece of information at a time
For example, "Please rate the lecture in terms of its content and presentation" asks for two pieces of information at the same time. It should be divided into two parts: "Please rate the lecture in terms of (a) its content, (b) its presentation."
Avoid negatives if possible
Negatives should be used only sparingly. For example, instead of asking students whether they agree with the statement, "Small group teaching should not be abolished," the statement should be rephrased as, "Small group teaching should continue." Double negatives should always be avoided.
Ask precise questions
Questions may be ambiguous because a word or term may have a different meaning.
Level of details
It is important to ask for the exact level of details required. On the one hand, you might not be able to fulfill the purposes of the survey if you omit to ask essential details. On the other hand, it is important to avoid unnecessary details. People are less inclined to complete long questionnaires. This is particularly important for confidential sensitive information, such as personal financial matters or marital relationship issues.
Minimize bias
People tend to answer questions in a way they perceive to be socially desired or expected by the questioner and they often look for clues in the questions
3. Question sequencing: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher must pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire.
• A proper question sequence reduces the chances of the questions being misunderstood
• The question sequence must be clear and smooth- moving, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.
• The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation.
• Following the opening questions are the question that are rally vital to the research problem and a connecting thread should run through successive questions.
• Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable information would have been obtained.
• The order of the questions is also important. Some general rules are:
-Go from general to particular.
-Go from easy to difficult.
-Go from factual to abstract.
-Start with closed format questions.
-Start with questions relevant to the main subject.
-Do not start with demographic and personal questions.
4.Question layout:
• Questions should form a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.
• Questions should basically meet the following standards
-Should be easily understood
-Should be simple
-Should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondents way of thinking.
• Items on a questionnaire should be grouped into logically coherent sections. Grouping questions that are similar will make the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will feel more comfortable. Questions that use the same response formats, or those that cover a specific topic should appear together.
• Each question should follow comfortably from the previous question. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Transitions between questions should be smooth. Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates.
Conclusion: Questionnaire design is a long process that demands careful attention. Design begins with an understanding of the capabilities of a questionnaire and how they can help the research. If it is determined that a questionnaire is to be used, the greatest care goes into the planning of the objectives. Questionnaires are like any scientific experiment. One does not collect data and then see if they found something interesting. One forms a hypothesis and an experiment that will help prove or disprove the hypothesis.
Questionnaires are versatile, allowing the collection of both subjective and objective data through the use of open or closed format questions. However, a questionnaire is only as good as the questions it contains. Mindful review and testing is necessary to weed out minor mistakes that can cause great changes in meaning and interpretation. When these guidelines are followed, the questionnaire becomes a powerful and economic evaluation tool.
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
1) PERSONAL INTERVIEW
An interviewer asking questions generally face-to-face to other persons conducts personal interview. This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be an indirect oral investigation. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
Advantages
1. More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
2. Interviewer can overcome any resistance, if any, of the respondents; this interview can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of he population.
3. There is greater flexibility as questions can be restructured as when needed, especially in the unstructured interviews.
4. Observation method can supplement verbal recording of answers.
5. Personal information can be obtained easily in this method.
6. Sample control can be maintained, as non-response generally remains low.
7. Unlike mailed questionnaire, the interviewer can usually control which persons will answer the questions.
8. The interviewer can catch the respondent off-guard and thus record the spontaneous reactions.
9. The language of the interview can be changed according to the education level of the respondent.
10. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about respondent's personal characteristics and environment, which helps while interpreting, results.
Disadvantages
1. It can be quite expensive method, especially when large and widespread geographical sample is taken.
2. Possibility of bias of interviewer and respondent is maximum.
3. Certain respondents such as important officials cannot be approachable under this method.
4. It is time-consuming especially when sample is large and re-calls o respondents are to be made.
5. Sometimes the presence of he interview can over-stimulate he respondent and he may give imaginary answers to make the interview interesting.
6. Under the interview method the organization required for selection, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
7. Interviewing at times may introduce systematic errors.
8. Interview presupposes a proper rapport with respondents for free and frank responses, which is not always possible.
2) TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
This method of collecting information consists contacting information consists contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important role in industrial surveys in developed regions.
Advantages
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mail method.
2. It is faster in obtaining information than other methods.
3. It is cheaper compared to personal interviews; here the cost per response is very low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are economic and simple.
5. There is higher rate of response than mailing method
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. Access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason to other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Wider distribution of sample is possible.
Disadvantages
1. Little time is given to respondents to answer, as these types of interviews do not last for more than 5 minutes.
2. Survey is restricted to people who have telephones.
3. Cost plays a major part in extensive geographical coverage.
4. It is not suitable for interviews having comprehensive answers to various questions.
5. Some extent of interviewer's bias exists.
6. Questions have to be short and probes are difficult to handle.
3) COMMERCIAL SURVEYS
Commercial surveys can be divided into three types: Periodic, Panel and Shared surveys. Each of them are discussed below
Periodic surveys
Periodic surveys are conducted at regular intervals, ranging from weekly to annually held surveys. They use a new sample of respondents for each survey, focusing on the same topic and allowing the analysis of trends over a period. Periodic surveys are conducted by mail, personal interview and telephone.
The disadvantage here could be that when periodic surveys are conducted at known intervals, they might affect the behavior being measured.
An example of this kind of surveys could be TRPs.
Panel surveys
Panel surveys, sometimes called interval panels, are conducted among a group of respondents who have agreed to respond to a number of mail, telephone or occasionally personal interviews over time. These need not occur regularly. But a continuous panel or panel data (explained more in panels) refers to a group of individuals who agree to report specified behaviors over time.
The advantages of this method are
The research firm initially collects all the personal information about the respondents and does not waste time again in collecting this information during interviews. This increases the quality of the research data.
The response rate can be as high as 70% - 90%.
Shared surveys
Shared surveys, sometimes referred to as omnibus surveys, are administered by a research firm and consist of questions supplied by multiple clients. Such surveys can involve mail, telephone, or personal interviews. The respondents may be drawn from either an interval panel or random selection.
The main advantage here is the cost factor.
4) AUDITS
Audits involve the physical inspection of inventories, sales receipts, shelf facing and other aspects of marketing mix to determine sales, market share, relative price, distribution and other relevant information. The different types of audits are store audits, product audits and retail distribution audits.
Store audits
The basis for the store audit of retail stores sales is the simple accounting arithmetic of
Opening inventory
+ Net purchases (receipts-transfers out-returned inventory +transfers in)
- Closing inventory
= Sales
These audits provide sales data on packaged products. The clients receive report on the sales of their own brand and of competitor's brands, the resulting market shares, prices, shelf facing and other important information.
Product audits
Product audits are similar to store audits but focuses on products rather than store samples. Although they provide similar information as of store audits it differs as in it tries to cover all the types of retail outlets that handle a product category.
Retail distribution audits
Retail distribution audits are similar to store audits however these audits do not measure inventory sales: instead they are observational studies at the retail level. Field agents enter stores unannounced and without permission. They observe and record the brands present, price, shelf facings and other relevant data for selected product categories.
5) PANELS
A panel is a group of individuals or organizations that have agreed to provide information to researcher over a period of time. A continuous panel, the focus of this section, has agreed to report specified behaviors on regular basis. There are 2 types of panels: retail and consumer, consumer further divided into diary panels and electronic panels.
Retail panel
In this method data is collected from the checkout scanner tapes of a sample of supermarkets and other retailers that use electronic scanning systems. For this to happen the product should carry the Universal Product Code (UPC) often referred to as bar code.
The advantages of this method are
1. Greater frequency
2. Elimination of breakage and pilferage being counted as sales
3. More accurate price information
The disadvantages are
1. Only big supermarkets have scanners
2. The quality of scanner data is dependent on checkout clerk. For e.g. if a person is buying 5 packets of packaged milk. In that case the clerk may put only 1 in the scanner and then multiply it by 5. So the rest 4 wont come in the scanner's data.
Consumer panels
Diary panels
A diary panel as the name implies, is a panel of households who continuously record in a diary their purchase of selected products. It is used for those product categories for which purchasing is frequent like food and personal care products.
Electronic panels
Electronic panels are composed of households whose television viewing behavior is recorded electronically. The sets were wired to household meters. The meters were connected to a central computer by a telephone line and automatically recorded when the set was turned on and the station to which it is turned on.
The problem here is that it is difficult to understand whom all and how many people were watching and what their demographics are.
6) Mail Questionnaire
Advantages
1. It is easier to approach a large no. Of respondents spread all over the world through post.
2. A mail questionnaire is free from any interviewer’s bias and errors, which may undermine the reliability and validity of the results emerging from the survey.
3. A mail questionnaire will not have any distribution bias as it will not show any particular preference or dislike for a certain individual or household.
4. When the questions asked to the respondents need time to be answered and needs some thinking, mail questionnaire is ideal.
5. Mail Questionnaire saves time in collecting the desired information as a large no. Of respondents can be approached all over the country.
6. It saves money as cost of traveling, boarding and lodging of interviewers is not to be incurred.
7. There is no difficulty in having central supervision and control over the survey operations over a large region.
8. It avoids the bias arising from any inhibitions in answering questions. (During some personal questions the respondents may hesitate to answer them in the presence of the interviewer)
9. It will not have the problem of non-contacts in the strict sense, as might be the case in personal interviews when the interviewer finds that the respondent, being away from home is not available.
Limitations
1. It is not suitable when questions are difficult & complicated. In such a case the help of interviewer is required to offer some introductory explanation to the respondent.
2. When the objective is to get the spontaneous answers of the respondent or his own answers uninfluenced by others who may influence his thinking.
3. It is not possible to verify whether the respondent himself has filled in the questionnaire. (e.g.: If a questionnaire is targeted to a housewife she may ask her husband to fill it up on her behalf). This can result into incorrect answers.
4. In case there is any ambiguity or any inconsistency in the answers it will be difficult for the researcher to make use of such questionnaire, as he has to accept it.
5. The respondent may go through his answers after he has filled in the entire questionnaire and may make certain modification in his original answers as a result of which these answers cannot be regarded as independent.
6. It does not allow the researcher to supplement the information by his personal observations.
7. A mail questionnaire normally has a relatively poor response compared to a questionnaire canvassed personally.