Description
In today’s world, music, books, crafts, films and many other cultural goods and services move across international borders, creating a complex picture of cultural trade flows. Cultural and creative industries alone are estimated to account for over 7% of the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
INTERNATIONAL FLOWS OF SELECTED
CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES, 1994-2003
Defining and capturing the flows of global cultural trade
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UNESCO Sector for Culture
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Montreal, 2005
UNESCO
The constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) was adopted by 20 countries at the London Conference in November 1945 and entered
into effect on 4 November 1946. The Organization currently has 191 Member States and six
Associate Members.
The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the world by promoting
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that are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion,
by the Charter of the United Nations.
To fulfil its mandate, UNESCO performs five principal functions: 1) prospective studies on
education, science, culture and communication for tomorrow's world; 2) the advancement, transfer
and sharing of knowledge through research, training and teaching activities; 3) standard-setting
actions for the preparation and adoption of internal instruments and statutory recommendations; 4)
expertise through technical co-operation to Member States for their development policies and
projects; and 5) the exchange of specialized information.
UNESCO is headquartered in Paris, France.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is the statistical office of UNESCO and is the UN
depository for global statistics in the fields of education, science and technology, culture and
communication.
The UIS was established in 1999. It was created to improve UNESCO's statistical programme and
to develop and deliver the timely, accurate and policy-relevant statistics needed in today's increasingly
complex and rapidly changing social, political and economic environments.
The UIS is based in Montreal, Canada.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
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ISBN 92-9189-023-5
©UNESCO-UIS 2005
Cover design: JCNicholls Design – www.oglethorpe.ca
Ref: UIS/AP/05-01
Acknowledgements
The development of this publication has been a joint undertaking by the UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (UIS), UNESCO’s Arts and Cultural Enterprise Division (ACE), and
UNESCO’s Cultural Policies and Intercultural Dialogue Division (CPD).
Under the direction of Denise Lievesley, Director of the UIS, Milagros del Corral, Director
of ACE, and Katérina Stenou, Director of CPD, this publication was prepared and
coordinated by Lydia Deloumeaux, the UIS project manager, with the support of Guiomar
Alonso Cano from ACE. Melika Medici and Aitor Mate from ACE also contributed
substantially to the development of this report.
This report is based on data extracted from the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics
database. The UIS and UNESCO gratefully acknowledge other international organizations
that have supplied additional information and statistics, in particular the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Bank, as well as other
specialised institutions.
The UIS and ACE would also like to express thanks to Moe Chiba (CPD), Véronique
Guèvremont (CPD), Laurence Mayer-Robitaille (CPD) and Mélanie Smuga (UIS) for their
participation in the preparation of this report.
Special thanks are due to S. Venkatraman (UIS) who helped in editing and commenting.
Thanks are also presented to Ivan Bernier (consultant), Lluis Bonet (consultant), Michael
Bruneforth (UIS), Olivier Labé (UIS), Joscelyn Magdeleine (WTO), Diane Stukel (UIS) and
Bertrand Tchatchoua (UIS) who provided valuable comments and other inputs. Katja
Frostell coordinated the production of this report in print.
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Foreword
This report is a collaborative effort by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) and the UNESCO
Sector for Culture. It looks at cross-border trade in selected cultural goods and, for the first time,
examines trade in selected cultural services. Based on UNESCO’s Framework for Cultural Statistics, it
adopts a fresh approach to measuring cultural flows by distinguishing between ‘core’ and ‘related’
cultural goods and services. In so doing, it attempts to address some of the shortcomings of
statistical data in previous UNESCO studies which, while they pictured trade in cultural ‘hardware’
(TV and radio sets, musical instruments, audiovisual equipment and so forth), said very little about
the actual trade in ‘content’ cultural goods.
Thus the present report is a step forward by giving a global picture of the nature and direction of
international cultural trade flows. However, the paucity of the available data, notably with regard to
cultural services, coupled with the very complex nature of cultural products, prevent any but a partial
view from emerging. Cross-border trade in cultural goods and supply of cultural services as reflected
in the balance of payments are presumably the tip of the iceberg of the much larger phenomena of
cultural trade flows and exchanges with major economic, cultural and political implications. We hope
this report will contribute to a better understanding of the field.
Mounir Bouchenaki Denise Lievesley
Assistant Director-General Director, UNESCO
Culture Sector Institute for Statistics
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Table of Contents
Executive summary .................................................................................................................. 9
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11
2. Methodological approach .................................................................................................. 13
2.1. New methodology.......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2. Description of data used ............................................................................................................... 16
2.3. Methodological issues.................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1. Limitations of available trade data ................................................................................. 17
2.3.2. Limitations due to the special nature of cultural products ......................................... 18
3. Evolution and patterns of international trade in cultural goods ....................................... 19
3.1. Brief overview................................................................................................................................... 19
3.2. Trade by region and economic areas ............................................................................................ 21
3.3. Trade by level of income................................................................................................................. 23
3.3.1. Main trends ........................................................................................................................... 24
3.3.2. Evaluating the cultural trade balance ................................................................................ 25
3.3.3. Identification of some trading countries .......................................................................... 27
3.4. Origin and destination of cultural goods: Five case studies....................................................... 29
3.5. Components of trade....................................................................................................................... 36
3.5.1. Heritage goods...................................................................................................................... 37
3.5.2. Printed media........................................................................................................................ 37
3.5.3. Recorded media.................................................................................................................... 38
3.5.4. Visual arts .............................................................................................................................. 41
3.5.5. Audiovisual media................................................................................................................ 42
4. Measuring international trade in cultural services ............................................................46
4.1 Audiovisual and related services .................................................................................................. 46
4.2 Other cultural services................................................................................................................... 49
References................................................................................................................................52
Technical notes........................................................................................................................54
Annexes....................................................................................................................................56
Annex I: Statistical tables..................................................................................................................... 56
Annex II: Glossary................................................................................................................................. 84
Annex III: UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics .................................................................. 86
Annex IV: Maps....................................................................................................................................... 87
A. Countries covered in the report............................................................................... 87
B. Countries by levels of income.................................................................................. 88
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Annex V: List of products used in the report.................................................................................... 89
A. List of codes used for cultural services (EBOPS, CPC) ...................................... 89
B. List of codes used for cultural goods in Harmonised System (HS) and
Standard International Trade Classification Revision 3 (SITC REV. 3)............ 91
Annex VI: Composition of regions and economic groupings.......................................................... 95
A. Geographical zones ................................................................................................ 95
B. Economic zones...................................................................................................... 97
List of Figures
Figure 1: Composition of cultural products ............................................................................................ 14
Figure 2: Exports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002 ............................................................ 20
Figure 3: Imports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002............................................................ 20
Figure 4: Exports by region of core cultural goods, 2002..................................................................... 21
Figure 5: Imports by region of core cultural goods, 2002..................................................................... 22
Figure 6: Entertainment and media markets by region (in million US$), 2003.................................. 23
Figure 7: Total exports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002 .................................................... 24
Figure 8: Total imports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002.................................................... 25
Figure 9: Trade coverage ratio of core cultural goods by level of income, 1994-2002 ..................... 26
Figure 10: Exports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002 .................. 27
Figure 11: Imports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002 .................. 28
Figure 12: Trade partners of the United States of America’ exports of core cultural goods, 2003 .. 29
Figure 13: Trade partners of the United States of America’ imports of core cultural goods, 2003 . 30
Figure 14: Trade partners of Chinese exports of core cultural goods, 2003......................................... 31
Figure 15: Trade partners of Chinese imports of core cultural goods, 2003........................................ 31
Figure 16: Trade partners of South African exports of core cultural goods, 2003.............................. 32
Figure 17: Trade partners of South African imports of core cultural goods, 2003 ............................. 33
Figure 18: Total trade partners of Brazilian exports of core cultural goods, 2003 .............................. 34
Figure 19: Total trade partners of Brazilian imports of core cultural goods, 2003.............................. 34
Figure 20: Total trade partners of Egyptian exports of core cultural goods, 2002.............................. 35
Figure 21: Total trade partners of Egyptian imports of core cultural goods, 2002 ............................. 36
Figure 22: Repertoire origin as % of market value, 2002......................................................................... 39
Figure 23: Number of films produced in India and the United States of America, 1999-2003......... 44
Figure 24: Audiovisual and related services exports for a selection of countries, 2002...................... 46
Figure 25: Origin of first-time release feature films in a selection of countries, 2000-2002............... 47
Figure 26: Estimates of the trade in audiovisual programmes (TV only) between the European
Union and North America, 1995-2000............................................................................. 48
Figure 27: Collection of copyright income by region, 2002.................................................................... 51
List of Tables
Table 1: Trade of core cultural goods, 1994-2002................................................................................. 36
Table 2: Trade of related cultural goods, 1994-2002 ............................................................................ 45
Table 3: Selected detailed trade cultural services, 2001-2002 .............................................................. 50
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List of Boxes
Box 1: Goods and services covered in the report ................................................................................. 15
Box 2: International flows of artisanal/handmade products................................................................ 16
Box 3: Global markets of cultural and creative industries .................................................................... 23
Box 4: The music sector: market of recorded media............................................................................. 39
Box 5: Capturing the value of intangible assets: The case of the Jamaican music copyrights......... 40
Box 6: The major role of India in the film industry ............................................................................. 44
Box 7: Flows of related cultural goods .................................................................................................... 45
Box 8: Audiovisual content - assessing trade flows of movie feature films....................................... 47
Box 9: Audiovisual content - trade in broadcasting programmes ....................................................... 48
Box 10: Revenues collected by copyright management societies ......................................................... 51
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Executive summary
In today’s world, music, books, crafts,
films and many other cultural goods and
services move across international
borders, creating a complex picture of
cultural trade flows. Cultural and creative
industries alone are estimated to account
for over 7% of the world’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP).
This report raises methodological issues
concerning the measurement of trade
flows of cultural goods and services. Due
to the special nature of cultural products,
it is necessary to have more than
improved customs or balance of payments
data. Furthermore, additional data are
needed to measure cultural flows
accurately. In this regard, the identification
of cultural products within the
international classifi-cations system would
be of great value.
The report provides an analysis of the
trade flows of cultural goods and services
between 1994 and 2003. The data used in
this report are customs-based and derived
from balance of payments expressed at
current United States of America dollar
values (US$). However imperfect these
data are, they give some indication of the
trend and distribution of global trade in
cultural goods and services. A new
methodological approach which focuses
on the notion of cultural content has been
used in the current report. Using this
notion, the core of the analysis is focused
on products having a cultural content,
such as books, statuettes or feature films,
while a short analysis is given for products
related to support or equipment, such as
blank CDs or television receivers. Further-
more, an analysis of cross-nationally
comparable services data has also been
introduced.
Customs-based data show that the trade
of cultural goods almost doubled during
the last ten years from US$ 38.3 billion in
1994 to 59.2 in 2002. However, in 2002
this market was restricted to a limited
number of countries where high-income
economies are still the largest producers
and consumers of cultural goods. A
notable exception is the emergence of
China as the third biggest exporter of
cultural goods in 2002. The United
Kingdom came out as the biggest exporter
of cultural goods with US$ 8.5 billion,
followed by the United States of America
with US$ 7.6 and China with US$ 5.2.
Although developing countries account
for less than 1% share of exports of
cultural goods, the analysis sheds new light
on the rise of a limited number of
emerging countries. However, this
presence is restricted to a few specific
markets, such as visual arts, statuettes and
video games.
In 2002, the European Union 15 (EU15)
occupied the leading position in the export
of cultural goods, with 51.8% of all report-
ing countries; a slight decrease compared
to a 54.3% share in 1994. The region
which has profited the most during the
last years is Asia, particularly South-East
Asia for recorded media and Eastern Asia
for visual arts and videogames. Indeed, in
2002 Asia appeared as the second largest
exporting region with 21.2% share, due to
the growth in Eastern Asia which doubled
its share between 1994 and 2002 to reach
15.6%. Consequently, North America
became the third largest exporter in 2002
with 16.9%, down from 25% in 1994. The
position of Latin America and the Carib-
bean improved in the market by gaining
one percentage point between 1994 and
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2002, although its trade level was quite low
at 3%. Oceania and Africa did not show
progress in this market during the last ten
years, with a combined share of less than
1% in 2002.
A different scenario emerges for imports
where clearly demand for cultural goods
was restricted to a few high-income
countries, holding more than 90% market
share. The United States of America was
the biggest importer of cultural goods in
2002 with US$ 15.3 billion, which is twice
the value of the United Kingdom (US$ 7.8
billion) which is the second largest import-
er. Germany was the third largest importer
of cultural goods with US$ 4.1 billion.
The most substantial change in relative
terms occurred with audiovisual media
from 1994 to 2002, while printed media
lost its leading position. However,
recorded media (32%), printed media
(30.7%) and visual arts (19.1%) kept their
dominant position in 2002 within the
international flows of cultural goods.
Audiovisual media represented only 14.3%
of total trade in core cultural goods. Video
games are mainly responsible for the
predominance of audiovisual media, with
photographic and cinematographic goods
being only of secondary importance.
According to customs data, core cultural
goods represented approximately 1% of
the total trade in 2002. This percentage
has remained the same during the last ten
years. These figures might seem surprising
in light of the perceived growing
importance of cultural industries in the
world economy. In order to assess the
international exchanges they generate,
other sources of data are considered in
this report, such as services data.
Cultural services suffers from paucity of
data; they are often not part of the
statutory data collected by countries. The
current international classifications are not
detailed enough to identify the cultural
components. Data for the last ten years
are only available for a limited number of
countries. Audiovisual services is the only
category where enough coverage is
available based on balance of payments
data. The current data on audiovisual and
related services show that the United
States of America is the largest exporter of
cultural services with US$ 6.9 billion, far
beyond the United Kingdom which is the
second largest exporter with US$ 1.5
billion. Unfortunately, no internationally
comparable data are available in some key
areas, such as copyright royalties.
India’s role as a major producer of feature
films, with nearly 700 films made per year
compared to 400 films per year in the
United States of America, is not reflected
clearly in the trade data. In addition, other
key markets like the flows of broadcasting
programmes are not covered.
The absence of the majority of developing
countries and countries in transition from
the international market in cultural
products can be regarded as an indicator
of lack of information on key sectors, such
as crafts, which results in underestimates
of data for some of the trade flows that do
indeed take place. The phenomenon of
piracy, which was not considered in this
report, also had an impact on the
exchange of cultural products. Better
identification of new forms of trade flows
related to Information and Communi-
cation Technologies (ICTs) - such as e-
commerce - will require the development
of new statistical tools to measure such
phenomena.
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1. Introduction
The number of products created and sold
throughout the world is increasing every year.
Similarly, the growing international trade of
these cultural products constitutes an
important part of the global economy.
According to the United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development (UNCTAD,
2005), the global market value of industries
with strong creative and cultural components
is estimated at US$ 1.3 trillion. Since 2000, the
industry has grown at an annual compound
rate of over 7%. Cultural and creative
industries have also taken up a key position in
the countries of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), with an annual growth rate of
between 5% and 20%, as well as in a number
of leading developing countries and countries
in transition (UNCTAD, 2004). Globally,
these industries are estimated to account for
more than 7% of the world’s Gross Domestic
Product (World Bank, 2003) and are forecast
to grow roughly at the same pace over the
next three years reaching US$ 1.7 trillion
(PWC, 2005).
The substantial growth of cultural and creative
industries has run parallel to expanding
international trade in cultural goods and
services. Today, diversified cultural products
of multiple origins are being increasingly
exchanged between countries. However, due
to the specific nature of cultural goods and
services, there is great difficulty in determining
the actual size of this growing cultural trade,
especially when it involves the direction of
trade flows and the participation of the
countries. It is difficult to assess whether or
not these expanding markets are able to
reduce the gap in the access to and circulation
of cultural products.
The reduced costs of cultural goods and
services resulting from expanding markets
may raise the opportunity for many creators
and producers to benefit from exports. But on
the other hand, imports may crowd out
domestic creative production. This raises
concern over the capacity of individual
countries to create and produce their own
cultural products.
This complex debate on the ability of
individual countries to enjoy and contribute to
the world’s cultural diversity has many
economic, political and ideological
underpinnings. The discussion is constrained
due to the lack of relevant data which could
inform better policy decisions that deals with
cultural exchanges and their impact on cultural
diversity.
The main objective of this report is to
contribute to an assessment of the relative
size, distribution and trends of the global trade
in cultural goods and services. Cross-
nationally comparable statistical data are
provided on the evolution of international
flows of selected cultural goods and services
between 1994 and 2002 or 2003.
The analysis focuses on the notion of cultural
content and develops a new conceptual
structure to accommodate the taxonomies
currently used for the collection of trade data.
This effort aims at better reflecting the trade
in products with cultural content. In this
regard, the report draws a distinction between
“core” and “related” cultural goods and
services. Within this structure, items are
classified based on their estimated degree of
cultural content which is understood as the
content or message originally intended by an
individual author or a group of creators.
The purpose of the analysis is therefore to be
able to distinguish between “content
products” and those products that make
possible their creation, production and
distribution. However, despite the improved
methodology, the data presented in this report
should be interpreted with caution due to the
very nature of cultural products and the major
gaps that exist in trade data, particularly for
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audiovisual, copyrights and other cultural
services.
This report provides more than an update on
previous studies on cultural goods and
services carried out by UNESCO. Previous
reports (UNESCO, 2000 and UNESCO,
1992), which were based on the UNESCO
Framework for Cultural Statistics depicted cross-
border movements of cultural goods, which
mainly consisted of cultural equipment and
support materials. Because of the existing data
categories, cultural trade is often equated to
trade in equipment, and this leads to distorted
analysis and interpretation. Nonetheless, the
2000 report provided a useful indication of
cultural production and consumer preferences
throughout the world from 1980 and 1998
and reflected the rapid expansion of consumer
goods combined with the convergence of
consumer tastes.
By including data on cultural services, by
introducing a new classification that makes the
distinction between core cultural products and
related ones, and by presenting additional data
on the relative size of cultural and creative
industries which contextualise cross-border
exchanges, this report offers a more
comprehensive basis for the interpretation and
analysis of the implications of cultural trade.
It also identifies the main cultural components
being traded and describes changes that have
occurred in the involvement of the various
countries during the last ten years.
For the purpose of this report, trade in
cultural products is defined as the exports and
imports of tangibles and intangibles conveying
cultural content that might take either the
form of a good or a service (books, recorded
CDs, video games, printing or dubbing
services, etc.). Trade in cultural products also
includes the goods and services which are
required to produce and disseminate such
content, including cultural equipment and
support materials, as well as ancillary services
even if they are only partly cultural in their
content. This approach attempts to factor in
the development of the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) which
have changed the traditional ways of cultural
trade. Indeed the digital environment and the
Internet have been central to the expanding
trade system of cultural products. ICTs have
allowed the emergence of new tools of
creation, new means of distribution and new
formats, such as e-books and downloadable
music.
However, the challenge here is to capture the
intellectual property flows and other intangible
assets on which cultural products are
increasingly based, and not focus only on the
physical and tangible support material. This
report portrays the data currently available and
the areas where more detailed data is required.
The great complexity of measuring trade flows
of cultural goods and services requires more
than improved customs-based data and
services data. The statistics compiled, analysed
and presented in this report relate only to
quantifiable trade in cultural goods, namely
the declared value of goods crossing the
country border or being supplied across the
border, and not their actual market value
which is often considered far more important
than the declared value at customs. This
remains a continuing difficulty in the
evaluation of cultural trade.
Export statistics cannot accurately measure
the value of cultural products sold in foreign
markets. This is particularly true for those
core cultural products whose special nature
makes them endlessly available and
reproducible at insignificant cost. For
example, a single master version of a
copyrighted work, such as a music master
valued at few dollars according to national
export statistics, may be shipped to another
country where copies or exhibition rights
and/or reproduction license fees may generate
millions of dollars through sales.
- 12 -
Thus, caution should be employed when
drawing conclusions from the data presented
in this report. In particular, it is necessary to
bear in mind that:
• Customs statistics only include trade in
goods that physically enter or leave the
country. Under the Harmonised System
(HS) classification, these goods are
classified by their observable physical
characteristics and not according to the
status of national content, cultural value or
other similar criteria. Customs statistics
provide information about the country of
origin and the country of destination of
each good. Unfortunately, the “cultural
origin” of a cultural good is not easily
identifiable;
• Many transactions among subsidiaries of
large corporations which probably account
for a large part of international trade
operations in the cultural and creative
industries may not be included;
• Data on exports can substantially
underestimate the true value attributable
to cultural products; and
• Trade in services data in this report refer
to balance of payments services
transactions which relate mainly to the
cross-border supply of services (supplier
and consumer remain in their respective
countries and the services cross the
border).
In order to overcome the limitations of
international cultural trade data, additional
qualitative and quantitative data on cultural
products are presented in boxes throughout
the report, providing the necessary context to
interpret these data. These boxes relate to
areas that are crucial to some of the on-going
discussions arena on the understanding,
promotion and preservation of cultural
diversity. Such topics include international
flows of artisanal products, feature films,
broadcasting programmes and music
copyrights.
Despite these limitations, this overview of
international flows of selected cultural goods
and services provides some indication of the
patterns of production and consumption of
cultural products over the last ten years. It
shows the trends emerging as a result of the
creative economy. First, data reveal the
continuing wide variation in the capacities of
individual countries across the world to export
cultural products. In many developing or small
countries, with limited domestic markets,
these capacities appear to have shrunk.
Second, the distinction between core and
related cultural products reveals the gap
between many low-income and high-income
countries in producing content-based cultural
products. The difference is far less substantial
with respect to related cultural products,
which include equipment, support materials
and ancillary services.
Cultural and creative industries do not fall
neatly into the existing structure of standard
industrial or occupational codes, nor do the
products of these industries: cultural goods
and services. This analysis explores some new
ways of presenting the existing data and
identifying future data needs.
2. Methodological approach
2.1. New methodology
The primary objective of this report is to
identify the scope of the trade of cultural
goods and services and to examine data
available at the international level. The
UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
(FCS) has served as the basis for defining the
structure and scope of the report.
UNESCO’s former Division of Statistics
elaborated the FCS in the 1980s. The FCS
comprises ten distinct categories (see Annex III)
which have not been revised since 1985 and,
thus, do not capture the emergence of
information and communication technologies
which have developed rapidly since late 1980s.
Nonetheless, the FCS still serves as a key
reference for most cultural statistical frame-
- 13 -
works developed at regional and national
levels.
The FCS was inspired by a broad definition of
culture. However, the use of certain
categories, such as sports and games, tourism
or socio-cultural activities, is often questioned
and thus excluded from some national
frameworks for cultural statistics. For this
reason, they have been excluded from this
report.
This report focuses on cultural products
which can be defined as the output of cultural
and creative industries. Two points have been
considered while categorising the cultural
products into “core” and “related” cultural
products. First, these categories were inspired
from the distinction made between cultural
and creative industries. Creative industries
take into account a wider view of the creative
process than the more traditional view of
cultural industries by including other areas
such as software, advertising, architecture and
business intelligence services. Products
resulting from some of the above-mentioned
activities or industries are defined in the report
as “related products”, while the more
traditional cultural products have been
categorised under “core cultural products”.
Second, cultural products have a tangible
component (the physical support) and an
intangible one (cultural content). This
specificity of cultural products has been taken
into account by making the distinction
between “core” products directly associated
with cultural content and “related” cultural
products linked with those services, equip-
ment and support materials that serve the
creation, production and distribution of core
cultural products. This distinction means that,
for example, a recorded CD of music and the
associated copyrights are classified under
“core cultural products”, while the blank CDs
or the CD player are classified under “related
cultural products”.
Cultural products comprise both goods and
services. Cultural goods are defined as
consumer goods which convey ideas, symbols
and ways of life, such as books, magazines,
multimedia products, software, recordings,
films, videos, audiovisual programmes, crafts
and fashion design (Alonso Cano et al.,
2000). It is traditionally understood that
cultural services are those activities aimed at
satisfying cultural interests or needs. Cultural
services do not represent material goods in
themselves but facilitate their production and
distribution. They typically consist of licensing
activities and other copyright-related services,
audiovisual distribution activities, the promo-
tion of performing arts and cultural events, as
well as cultural information and preservation
of books, recordings and artefacts (in libraries,
documentation centres, museums), etc.
Figure 1 illustrates this distinction, and Box 1
presents the complete list of goods and
services categories used in this report.
Figure 1. Composition of cultural products
This report focuses on core cultural products,
although a small section is devoted to related
cultural products (see Box 7). Related cultural
services are not addressed separately since the
categories (such as architectural activities or
advertising) fall under much broader
categories of services (i.e. “advertising, market
research and public opinion polling”) and the
cultural aspect cannot be clearly identified.
The trade of crafts is also not covered since
no detailed internationally comparable data are
available (see Box 2).
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Box 1. Goods and services covered in
the report
1
This list presents goods and services as defined
according to the product-based classification:
“Harmonised System” for goods and the BPM5
or EBOPS for services.
Core cultural goods
• Heritage goods
- Collections and collectors’ pieces
- Antiques of an age exceeding 100 years
• Books
- Printed books, brochures, leaflets, etc.
- Children’s pictures, drawing or colouring
books
• Newspapers and periodicals
• Other printed matter
- Printed music
- Maps
- Postcards
- Pictures, designs
• Recorded media
- Gramophone records
- Discs for laser-reading systems for
reproducing sound only
- Magnetic tape (recorded)
- Other recorded media for sound
• Visual arts
- Paintings
- Other visual arts (statuettes, sculptures,
lithographs, etc.)
• Audiovisual media
- Video games used with a television receiver
- Photographic and cinematographic film,
exposed and developed
2
Core cultural services
• Audiovisual and related services
• Copyright royalties and license fees
Related cultural goods
• Equipment/support material
- Musical instruments
- Sound player recorder and recorded sound
media
- Cinematographic and photographic supplies
- Television and radio receivers
• Architecture plans and drawing trade and
trade advertisement material
Related cultural services
• Information services, news agency services
• Advertising and architecture services
• Other personal, cultural and recreational
services
This means some double counting can occur
in measuring copyrights value by merging
goods data with services data. Goods data
captured by customs statistics can include
some copyrights, while services data may also
contain some of these copyrights for the same
product.
Data on cultural goods are customs-based,
whereas services data are defined according to
the balance of payments. As a result, the
analysis of the two areas is kept separate.
Another reason for the difficulty in combining
goods and services data in a single analysis is
because data on the trade of goods are derived
from customs declarations, while the services
data are based on business declarations.
1
Please refer to Annex V for details.
2
This category does not cover feature films (see Boxes 6
and 8).
- 15 -
Box 2. International flows of artisanal/handmade products
According to the International Trade Center (ITC) and UNESCO, artisanal products are defined as “those
produced by artisans, either completely by hand or with the help of hand-tools or even mechanical means, as long as the direct
manual contribution of the artisan remains the most substantial component of the finished product… The special nature of
artisanal products derives from their distinctive features, which can be utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally attached,
decorative, functional, traditional, religiously and socially symbolic and significant” (UNESCO/ITC, 1997).
International flows of artisanal products are a major component of cultural trade for many developing
countries. Unfortunately, they are difficult to measure within the international classification system of trade
statistics since most artisanal products are not identified separately in the Harmonised System (HS).
To address this issue and at the request of ITC, the World Customs Organisation (WCO) encouraged its
member countries to codify handmade products within their national statistical classification systems. The
extent to which this recommendation is being applied, as well as the quality of data being collected, is not
yet known. Since no change has yet been made to the HS itself; it is still difficult to identify those products
within international trade that are handmade.
UNESCO’s Methodological Guide to the Collection of Data on Crafts, published in 1997, divides artisanal products
under broad categories based on the materials used. The six main categories of this classification are:
Baskets/wickers/vegetable fibre-works; Leather; Metal; Pottery; Textiles and Wood. The guide also
identifies complementary categories comprising materials in craft production that are either very specific to
a given area, or rare, or difficult to work, such as: stone, glass, ivory, bone, shell, mother-of-pearl, etc. Extra
categories are also identified when different materials and techniques are applied at the same time and refer
to decorations, jewellery, musical instruments, toys, works of art, etc.
Another promising area to begin measuring international flows of artisanal products will be quantifying
expenditure by tourists on craft items. Data on consumer spending is of great importance to define better
the cultural and socio-economic impact of the crafts sector, as well as to help the sector’s managers
determine priorities in terms of training, production and promotion. Research in this area is being
undertaken, and a UNESCO Index of Tourist’s Crafts Expenditure is under preparation.
2.2. Description of data used
3
Goods data
Data for cultural goods were extracted from
the United Nations (UN) Comtrade database.
The database covers about 160 reporting
countries or areas, which cover more than
90% of world trade.
Valuation is based on customs records in
current United States of America dollars
(US$) and the trade data are classified using
the Harmonised System (HS).
3
For more information on data sources and
methodology, please refer to technical notes.
Services data
Internationally comparable data on trade
services statistics were compiled using the
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
classification for Balance of Payments
Transactions (BPM5). An extension of the
BPM5, called the Extended Balance of
Payments Services Classification (EBOPS),
was put in place in 2002. The EBOPS
classification provides a more extensive
breakdown of cultural activities which was
not previously available in the BPM5. Thus,
this new classification has been useful to the
- 16 -
study of cultural data. The availability of data
according to this classification will be further
explored in Section 4 which discusses
services.
2.3. Methodological issues
Providing an accurate estimation of the trade
flows of cultural products is a challenging
task. A number of limitations related to the
current data needs to be considered in order
to have an accurate interpretation of the data
presented in this report. These limitations can
be broadly classified into two groups. The
first one covers aspects of the quality of trade
data, such as measurement biases or lack of
inter-temporal and international consistency.
The second group deals with the specific
nature of cultural products which are in need
of statistical refinement and development of
alternative ways of measuring the intangible
assets of cultural products.
2.3.1. Limitations of available trade data
Statistical classifications. None of the
international classification systems presents
cultural goods or services as a distinct
category. Instead cultural products are
scattered under several categories and often
listed under the generic grouping of “other”
or “additional items”, making it impossible to
distinguish cultural trade data with the
required level of detail.
Sources of statistics for trade of goods. In
customs statistics, goods are classified by
their observable physical characteristics and
not according to the industry of their origin,
status of national content, cultural value or
similar criteria. Furthermore, national sources
show substantial divergence in terms of
interpretation and application of international
standards, as well as in methodology, periodi-
city and accuracy of data. In this respect,
import series are usually perceived to have
higher reliability than those of exports, since
they serve as a reference to impose duties,
quotas and other trade restrictions that are
absent in the control of exports.
Sources of statistics for trade of services.
Trade services data refer to the cross-border
supply of services, but they do not cover
other forms by which services could be
internationally traded, i.e. through consump-
tion abroad (the consumer goes abroad to
consume a cultural service), commercial
presence (the service supplier from abroad is
established in the country of the consumer in
order to supply the service) and presence of
natural persons (an individual enters the
country of the consumer to provide the
service) (UN et al., 2002).
Data on the trade of services are compiled
according to the latest classification provided
by EBOPS. This version includes more
detailed disaggregation of cultural services
than in the former BPM5 and has proved to
be very useful. However, most countries still
report according to the principles of BPM5 or
have not adopted a detailed classification for
different cultural services. As a result, they do
not provide information for the current
EBOPS categories which describe these trade
flows. Indeed, the countries which have
adapted the EBOPS classification to their
national statistical systems have placed
cultural services under different categories
and grouped them with other services, some
of which are not cultural in nature.
These obstacles, which will be further
explored in Section 4 on the topic of services,
restrict the estimation of the actual flows and
render it almost impossible to make any valid
international comparison.
Valuation at current US$. The fact that
import and export series are presented at
current US$ value implies that they are
dependent on the evolution of bilateral
exchange rates. Changes in relative positions
of some countries may be due to temporary
factors linked to exchange rate shifts, such as
appreciation or depreciation of the dollar
compared to the local currency, instead of
long-term changes in competitive capabilities.
- 17 -
Intra-firm trade. As a consequence of the
globalisation of the value chain in the
production of cultural products, some of the
trade flows occur due to transactions between
a multinational corporation and its local
subsidiaries. The transactions known as
transfer pricing may actually result in an
underestimation of trade figures.
International concentration. International
trade data are frequently used to estimate
international competition. However, a global
estimation of this phenomenon depends not
only upon the concentration of supplying
countries but also upon the degree of
competition within the countries. The
statistics presented in this report contain only
a partial approach to international concentra-
tion in cultural industries.
Electronic commerce. The period from
1994 to 2003 witnessed the rapid develop-
ment of ICTs. These technologies, in turn,
have considerably modified the environment
in which cultural goods and services are
created, reproduced and distributed. More-
over, the emergence of the Internet as a
channel of commerce had a major impact on
the exchange of cultural products. Although
statistical methods used to measure electronic
transactions have been developed, much of
this trade is not captured by customs or
balance of payments data. This results in an
underestimation of actual trade measurement.
Obviously, this issue is relevant only for
countries where on-line services are suf-
ficiently developed.
2.3.2. Limitations due to the special
nature of cultural products
Audiovisual media. In the framework of
this report, audiovisual media only covers
photographic film, cinematographic films and
video games. The last of these is the largest
increasing from 80% in 1994 to 88% in 2002.
It should be noted that data on feature films
are not accurately measured since the cate-
gory of cinematographic films is defined
differently across countries. For example, for
some countries it only represents TV com-
mercials. Due to the specific nature of feature
films, other types of data need to be
considered (see Box 8).
Intangible assets. Generally trade statistics
cannot accurately measure the economic
value of copyrighted cultural works sold in
foreign markets. Cultural products have both
a tangible element, such as the platform of
product format, and an intangible element
which determines their content and makes
them reproducible as many times as desired.
This intangible nature of cultural products
leads to underestimations of the actual global
value of exchanges. For example, trade
statistics assign a small value of US$ 100 to an
original work protected by copyright, i.e. a
film print or a master version, when exported
from one country to another. Yet, this origi-
nal work may generate millions of dollars in
sales and royalties through copies, exhibition
rights and reproduction license fees. How-
ever, if unsuccessful, this product may gener-
ate almost no revenue at all. Thus, trade
statistics as they are currently collected cannot
reflect the intangible assets or the market
value of many of the cultural products being
exchanged among countries. This constitutes
the main limitation to attempts to measure
cultural trade, which ideally requires the
formulation of alternative methodologies and
statistical classifications.
Copyrights. An accurate evaluation of the
flows relating to copyrights is not possible
with current trade data which is available,
resulting in a shortcoming in the analysis of
the trade of cultural products. Data on flows
of copyright royalties and licence fees
currently available at the international level
are very limited and not easily comparable.
Furthermore, it is not possible to estimate the
share on product price that is paid by
importers corresponding to intellectual
property for cultural goods coming from
other countries.
- 18 -
Origin of product. Only limited information
is available on the origin of the cultural
content of traded products. The rules applied
to origin and destination of imported and
exported products relate to the location of
where the product is processed, but do not
specify the origin of its cultural content. It is
possible for the original work and its copies
to be produced in different locations. For
example, many films created and projected in
country A may have been imported in the
form of release prints from country B, which
benefits from competitive laboratories that
process at lower prices. In trade records, the
products are declared as originating from
country B. However, from a cultural point of
view, country B is not considered as the
country of origin of this product.
3. Evolution and patterns of interna-
tional trade in cultural goods
This section explores the distribution and
trends of world trade in core cultural goods.
It presents in detail the status of international
flows of cultural goods in 2002 and 2003, and
how the situation has evolved since 1994.
Section 3.1 highlights the flows of global
exports and imports of cultural goods in
2002. Section 3.2 illustrates the evolution and
patterns of trade according to geographic and
economic areas. Section 3.3 presents a
detailed analysis by level of income of
reporting countries. Through a country-level
analysis, Section 3.4 presents international
patterns of demand and supply of core
cultural goods for selected countries. Finally,
Section 3.5 analyses the role of the different
core cultural categories in the flows of cul-
tural goods over the last ten years. The
analysis focuses on changes which have taken
place between 1994 and 2002. Since data for
2003 is not available for all countries, data for
2003 are only used in Section 3.4 which
presents individual country case studies.
3.1. Brief overview
Customs-based data show that trade in core
cultural goods increased between 1994 and
2002, from US$ 38 billion to US$ 60 billion.
Figures 2 and 3 present an overview of the
level of global exports and imports of core
cultural goods in 2002. These figures illustrate
the level of concentration within a limited
number of countries which participate in the
trade of cultural goods. Based on customs
data, high-income economies are the largest
producers and consumers of cultural goods.
In 2002, the United Kingdom was the biggest
producer of cultural goods with US$ 8.5
billion, followed by the United States of
America with $US 7.6 and China with
US$ 5.2. The United States of America was
the biggest consumer of cultural goods in
2002 with US$ 15.3 billion, which was twice
more than imports of the United Kingdom,
which was the second largest consumer with
US$ 7.8. Germany was the third largest im-
porter of cultural goods with US$ 4.1 (see
Statistical Tables I in Annex I).
The following sections analyse in detail these
results by giving other pertinent information
that provides a more complete picture of the
flows of cultural goods.
- 19 -
Figure 2. Exports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002
Exports in million US$
< 10
10 - < 100
100 - < 1,000
1,000 +
Not part of the study
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Figure 3. Imports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002
Imports in million US$
< 10
10 - < 100
100 - < 1,000
1,000 +
Not part of the study
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 20 -
3.2. Trade by region and economic areas
4
Statistical Tables II (see Annex I) show some
striking patterns in importation of cultural
goods among the different regions. EU15
countries still led cultural trade in 2002 with a
share of 40.6% (see Figure 5), showing a
slight decrease compared to 1994 when the
share was 43.1%. Furthermore, the trend for
the last ten years shows that North America
increased its position mainly due to the
United States of America, with 26.7% of the
share in 1994 and reaching 30.1% in 2002.
Asia also experienced a slight increase during
this period.
As shown in Figure 4, from a regional
perspective the European Union 15
5
(EU15)
countries occupied the leading position in
exporting cultural goods in 2002, with a
percentage share among all reporting
countries of 51.8%. This percentage de-
creased slightly from 1994 when it was
54.3%. In 2002, Asia appeared as the second
largest exporting region with 20.6% share,
due to the growth in share of Eastern Asia
which doubled between 1994 and 2002 from
7.6% to reach 15.6%. As a result, North
America became the third region for export-
ing in 2002 with 16.9%, down from 25% in
1994. The less prominent situation of Latin
America and the Caribbean (LAC) in 1994
improved slightly in 2002 with a percentage
share that increased from 1.9% to 3%.
Exports from Africa and Oceania accounted
for less than 1% share in 1994 and this level
remained the same in 2002 (see Statistical
Tables II in Annex I).
By contrast, LAC and Oceania countries saw
their share in world imports reduce from
4.4% in 1994 to 3.6% in 2002 and from 3.9%
to 2.5% respectively. African countries only
played a marginal role in 2002 within the
international trade of cultural flows with 1%
of the total trade value in current US$ in
imports.
Figure 4. Exports by region of core cultural goods, 2002
Eastern Asia,
15.6%
South Central Asia,
0.5%
Western Asia,
0.5%
South Eastern Asia,
4.1%
Other Europe, 6.2%
Africa, 0.4%
Oceania, 0.6%
Asia,
20.8%
LAC, 3.0%
EU15, 51.8%
North America, 16.9%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
4
For composition of country groupings, see Annex VI, “Composition of regions and economic groupings”.
5
Compared to other economic regions, EU15 figures are over-valued. Most shipments from EU15 countries are
intended for other EU15 partners, thus registered as international trade even though these are transactions taking place
within a single market.
- 21 -
Figure 5. Imports by region of core cultural goods, 2002
EU15, 40.6%
LAC, 3.6%
North America, 30.1%
Western Asia,
1.0%
South Eastern Asia,
1.5%
South Central Asia,
1.3%
Eastern Asia,
10.9%
Other Europe, 7.5%
Oceania, 2.5%
Africa, 1.0%
Asia,
14.7%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
The EU15, the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) and, at a much lower
level, the Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) are the regional trade
agreements which constitute the largest share
of world trade of cultural goods (see Statistical
Tables II in Annex I). Other economic
groupings experienced increases in their share
in world trade between 1994 and 2002,
however their global weight is still quite
limited. Individually, none of them reached a
1% of share either for exports or imports.
During the last ten years, ASEAN has
emerged as a prominent trading block for
cultural goods at global level. This is espe-
cially true for exports, where ASEAN’s world
share rose from 3.6% in 1994 to 4.5% in
2002. This increase is mainly due to the
sectors of recorded media and books, which
grew during this period at an annual rate of
8.9% and 4.2% respectively.
In contrast with the rise of ASEAN,
MERCOSUR
6
faced a decline in exports,
with a decrease from US$ 229.3 million in
1994 to US$ 167.3 million in 2002. This de-
crease is explained by the shrinkage in exports
of books, newspapers and periodicals. In this
region, the book production industry changed
its way of processing in the 1990s. While pre-
publishing and book-editing activities are for
the most part still carried out in the
MERCOSUR countries, the actual printing
has been relocated outside the MERCUSOR
region. Thus, countries such as Argentina and
Chile, which were key producers in books
until the early 1990s, faced a substantial drop
in their exports from 2000 onwards.
6
Countries of the South Common Market.
- 22 -
Box 3. Global markets of cultural and creative industries
The growing economic importance of cultural and creative industries has redefined the strategic signifi-
cance of cultural goods and services today.
To complement the overview on the role of trade of cultural products, Figure 6 shows the economic
importance of the entertainment and media markets which, according to the E&M Outlook 2004 by Price
Waterhouse Coopers (PWC), is estimated at US$ 1,228 billion for 2003.
Taking a broad approach on the cultural and creative industries, the E&M Outlook provides global analyses
and market forecasts for 14 industry segments, including television networks (broadcast and cable) and
distribution (station, cable and satellite), filmed entertainment, recorded music, video games, radio, books,
newspapers and magazine publishing, as well as advertising, theme and amusement parks, and sports.
North America represents the largest market with 43.5% share, equivalent to US$ 523 billion for the United
States of America and US$ 23 billion for Canada. Europe, Middle East and Africa (EMEA) are second with
US$ 450 billion, followed by Asia with US$ 229 billion and Latin America with US$ 32 billion.
Figure 6. Entertainment and media markets by region (in million US$), 2003
EMEA, 35.8%
Asia Pacific,
18.2%
Latin America,
2.6%
North
America,
43.5%
U.S.A., 41.6%
Canada, 1.9%
Source: Global Entertainment and Media Outlook 2004-2008, PWC.
3.3. Trade by level of income
This section presents the change in the export
and import flows of core cultural goods
between 1994 and 2002 based on the income
classification of countries according to the
World Bank Atlas method
7
. It also uses trade
coverage ratio, as an indicator of trade deficit,
to highlight the relative performance of each
country grouping for every category. These
two approaches aim at better tracking the
different ways in which country groupings
integrate into the global markets for core
cultural goods.
7
Economies are divided according to the 2003 Gross National Income per capita, calculated using the World Bank
Atlas method. The groups are: low income, US$ 765 or less; lower-middle income, US$ 766-3,035; upper-middle
income, US$ 3,036-9,385; and high income, US$ 9,386 or more. The use of Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs) was
considered but, since no PPPs are available for 50 countries, the World Bank Atlas method was used.
- 23 -
3.3.1. Main trends
An analysis based on classification by level of
income (see Figure 7) shows that high-income
economies have kept their leading position in
exports during the last ten years. The most
substantial growth occurred for lower-middle-
income economies from 1995 onwards.
As shown in Statistical Table III-3 (see
Annex I), developing countries and countries
in transition
8
show a higher average annual
growth for exports, in current US$ value,
from 1994 to 2002 for each cultural compo-
nent. Although these results might seem
encouraging for developing countries and
countries in transition, the country-level
analyses, presented later in the document, will
show that these figures are heavily dependant
on a small number of countries which domi-
nate most of the trade of cultural goods.
Moreover, in absolute terms, developing
countries and countries in transition still lag
considerably behind the high-income econo-
mies. The value of exports in 1994 for high-
income economies was US$ 33 billion - eleven
times more than the value of exports in all
other countries (US$ 3 billion). In 2002, the
export value of high-income economies
(US$ 44.9 billion) was five times more than
the value of exports of all other countries
together (9 US$ billion). Nonetheless, as
shown in Section 3.3, the situation varies
greatly within the different categories of
cultural goods.
Figure 7. Total exports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Low income economies Lower-middle income economies Upper-middle income economies High income economies
E
x
p
o
r
t
s
i
n
b
i
l
l
i
o
n
U
S
$
(
l
o
g
s
c
a
l
e
)
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
8
Developing countries and countries in transition are grouped under three categories: low-income, lower-middle-
income and upper-middle-income economies.
- 24 -
Figure 8 shows that low-income economies
and lower-middle-income economies experi-
enced a rapid growth in their imports,
whereas growth was steadier for the upper-
middle-income economies and high-income
economies. However, the overall trend is less
marked than the trend for exports. The level
of imports is substantially higher for high-
income economies with US$ 56.5 billion in
2002, compared to the US$ 7.2 billion for the
other three categories (low-income, lower-
middle income and upper-middle income).
However, the situation had slightly improved
for developed countries and countries in
transition between 1994 and 2002.
Figure 8. Total imports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Low income economies Lower-middle income economies Upper-middle income economies High income economies
I
m
p
o
r
t
s
i
n
b
i
l
l
i
o
n
U
S
$
(
l
o
g
s
c
a
l
e
)
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
3.3.2. Evaluating the cultural trade
balance
Figure 9 and Statistical Tables III (see
Annex I) distinguish between group of
countries which are net importers and those
which are net exporters of cultural goods.
They also show how the trade balance of
country groupings by level of economy has
evolved during the last ten years.
The trade balance for lower-middle-income
economies, which was 94.7 in 1996, has
continuously improved its position since then
to reach 200 in 2002 for all cultural goods.
The analysis by category shows that lower-
middle-income economies are net exporters
especially in visual arts and audiovisual media.
- 25 -
Figure 9. Trade coverage ratio of core cultural goods by level of income, 1994-2002
0
50
100
150
200
250
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Low income economies Lower-middle income economies Upper-middle income economies High income economies
T
r
a
d
e
c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e
r
a
t
i
o
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
In 1994, the coverage ratio of high-income
economies was close to the equilibrium for
core cultural goods. But in 2002, the drop in
the figure from 90 to 79.5 shows marked
deterioration of the trade balance over the
years. High-income economies had an equal
balance only in newspapers, periodicals and
recorded media in 2002. Increasingly they
became net importers of visual arts from 63.6
in 1994 to 55.3 in 2002. Similarly for audio-
visual media, the deficit of the trade balance
expanded from 67.8 in 1995 to 36.8 in 2002.
The low-income economies faced increasing
negative trade balance for core cultural goods
from 95.2 in 1994 to 32.8 in 2002. They were
net exporters for audiovisual media and visual
arts and heritage in 2002. Statistical Table III-
4 (see Annex I) shows that during this period
no clear pattern could be identified since the
results were unpredictable.
The upper-middle-income economies contin-
ually faced unbalance and volatility between
1994 and 2001. Equilibrium was reached in
2002 only due to audiovisual media which
accounted for a great proportion of core
cultural goods, while upper-middle-income
economies were still net importers for other
categories.
Trade coverage ratio is defined as exports
value divided by imports value in current US$
multiplied by 100. It is used to identify whether
a country is considered as a net exporter or
importer of cultural goods. It is not only a way
of visualising the foreign trade balance but also
gives a measure of exports relative to imports. A
value of 100 indicates that the foreign trade
balance is equal for core cultural goods. When
the results are higher than 100, exports are
larger than imports in value terms for the
category concerned.
- 26 -
3.3.3. Identification of some trading
countries
This section focuses on an analysis of the
relative position of exports and imports
separately for a number of developing
countries and countries in transition (falling
under low and middle economy categories).
The emphasis is on lower- and middle-
income countries to examine whether they
can challenge high-income economies since
little is known about trade flows in these
countries.
Figures 10 and 11 identify which countries
play a significant role within the various
country groupings categorised by level of
income (defined as low-, lower-middle- and
upper-middle-income economies). They are
only used to help identify trade patterns in
countries within the same category. They also
reflect the level of exports and imports that
are linked to other factors, such as the size of
a local market, infrastructure, etc.
As shown in Figure 10, a correlation is evi-
dent between Gross National Income (GNI)
per capita and exports of cultural goods. It
indicates that inevitably the bigger countries
have higher absolute levels of exports to
some extent. Figure 10 illustrates that 90% of
low-income countries have a marginal role in
exporting cultural goods, amounting to less
than US$ 10 million in 2002. Most of the
African countries which belong to this cate-
gory have a less significant role in the trade of
cultural goods. Interestingly, India, with
US$ 284.4 million, and Indonesia, with
US$ 112.3 million, were the only countries
from this category which surpassed the
US$ 100 million threshold in 2002.
Figure 10. Exports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002
9
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004. World Bank Atlas, 2003.
9
It should be noted that logarithmic axes are used in the graphic. Consequently, minor fluctuations are amplified and
larger fluctuations are flattened. Disparities among countries are significantly greater than they appear in the graph.
For example, India and China, which are close to one another, have significantly different levels of exports with
US$ 284 million and US$ 5.3 billion respectively.
- 27 -
Within the lower-middle-income economies,
Chinese exports were substantially higher
than for other developing countries and
countries in transition. South Africa and
Morocco, with levels of exports of US$ 56.9
million and US$ 83.3 million respectively,
also emerged as substantial suppliers of
cultural goods in 2002. Countries which are
beginning to play a more substantial role in
exporting cultural goods are Colombia, the
Philippines and the Russian Federation.
Other countries in the same income
category, including some Latin American
countries and African countries, hold very
low levels of exports.
Two-thirds of the countries belonging to the
category of upper-middle-income econo-
mies have a middle or high level of exports
of cultural goods (above US$ 10 million). In
this category, Mexico was the largest
exporter of cultural goods in 2002, with a
level of exports above US$ 1 billion,
followed by Hungary with US$ 719.5
million.
The correlation between GNI per capita and
imports is weaker than for exports.
Figure 11 illustrates that countries are less
dispersed for imports than for exports, since
most countries are minor importers. More
precisely, the level of imports was less than
US$ 10 million in 2002 for 65% of the low-
income economies, which shows the lesser
role played by these countries in imports.
India, with US$ 803.5 million of imports of
cultural goods, differentiates itself from the
rest of the countries in this category. Within
this group, Kenya, Nicaragua and Zambia
had levels of exports higher than US$ 10
million in 2002, totalling US$ 29.4, US$ 30
and US$ 23.3 million respectively.
Figure 11. Imports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004. World Bank Atlas, 2003.
- 28 -
In the category of lower-middle-income
economies, the average level of imports of
cultural goods by country was less than
US$ 100 million. China had over US$ 1.1
billion in imports, whereas the level of
imports for Brazil, the Russian Federation,
South Africa and Turkey was higher than
US$ 100 million.
An even greater diversity is apparent for the
upper-middle-income economies where
countries are dispersed along the scale from
less than US$ 10 million to more than
US$ 500 million in imports. Mexico is the
only upper-middle-income economy with a
level of imports above US$ 1 billion.
3.4. Origin and destination of cultural
goods: Five case studies
The following section presents examples of
trading structure and distribution of trading
partners in five countries from different parts
of the world. These case studies present
different models of integration into the global
market of cultural goods in 2003.
The analysis identifies key trading partners of
the selected countries for both imports and
exports. It gives an indication of the source of
imported cultural goods that enter the country
and the type of destination of cultural goods
for a particular country’s exports.
Case 1: The United States of America
The United States of America (USA) was net
importer of cultural goods in 2003. It was the
major importer with US$ 13.7 billion and the
second largest exporter with US$ 7.9 billion.
The main destination of American exports
was high-income countries in 2003. Indeed,
more than one-third of the USA’s exports of
core cultural goods went to Canada (see
Figure 12). Canada’s share among all partner
countries increased between 1994 and 2003,
from 31.5% to 40.2%. The position of Canada
may be explained by the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) which provides
privileged access of American products to the
Canadian market. Mexico was the fifth
destination of American exports, benefiting
from the same agreement in 2003. The other
major destinations of American exports were
several high-income countries, such as Japan,
Germany and the United Kingdom.
Figure 12. Trade partners of the USA’s exports of core cultural goods, 2003
Switzerland, 5.6%
Japan, 5.2%
Australia, 2.4%
Netherlands, 2.2%
Mexico, 3.6%
France, 2.7%
Rep. of Korea, 2.5%
Germany, 3.3%
China, 1.4%
Rest of available
countries, 18.7%
Canada, 40.2%
United Kingdom, 12.0%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 29 -
The main origins of American imports were
mainly from China and other high-income
countries. The pattern for imports was
different, since in 1994 Japan had lost its
leading position in favour of China. China
became the USA’s major partner, with a
30.8% share in 2003 – this share was only 8%
in 1994 (see Figure 13 and Statistical Table IV-1
in Annex I). Leaving Japan and China aside,
the source of American imports was concen-
trated among the high-income countries in
2003.
Figure 13. Trade partners of the USA’s imports of core cultural goods, 2003
France, 10.9%
China, 30.8%
Spain, 1.8%
Canada, 10.5%
Rest of available
countries, 14.7%
United Kingdom, 11.0%
Germany, 4.2%
Japan, 3.6%
Italy, 4.0%
Hong Kong, China, 3.3%
Mexico, 3.0%
Switzerland, 2.1%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Case 2: China
China started to be an important player in
trade flows from the early 1990s. Since the
mid-1990s, the Chinese trade balance has
become positive. It is also the case for core
cultural goods; China is a net exporter with
US$ 5.8 billion in exports but only US$ 1.2
billion in imports (see Statistical Table IV-2 in
Annex I).
Members of the high-income economies are
the main partners of Chinese exports. As
stated earlier in the case study for the U.S.A.,
in 2003 one-third of Chinese cultural goods
were going to the USA (see Figure 14). This
figure increased slightly between 1994 and
2003 with a percentage share from 31.3 to
34.7 (see Statistical Table IV-2 in Annex I).
- 30 -
Figure 14. Trade partners of Chinese exports of core cultural goods, 2003
U.S.A., 34.7%
Rest of available
countries, 11.9%
Japan, 6.6%
United Kingdom, 6.5%
Netherlands, 14.5%
Italy, 1.2%
Australia, 2.0%
Hong Kong, China, 17.9%
Canada, 2.4%
Germany, 2.3%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
The sources of Chinese imports have been
diversified since 1994. The top four partner
countries represented 84% of Chinese
imports, which had dropped however to 60%
in 2003. Two countries, the USA with 22.2%
(a decrease from 29% in 1994) and Germany
with 14% in 2003, were the main sources of
imports (see Figure 15).
Figure 15. Trade partners of Chinese imports of core cultural goods, 2003
U.S.A., 22.2%
Free Zones, 3.2%
Hong Kong, China, 12.5%
Rest of available
countries, 10.7%
United Kingdom, 2.6%
Germany, 14.7%
Singapore, 10.2%
Finland, 7.1%
Japan, 6.4%
Other Asia, nes, 5.7%
Ireland, 4.7%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 31 -
Case 3: South Africa
10
South Africa is the only country in sub-
Saharan Africa to play a prominent role in the
trade of core cultural goods. Zimbabwe is
starting to export some goods but at a much
lower level. South Africa was a net importer,
with total exports of US$ 64.1 million
compared to US$ 322.6 million of imports for
all core cultural goods in 2003.
South Africa exported about 40% of goods to
other sub-Saharan African countries in 2003.
Nevertheless, the USA was the first destina-
tion for South African goods, with a share of
20% in 2003 (see Figure 16).
Figure 16. Trade partners of South African exports of core cultural goods, 2003
Rest of available
countries, 17.3%
Mauritius, 2.6%
Nigeria, 2.6%
Malawi, 3.7%
Angola, 2.9%
Germany, 3.2%
U.S.A., 19.9%
Dem. Rep. of Congo,
2.5%
United Rep. of Tanzania,
3.9%
Zimbabwe, 4.5%
Mozambique, 4.5%
Zambia, 10.4%
Kenya, 2.3%
United Kingdom, 16.2%
Australia, 2.2%
Africa,
39.8%
Netherlands, 1.3%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Whereas other sub-Saharan African countries
receive a large number of goods from South
Africa, they are not the major exporters to the
South African market (see Figure 17). Indeed
60% of the South African imports of cultural
goods originated from high-income countries
in 2003. Of these, the United Kingdom and
the USA provided almost half of the imports
in 2003.
10
No trend analysis can be made for South Africa since its trade data were previously amalgamated within the data of
the South African Customs Union until 1999.
- 32 -
Figure 17. Trade partners of South African imports of core cultural goods, 2003
Rest of available
countries, 15.3%
United Kingdom, 27.2%
U.S.A., 21.3%
Ireland, 10.7%
Germany, 6.3% Areas, nes, 5.9%
China, 5.2%
Netherlands, 2.6%
Japan, 1.6%
Australia, 1.8%
France, 2.1%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Case 4: Brazil
Brazil was a net importer of cultural goods in
1994, with a level of imports of US$ 165.9
million, which was three times higher than the
value of its exports (US$ 56.9 million) (see
Statistical Table IV.4 in Annex I). The balance
was negative in 2003 but has fallen since due
to the loss of one-third of the value of imports
(totalling US$ 105.7 million in 2003) while the
value of exports remained almost at the same
level. The decrease in Brazilian imports is
explained by the drastic drop in the value of
video games and recorded media, with a
decrease of 50% between 1994 and 2002.
Another possible factor is the creation of a
free economic zone of Manaus in the mid-
1990s which increased Brazil’s own produc-
tion capacity and lessened the need for
imports.
Mexico is the only country within the Latin
American and Caribbean (LAC) region which
appears among the top 20 countries importing
or exporting cultural goods in 2003. Thus the
destination of Brazilian products did not show
a strong regional bias in 2003 (see Figure 18).
The regional focus was more marked in 1994
when 38.1% of Brazilian exports were directed
to Hispanic countries but decreased to 21% in
2003. Between 1994 and 2003, Japan lost its
position as leader among all recipient coun-
tries in favour of Portugal (dropping from
28.8% to 11.9%). In 2003, the USA became
the second most common destination for
Brazilian exports.
- 33 -
Figure 18. Total trade partners of Brazilian exports of core cultural goods, 2003
South Africa, 1.1%
Angola, 1.1%
Italy, 1.1%
Germany, 0.8%
United Kingdom, 0.8%
France, 1.9% Rest of available
countries, 5.9%
Colombia, 4.4%
Chile, 4.3%
Argentina, 4.0%
Mexico, 3.8%
Spain, 3.3%
Peru, 0.7%
Japan, 11.9%
U.S.A., 25.9%
Portugal, 28.9%
LAC,
21.0%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
In 2003, 45.1% of Brazilian imports originated
from only two countries - the USA (with 28.8
percentage share) and the United Kingdom
(with 16.3 percentage share) (see Figure 19),
while LAC countries represented only 14% of
originators of Brazilian imports. Nevertheless,
since 1994 Brazil has diversified the prove-
nance of its imports to a small degree. The
USA encountered a significant drop in relative
share from 41.3% in 1994 to 28.8% in 2003.
Japan fell from 10.9% to 3.6%; Argentina and
Chile also faced a small decrease in their
percentage share. The countries which in-
creased their share in 2003 were the United
Kingdom, Spain and China.
Figure 19. Total trade partners of Brazilian imports of core cultural goods, 2003
Chile, 2.5%
Uruguay, 3.2%
Peru, 3.3%
Argentina, 5.2%
Sweden, 1.0%
Italy, 2.4%
Hong Kong, China, 2.9%
Portugal, 2.9%
Japan, 3.6%
Germany, 4.0%
France, 4.0%
China, 5.2%
Rest of available
countries, 6.6%
Spain, 8.2%
United Kingdom, 16.3%
U.S.A., 28.8%
LAC,
14.0%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 34 -
Case 5: Egypt
Egypt was a net importer of cultural goods in
2002. Exports of cultural goods from Egypt
lost one-third of their current US$ value
between 1994 and 2002, with a decrease from
US$ 15.5 million to US$ 10.7 million (see
Statistical Table IV-5 in Annex I). During the
same time, imports gained an increase of one-
third in dollar value, from US$ 22.1 million in
1994 to US$ 33.2 million in 2002.
Key destinations of Egypt’s exports were
mainly Arabic countries, with 58.4% of the
share in 2002, and the USA. (see Figure 20).
The destinations of Egyptian exports have
changed moderately between 1994 and 2002,
since Saudi Arabia remained the first destina-
tion country of exports, even tough its share
dropped from 25.6% in 1994 to 15.5% in
2002.
Figure 20. Total trade partners of Egyptian exports of core cultural goods, 2002
U.S.A., 8.1%
Morocco, 2.8%
Kuwait, 3.0%
Lebanon, 5.9%
United Arab Emirates,
6.2%
Rest of available
countries, 22.6%
Germany, 2.1%
Malaysia, 2.5%
France, 2.6%
United Kingdom, 3.7%
Arabic
countries,
58.4%
Jordan, 2.1%
Saudi Arabia, 15.5%
Libya, 7.6%
Yemen, 6.7%
Algeria, 6.6%
Oman, 2.1%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Arabic countries account for 22.8% of
Egyptian imports of cultural goods (see
Figure 21). China and the United Kingdom
were the major sources of cultural goods in
2002. The position of the United Kingdom
remained the same between 1994 and 2002,
while China doubled its share for the same
period from 10.3% to 19.2%.
- 35 -
Figure 21. Total trade partners of Egyptian imports of core cultural goods, 2002
Qatar, 1.2%
Syria, 2.1%
Saudi Arabia, 2.7%
Kuwait, 3.3%
United Arab Emirates,
4.7%
Lebanon, 8.8%
Italy, 3.8%
France, 4.1%
Germany, 5.7%
U.S.A., 8.8%
China, 19.2%
United Kingdom, 21.8%
Spain, 1.0% Japan, 1.1%
Rest of available
countries, 10.8%
Greece, 1.0%
Arabic
countries,
22.8%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
3.5. Components of trade
This section presents a detailed analysis of the
main core cultural categories. It looks at the
share of each sector in relation to the global
trade of core cultural goods, the evolution of
exports and imports, and the position of main
trade players. The analysis is based on Table 1
and Statistical Tables II, III and V (see
Annex I).
According to customs data, the trade of core
cultural goods almost doubled from US$ 39.3
billion in 1994 to US$ 59.2 in 2002. However,
based on these figures, it represented approxi-
mately 1% of the total trade in 2002. This
percentage has remained the same during the
last ten years. These figures might look
surprising in the light of the perceived grow-
ing importance of cultural industries in the
world economy. In order to assess the real
value of cultural industries and the interna-
tional exchanges they generate, there is a need
to draw data from sources other than
customs. Such data would relate to both
cultural production and markets.
Table 1. Trade
11
of core cultural goods,
1994-2002
Core cultural goods
2002
value
in
billion
US$
Share
in
2002
Change
in share
between
1994-
2002
Heritage goods 2.2 3.8 -13.9
Printed media 18.2 30.0 -16.6
Books 11.3 19.1 -14.4
Newspapers and periodicals 4.5 7.7 -23.1
Other printed matter 2.4 4.0 -13.2
Recorded media 19.0 32.0 -1.0
Visual arts 11.3 19.1 -3.6
Audiovisual media 8.5 14.3 117.4
Total of core cultural goods 59.2 100
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade,
DESA/UNSD, 2004.
11
Trade is calculated as the sum of exports plus imports divided by two.
- 36 -
Table 1 shows that audiovisual media experi-
enced the most substantial change in relative
terms during this period, while printed media
lost its leading position. However, recorded
media (31%), printed media (30%) and visual
arts (20%) kept their leading position in 2002
within the international flows of cultural
goods. Audiovisual media represented only
14% of this trade. A detailed analysis by
individual cultural category is presented below.
3.5.1. Heritage goods
The category heritage goods corresponds to
‘collections and collector pieces’ and ‘antiques
of an age exceeding 100 years’. These two
items are not likely to be fully representative
of heritage goods, hence a shorter analysis is
presented in this section. Since this category is
not fully covered, this could also explain the
relative marginal role of heritage goods within
the trade of cultural goods with a 3.7% share
and value of US$ 2.2 billion in 2002. For
imports and exports, high-income economies
dominated the market with a share of over
98% in 2002. This share remained at the same
level between 1994 and 2002.
Within the category of heritage goods, Europe
plays a major role, having an 87% share of
exports in 2002 and 38.5% in imports. North
America increased its share from 1994 to
2002, from 41% to 54%.
In exports, the United Kingdom was the
single country to dominate this market in 2002
with a value of US$ 1 billion, representing
58% of this category. Interestingly, Zimbabwe
experienced a high average annual growth rate
during 1994 and 2002 and became the ninth
largest exporter country in 2002, though with
a mere 1% share.
The USA led imports of heritage goods with
US$ 1.4 billion, accounting for a 52.7% of the
share in 2002. Taken together with the United
Kingdom, these two countries held a 78.2%
share in 2002.
3.5.2. Printed media
The category of printed media comprises
books, newspapers, periodicals and other
printed matter. Together, they represent
30.8% of the share of total trade of cultural
goods, of which 19.1% represents the trade of
books, which is the major component within
this category (see Table 1). In 2002, trade of
printed media as a whole amounted to
US$ 18.2 billion, including US$ 11.3 billion on
the trade of books, US$ 4.5 billion on
newspapers and periodicals, and US$ 2.4
billion on other printed matter.
In 2002, printed media was now the second
most traded category, behind recorded media
which dropped from the leading 36% share
that it held in 1994. The fact that this trend is
especially noticeable for printed newspapers
and periodicals sheds light on the nature of
transformations which these industries are
undergoing. Certainly, the impact caused by
the emergence of new media, as a result of the
development of digital technology, cannot be
ignored. Competition with electronic sources
of information may be having an influence on
the need for international exchanges of
printed newspapers. In high-income econo-
mies, the percentage of newspapers having a
website is estimated to have almost doubled,
from 40% to 70% between 1998 and 2002
(World Association of Newspapers, 2003).
The loss of importance of printed media
compared to other cultural goods is explained
by the low growth rates that their trade
registered during the reported period.
International exchanges of newspapers and
periodicals had the lowest growth rates, with
an average annual increase of 2.2%, while
books and other printed matter enjoyed an
annual growth of 3.5% and 3.7% respectively
between 1994 and 2002 (see Statistical Table III-
3
12
in Annex I). However, the data available
also reveal substantial differences in perform-
ance among countries according to their levels
12
Printed media comprises books, newspapers and
periodicals and other printed matter.
- 37 -
of income. While the growth in trade of dif-
ferent printed media was between 1.8% and
3.4% for high-income countries, all other
countries registered substantially higher rates
between 1994 and 2002. Despite the fact that
low-income economies benefit from average
annual growth rates of 12.3% for newspapers
and periodicals, 12.5% for books and 14.3%
for other printed matter, their share in the
global trade for these categories of goods
remained insignificant during this period.
Shipments from high-income economies
amount to 86.7% of all exports of books,
87.8% of other printed matter and 93.1% of
newspapers and periodicals. Similar figures
were observed for imports where flows from
all other countries were small (see Statistical
Tables II in Annex I).
Europe registered higher volumes of
exchanges in all categories for both imports
and exports. In 2002, European countries
accounted for 51.3% of world trade in other
printed matter, 53.1% in books and 66.6% in
newspapers and periodicals (see Statistical
Tables IV in Annex I). North America is the
second most active region in this area, with its
trade amounting to between one-third and
two-thirds that of Europe, depending on the
specific category. In general terms, the region-
al structure of trade remained stable between
1994 and 2002, with Europe and North
America capturing most of the exchanges. The
figures reveal minor participation by Asian
countries, while African countries registered
insignificant levels of trade.
Germany, France, Spain, the United Kingdom
and the USA were the world’s largest export-
ers in 2002. In this year, their joint supply
accounted for 58.8% of global exports. As for
imports, Canada, France, Germany, the
United Kingdom and the USA constituted the
main destinations with 47.2% of all imports
for the same year (see Statistical Tables V in
Annex I). It is interesting to note that the high
growth rates were registered by some non-
traditional exporters, such as Malaysia and
China for books or the Czech Republic and
Poland for newspapers and periodicals. This
phenomenon is partly explained by their initial
low amount of exports, while their market
share (with the exception of China) usually
remained at 1%.
3.5.3. Recorded media
This category comprises gramophone records,
discs for laser-reading systems for repro-
ducing sound only, magnetic tape (recorded)
and other recorded media for sound
reproduction.
Within the international flows of cultural
goods, the share of recorded media fell only
by 1% between 1994 and 2002. In 2002, this
category represented a substantial share of
32% of the value of all trade of cultural goods.
The aggregate value of recorded media
worldwide in 2002 was US$ 19.4 billion in
imports and US$ 18.5 billion in exports. These
figures should be put into perspective by
comparing them with the global size of the
sound recording industry
13
(see Box 4).
- 38 -
Box 4. The music sector: Market for recorded media
Despite the widely reported crisis during the mid-1990s, the music industry still remains powerful and plays an
important role in the economic growth of many countries at all level of development. The music industry’s reported
global retail sales for 2002 reached 3 billion units and amounted to US$ 31 billion.
In 2002, global music markets were led both in volume and value by the USA (39.8% of world sales), Europe (34.6%)
and Japan (14.8%). Asia shared 17.7% of the global music market and was the third largest player, with Japan
accounting for around 80% of sales in the region. Latin America, where music was considered the fastest growing
segment of the global entertainment economy in the mid-1990s, had only 3.2% of the global music market in 2002.
The African music market was the smallest regional market, with only US$ 130.7 million in 2002, representing a mere
0.4% of total global sales. However, the basis for assessing the size of the African market seems questionable as data
on recording sales were only available for two countries.
A key element in understanding international flows of recorded music is the domestic demand for locally produced
music and its relation to imported recorded music. Figure 22 illustrates the market share of imported contents in
selected music markets. The data for locally produced music are available only for recording sales, and even these
figures are incomplete. Existing data suggest a 10% growth in the world’s average demand for domestic repertoires
during the 1990s, although since 2000 there is some evidence of demand slowing down. The preference for domestic
repertoire might indicate a certain improvement of the ability of local music industries to serve their domestic
audiences; it does not necessarily mean that high local repertoire is always produced and distributed by local companies
only.
Figure 22. Repertoire origin as % of market value
14
, 2002
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
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Domestic International Others
Source: The recording industry in numbers, 2003, IFPI.
13
Global reported retail sales in 2002 were about 3 billion units for a value of US$ 31 billion (see Box 4).
14
Multi-artist included where supplied and “Others” covers regional, classical and multi-artist.
- 39 -
In regard to trade by level of income, Statis-
tical Tables II (see Annex I) show that in 2002
high-income countries still held a leading
position and accounted for 94.1% of global
exports and 82.5% of global imports of
recorded media (the USA and EU15 countries
in Europe alone accounting for 74.8% and
55.6% of global exports and imports respec-
tively). However, encouraging signs also have
emerged for developing countries and coun-
tries in transition. They saw their position rise
from an 8.8% share in 1994 to 17.5% in 2002,
enjoying a particularly rapid annual growth
rate during this period (20% on average for
the three categories). However, as in other
sectors of cultural industries, this growth has
not been homogeneous and has benefited
only a small number of developing countries
and countries in transition, notably those in
Asia. Asia ranked third among all regions
exporting musical industry goods, growing
from 7.6% of world exports in 1994 to 18.2%
in 2002, and from 15.8% of global imports to
21.8%.
In 2002, the three principal exporters
(Germany, Ireland and the USA) accounted
for 40.4% of global exports, followed by the
United Kingdom (8.9%) and Singapore
(8.4%). Imports were slightly more evenly
spread among the five leading importers
(Canada, France, Germany, the United
Kingdom and the USA) which together
accounted for 38% of global imports. Hence
the importance of Ireland, Japan, Germany,
the United Kingdom and the USA as the
major participants in physical trade in music-
related products were apparent. The advan-
tageous position of Ireland was mainly due to
the presence of a number of multinationals
specialising in software and information
technology, contributing to the production of
music-related products.
However, the data presented above do not
provide a comprehensive picture of the direc-
tion and magnitude of international music
flows. Since they are based on customs
information, they can only show the imports
and exports of tangible musical products,
whereas much of the trade occurs in the form
of original masters which are then processed
locally for domestic retail distribution. Box 5
illustrates the difficulties of capturing the
value of such intangible assets.
Box 5. Capturing the value of intangible assets: The case of the Jamaican music copyrights
It has been estimated that in 2000 Jamaican music represented nearly 3.5% share of the global music market,
generating revenues of over US$ 1 billion. However, little of this business activity took place in Jamaica,
whose domestic music industry has been assessed within the range of US$ 60-100 million for the year 2000.
This includes income from sales of recorded music estimated at US$ 40-50 million and income from foreign
tours, local concerts/festivals and other activities at US$ 20-25 million. These figures, however, do not
include the substantial amount of revenue generated worldwide from public performance royalties due to
Jamaican songwriters, interpreters and music publishers, as well as similar royalties earned by music producers
and performers which bear no relation to actual record sales. For Jamaican composers and performers alone,
royalties received by European, American and Asian copyright royalty collecting societies are estimated at
about US$ 385 million.
Sources: Music and the Jamaican Economy, Michael Witter. WIPO UNCTAD 2000.
Becoming a globally competitive player : The case of the Jamaican Music Industry, Discussion paper n° 138,
UNCTAD Zeljka Kozul-Wright and Lloyd Stanbury, 1998.
- 40 -
3.5.4. Visual arts
This category comprises paintings and other
materials, such as engravings, prints, original
sculptures and statuary and other ornaments.
In absolute terms, trade of visual arts amount-
ed to US$ 11.3 billion in 2002. With a share of
19.1% in total trade of cultural goods, these
items represented the third most traded
category after recorded media and printed
media, a relative position that has remained
steady between 1994 and 2002 with a share
change of -3.6. The figures for this category
may not be internationally comparable due to
several reasons, including the regulation of the
market which is governed by laws that restrict
exports. Another reason would be the lack of
clarity of the definition and its inherent bias
towards Europe.
Although both exports and imports of visual
arts have grown slightly less than audiovisual
and recorded media during the reported
period, they increased at a remarkable average
annual rate of 4.8% and 5.3% respectively
between 1994 and 2002. This growth has been
especially important for developing countries
and countries in transition. Low-income
economies had observed an average annual
increase of 8.4% in exports and 9.2% in
imports; while these figures reached 12% and
11% for lower-middle-income economies (see
Statistical Table III-3 in Annex I). Upper-middle-
income economies showed a robust annual
growth in imports of 7.2%, coupled with a
severe reduction of exports of 5.9% between
1994 and 2002. High-income economies
performed moderately in terms of growth
rates for both flows.
These patterns are explained by the fact that
exchange flows, in absolute terms, are mainly
concentrated between high-income and lower-
middle-income economies. In 2002, high-
income economies contributed 71% of world
exports and lower-middle-income economies
contributed 26.5%. And 96.9% of all imports
of visual art goods had high-income
economies as their final destination.
An analysis by region reveals that in 2002
European countries were the main exporters
of visual art goods, with a world share of
58.3%, of which members of the EU15 alone
were responsible for 49.6% of total world
exports. However, this figure was lower than
the 49.8% that EU15 enjoyed in 1994. In a
sense, this relates to the ascension of East
Asian countries, whose share in world exports
increased from 14.5% in 1994 to 25.1% in
2002. As a result, North America was
relegated to second position, with only 10.8%
of total exports in 2002. Exports from LAC
and Africa are almost non-existent, represent-
ing 1.4% and 1.1% respectively of the world
total. For imports, data show only two large
markets: North America, growing from 33.6%
to 43.5% of world share between 1994 and
2002; and Europe, whose share of imports fell
during this period from 49.2% to 44.4%.
The United Kingdom, China, the USA,
Germany and Switzerland were the five largest
exporters of visual art goods, with a combined
share of 59.9% of world exports in 2002.
These countries also constituted the largest
world importers, with the exception of China.
This could be explained by the fact that these
countries serve as marketplaces, where arts
and antiques are traded. Thus, the prominent
role of London as a central exchange for
Europe explains the position of the United
Kingdom as the largest world exporter.
Finally, in 2002, developing countries, such as
Indonesia, Morocco and the Philippines, with
a high average annual growth rate during the
last ten years, appeared among the top 20
exporters. However, despite this major
growth, the share for each of these three
countries represented less than 1% of trade
across all countries studied.
- 41 -
3.5.5 Audiovisual media
This category covers exposed and developed
photographic films, exposed and developed
cinematographic films, and video games to be
used with a television receiver. The continued
rise of the share represented by video games
(from 80% in 1994 to 88% in 2002) had
reduced the other audiovisual media items to a
token presence. Thus, it is video games that
are mainly responsible for the evolution of
this category, with photographic and cinema-
tographic goods being only of secondary
importance.
In 2002, trade in audiovisual media goods
represented 14.3% of total trade in core
cultural goods. Although this share is still
lower than that of recorded media, visual arts
or books, audiovisual media was the only
category whose relative weight has grown
during this reported period. The percentage
more than doubled between 1994 and 2002,
illustrating the increasing importance of
exchanges which already amounted to US$ 8.5
billion.
International exchanges of audiovisual media
goods have benefited from dynamic growth
rates. Data for exports registered an average
annual rate of 20.8%, while statistics for
imports suggest a more limited but still a
significant annual rise of 14% (see Statistical
Tables III in Annex I). The fact that both
figures are well above the 6% average for total
international trade of merchandise confirms
the dynamic character of this sector. This is
especially remarkable as both export and
import flows for all other cultural goods have
exceeded the average.
The fast expansion of trade flows was accom-
panied by changes in the structure of interna-
tional exchanges, especially in supply but also
noticeably in demand. Lower- and upper-
middle-income economies have registered
sharp increases in their exports at average
annual rates of 36.1% and 35.8% respectively,
while high-income economies registered a
much more moderate rate of 13.4% between
1994 and 2002. Consequently, audiovisual
media became the single category for which
developing countries and countries in transi-
tion hold 50% of the exports. International
demand had shown a less dynamic evolution,
with imports from low-income economies
registering the highest growth rate at 17.1%
during the same period. Nevertheless, in the
case of imports, high-income economies have
benefited by an increase in the percentage
share compared to other countries.
From a regional perspective, the growth of
exports originating from Eastern Asia rose
from 30.9% of the world total in 1994 to
49.1% in 2002. It eroded the shares of
industrialised regions, such as the EU15 and
North America, where exports fell from
35.9% and 20.6% in 1994 to 20.4% and 7.8%
in 2002, respectively. The rest of Europe has
faced a substantial increase during this period
due to the level of exports by Hungary.
For imports, the Asian growth was, however,
moderate from 10.8% to 14.3%, which
partially balanced the reduction in the share of
imports from North American markets, down
to 47.5% in 2002 from 53.1% in 1994. Both
imports and exports as a percentage of world
total for African countries remained well
below 1%.
China, Germany, Hungary, Japan and Mexico,
as the five largest exporters, accounted for
76.9% of total world exports in 2002. The
main international market was the USA, which
alone represented 42.3% of world demand,
followed by France; Germany; Hong Kong,
China; and the United Kingdom (see Statistical
Table V-7 in Annex I).
To a great extent, the accelerated growth rates
of audiovisual media trade between 1994 and
2002 were due to the performance of China, a
country whose video games account for 99%
of its audiovisual exports. During this period,
- 42 -
China demonstrated an unmatched compara-
tive advantage in the production of video
games, being able to increase its exports at an
average annual rate of 38.6%. Consequently,
by 2002 China had consolidated its position as
a leading exporter, with a 31.6% share of the
world market and US$ 2.3 billion in exports
value, well over the US$ 1.2 billion of Japan,
the second largest exporter.
An analysis excluding video games and con-
sidering only cinematographic and photo-
graphic films would give totally different
results. In this scenario, China would not
remain the largest exporter and India would
become one of the largest exporters along
with high-income countries. When video
games are excluded, the share of Eastern
Asia’s exports falls from 50% to 30%.
Measuring the international distribution of
cinematographic films poses a major challenge
for customs statistics. Typically, films are
exported to the destination market in the form
of goods produced originally, which is then
copied and distributed locally. As a conse-
quence, the low number of traded goods has a
negligible value declared at customs, while the
bulk of the international exchanges are
gathered at balance of payments in the forms
of receipts for royalties and licenses. A
prominent example is India which, based on
customs statistics, is not considered among
the top exporters of audiovisual media
products although it plays a major role as a
film producer (see Box 6).
To conclude, this section demonstrates the
emergence of some developing countries as
suppliers of cultural products in a limited
range of areas, but their levels of trade are still
far behind those of the high-income countries.
No such scenario has emerged for imports
where the clear demand for cultural goods is
still restricted to high-income countries. The
absence of the majority of developing coun-
tries and countries in transition from the
international market in cultural products may
be regarded as an indicator reflecting the lack
of information on key sectors, such as crafts,
resulting in underestimates in data for some of
the trade flows that do take place. The pheno-
menon of piracy, which was not considered in
this report, also has an impact on the
exchange of cultural products. However, it
would be useful to consider it while studying
consumption patterns, as well as other con-
textual issues, such as locality, language, popu-
lation, socio-cultural traditions, etc.
- 43 -
Box 6. The major role of India in the film industry
With 877 films produced in 2003, India maintained its leading position as the main moviemaker in the
world, ahead of the USA (see Figure 23). Indian film production is progressively catering to foreign
audiences. Although small by comparison with American productions, the revenues generated by Indian
movies abroad have registered a ten-fold expansion in the last ten years.
The experience of serving a massive domestic demand has allowed the Indian film industry to expand its
competitive capacity considerably. As an increased sells of some prominent Bollywood
15
productions
overseas has resulted in financially attractive ventures, Indian filmmakers have realised that the industry is
mature enough to approach foreign markets in a more systematic manner. Some films have started to
collect 25-30% of their receipts from exports. For the estimated US$ 990 million earned by the whole
Indian film sector in 2004, revenues from overseas have already reached US$ 220 million.
Royalties from the reproduction of movies is the most important, but not the sole, source of revenue for
the exporting Indian film industry. Income from cable and satellite television, Internet rights, merchan-
dising, video, CD and DVD rentals are also important sources of revenue, and Indian productions may
obtain as much as 15% of total earnings from music rights only.
Today the value of Indian cultural and creative industries is estimated at US$ 4.3 billion. This sector is
growing at an annual rate close to 30%, and analysts forecast that exports may continue to grow by 50% in
the coming years. An important factor in this impressive performance is that Indian companies are
succeeding in bringing international audiences to the cinemas, in addition to the traditional diaspora
communities of the USA, the United Kingdom and the Middle East. This strategy includes expansion to
non-traditional countries, both industrialised and emerging, such as Japan and China.
Figure 23. Number of films produced in India and the USA, 1999-2003
764
855
1,013
943
877
758
683
611
543
593
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
India U.S.A.
Source: India Central Board of Film Certification, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
(FICCI), UK Film Council, Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).
15
In this report, Bollywood movies refers to all Indian commercial movies.
- 44 -
Box. 7 Flows of related cultural goods
Related cultural goods are defined as equipment goods and support materials which serve to create,
produce and distribute cultural content. They comprise, for example, blank CDs, cinematographic supplies,
TV receivers and architectural plans. Related cultural goods do not necessarily have any cultural content.
For the purpose of this report, it was decided to separate them from core cultural goods, such as books or
recorded CDs, which do convey cultural content.
In 2002, trade in related cultural goods (US$ 248 billion) was four times that for core cultural goods
(US$ 60 billion). These figures result mainly from the nature of products measured. Customs data capture
flows of physical goods, which is the main characteristic of the goods considered under the related cultural
goods category.
Table 2. Trade of related cultural goods, 1994- 2002
UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
Categories
2002 value
in billion
US$
Share in
2002
Change in
share
between
1994-2002
Equipment/Support material 244.0 98.3 -0.1
Musical instruments 3.7 1.5 -13.4
Sound player and recorded sound media 167.6 67.5 4.8
Cinematographic and photographic supplies 24.9 10.0 -12.6
Television and radio receivers 47.9 19.3 -7.2
Other related cultural goods 4.3 1.7 3.9
Total related cultural goods 248.3 100
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
The main component of this category in 2002 was “sound player and unrecorded sound media”, with a
67.5% share among all categories. This figure probably illustrates the growing importance of the market for
DVD players and music, as well as the increasing demand for supports (such as blank CDs or DVDs) for
private copying. The second component was TV and radio receivers. Historically strong, the share of this
component has shown a tendency to decrease during the last ten years, which is probably due to the fact
that this market has already reached its saturation point. Most households are already equipped with TV
and radio receivers, which reached, in 2002, 75% and 70% respectively for most parts of the world (ITU,
2003).
Finally, the category “other related cultural goods” refers to architecture plans and advertising. Despite their
ingredient of creativity, architecture and advertising goods are, for the purposes of this report, considered
as support materials rather than core cultural goods.
- 45 -
4. Measuring international trade in
cultural services
For the purposes of this report, core cultural
services comprise audiovisual and related
services, (including film production, distribu-
tion services, broadcasting and sound record-
ing services), copyright royalties and perform-
ing arts. The related cultural services category
covers advertising, architecture services and
news information agencies (see Annex I and
IV).
The analysis of trade in services differs from
the analysis of trade in cultural goods since
services statistics are quite recent and a
historic time series is not available, especially
for the categories presented in this section.
Hence, it focuses rather on the methodology
of measuring trade in cultural services, identi-
fying the relevant categories, analysing the
availability of information and presenting the
current limitations of using these statistics.
4.1. Audiovisual and related services
As explained in Section 1, cultural services
data are not part of the statutory data which
countries provide to international institutions,
such as OECD and IMF. Therefore, it is diffi-
cult to draw a complete picture of interna-
tional cultural trade services. However, there is
relatively good coverage of the balance of
payments item for “audiovisual and related
services” as it is a standard component of
BPM5.
Some of these data are presented in Figure 24
which shows that in 2002 the USA had the
highest level of exports of audiovisual and
related services (US$ 7 billion) while the
Figure 24. Audiovisual and related services exports for a selection of countries, 2002
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
U
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Source: UIS based on data from IMF, Balance of Payments Statistics CD-ROM, 2004.
- 46 -
United Kingdom, in the second position, had
only US$ 1.5 billion. For Hungary, Canada
and Ecuador, audiovisual and related services
represented a higher proportion related to
total services with 5.2%, 3.7% and 3.2%
shares respectively.
To analyse audiovisual services, it is important
to identify all the sub-categories which
constitute audiovisual services (broadcasting,
feature films, etc.). However, current balance
of payments data are not detailed enough to
determine the proportion of each sub-
category.
Furthermore, the nature of the trade of broad-
casting contents, which is mainly expressed
through transactions gathered in the balance
of payments, leads to very different
conclusions from those obtained through
market surveys (see Box 8 on trade in broadcasting
programmes between EU and USA). To complete
the overview, Box 9 provides other sources of
data for audiovisual services.
Box 8. Audiovisual content – assessing trade flows of movie feature films
Several elements are necessary to draw a comprehensive picture of international flows of feature films. The first one
is the overall size of the sector. In 2003, the motion picture industry sold over 7.25 billion tickets in 145,598 theatres
around the world and generated US$ 21.8 billion in revenues. Secondary exploitation of movie features in the form
of different types of licensing, videos and DVD generated revenues of US$ 55 billion, giving a total market value
close to US$ 75 billion.
The second element is the production of movies. Africa as a whole has produced only 600 movies (UNCTAD, 2002)
in its history, a figure which needs to be put in relation to the average production in the USA of 400 movies per year
or in India of over 700 movies yearly. Finally, more than one-third of all countries in the world do not produce any
films at all.
A third element is the penetration of foreign movies into national markets. Since there is a shortage of internationally
comparable data on movies by origin, Figure 25 presents the origin of first-time release feature films for a selection
of countries. This shows the large penetration of American movies into mostly European countries, despite
European legislation protecting their own production. The share of American movies was more than 50% on
average between 2000-2002 for most of the countries compared with the marginal share of movies originating from
outside Europe or the USA. France was the single exception where national production has a higher percentage
(40%) of national first-time release feature films compared to American movies (33%) for the same period.
Figure 25.: Origin of first-time release feature films in a selection of countries, 2000-2002
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
L
u
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e
m
b
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l
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y
F
r
a
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e
National Europe U.S.A. Others
Sources: Focus 2004, World Film Market Trends and 2003 Yearbook, Film and Home Video, Volume 3,
European Audiovisual Observatory;
Screen Digest, September 2004; UNCTAD 2002 AV in Developing countries Complete.
- 47 -
Box 9. Audiovisual content – trade in broadcasting programmes
Figure 26 presents trade flows of broadcasting contents for 1995-2000 between the European Union (EU)
and North America, estimated from the revenues obtained by their domestic companies in the other’s
market. As shown in the figure, this trade is far from balanced. Although exports from both sides had been
steadily growing, the proportion of the flow from the EU to North America remained the same. Exports
from the EU to North America have fluctuated around a mere 6.3% of the value of exports from North
America to the EU (the highest value 13.5%, which was reached in 1997). Thus EU countries sustained a
trade deficit fifteen times the total value of their exports to North America.
Figure 26. Estimates of the trade in audiovisual programmes (TV only) between the European
Union and North America, 1995-2000
2,062
1,934
3,187
4,384
-1,933
-2,484
-1,668
-2,874
-3,497
2,645
3,781
129 161
266 313 284 275
-4,109
-5,000
-4,000
-3,000
-2,000
-1,000
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
U
S
$
North American revenues in European Union
European revenues in North America
Net
Source: ETS/European Audiovisual Observatory, 2002.
- 48 -
4.2. Other cultural services
Table 3 presents the limited data on cultural
services statistics which are available in terms
of country coverage and detail. Even though
there are few data, the trend shows some
improvement from a few years ago when no
data were available. Nevertheless, this
indicates the difficulty of obtaining any
internationally comparable data in the trade of
cultural services. Unlike with cultural goods, it
is not possible to identify the different
categories in the trade in services. Key
components, such as services related to
performing arts or broadcasting, are difficult
to determine.
The use of EBOPS classification started in
2002 mainly with OECD countries (see detailed
list in Annex V-A). Within this classification,
some cultural components of services are
included in the category “other personal
cultural and recreational services” category,
and the part dedicated to cultural services
16
is
thus difficult to isolate. The coverage of this
particular category is minimal, with only
Australia and the Czech Republic providing
data for 2002. The coverage is superior for
categories which are part of “related services”,
such as “computer services” and “information
services”, where 60% of the countries
provided the data for 2002.
Among the few countries providing data in
this field, different cultural services show
different patterns of growth. These data are
based on EBOPS categories provided by
country, as well as national classifications. No
accurate comparisons can be made at this
stage, because no harmonisation of the
categories has yet been made. Nevertheless, it
gives an indication of what kind of data can be
obtained. It shows as well some useful
breakdowns for copyrights where, for
example, only the USA makes the distinction
between books and music recordings.
The data on copyright mentioned above are
key in the analysis of cultural products due to
the distinctive nature of cultural products
whose market value includes a certain amount
of intellectual property rights. Unfortunately,
the only alternative data currently available
relate to revenues generated by collecting
societies of authors’ rights. These give only a
partial view of the international exchanges of
copyrights (see Box 10).
To conclude, some cultural services data have
started to be available during recent years.
Unfortunately, the current limited coverage
prevents the presentation of a complete
picture of the trade of cultural services.
Furthermore, in order to establish comparable
data at a global level, harmonisation is still
warranted. Countries should be encouraged to
provide a greater range of data to illustrate
evolution of cultural services. Additional work
is also needed to identify relevant indicators.
16
For more details on services data, see Technical Notes.
- 49 -
Table 3: Selected detailed trade cultural services, 2001-2002
EXPORTS IMPORTS
EBOPS categories or national categories Annual change %
2001-2002
Annual change %
2001-2002
AUSTRALIA
Information services 0.34 -0.15
News agency services -0.43 -0.73
Other information provision services 1.55 0.77
Other cultural royalties and license fees
(1) (a)
-0.16 0.26
Music
(a)
0.20 0.08
Computer software
(a)
-0.30 0.21
Other
(a)
-0.07 0.35
Architectural services
(a)
0.93 ..
Audiovisual and related services 0.20 0.22
Other cultural and recreational services
(1)
0.19 0.24
Other
(2)
0.19 0.43
CANADA
Royalties and license fees -0.05 0.00
Other royalties and license fees
(1)
-0.03 0.01
Copyrights and related rights -0.09 0.08
Software and other royalties -0.07 -0.03
Audiovisual and related services -0.02 0.10
CZECH REPUBLIC
Information services -0.08 0.66
News agency services .. ..
Other information provision services -0.08 0.66
Audiovisual and related services
(b)
0.14 0.21
Other cultural and recreational services
(1) (b)
-0.01 0.25
Other
(c)
-0.04 0.25
NEW ZEALAND
Royalties and license fees 0.56 0.10
Software royalties and license fees 0.26 0.69
Other 0.72 -0.01
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Royalties and license fees
(1)
0.07 0.15
Other royalties and license fees
(3)
-0.03 0.13
Books, records, and tapes
(3)
0.00 0.13
Broadcasting and recording of live events
(3)
0.59 6.22
General use computer software
(3) (4) (b)
-0.04 0.06
Other
(3) (4)
0.11 0.12
Audiovisual and related services 0.05 0.48
Source: UIS based on data from Statistics on International Trade in Services, Volume I, OECD/ Eurostat, 2004.
Footnotes:
(1) This category contains more sub-categories than displayed.
(2) Health services credits for 2000 are included under “Other personal, cultural and recreational
services, Other”.
(3) Royalties and license fees receipts and payments between affiliated enterprises are included in item
“Other royalties and license fees, Other”.
(4) Prior to 1997, “General use computer software royalties and license fees” are included in “Other”.
(a) 1999-2002.
(b) 1997-2002.
(c) 1998-2002.
- 50 -
Box 10. Revenues collected by copyright management societies
Figure 27 presents data on the collection of copyrights for 210 management societies in 109 countries that
are affiliated to the International Confederation of Authors and Composers Societies (CISAC). Data cover
only amounts raised by licensing activities of these societies in their national territories thus income from
international exchanges is not included.
Copyright management societies collected US$ 6.8 billion in 2002 in royalties. European societies alone
collected almost US$ 3.8 billion, which represented 57% of the world’s total, while North America and
Asia-Pacific obtained 25% and 17% respectively of total copyright payments. Collections by Latin
American and African countries were negligible and reached less than 3% of total payments.
Figure 27. Collection of copyright income by region, 2002
Western Europe
38.5%
Other Europe
17.1%
Africa
0.4%
Latin America
2.5%
Asia Pacific
16.8%
North America
24.8%
Europe
55.5%
Source: Survey of the CISAC Member Societies’ Collections in their National Territories for the
Years 2000-2002, CISAC, 2003.
- 51 -
REFERENCES
Alonso Cano, G., M. del Corral, and G. Poussin, UNESCO, 2000, “Culture, Trade and
Globalisation: 25 Questions and Answers”, UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2003, “World Telecom Development Report”,
Geneva.
OECD/Eurostat, 2004, “Statistics on International Trade in Services”, Volume I.
Price WaterHouse Coopers (PWC), 2005, “Global Entertainment and Media Outlook: 2004-
2008”.
UN Statistics Division (UNSD), 2004,“International Merchandise Trade Statistics, Compilers
Manual”, UN Statistics Division, New-York.
UN, European Commission, IMF, OECD, UNCTAD and WTO, 2002, (UN et al., 2002),
“Manual on Statistics of international trade in services”, United Nations Publication, New York.
UNCTAD, 2004, “UNCTAD XI High-Level Panel on Creative Industries and Development.
Backgrounder UNCTAD XI Creative Industries and Development”, (TD(XI)BP/13 4 June
2004)”, Geneva.
UNCTAD, 2002, “Audiovisual Services: Improving Participation of Developing Countries”
(TD/B/COM.1/EM.20/2 30 September 2002), Geneva.
UNESCO, Cultural Policies Division, UIS with Phillip Ramsdale, 2000, “International Flows of
Selected Cultural Goods, 1980-98”, UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
UNESCO Division of Statistics and Mrs Fariba Razavi Tavakoli, 1992, “International Flows of
Selected Cultural Goods, 1970-87”, UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
UNESCO/ITC, 1997, “International Symposium on “Crafts and the International Market: Trade
& Customs Codification”, Manila.
UNESCO, 1986, “The UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics”.
United Nations Population Division (UNPD), 2003, “World Population Prospects: The 2002
Revision”, New-York.
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 2003 “Guide on surveying the economic
contribution of the copyright-based industries”, WIPO, Geneva.
World Association of Newspapers (WAN), 2003, “World Press Trends 2003”.
World Bank, 2003, “Urban Development Needs Creativity: How Creative Industries Affect
Urban Areas. Development Outreach”, Washington.
- 52 -
Other sources:
Statistics Canada, Jamie Carson, 2004, “Culture Goods Trade Estimates: Methodology and
Technical Notes”, Statistics Canada, Ottawa.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Denis Trewin, 2001, “Measuring Wellbeing: Framework
for Australian Social Statistics”, ABS, Canberra.
Department for Culture, Media and Sport and the English Regional Cultural Consortia, 2002,
“Regional Cultural Data Framework: A User’s Guide”, United Kingdom.
Eurostat working papers, 2000, “Cultural Statistics in the European Union”, European
Commission 2000.
Ministerio de Cultura de Colombia Convenio Andrés Bello, Equipo Economía y Cultura, 2003,
“Impacto económico de las industrias culturales en Colombia”, Bogota.
Ministère de la communication et de la culture, « Annuaire statistique du secteur de la
communication et de la culture 2000-2001 », Algérie.
Ministry of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, 1998, “Creative South Africa: a Strategy for
Realising the Potential of the Cultural Industries”.
- 53 -
Technical notes
For this report, data were extracted in
November 2004 from the UN Comtrade
database using the Harmonised System (HS)
classification, version 1992. The UN
Comtrade database contains data disaggre-
gated by commodity and trading partners,
covering some 230 countries or areas.
Data source:
United Nations Commodity Trade
Statistics Database
Department of Economic and Social
Affairs/Statistics Division
Data are available athttp://unstats.un.org/unsd/comtrade/
The Harmonised System Commodity
Description and Coding System (also referred
to as the “Harmonised System” (HS)) was
created by the Customs Cooperation Council
in Brussels in 1983. The HS is updated every
four or five years by the World Customs
Organisation. The HS 2002 is the latest
version of this classification and is often used
in customs declarations. Implementing a new
version within each national system can take a
substantial amount of time. The 2002 version
of the HS is still not universally used,
especially within developing countries. The
1992 version of the HS has been chosen for
this report in order to have a better coverage
of reporting countries. Furthermore, it allows
study of the trends of cultural trade flows for
the last ten years.
The HS was preferred to the Standard
International Trade Classification System
(SITC Revision 3) - which was used for
International Flows of Selected Cultural Goods,
1980-98 - because the SITC does not take into
account the recent evolution of traded goods,
such as the emerging technologies. Further-
more, the HS is more precise and allows for a
more accurate selection of cultural goods. It
makes the distinction between cultural and
non-cultural goods within the same family of a
specific good. Both classification systems
present data on, amongst other things, the
materials used during production, the process
of production and the end use of the product
on the market. The HS provides international
statistical and administrative comparability of
trade information (HS codes) but this is
sometimes not accurate for cultural goods.
For some codes, cultural and non-cultural
goods may be combined.
Two systems of compilation of international
merchandise trade statistics are in common
use, namely the general trade system and the
special trade system. The two systems differ
mainly in classification of how goods entered
in countries or how warehoused and re-
exported goods are treated. General trade
figures are larger than the corresponding
special trade figures because the latter exclude
certain trade flows, such as goods shipped
through bonded warehouses. Consequently,
the International Merchandise Trade Statistics:
Compilers Manual recommends the use of the
general trade system to record international
merchandise trade statistics. To the extent
possible, total merchandise trade is defined in
this report according to the general trade
definition. It covers all types of inward and
outward movement of goods through a
country or territory, including movements
through customs warehouses and free zones.
Goods include all merchandise that either add
to or reduce the stock of material resources of
a country or territory by entering (imports) or
leaving (exports) the country’s economic
territory.
The exports are valued at transaction value
(Free on Board: F.O.B.), i.e. the price includes
the cost of transportation and insurance to the
border of the exporter country. The imports
- 54 -
are recorded at transaction value (Cost
Insurance Freight: C.I.F.), which means that
the price includes cost of transportation and
insurance to the border of the importing
country.
Low-value transactions are not included, but
in general they represent less than 1% of total
global exports.
When data were available, re-exports have
been deducted from exports data in order to
measure domestic exports.
Data on audiovisual and related services are
extracted from the IMF Balance of Payments
Statistics in current US$. The source on other
services data is from the publication Statistics
on International Trade in Services.
EBOPS can be characterised as a dis-
aggregation of the BPM5 in trade in services.
It was based on the recommendations of the
Manual on Statistics of International Trade in
Services”. EBOPS was defined in order to fulfil
the data needs generated from the General
Agreements on Trade Services (GATS)
recommendations.
Under the category “other personal, cultural,
and recreational services”, a new distinction
was made between education, health services
and “cultural and recreational services” (897).
Nevertheless, the new breakdown “other
personal, cultural, and recreational services”
still includes categories that are non-cultural.
A key additional category is “royalties and
licence fees” from which it is necessary to
identify the part which is dedicated to
copyrights.
Another category that is linked to related
services is “computer and information
services”. EBOPS contains two distinct sub-
categories, namely “computer services” and
“information services”. The category
“information services” offers a further
breakdown into “news agencies services” and
“other information provision services”.
The source of population data used for the
calculation of the trade per capita is the World
Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision, 2003,
from the United Nations Population Division.
Data on Gross National Income is acquired
from the World Bank Atlas, 2003.
- 55 -
Annex I
Annex I: Statistical Tables
Tables I Total trade of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Table I–1 Exports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Table I–2 Imports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Tables II Analysis by region
Table II–1 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
Table II–2 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
Table II–3 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
Table II–4 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
Tables III Trade by level of income
Table III–1 Trade exports by category, 1994-2002
Table III–2 Trade imports by category, 1994-2002
Table III–3 Trend in trade of core cultural goods
Table III–4 Trade coverage ratio of core cultural goods by category, 1994-2002
Tables IV Partner country analysis
Table IV–1 Top 15 partner countries of the United States of America, 1994 and 2003
Table IV–2 Top 15 partner countries of China, 1994 and 2003
Table IV–3 Top 15 partner countries of South Africa, 2003
Table IV–4 Top 15 partner countries of Brazil, 1994 and 2003
Table IV–5 Top 15 partner countries of Egypt, 1994 and 2002
Tables V Top 20 importers and exporters for the main core cultural goods categories
Table V–1 Heritage goods
Table V–2 Books
Table V–3 Newspapers and periodicals
Table V–4 Other printed matter
Table V–5 Recorded media
Table V–6 Visual arts
Table V-7 Audiovisual media
Table VI Detailed trade in cultural services for a selected number of countries
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD,
2004.
- 56 -
Annex I
Tables I Total trade of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Table I-1 Exports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
EXPORTS in
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Albania .. 94.9 455.3 47.7 0.7 118.2 0.3 717.1
Algeria .. 85.2 1,914.9 1.0 26.5 81.8 .. 2,109.4
Andorra 1.7 1,038.3 931.3 9.0 479.2 18.9 260.9 2,739.3
Anguilla 12.9 1.3 .. 3.5 3.7 621.1 .. 642.4
Argentina 85.6 33,381.1 6,730.6 3,798.8 14,048.3 1,585.3 10,925.7 70,555.2
Armenia 0.2 199.1 .. 0.0 .. 20.4 3.0 222.7
Australia 9,736.6 72,530.3 29,855.4 18,203.0 101,311.0 44,096.6 42,035.5 317,768.4
Austria 13,813.1 85,025.4 54,411.7 22,690.8 1,261,205.5 71,606.0 52,472.8 1,561,225.2
Azerbaijan .. 91.4 0.1 17.9 762.6 74.8 .. 946.8
Bahrain .. 210.7 .. .. .. 126.6 0.2 337.5
Barbados 3.3 169.4 292.5 166.4 49.1 220.4 0.1 901.3
Belarus 8.2 15,695.0 404.4 339.1 11,090.2 350.5 47.5 27,934.8
Belgium 35,432.2 362,091.0 146,584.4 51,272.6 351,912.7 119,528.7 63,192.0 1,130,013.6
Belize .. 0.2 .. 1.8 .. 18.1 .. 20.1
Benin .. 251.3 .. 1.6 1.2 50.3 .. 304.4
Bolivia .. 288.2 3.6 73.0 688.4 484.3 1.1 1,538.6
Brazil 391.3 11,616.6 10,525.3 1,412.9 10,595.9 4,007.3 27.8 38,577.2
Brunei Darussalam .. 0.6 .. .. .. .. .. 0.6
Bulgaria 21.5 1,382.7 1,770.6 325.7 1,708.9 1,550.7 7,685.9 14,446.1
Burkina Faso 100.0 13.8 .. 0.0 10.8 776.8 5.1 906.5
Burundi .. 0.0 0.0 .. .. 6.8 .. 6.8
Canada 27,490.6 395,964.9 160,852.7 252,804.8 357,374.3 162,190.1 220,552.3 1,577,229.5
Central African Rep. .. 38.8 .. .. .. 0.1 .. 38.8
Chile 54.2 17,371.0 5,382.4 1,568.2 24,150.0 1,389.3 1,418.7 51,333.8
China 2,372.0 409,105.7 4,612.6 92,420.5 254,936.0 2,229,649.0 2,281,804.9 5,274,900.7
China, Hong Kong 490.6 258,416.2 35,148.8 18,143.7 254,528.8 7,592.0 3,537.6 577,857.7
China, Macao .. 17.7 23.9 .. 178.7 122.8 .. 343.0
Colombia .. 90,711.8 20,747.7 3,026.7 31,202.4 3,635.5 6.7 149,330.7
Costa Rica 14.1 6,854.6 747.3 185.3 6,653.3 717.3 0.4 15,172.3
Cote d'Ivoire 1.4 977.2 0.5 86.0 10.3 945.1 0.5 2,021.0
Croatia 27.8 5,689.5 23,610.6 886.4 5,948.1 1,401.4 2,234.6 39,798.3
Cyprus 0.7 361.9 413.9 25.7 1,100.4 127.1 0.1 2,030.0
Czech Republic 1,590.5 78,199.9 34,325.8 14,169.6 67,562.3 21,816.4 1,017.9 218,682.3
Denmark 16,717.0 110,712.7 48,234.5 31,998.3 194,518.4 75,872.4 20,709.6 498,762.9
Dominica .. .. .. .. 13.5 17.9 .. 31.4
Ecuador .. 694.2 20.0 28.5 701.6 925.6 .. 2,369.9
Egypt 1.1 5,721.9 1,377.0 49.9 350.3 3,211.6 5.5 10,717.3
El Salvador .. 2,694.4 .. 1,631.7 1,236.5 938.2 131.6 6,632.3
Estonia 89.2 2,806.0 6,648.8 419.7 1,599.1 3,883.2 36.1 15,482.0
Ethiopia 8.9 13.0 1.5 240.9 0.8 54.6 4.2 323.8
Fiji 17.6 123.8 13.1 16.7 66.4 168.9 3.9 410.4
Finland 126.5 70,603.3 126,143.7 20,783.6 46,039.1 2,860.7 23,659.5 290,216.5
France 189,181.4 518,539.2 368,724.5 104,716.3 741,180.9 505,250.0 93,681.0 2,521,273.3
French Polynesia 4.1 73.4 .. 1.3 66.1 166.8 45.0 356.5
Germany 73,858.5 1,257,829.7 711,078.1 274,817.7 2,280,960.0 550,891.3 639,495.6 5,788,930.8
Greece 60.3 23,478.0 10,167.1 3,858.9 23,284.3 7,044.9 9,870.0 77,763.6
Greenland 33.9 41.3 1.4 986.3 91.2 22.1 .. 1,176.2
- 57 -
Annex I
EXPORTS in
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Grenada .. 2.5 .. 2.8 .. 4.5 0.0 9.8
Guatemala 0.1 0.6 0.0 15.6 4,109.4 321.4 0.4 4,447.5
Guinea 16.6 .. .. .. .. 17.3 .. 33.9
Guyana 2.0 9.6 7.5 0.4 0.2 36.9 0.0 56.6
Honduras 0.0 38.0 20.0 0.3 6.1 41.0 0.3 105.7
Hungary 421.0 18,684.0 6,583.0 5,740.0 27,284.0 13,579.0 647,220.0 719,511.0
Iceland .. 2,288.4 61.6 1,529.2 141.1 161.2 6.5 4,188.0
India 917.8 42,588.7 12,628.6 6,180.8 191,335.1 15,257.6 15,552.4 284,461.1
Indonesia 35.2 10,187.2 530.8 5,787.6 9,595.8 85,422.5 742.0 112,301.0
Iran (Islamic Rep. of) .. 1,005.0 .. 1,509.7 76.0 535.1 0.0 3,125.8
Ireland 5,356.3 93,797.9 26,721.0 5,309.7 2,128,151.0 10,416.9 7,107.2 2,276,860.1
Israel 1,493.0 44,242.0 906.0 4,067.0 77,571.0 18,858.0 7,830.0 154,967.0
Italy 9,864.2 510,284.3 202,342.8 112,557.6 144,092.1 273,523.9 128,065.6 1,380,730.5
Jamaica .. 64.5 141.6 12.5 166.4 97.5 .. 482.5
Japan 8,054.2 107,524.0 34,439.9 15,189.8 371,455.9 60,394.6 1,208,074.3 1,805,132.8
Jordan 14.8 3,832.5 96.7 54.8 81.1 337.4 .. 4,417.5
Kenya 4.1 1,361.5 760.5 86.8 153.0 2,266.9 6.7 4,639.3
Kyrgyzstan .. 8.6 0.6 1.2 0.3 279.3 3.7 293.8
Latvia 79.8 3,975.5 1,069.5 707.5 2,571.5 284.4 14.6 8,702.8
Lebanon 1,880.9 47,947.9 90.6 270.9 1,727.3 2,871.7 664.1 55,453.5
Lesotho .. 28.7 .. 0.7 0.1 0.3 .. 29.9
Luxembourg 233.0 6,160.7 5,634.7 359.4 97,838.8 1,302.3 2,692.4 114,221.4
Madagascar 81.1 34.3 1.7 13.2 2.1 538.5 3.5 674.4
Malawi 0.3 205.1 .. 21.4 1.4 78.6 .. 306.9
Malaysia 1,508.5 93,059.8 2,315.2 3,931.2 71,347.6 11,269.1 32,420.4 215,851.7
Mauritius 10.8 3,406.9 171.9 626.1 947.7 934.4 73.5 6,171.4
Mexico 567.9 119,585.4 32,936.3 61,805.8 145,956.5 111,705.5 771,890.3 1,244,447.8
Mongolia 15.1 21.2 .. 0.9 0.2 24.5 .. 61.9
Morocco 821.9 1,020.1 0.7 2,010.1 5,554.9 70,918.5 0.0 80,326.2
Namibia 1,197.2 592.9 5.1 504.3 283.1 620.8 10.1 3,213.7
Netherlands 15,353.4 253,673.4 142,824.2 50,085.4 955,687.7 108,741.9 20,076.9 1,546,442.9
New Caledonia 4.3 315.3 266.0 10.5 117.6 133.3 3.0 850.0
New Zealand 1,006.5 11,941.5 1,475.7 5,350.3 7,394.8 4,194.2 751.4 32,114.4
Nicaragua .. 184.5 20.3 9.6 197.0 2,017.8 2.9 2,432.1
Niger .. .. .. .. 4.3 .. .. 4.3
Norway 23,697.3 26,934.1 7,699.3 7,255.5 30,830.4 18,265.6 40,258.8 154,940.9
Oman .. 622.3 91.2 16.5 197.4 201.1 12.9 1,141.4
Other Asia, n.e.s. 30.7 35,310.9 8,743.0 6,252.9 374,940.7 76,945.6 4,497.5 506,721.4
Panama .. 50.9 23.4 11.6 .. 16.1 1.0 102.9
Papua New Guinea 5.8 4.3 13.5 0.1 4.8 38.2 .. 66.7
Paraguay .. 792.6 .. 19.6 20.9 19.8 4.1 856.9
Peru 230.0 20,188.2 537.9 3,270.0 836.5 5,012.0 10.5 30,085.2
Philippines 174.1 1,651.5 652.1 1,441.7 13,124.5 98,281.6 1,228.9 116,554.4
Poland 3,317.0 50,009.0 49,841.0 12,463.0 59,624.0 33,231.0 875.0 209,360.0
Portugal 123.4 24,880.1 2,529.3 6,366.9 16,370.6 105,716.8 2,013.9 158,001.2
Qatar .. 135.4 0.3 1.4 .. 2.1 .. 139.2
Rep. of Korea 952.1 71,900.1 3,664.6 24,915.6 174,867.6 69,108.4 43,035.5 388,443.9
Rep. of Moldova .. 658.2 0.0 5.7 20.3 11.7 0.0 615.0
Romania .. 1,661.0 5,319.0 436.0 6,930.0 9,381.0 1,320.0 25,047.0
Russian Federation 1,282.7 240,227.0 15,477.6 16,517.3 59,331.6 13,434.9 786.2 347,057.3
Rwanda 1.5 0.2 .. 0.2 .. 34.9 .. 36.8
- 58 -
Annex I
EXPORTS in
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Saint Lucia .. 7.9 31.6 .. 0.6 71.6 0.4 112.1
St Vincent & the
Grenadines .. 2.7 .. .. .. 17.6 .. 20.2
Samoa 0.1 6.3 2.4 0.9 .. 0.2 0.2 10.0
Sao Tome & Principe .. .. .. .. .. 0.2 .. 0.2
Saudi Arabia 8.3 2,268.6 647.6 37.5 1,964.8 598.3 577.7 6,102.8
Senegal 0.2 181.9 5.1 0.1 3.9 1,420.3 .. 1,611.5
Serbia & Montenegro 1.3 2,932.8 4,821.3 505.3 5,309.7 273.1 18.8 13,862.3
Seychelles .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 .. 0.1
Sierra Leone .. .. .. .. 725.4 .. .. 725.4
Singapore 3,685.5 349,859.5 35,934.4 7,554.5 1,552,343.9 10,167.7 41,443.9 2,000,989.4
Slovakia 401.2 48,327.1 42,518.4 6,676.6 10,373.2 4,704.9 201.0 113,202.4
Slovenia 25.4 40,658.3 3,331.1 1,660.6 11,962.6 694.9 61.1 58,393.9
South Africa 9,340.8 18,859.4 1,698.9 3,023.9 7,641.1 15,392.2 1,014.5 56,970.8
Spain 1,188.2 685,967.9 238,801.0 45,415.0 258,742.7 255,184.4 47,390.2 1,532,689.3
Sri Lanka 1.7 914.2 1,081.0 189.6 520.1 12,389.4 0.5 15,096.4
Sudan 0.1 107.2 29.0 .. 47.7 248.5 .. 432.5
Swaziland 13.8 112.6 133.3 8.9 29.6 81.0 1.6 380.8
Sweden 7,512.4 95,405.8 20,117.2 34,788.7 644,907.7 43,664.8 28,903.2 875,299.8
Switzerland 120,238.4 147,190.9 40,966.0 91,620.2 254,227.2 720,389.2 9,241.1 1,383,873.0
Syria .. 216.0 328.8 1,599.1 .. 183.6 .. 2,327.5
TFYR of Macedonia .. 103.7 96.2 47.6 223.4 71.5 9.5 551.8
Togo 2.2 18.7 .. 0.9 0.4 187.4 .. 209.5
Tunisia 0.2 596.7 136.0 30.8 3,391.6 1,094.0 0.0 5,249.3
Turkey 157.4 7,817.6 2,221.2 5,043.5 12,812.0 21,368.8 46.7 49,467.1
Uganda 7.2 152.8 .. 17.4 3.4 26.0 .. 206.8
Ukraine 21.1 5,745.4 869.7 446.9 856.3 430.9 44.0 8,414.3
United Kingdom 1,052,550.0 1,805,746.6 744,952.6 274,640.6 1,640,203.3 2,700,214.4 330,464.7 8,548,772.1
United Rep. of
Tanzania 8.8 38.3 0.2 7.1 507.9 191.3 1.2 754.8
Uruguay 45.9 80.7 0.5 15.1 3,291.5 1,007.4 6.5 4,447.6
United States of
America 143,174.1 1,921,368.5 880,488.7 400,657.7 3,068,793.9 889,146.3 344,785.1 7,648,414.3
Venezuela 0.1 4,672.5 240.4 684.5 1,954.3 1,221.4 14.1 8,787.2
Zambia 7.1 197.3 26.0 1.8 10.6 622.0 0.2 864.9
Zimbabwe 18,482.0 1,134.9 70.9 315.5 115.8 6,843.8 8.3 26,971.3
- 59 -
Annex I
Table I-2 Imports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
IMPORTS
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Albania .. 881.3 768.1 352.6 3,911.8 1,061.1 218.3 7,193.2
Andorra 177.8 3,345.0 2,563.7 379.7 18,652.1 2,760.9 3,404.0 31,283.2
Anguilla 0 417.9 14.3 57.9 36.2 341.5 0.3 868.1
Argentina 193.5 24,308.5 6,027.5 1,408.1 22,400.5 1,340.9 1,263.9 56,942.9
Armenia .. 1,381.2 735.4 148.5 118.5 157.6 30.2 2,571.3
Australia 22,419.7 307,581.6 150,136.4 47,547.4 378,425.4 89,258.9 214,652.4 1,210,021.8
Austria 15,955.0 258,485.5 164,421.8 56,628.8 435,839.1 94,849.6 51,812.4 1,077,992.2
Azerbaijan .. 1,434.7 884.2 99.0 1,620.3 1,257.3 12.8 5,308.3
Bahrain 10.2 4,341.4 1,957.7 697.1 3,766.5 3,181.3 1,202.8 15,156.9
Barbados 9.5 7,479.1 1,891.7 878.3 4,135.9 1,582.3 816.4 16,793.2
Belarus 4.7 8,742.7 3,248.3 3,672.7 8,281.8 739.9 374.4 25,064.4
Belgium 30,549.2 329,618.8 259,246.5 53,049.2 638,997.4 117,021.4 82,255.3 1,510,737.7
Belize .. 1,936.2 116.6 549.5 153.2 251.9 43.7 3,051.1
Benin .. 1,877.7 41.1 130.6 50.6 34.0 0.2 2,134.2
Bolivia 69.0 6,746.7 714.6 335.8 3,527.4 1,147.0 429.4 12,969.9
Brazil 2,846.6 90,205.1 21,685.0 3,417.6 100,260.9 10,253.0 6,852.8 235,520.9
Bulgaria 2.6 3,784.0 2,728.6 1,134.6 10,676.0 1,317.4 401.6 20,044.7
Burkina Faso 51.9 2,280.6 183.9 128.2 2,125.1 34.0 11.6 4,815.3
Burundi .. 544.6 48.2 22.4 3.2 6.8 0.6 625.9
Canada 32,877.6 1,019,337.3 646,659.5 264,609.3 1,171,495.8 190,083.5 504,829.4 3,829,892.5
Chile 1,944.2 34,029.4 6,495.1 2,676.9 35,993.8 9,782.6 8,569.4 99,491.3
China 729.6 97,172.2 52,694.1 15,565.9 873,359.6 16,069.2 57,795.8 1,113,386.4
China, Hong Kong 89,176.8 472,680.9 24,301.9 90,007.1 278,678.7 577,594.8 656,733.4 2,189,173.6
China, Macao 0.2 2,187.3 155.7 220.7 6,346.9 644.3 299.4 9,854.4
Colombia 55.0 47,814.4 6,079.6 2,676.8 31,755.5 5,841.6 2,138.9 96,361.8
Costa Rica 63.6 21,521.6 5,868.1 1,788.5 19,446.5 3,867.7 796.7 53,352.6
Cote d'Ivoire 0.2 8,994.7 7,513.3 242.0 368.4 213.1 49.3 17,381.0
Croatia 60.1 13,025.9 13,533.4 3,076.3 43,040.6 9,623.4 4,686.4 87,046.0
Cyprus 532.5 18,782.9 13,279.8 2,448.8 15,836.1 7,614.3 2,760.5 61,254.9
Czech Rep. 19,724.9 110,955.1 26,296.6 16,724.1 75,473.7 30,955.4 7,260.3 287,390.2
Denmark 5,199.9 115,082.7 39,158.6 33,701.4 219,966.0 61,908.3 39,385.8 514,402.7
Dominica 2.3 1,379.3 85.1 126.3 180.0 58.7 68.8 1,900.7
Ecuador 21.4 43,123.4 5,547.0 1,663.9 15,468.2 6,533.9 1,167.9 73,525.8
Egypt .. 16,649.0 4,258.0 1,746.5 2,781.4 4,829.1 3,066.7 33,330.6
El Salvador 27.6 24,421.0 1,756.4 1,524.6 12,109.8 1,986.5 625.4 42,451.3
Estonia 167.6 7,424.8 1,832.8 1,382.9 9,551.2 1,864.7 1,198.6 23,422.5
Ethiopia 43.9 10,137.2 442.6 2,569.9 1,612.0 213.1 182.5 15,201.0
Faeroe Islands 2.1 1,425.2 1,657.3 353.4 2,798.9 361.0 429.9 7,027.8
Fiji 0.5 3,219.6 38.1 365.2 1,182.4 559.4 1,105.1 6,470.4
Finland 284.4 60,731.0 31,949.2 13,371.4 174,960.0 12,881.6 50,244.0 344,421.6
France 66,513.0 541,265.6 402,028.5 116,724.4 1,397,715.5 355,300.1 527,299.2 3,406,846.1
French Polynesia 143.5 5,131.6 2,752.2 421.3 8,933.9 4,139.8 776.4 22,298.6
Germany 42,337.7 631,609.4 328,659.7 190,160.2 1,487,769.5 592,662.5 888,920.6 4,162,119.7
Greece 946.2 51,013.3 33,841.2 8,114.8 77,221.4 31,863.3 21,786.7 224,787.0
Greenland 13.8 2,096.5 59.4 406.3 2,377.0 251.5 218.6 5,423.1
Grenada .. 2,334.5 173.6 305.4 331.6 183.1 16.9 3,345.0
Guatemala 9.9 29,719.2 3,194.0 3,427.8 37,549.2 5,300.9 2,100.9 81,302.0
Guinea 21.0 556.7 139.4 151.8 54.1 7.6 16.2 946.7
Guyana 5.4 2,205.3 201.8 253.1 127.0 412.9 17.7 3,223.1
- 60 -
Annex I
IMPORTS
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Honduras 0.5 2,191.1 1,011.1 199.6 352.9 927.5 37.8 4,720.6
Hungary 227.0 49,215.0 12,547.0 8,481.0 120,778.0 7,369.0 6,744.0 205,361.0
Iceland 20.8 6,928.0 2,149.5 838.0 12,048.9 1,743.9 2,196.8 25,925.9
India 262.0 78,589.1 5,245.6 1,486.7 708,047.6 5,019.2 4,930.8 803,580.9
Indonesia 118.0 6,763.6 3,482.7 1,631.7 4,039.3 2,644.2 1,965.0 20,644.5
Iran .. 20,406.2 52.9 296.5 7,124.8 280.7 314.6 28,475.7
Ireland 1,874.2 153,025.8 87,608.9 25,398.9 244,235.7 30,816.4 31,860.6 574,820.5
Israel 112.0 31,950.0 5,534.0 2,986.0 120,350.0 41,376.0 26,027.0 228,335.0
Italy 10,783.2 231,513.9 180,016.5 36,450.7 991,957.5 305,456.5 63,240.5 1,819,418.7
Jamaica 0.3 38,202.0 98.9 1,350.0 11,338.3 1,485.5 238.2 52,713.2
Japan 50,654.0 329,759.9 127,076.7 70,065.4 777,849.2 397,669.8 261,098.4 2,014,173.5
Jordan .. 14,887.4 124.9 701.8 6,632.8 1,102.0 288.7 23,737.7
Kenya 13.1 11,619.2 1,388.0 3,574.2 13,047.0 250.0 175.3 30,066.7
Kyrgyzstan 1.2 631.7 51.8 107.2 70.7 414.1 3.1 1,279.8
Latvia 2.1 5,973.6 6,271.0 1,204.6 17,099.1 1,462.8 285.7 32,299.0
Lebanon 80.9 21,802.5 5,701.8 921.8 11,377.8 10,243.6 4,783.9 54,912.3
Lesotho 0.3 2,637.3 161.5 476.1 41.8 108.7 8.4 3,434.1
Luxembourg 2,492.7 33,815.0 33,291.7 3,548.5 102,062.2 11,074.4 9,870.7 196,155.2
Malaysia 4,302.5 94,832.1 9,243.3 3,714.3 87,139.2 6,789.9 14,234.1 220,255.3
Maldives .. 1,911.5 251.2 276.4 536.0 404.8 83.6 3,463.5
Mauritius 7.3 8,209.9 2,890.9 405.1 2,544.2 1,090.5 655.9 15,803.7
Mexico 1,410.9 414,474.1 72,974.1 65,289.2 364,597.6 71,942.3 158,698.1 1,149,386.4
Morocco 284.8 26,102.5 15,464.9 819.4 32,574.7 2,998.1 1,280.4 79,524.8
Netherlands 20,457.4 230,663.8 92,130.8 112,076.2 626,976.6 186,490.7 156,747.9 1,425,543.5
New Caledonia 102.7 5,896.4 3,334.2 293.7 7,137.2 1,252.0 1,134.5 19,150.7
New Zealand 3,468.9 82,552.6 56,697.0 14,570.5 94,795.0 19,689.8 29,909.5 301,683.4
Nicaragua 5.1 15,014.2 1,529.0 773.7 4,621.8 1,071.0 376.3 23,391.1
Niger .. 1,186.1 99.1 73.2 205.3 87.6 5.7 1,657.1
Norway 2,780.0 108,574.3 37,072.2 32,674.5 265,968.6 35,969.7 69,370.4 552,409.8
Oman 11.4 5,476.0 4,933.9 1,433.8 4,100.4 1,986.4 1,017.2 18,959.1
Other Asia, n.e.s. 2,208.5 105,879.5 27,446.4 6,389.9 375,450.2 31,722.4 35,684.2 584,781.1
Panama 2.9 15,071.0 6,947.0 2,606.9 13,208.4 4,401.9 2,752.8 44,990.9
Paraguay .. 3,529.7 303.9 150.5 3,263.3 1,720.9 2,964.2 11,932.6
Peru 11.7 32,322.6 6,103.1 1,344.3 13,903.6 4,178.6 2,865.5 60,729.5
Philippines 39.0 41,217.4 5,600.5 828.7 17,927.7 3,494.7 2,972.0 72,080.0
Poland 4,848.0 78,749.0 25,041.0 24,555.0 88,714.0 31,120.0 7,845.0 260,872.0
Portugal 2,315.4 57,321.1 91,929.6 6,703.3 146,245.3 36,697.1 52,801.3 394,013.1
Qatar 97.3 2,966.2 1,835.8 966.5 8,201.7 1,791.3 404.9 16,263.8
Rep. of Korea 6,532.6 120,502.0 22,102.0 40,598.1 638,872.4 73,191.3 119,179.0 1,020,977.6
Rep. of Moldova .. 2,296.8 1,209.7 198.0 535.8 79.2 11.8 4,331.3
Romania .. 17,465.0 4,670.0 2,123.0 10,976.0 2,181.0 528.0 37,943.0
Russian Federation 533.2 103,125.7 164,338.4 18,875.1 59,111.6 24,103.7 2,789.0 372,876.7
Rwanda .. 2,010.8 447.0 139.9 165.5 50.6 95.7 2,909.6
Saint Lucia .. 3,034.7 422.1 382.1 417.5 469.7 44.0 4,770.1
St Vincent &
Grenadines 28.1 1,127.7 245.4 169.7 113.8 241.5 24.4 1,950.8
Samoa 0.8 620.7 78.5 101.2 132.1 22.7 12.6 968.6
Sao Tome & Principe .. 13.6 2.1 1.8 3.4 2.3 0.0 23.3
Saudi Arabia 304.0 30,131.6 869.9 3,895.4 24,907.3 25,897.8 8,329.3 94,335.3
Senegal .. 5,391.6 3,042.5 337.4 434.4 336.9 31.8 9,574.5
Serbia & Montenegro 40.0 4,042.7 6,051.9 448.8 60,821.7 1,845.5 1,491.4 74,742.0
- 61 -
Annex I
IMPORTS
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Seychelles 2.3 670.3 111.0 40.3 .. 80.9 2.6 907.5
Sierra Leone .. 339.0 0.0 59.6 18.5 11.1 26.9 455.0
Singapore 4,885.9 199,171.7 26,641.1 18,801.3 170,562.1 41,989.7 177,462.7 639,514.6
Slovakia 239.6 24,174.8 17,149.5 3,967.0 40,252.0 6,288.5 2,773.3 94,844.7
Slovenia 81.5 10,305.7 7,054.8 2,825.7 24,035.1 4,692.9 1,109.6 50,105.3
South Africa 3,405.6 96,330.7 9,081.7 7,235.9 148,600.9 33,023.6 11,716.0 309,394.4
Spain 9,128.6 196,354.8 165,860.1 112,400.6 507,268.2 220,580.2 273,013.7 1,484,606.2
Sri Lanka 29.5 7,494.2 760.7 457.5 5,963.3 1,046.2 175.1 15,926.5
Sudan 5.8 1,612.1 583.1 147.4 2,269.3 4,168.6 156.9 8,943.1
Swaziland 0.6 5,017.7 423.4 215.3 525.8 216.4 35.7 6,434.8
Sweden 8,701.4 148,761.2 57,583.8 28,465.1 425,398.6 69,207.8 92,024.6 830,142.5
Switzerland 98,999.8 402,311.0 302,954.7 105,023.6 821,082.5 665,591.9 70,079.5 2,466,043.0
Syria .. 423.0 .. .. 1,301.1 .. .. 1,724.1
TFYR of Macedonia 1.2 2,000.8 1,735.6 263.5 1,604.0 440.8 190.4 6,236.3
Togo .. 1,072.9 47.7 70.4 135.0 13.4 0.3 1,339.6
Tunisia 101.7 10,000.1 5,390.5 1,267.4 23,881.2 1,376.0 317.7 42,334.6
Turkey 1,298.0 17,032.1 20,786.7 3,293.6 100,128.2 13,151.4 8,591.9 164,281.8
Uganda 5.5 11,794.4 449.4 1,545.9 365.8 98.6 39.1 14,298.7
Ukraine 14.0 15,833.7 10,716.7 1,373.5 18,152.1 2,056.7 902.0 49,048.7
United Kingdom 673,242.6 1,272,757.9 300,862.2 200,402.7 1,953,886.2 2,759,551.3 711,198.9 7,871,901.8
United Rep. of
Tanzania 101.7 9,282.2 535.8 854.7 297.8 203.6 38.7 11,314.4
Uruguay 52.5 317.8 197.2 405.4 1,685.2 347.7 709.8 3,715.7
United States of
America 1,394,183.1 2,089,998.0 303,128.6 673,322.1 1,358,347.6 5,425,732.7 4,093,870.7 15,338,583.0
Venezuela 19.3 67,238.1 24,584.0 6,416.5 42,284.8 7,775.3 3,920.0 152,237.9
Wallis & Futuna
Islands .. 89.8 132.8 9.7 66.1 19.6 16.8 334.8
Zambia 14.3 26,212.3 1,723.8 463.5 814.3 162.1 77.8 29,468.1
Zimbabwe 47.9 8,394.6 1,396.5 260.4 5,202.6 226.3 262.1 15,790.4
.. : Nil.
0: Less than US$ 1,000
n.e.s.: Not elsewhere specified
- 62 -
Annex I
- 63 -
Tables II Analysis by region
Table II-1 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
EXPORTS
Total core cultural
goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
1994
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 36,222.5 1,461.5 8,441.4 3,806.3 1,669.2 12,563.3 6,690.4 1,590.4
Regional groupings
Americas 9,778.0 27.0 203.4 13.9 2,299.5 27.2 1,071.1 28.1 445.8 26.7 4,124.7 32.8 1,244.9 18.6 388.6 24.4
North America 9,072.9 25.0 202.7 13.9 2,033.2 24.1 959.7 25.2 401.2 24.0 4,018.1 32.0 1,130.9 16.9 327.0 20.6
Latin America and the Caribbean 705.1 1.9 0.7 0.05 266.3 3.2 111.3 2.9 44.6 2.7 106.6 0.8 114.0 1.7 61.5 3.9
Europe 21,892.8 60.4 1,208.0 82.7 4,928.7 58.4 2,561.6 67.3 1,026.9 61.5 7,417.0 59.0 4,157.0 62.1 593.7 37.3
EU15 19,675.8 54.3 988.1 67.6 4,548.2 53.9 2,447.4 64.3 875.6 52.5 6,916.8 55.1 3,328.8 49.8 570.7 35.9
Other Europe 2,217.1 6.1 219.9 15.0 380.5 4.5 114.2 3.0 151.2 9.1 500.1 4.0 828.2 12.4 23.0 1.4
Africa 58.2 0.2 2.6 0.2 17.5 0.2 7.3 0.2 2.4 0.1 4.2 0.03 22.6 0.3 1.7 0.1
SACU 27.3 0.1 2.5 0.2 7.4 0.1 1.5 0.04 1.1 0.1 3.1 0.03 10.2 0.2 1.4 0.1
Other sub-Saharan countries 4.1 0.0 0.02 0.001 1.6 0.02 0.1 0.002 0.4 0.02 0.3 0.002 1.5 0.02 0.2 0.01
Northern Africa 26.8 0.1 0.04 0.002 8.5 0.1 5.7 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.8 0.01 10.9 0.2 0.05 0.003
Asia 4,288.8 11.8 45.7 3.1 1,117.6 13.2 141.6 3.7 176.1 10.6 956.6 7.6 1,247.6 18.6 603.6 38.0
Eastern Asia 2,741.6 7.6 34.8 2.4 655.9 7.8 91.9 2.4 107.6 6.4 391.7 3.1 967.9 14.5 491.9 30.9
South Central Asia 162.3 0.4 0.1 0.01 18.6 0.2 7.1 0.2 3.3 0.2 88.3 0.7 36.1 0.5 8.7 0.6
South Eastern Asia 1,319.3 3.6 10.7 0.7 432.3 5.1 40.0 1.0 59.4 3.6 450.9 3.6 223.3 3.3 102.8 6.5
Western Asia 65.6 0.2 0.1 0.004 10.8 0.1 2.6 0.1 5.9 0.4 25.8 0.2 20.3 0.3 0.2 0.01
Oceania 204.6 0.6 1.8 0.1 78.1 0.9 24.8 0.7 18.0 1.1 60.8 0.5 18.3 0.3 2.9 0.2
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 143.9 0.40 0.12 0.008 20.2 0.24 6.48 0.2 3.2 0.19 88.3 0.70 16.8 0.25 8.8 0.6
Lower-middle-income economies 1,734.4 4.8 31.7 2.2 232.6 2.8 60.8 1.6 87.5 5.2 86.1 0.7 1,041.1 15.56 194.5 12.2
Upper-middle-income economies 1,207.2 3.3 26.7 1.83 310.4 3.7 101.0 2.7 65.9 3.9 230.2 1.83 346.2 5.2 126.9 8.0
High-income economies 3,3136.9 91.5 1,403.0 96.0 7,878.2 93.3 3,638.0 95.6 1,512.5 90.6 12,158.7 96.8 5,286.3 79.0 1,260.2 79.2
COMESA 2.6 0.01 0.02 0.001 0.8 0.01 0.02 0.0004 0.4 0.02 0.1 0.001 1.1 0.02 0.2 0.01
CIS
(a)
352.8 1.0 0.8 0.1 276.5 3.3 4.7 0.1 12.0 0.7 55.9 0.4 2.2 0.03 0.8 0.05
Arab States 36.4 0.1 0.1 0.01 16.6 0.2 6.1 0.2 1.1 0.1 1.0 0.01 11.4 0.2 0.2 0.01
MERCOSUR 229.3 0.6 0.1 0.01 89.5 1.1 64.2 1.7 6.2 0.4 43.4 0.3 23.3 0.3 2.6 0.2
NAFTA 9,366.8 25.9 203.0 13.9 2,110.3 25.0 974.3 25.6 428.9 25.7 4,068.3
32.4 1,197.2 17.9 384.8 24.2
(a): data for 1996
Annex I
- 64 -
Table II-2 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
EXPORTS
Total core cultural
goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
2002
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 54,666.4 1,807.4 1,0835.0 4,398.3 2,158.9 18,509.4 9,741.0 7,216.4
Regional groupings
Americas 10,860.3 19.9 172.1 9.5 2,626.8 24.2 1,119.8 25.5 732.2 33.9 3,672.1 19.8 1,187.5 12.2 1,349.8 18.7
North America 9,226.8 16.9 170.7 9.4 2,317.4 21.4 1,041.3 23.7 654.4 30.3 3,426.3 18.5 1,051.4 10.8 565.3 7.8
Latin America and the Caribbean 1,633.5 3.0 1.4 0.08 309.5 2.9 78.4 1.8 77.7 3.6 245.9 1.3 136.2 1.4 784.4 10.9
Europe 3,1670.8 57.9 1,572.6 87.0 6,598.9 60.9 3,096.4 70.4 1,201.5 55.7 11,344.3 61.3 5,676.0 58.3 2,181.1 30.2
EU15 28,301.2 51.8 1,421.4 78.6 5,904.2 54.5 2,849.3 64.8 1,039.7 48.2 10,785.1 58.3 4,831.8 49.6 1,469.8 20.4
Other Europe 3,369.5 6.2 151.2 8.4 694.7 6.4 247.1 5.6 161.8 7.5 559.2 3.0 844.2 8.7 711.3 9.9
Africa 206.2 0.4 30.1 1.7 35.2 0.3 6.3 0.1 7.0 0.3 19.8 0.1 106.6 1.1 1.1 0.02
SACU 60.6 0.1 10.6 0.6 19.6 0.2 1.8 0.04 3.5 0.2 8.0 0.04 16.1 0.2 1.0 0.01
Other sub-Saharan countries 46.8 0.1 18.7 1.0 8.0 0.1 1.0 0.02 1.4 0.1 2.5 0.01 15.0 0.2 0.1 0.001
Northern Africa 98.8 0.2 0.8 0.05 7.5 0.1 3.5 0.08 2.1 0.1 9.4 0.05 75.6 0.8 0.01 0.0001
Asia 11,577.5 21.2 21.8 1.2 1,489.2 13.7 144.2 3.3 194.6 9.0 3,364.3 18.2 2,722.1 27.9 3,641.5 50.5
Eastern Asia 8,553.5 15.6 11.9 0.7 882.3 8.1 86.6 2.0 156.9 7.3 1,430.9 7.7 2,443.8 25.1 3,540.9 49.1
South Central Asia 303.0 0.6 0.9 0.1 44.5 0.4 13.7 0.3 7.9 0.4 191.9 1.0 28.5 0.3 15.6 0.2
South Eastern Asia 2,445.7 4.5 5.4 0.3 454.8 4.2 39.4 0.9 18.7 0.9 1,646.4 8.9 205.1 2.1 75.8 1.1
Western Asia 275.4 0.5 3.6 0.2 107.6 1.0 4.4 0.1 11.1 0.5 95.0 0.5 44.6 0.5 9.1 0.1
Oceania 351.6 0.6 10.8 0.6 85.0 0.8 31.6 0.7 23.6 1.1 109.0 0.6 48.8 0.5 42.8 0.6
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 329.0 0.6 19.7 1.1 48.2 0.4 13.5 0.3 7.0 0.3 193.2 1.04 31.9 0.3 15.6 0.2
Lower-middle-income economies 6,411.1 11.7 16.1 0.9 857.1 7.9 76.0 1.7 141.9 6.6 444.2 2.4 2,581.0 26.5 2,295.0 31.8
Upper-middle-income economies 3,005.4 5.5 10.1 0.6 537.2 5.0 214.3 4.9 114.2 5.3 447.3 2.4 212.8 2.2 1,469.6 20.4
High-income economies 44,920.9 82.2 1,761.5 97.46 9,392.5 86.7 4,094.5 93.1 1,895.9 87.8 1,7424.9 94.1 6,915.4 71.0 3,436.2 47.6
COMESA 43.8 0.1 19.8 1.1 7.2 0.1 1.2 0.03 1.8 0.1 1.5 0.01 12.1 0.1 0.1 0.001
CIS 385.4 0.7 1.3 0.1 262.6 2.4 16.7 0.4 17.3 0.8 71.9 0.4 14.6 0.1 0.9 0.01
Arab States 168.2 0.3 2.7 0.2 62.8 0.6 4.1 0.1 4.2 0.2 13.3 0.1 79.9 0.8 1.3 0.02
MERCOSUR 167.3 0.3 0.6 0.03 63.5 0.6 22.6 0.5 6.9 0.3 52.8 0.3 8.5 0.1 12.4 0.2
NAFTA 10,471.3 19.2 171.3 9.5 2,437.0 22.5 1,074.3 24.4 716.3 33.2 3,572.2 19.3 1,163.1 11.9 1,337.2 18.5
Annex I
- 65 -
Table II-3 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
IMPORTS
Total core
cultural goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
1994
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 40,421.1 1,887.9 8,640.2 3,833.9 1,896.6 12,244.7 8,525.8 3391.9
Regional groupings
Americas 12,541.4 31.0 780.6 41.3 2,906.6 33.6 1,062.4 27.7 579.3 30.5 2,348.9 19.2 2,964.2 34.8 1,899.4 56.0
North America 10,780.4 26.7 774.1 41.0 2,181.1 25.2 844.1 22.0 502.3 26.5 1,818.2 14.8 2,860.4 33.6 1,800.1 53.1
Latin America and the Caribbean 1,761.0 4.4 6.5 0.3 725.5 8.4 218.2 5.7 77.0 4.1 530.7 4.3 103.8 1.2 99.3 2.9
Europe 20,572.8 50.9 895.7 47.4 4,086.2 47.3 2,196.7 57.3 950.0 50.1 7,188.1 58.7 4,191.6 49.2 1,064.5 31.4
EU15 17,433.6 43.1 736.5 39.0 3,319.6 38.4 1,696.6 44.3 776.3 40.9 6,263.8 51.2 3,643.6 42.7 997.2 29.4
Other Europe 3,139.3 7.8 159.2 8.4 766.6 8.9 500.0 13.0 173.8 9.2 924.3 7.5 548.0 6.4 67.4 2.0
Africa 452.7 1.1 4.8 0.3 222.0 2.6 39.6 1.0 12.0 0.6 140.4 1.1 20.9 0.2 13.0 0.4
SACU 255.6 0.6 4.3 0.2 123.1 1.4 8.8 0.2 6.7 0.4 94.5 0.8 12.5 0.1 5.8 0.2
Other sub-Saharan countries 95.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 47.0 0.5 17.3 0.5 3.4 0.2 19.9 0.2 5.1 0.1 2.9 0.1
Northern Africa 101.5 0.3 0.4 0.0 52.0 0.6 13.4 0.3 1.9 0.1 26.1 0.2 3.3 0.0 4.28 0.1
Asia 5,269.0 13.0 164.8 8.7 950.9 11.0 312.7 8.2 268.0 14.1 1,938.4 15.8 1,267.6 14.9 366.6 10.8
Eastern Asia 3,912.2 9.7 153.3 8.1 517.1 6.0 230.2 6.0 149.3 7.9 1,412.7 11.5 1,148.0 13.5 301.5 8.9
South Central Asia 134.3 0.3 0.02 0.0 60.1 0.7 6.7 0.2 2.9 0.2 56.8 0.5 6.0 0.1 1.8 0.1
South Eastern Asia 1,032.9 2.6 10.7 0.6 286.7 3.3 61.6 1.6 107.4 5.7 422.8 3.5 90.4 1.1 53.3 1.6
Western Asia 189.6 0.5 0.7 0.0 87.0 1.0 14.1 0.4 8.4 0.4 46.2 0.4 23.2 0.3 9.9 0.3
Oceania 1,585.0 3.9 42.1 2.2 474.5 5.5 222.6 5.8 87.3 4.6 628.8 5.1 81.4 1.0 48.3 1.4
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 151.3 0.37 0.02 0.001 73.3 0.85 8.6 0.2 3.6 0.19 57.6 0.47 6.3 0.07 1.8 0.05
Lower-middle-income economies 1,260.1 3.1 8.7 0.5 546.2 6.3 116.5 3.0 33.5 1.8 413.1 3.4 67.7 0.79 74.5 2.20
Upper-middle-income economies 2,030.8 5.0 6.8 0.36 792.6 9.2 293.3 7.7 109.6 5.8 612.9 5.01 135.9 1.6 79.8 2.35
High-income economies 36,978.9 91.5 1,872.4 99.18 7,228.2 83.7 3,415.6 89.1 1,749.8 92.3 11,161.1 91.2 8,316.0 97.5 3,235.8 95.4
COMESA 33.0 0.1 0.04 0.002 19.2 0.2 4.8 0.1 1.7 0.1 4.7 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.7 0.0
CIS
(a)
459.7 1.1 0.4 0.02 129.9 1.5 215.1 5.6 18.8 1.0 86.2 0.7 6.6 0.1 2.7 0.1
Arab States 204.7 0.5 0.8 0.04 88.5 1.0 16.4 0.4 9.3 0.5 53.3 0.4 23.8 0.3 12.5 0.4
MERCOSUR 470.1 1.2 2.2 0.12 158.1 1.8 66.8 1.7 11.6 0.6 149.7 1.2 27.4 0.3 54.4 1.6
NAFTA 11,598.4 28.7 777.1 41.2 2,510.0 29.0 937.9 24.5 553.3 29.2 2,075.6
17.0 2,909.5 34.1 1,835.2 54.1
(a): Data for 1996.
Annex I
- 66 -
Table II-4 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
IMPORTS
Total core
cultural goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
2002
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 63,668.4 2,644.2 11,738.0 4,675.1 2,620.0 19,394.7 12,911.0 9,685.5
Regional groupings
Americas 21,465.5 33.7 1,433.9 54.2 4,041.6 34.4 1,124.1 24.0 1,038.5 39.6 3,271.5 16.9 5,759.5 44.6 4,796.5 49.5
North America 19,173.9 30.1 1427.1 54.0 3,111.4 26.5 949.8 20.3 938.3 35.8 2,532.2 13.1 5,616.1 43.5 4,598.9 47.5
Latin America and the Caribbean 2,291.6 3.6 6.8 0.3 930.2 7.9 174.3 3.7 100.2 3.8 739.3 3.8 143.4 1.1 197.5 2.0
Europe 30,620.7 48.1 1,019.2 38.5 5,311.4 45.2 2,933.5 62.7 1,229.6 46.9 11,159.9 57.5 5,727.6 44.4 3,239.5 33.4
EU15 25,837.9 40.6 890.8 33.7 4,312.0 36.7 2,268.6 48.5 997.2 38.1 9,430.5 48.6 4,886.4 37.8 3,052.5 31.5
Other Europe 4,782.8 7.5 128.5 4.9 999.4 8.5 664.9 14.2 232.4 8.9 1,729.4 8.9 841.2 6.5 187.1 1.9
Africa 658.1 1.0 4.1 0.2 268.9 2.3 55.9 1.2 23.0 0.9 238.1 1.2 49.8 0.4 18.3 0.2
SACU 319.3 0.5 3.4 0.1 104.0 0.9 9.7 0.2 7.9 0.3 149.2 0.8 33.3 0.3 11.8 0.1
Other sub-Saharan countries 174.7 0.3 0.3 0.0 110.6 0.9 20.5 0.4 11.1 0.4 27.4 0.1 3.1 0.0 1.7 0.0
Northern Africa 164.1 0.3 0.4 0.0 54.4 0.5 25.7 0.5 4.0 0.2 61.5 0.3 13.4 0.1 4.82 0.0
Asia 9,363.2 14.7 160.9 6.1 1,711.0 14.6 348.5 7.5 265.6 10.1 4,234.5 21.8 1,259.1 9.8 1,383.6 14.3
Eastern Asia 6,932.3 10.9 149.3 5.6 1,128.2 9.6 253.8 5.4 222.8 8.5 2,950.6 15.2 1,096.9 8.5 1,130.8 11.7
South Central Asia 852.7 1.3 0.3 0.0 109.0 0.9 6.4 0.1 2.6 0.1 721.7 3.7 7.2 0.1 5.5 0.1
South Eastern Asia 952.5 1.5 9.3 0.4 342.0 2.9 45.0 1.0 25.0 1.0 279.7 1.4 54.9 0.4 196.6 2.0
Western Asia 625.6 1.0 1.9 0.1 131.8 1.1 43.4 0.9 15.1 0.6 282.5 1.5 100.1 0.8 50.7 0.5
Oceania 1,560.9 2.5 26.1 1.0 405.1 3.5 213.2 4.6 63.3 2.4 490.7 2.5 114.9 0.9 247.6 2.6
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 1,003.3 1.6 0.6 0.0 202.6 1.7 26.4 0.6 13.8 0.5 740.6 3.8 12.8 0.1 6.5 0.07
Lower-middle-income economies 3,198.7 5.0 9.7 0.4 844.4 7.2 361.1 7.7 79.6 3.0 1,631.6 8.4 156.2 1.2 116.1 1.2
Upper-middle-income economies 2,988.3 4.7 33.7 1.3 1,044.9 8.9 252.4 5.4 152.8 5.8 1,029.9 5.3 237.0 1.8 237.5 2.5
High-income economies 56,478.1 88.7 2,600.3 98.34 9,646.1 82.2 4,035.2 86.3 2,373.7 90.6 15,992.5 82.5 12,505.0 96.9 9,325.3 96.3
COMESA 131.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 84.6 0.7 9.3 0.2 9.2 0.4 24.3 0.1 2.4 0.0 1.5 0.02
CIS 460.5 0.7 0.6 0.02 133.4 1.1 181.2 3.9 24.5 0.9 87.9 0.5 28.8 0.2 4.1 0.04
Arab States 389.2 0.6 0.9 0.03 134.4 1.1 41.1 0.9 12.6 0.5 121.8 0.6 57.6 0.4 20.8 0.2
MERCOSUR 420.6 0.7 5.1 0.2 159.1 1.4 35.4 0.8 8.4 0.3 167.1 0.9 24.6 0.2 20.8 0.2
NAFTA 20,323.3 31.9 1,428.5 54.0 3,525.9 30.0 1,022.8 21.9 1,003.6 38.3 2,896.8 14.9 5,688.0 44.1 4,757.6 49.1
Annex I
- 67 -
Tables III Trade by level of income
Table III–1 Trade exports by category, 1994-2002
Total exports in million US$ 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Heritage goods Low-income economies 0.1 7.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.2 11.5 1.6 19.7
Lower–middle-income economies 31.7 33.0 37.4 53.9 41.0 34.0 27.8 10.1 16.1
Upper-middle-income economies 26.7 45.9 19.3 241.8 42.2 29.7 9.7 7.5 10.1
High-income economies 1,403.0 1,499.9 1,407.5 1,526.5 1,597.1 1,759.1 2,026.9 840.1 1,761.5
Total of all available countries 1,461.5 1,586.3 1,465.0 1,822.4 1,680.4 1,823.0 2,075.9 859.4 1,807.4
Books Low-income economies 20.2 26.1 27.0 24.3 30.0 35.4 48.0 37.7 48.2
Lower-middle-income economies 232.6 305.2 563.0 673.1 802.3 723.6 804.8 875.9 857.1
Upper-middle-income economies 310.4 416.0 399.9 440.5 493.3 461.4 485.4 496.1 537.2
High-income economies 7,878.2 9,233.3 9,387.1 9,312.9 9,293.0 9,328.6 9,192.4 9,250.7 9,392.5
Total of all available countries 8,441.4 9,980.5 10,377.0 10,450.9 10,618.7 10,549.0 10,530.7 10,660.4 10,835.0
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 6.5 7.9 11.9 10.6 13.7 15.9 11.4 11.9 13.5
Lower-middle-income economies 60.8 67.4 51.9 63.3 61.6 62.6 60.1 72.3 76.0
Upper-middle-income economies 101.0 155.9 180.0 222.9 256.6 214.0 223.1 230.4 214.3
High-income economies 3,638.0 4,614.6 4,502.8 4,179.5 4,256.2 4,074.0 3,851.2 3,875.0 4,094.5
Total of all available countries 3,806.3 4,845.9 4,746.7 4,476.3 4,588.2 4,366.6 4,145.8 4,189.7 4,398.3
Other printed matter Low-income economies 3.2 6.5 3.2 3.5 3.7 5.2 5.4 5.5 7.0
Lower–middle-income economies 87.5 102.0 82.1 118.2 124.2 107.0 135.8 125.2 141.9
Upper-middle-income economies 65.9 71.0 79.1 89.8 90.1 106.5 120.5 104.9 114.2
High-income economies 1,512.5 1,765.6 1,796.5 1,820.5 1,781.0 1,783.0 1,727.2 1,757.5 1,895.9
Total of all available countries 1,669.2 1,945.2 1,961.0 2,031.9 1,999.1 2,001.7 1,988.9 1,993.1 2,158.9
Recorded media Low income economies 88.3 127.3 149.8 208.4 215.4 205.8 330.2 180.2 193.2
Lower middle income economies 86.1 75.8 201.7 302.8 270.0 342.6 366.2 503.4 444.2
Upper-middle-income economies 230.2 358.0 459.9 285.8 336.5 355.2 343.6 384.5 447.3
High-income economies 12,158.7 13,453.3 14,496.3 14,950.9 15,347.8 17,610.7 18,068.8 16,869.3 17,424.9
Total of all available countries 12,563.3 14,014.4 15,307.6 15,747.9 16,169.7 18,514.3 19,108.8 17,937.4 18,509.4
Visual arts Low-income economies 16.8 24.0 18.0 21.8 22.4 59.1 29.7 19.6 31.9
Lower-middle-income economies 1,041.1 1,150.7 1,281.2 1,583.3 1,657.6 1,948.5 2,397.9 2,289.6 2,581.0
Upper-middle-income economies 346.2 236.5 251.1 342.2 326.0 372.4 287.2 243.0 212.8
High-income economies 5,286.3 5,383.3 4,980.9 5,775.8 5,785.7 5,913.5 7,120.8 5,096.6 6,915.4
Total of all available countries 6,690.4 6,794.4 6,531.2 7,723.1 7,791.8 8,293.5 9,835.7 7,648.8 9,741.0
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 8.8 11.5 15.0 23.3 24.0 27.5 25.9 18.1 15.6
Lower–middle-income economies 194.5 437.3 399.1 189.1 239.1 327.8 460.3 700.7 2,295.0
Upper-middle-income economies 126.9 227.6 304.3 96.6 201.7 161.8 68.6 532.9 1,469.6
High-income economies 1,260.2 2,306.7 2,866.4 3,547.2 3,718.7 4,819.4 2,956.6 2,961.9 3,436.2
Total of all available countries 1,590.4 2,983.1 3,584.7 3,856.2 4,183.6 5,336.4 3,511.5 4,213.5 7,216.4
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 143.9 210.9 225.6 292.1 309.5 349.0 462.1 274.5 329.0
Lower-middle-income economies 1,734.4 2,171.3 2,616.4 2,983.7 3,195.9 3,546.3 4,253.0 4,577.2 6,411.1
Upper-middle-income economies 1,207.2 1,510.8 1,693.6 1,719.6 1,746.5 1,700.9 1,538.2 1,999.3 3,005.4
High-income economies 33,136.9 38,256.7 39,437.6 41,113.3 41,779.6 45,288.4 44,944.0 40,651.2 44,920.9
Total of all available countries 36,222.5 42,149.8 43,973.3 46,108.8 47,031.4 50,884.5 51,197.3 47,502.3 54,666.4
Annex I
- 68 -
Table III–2 Trade imports by category, 1994-2002
Total imports in million US$ 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Heritage goods Low-income economies 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.6
Lower-middle-income economies 8.7 29.3 25.4 14.9 14.7 16.6 115.3 40.3 9.7
Upper-middle-income economies 6.8 43.7 10.0 43.8 27.8 60.5 14.8 10.2 33.7
High-income economies 1,872.4 1,813.6 1,925.3 2,495.3 2,604.9 2,836.7 2,924.0 2,667.4 2,600.3
Total of all available countries 1,887.9 1,886.7 1,960.8 2,554.2 2,647.6 2,914.0 3,054.4 2,718.2 2,644.2
Books Low-income economies 73.3 146.4 125.6 179.2 188.2 193.9 234.8 156.9 202.6
Lower–middle-income economies 546.2 703.6 978.9 1,071.6 1,055.9 775.3 839.6 912.9 844.4
Upper-middle-income economies 792.6 782.1 832.1 889.5 1,021.7 1,022.8 1,100.3 1,156.0 1,044.9
High-income economies 7,228.2 8,573.9 8,718.5 8,853.1 8,792.3 9,159.9 9,205.8 9,355.2 9,646.1
Total of all available countries 8,640.2 10,206.0 10,655.0 10,993.5 11,058.1 11,151.9 11,380.4 11,581.0 11,738.0
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 8.6 30.4 24.5 29.8 34.1 32.1 29.3 31.4 26.4
Lower–middle-income economies 116.5 199.2 482.4 529.8 492.9 326.5 336.7 364.5 361.1
Upper-middle-income economies 293.3 290.6 266.1 280.8 356.1 318.7 283.4 291.8 252.4
High-income economies 3,415.6 4,110.7 4,001.8 3,951.8 4,190.3 4,317.8 4,065.2 3,904.7 4,035.2
Total of all available countries 3,833.9 4,630.8 4,774.8 4,792.2 5,073.5 4,995.0 4,714.6 4,592.5 4,675.1
Other printed matter Low-income economies 3.6 8.2 9.2 9.0 15.3 11.9 14.3 8.8 13.8
Lower–middle-income economies 33.5 58.5 65.7 94.7 89.6 64.7 69.8 78.2 79.6
Upper-middle-income economies 109.6 117.9 119.4 127.8 132.2 158.6 138.8 144.6 152.8
High-income economies 1,749.8 1,955.9 2,023.9 2,092.0 1,965.5 2,018.1 2,117.7 2,172.3 2,373.7
Total of all available countries 1,896.6 2,140.5 2,218.2 2,323.5 2,202.6 2,253.2 2,340.7 2,403.9 2,620.0
Recorded media Low-income economies 57.6 160.5 120.6 221.0 237.0 312.7 406.5 475.6 740.6
Lower–middle-income economies
404.1 630.8 925.9 890.0 931.8 1,184.3 1,463.0 1,586.9 1,626.0
Upper-middle-income economies 612.9 624.4 772.6 1,001.6 1,105.8 1,180.9 1,291.9 1,311.6 1,029.9
High-income economies 11,161.1 13,624.7 14,303.5 14,250.8 14,932.6 16,295.1 16,235.1 15,486.1 15,992.5
Total of all available countries
12,235.7 15,040.5 16,122.6 16,363.4 17,207.2 18,973.0 19,396.5 18,860.0 19,389.0
Visual arts Low-income economies 6.3 3.9 5.1 4.6 6.0 7.5 11.7 13.5 12.8
Lower–middle-income economies 67.7 86.4 122.8 153.9 118.4 128.5 153.2 133.1 156.2
Upper-middle-income economies 135.9 149.0 131.3 284.7 228.0 266.6 202.9 213.1 237.0
High-income economies 8,316.0 8,383.1 8,290.9 9,532.4 10,518.0 11,290.2 12,909.2 12,834.2 12,505.0
Total of all available countries 8,525.8 8,622.3 8,550.0 9,975.6 10,870.3 11,692.8 13,276.9 13,193.9 12,911.0
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 1.8 4.0 5.9 7.3 7.9 7.8 7.9 5.9 6.5
Lower–middle-income economies 74.5 118.6 160.3 143.0 145.7 136.1 112.6 117.9 116.1
Upper-middle-income economies 79.8 73.4 109.1 85.1 116.1 145.2 119.4 145.9 237.5
High-income economies 3,235.8 3,401.9 4,109.5 6,457.7 6,696.4 6,340.0 5,574.6 7,470.3 9,325.3
Total of all available countries 3,391.9 3,598.0 4,384.9 6,693.2 6,966.1 6,629.1 5,814.5 7,740.0 9,685.5
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 151.3 353.4 291.2 451.0 488.8 566.1 704.8 692.4 1,003.3
Lower–middle-income economies 1,251.2 1,826.4 2,761.4 2,897.9 2,849.0 2,632.0 3,090.2 3,233.8 3,193.1
Upper-middle-income economies 2,030.8 2,081.0 2,240.5 2,713.4 2,987.7 3,153.3 3,151.4 3,273.2 2,988.3
High-income economies 36,978.9 41,863.9 43,373.3 47,633.2 49,700.0 52,257.7 53,031.6 53,890.1 56,478.1
Total of all available countries
40,412.0 46,124.9 48,666.4 53,695.6 56,025.4 58,609.1 59,978.0 61,089.5 63,662.8
Annex I
- 69 -
Table III–3 Trend in trade of core cultural goods
4
Calculated as Annual compound growth rate is defined as the following: 100 * ] 1 [
0
? n
n
V
V
Average annual growth rates
4
, 1994-2002
Goods categories Level of income Exports Imports
Heritage goods Low-income economies 90.0 49.8
Lower-middle-income economies -8.1 1.3
Upper-middle-income economies -11.4 22.2
High-income economies 2.9 4.2
Total of all available countries 2.7 4.3
Books Low-income economies 11.5 13.5
Lower–middle-income economies 17.7 5.6
Upper-middle-income economies 7.1 3.5
High-income economies 2.2 3.7
Total of all available countries 3.2 3.9
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 9.6 15.1
Lower–middle-income economies 2.8 15.2
Upper-middle-income economies 9.9 -1.9
High-income economies 1.5 2.1
Total of all available countries 1.8 2.5
Other printed matter Low-income economies 10.3 18.3
Lower-middle-income economies 6.2 11.4
Upper-middle-income economies 7.1 4.2
High-income economies 2.9 3.9
Total of all available countries 3.3 4.1
Recorded media Low-income economies 10.3 37.6
Lower-middle-income economies 22.8 19.0
Upper-middle-income economies 8.7 6.7
High-income economies 4.6 4.6
Total of all available countries 5.0 5.9
Visual arts Low-income economies 8.4 9.2
Lower-middle-income economies 12.0 11.0
Upper-middle-income economies -5.9 7.2
High-income economies 3.4 5.2
Total of all available countries 4.8 5.3
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 7.4 17.1
Lower–middle-income economies 36.1 5.7
Upper-middle-income economies 35.8 14.6
High-income economies 13.4 14.1
Total of all available countries 20.8 14.0
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 10.9 26.7
Lower–middle-income economies 17.8 12.4
Upper-middle-income economies 12.1 4.9
High-income economies 3.9 5.4
Total of all available countries 5.3 5.8
70 -
Table III-4 Trade coverage ratio
5
of core cultural goods by category, 1994-2002
Total imports in million US$ 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Heritage goods
Low-income economies 512.1 11495.7 478.8 136.6 84.8 60.9 5040.1 495.5 3,426.6
Lower–middle-income economies 364.1 112.3 147.2 361.0 278.6 205.5 24.1 25.2 166.9
Upper-middle-income economies 394.3 105.0 193.7 551.7 151.9 49.0 65.4 73.9 30.0
High-income economies 74.9 82.7 73.1 61.2 61.3 62.0 69.3 31.5 67.7
Books Low-income economies 27.6 17.8 21.5 13.6 16.0 18.2 20.5 24.0 23.8
Lower–middle-income economies 42.6 43.4 57.5 62.8 76.0 93.3 95.9 95.9 101.5
Upper-middle-income economies 39.2 53.2 48.1 49.5 48.3 45.1 44.1 42.9 51.4
High-income economies 109.0 107.7 107.7 105.2 105.7 101.8 99.9 98.9 97.4
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 75.6 26.1 48.6 35.5 40.0 49.6 38.8 38.0 51.0
Lower–middle-income economies 52.3 33.9 10.8 12.0 12.5 19.2 17.9 19.8 21.1
Upper-middle-income economies 34.4 53.7 67.6 79.4 72.1 67.2 78.7 78.9 84.9
High-income economies 106.5 112.3 112.5 105.8 101.6 94.4 94.7 99.2 101.5
Other printed matter Low-income economies 88.6 79.8 35.2 39.1 24.4 43.8 37.5 62.7 50.6
Lower–middle-income economies 260.9 174.4 124.9 124.7 138.7 165.5 194.4 160.1 178.1
Upper-middle-income economies 60.1 60.2 66.3 70.3 68.2 67.2 86.8 72.5 74.7
High-income economies 86.4 90.3 88.8 87.0 90.6 88.3 81.6 80.9 79.9
Annex I
-
Recorded media Low-income economies 153.3 79.3 124.2 94.3 90.9 65.8 81.2 37.9 26.1
Lower–middle-income economies 21.3 12.0 21.8 34.0 29.0 28.9 25.0 31.7 27.3
Upper-middle-income economies 37.6 57.3 59.5 28.5 30.4 30.1 26.6 29.3 43.4
High-income economies 108.9 98.7 101.3 104.9 102.8 108.1 111.3 108.9 109.0
Visual arts Low-income economies 265.3 613.1 351.4 478.9 375.0 784.1 254.6 145.1 248.9
Lower–middle-income economies 1,538.9 1,332.5 1,043.5 1,028.7 1,400.2 1,516.4 1,565.5 1,720.2 1,652.7
Upper-middle-income economies 254.8 158.8 191.3 120.2 143.0 139.7 141.6 114.0 89.8
High-income economies 63.6 64.2 60.1 60.6 55.0 52.4 55.2 39.7 55.3
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 477.7 284.8 252.5 319.8 302.9 353.1 328.3 305.6 239.2
Lower–middle-income economies 261.2 368.6 248.9 132.2 164.2 240.8 408.9 594.3 1,976.7
Upper-middle-income economies 159.1 310.1 278.8 113.5 173.7 111.4 57.5 365.2 618.7
High-income economies 38.9 67.8 69.8 54.9 55.5 76.0 53.0 39.6 36.8
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 95.2 59.7 77.5 64.8 63.3 61.7 65.6 39.6 32.8
Lower–middle-income economies 138.6 118.9 94.7 103.0 112.2 134.7 137.6 141.5 200.8
Upper-middle-income economies 59.4 72.6 75.6 63.4 58.5 53.9 48.8 61.1 100.6
High-income economies 89.6 91.4 90.9 86.3 84.1 86.7 84.7 75.4 79.5
5
Coverage ratio (CR) is defined as the following : 100 *
M
X
CR = , where X = exports and M = imports.
Annex I
Tables IV Partner country analysis
Table IV-1 Top 15 partner countries of the USA, 1994 and 2003
Exports
Value
2003 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value
1994 in
million US$
Share
World 7,977.0 World 8,222.8
Canada 3,210.4 40.2 Canada 2,592.7 31.5
United Kingdom 955.2 12.0 United Kingdom 848.6 10.3
Switzerland 448.8 5.6 Japan 782.9 9.5
Japan 417.2 5.2 Germany 472.6 5.7
Mexico 284.6 3.6 Mexico 418.0 5.1
Germany 263.6 3.3 Australia 335.9 4.1
France 219.0 2.7 Switzerland 323.7 3.9
Republic of Korea 203.3 2.5 France 261.6 3.2
Australia 192.0 2.4 Netherlands 207.9 2.5
Netherlands 175.6 2.2 Rep. of Korea 174.6 2.1
Spain 125.1 1.6 Singapore 164.7 2.0
Hong Kong, China 121.4 1.5 Hong Kong SAR of China 138.0 1.7
India 114.0 1.4 Brazil 126.8 1.5
China 112.0 1.4 Other Asia, n.e.s. 118.7 1.4
Singapore 94.2 1.2
South African Customs
Union 91.2 1.1
Rest of available countries 1,040.6 13.0 Rest of available countries 1,164.9 14.2
Imports
Value
2003 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value
1994 in
million US$
Share
World 13,662.8 World 7,674.1
China 4,209.1 30.8 Japan 1,396.8 18.2
United Kingdom 1,504.9 11.0 United Kingdom 1,222.0 15.9
France 1,489.9 10.9 France 642.5 8.4
Canada 1,428.2 10.5 China 639.6 8.3
Germany 575.7 4.2 Canada 633.0 8.2
Italy 548.3 4.0 Switzerland 304.1 4.0
Japan 498.4 3.6 Hong Kong, China 286.6 3.7
Hong Kong, China 456.0 3.3 Other Asia, n.e.s 281.5 3.7
Mexico 407.2 3.0 Germany 279.8 3.6
Switzerland 288.0 2.1 Italy 278.5 3.6
Spain 249.2 1.8 Mexico 234.1 3.1
Other Asia, n.e.s 223.5 1.6 Singapore 198.8 2.6
Netherlands 222.6 1.6 Spain 153.4 2.0
Singapore 157.3 1.2 Netherlands 148.0 1.9
Republic of Korea 151.9 1.1 Thailand 123.8 1.6
Rest of available countries 1,252.6 9.2 Rest of available countries 851.6 11.1
- 71 -
Annex I
Table IV–2 Top 15 partner countries of China, 1994 and 2003
Exports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 5,821.3 World 1,091.3
United States of America 2,019.9 34.7 United States of America 341.2 31.3
Hong Kong, China 1,040.5 17.9 Hong Kong, China 215.6 19.8
Netherlands 843.3 14.5 Japan 122.7 11.2
Japan 385.9 6.6 Germany 56.5 5.2
United Kingdom 376.9 6.5 United Kingdom 52.5 4.8
Canada 137.1 2.4 Spain 29.6 2.7
Germany 135.2 2.3 Netherlands 29.1 2.7
Australia 118.4 2.0 France 22.1 2.0
Italy 69.5 1.2 Canada 21.5 2.0
Other Asia, n.e.s. 62.2 1.1 Singapore 20.7 1.9
Spain 55.1 0.9 Italy 18.7 1.7
France 47.1 0.8 Other Asia, n.e.s. 17.3 1.6
United Arab Emirates 38.8 0.7 Australia 12.9 1.2
Republic of Korea 36.5 0.6 Saudi Arabia 9.4 0.9
Belgium 36.0 0.6 Russian Federation 7.9 0.7
Rest of available countries 418.8 7.2 Rest of available countries 113.5 10.4
Imports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 1,285.8 World 141.1
United States of America 285.5 22.2 United States of America 41.3 29.3
Germany 189.2 14.7 Hong Kong, China 35.0 24.8
Hong Kong, China 160.5 12.5 Japan 26.5 18.8
Singapore 131.4 10.2 Other Asia, n.e.s 15.7 11.2
Finland 91.2 7.1 Germany 4.34 3.1
Japan 82.5 6.4 Republic of Korea 4.16 3.0
Other Asia, n.e.s. 73.5 5.7 France 2.27 1.6
Ireland 60.8 4.7 Singapore 2.25 1.6
Free Zones 40.7 3.2 Italy 2.22 1.6
United Kingdom 33.0 2.6 United Kingdom 2.19 1.6
Republic of Korea 25.0 1.9 Free Zones 1.52 1.1
Australia 24.0 1.9 Canada 0.48 0.3
Denmark 15.7 1.2 Switzerland 0.36 0.3
France 13.3 1.0 Australia 0.30 0.2
Russian Federation 12.1 0.9 Macao, China 0.27 0.2
Rest of available countries 47.4 3.7 Rest of available countries 2.13 1.5
n.e.s. = Not elsewhere specified
- 72 -
Annex I
Table IV-3 Top 15 partner countries of South Africa, 2003
Exports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
World 64.1
United States of America 12.8 19.9
United Kingdom 10.4 16.2
Zambia 6.6 10.4
Mozambique 2.9 4.5
Zimbabwe 2.9 4.5
United Rep. of Tanzania 2.5 3.9
Malawi 2.4 3.7
Germany 2.0 3.2
Angola 1.9 2.9
Nigeria 1.7 2.6
Mauritius 1.7 2.6
Dem. Rep. of the Congo 1.6 2.5
Kenya 1.5 2.3
Australia 1.4 2.2
Netherlands 0.8 1.3
Rest of available countries 11.1 17.3
Imports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
World 322.6
United Kingdom 87.8 27.2
United States of America 68.8 21.3
Ireland 34.6 10.7
Germany 20.2 6.3
Areas, n.e.s. 19.1 5.9
China 16.7 5.2
Netherlands 8.3 2.6
France 6.6 2.1
Australia 5.8 1.8
Japan 5.2 1.6
Singapore 4.8 1.5
Italy 4.5 1.4
Other Asia, n.e.s. 4.3 1.3
Switzerland 4.0 1.2
Hong Kong, China 3.9 1.2
Rest of available countries 27.9 8.7
- 73 -
Annex I
Table IV-4 Top 15 partner countries of Brazil, 1994 and 2003
Exports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World
54.4
World
56.9
Portugal
15.7
28.9 Argentina
18.2
32.0
United States of America
14.1
25.9 Japan
16.4
28.8
Japan
6.5
11.9 Portugal
7.1
12.4
Colombia
2.4
4.4 United States of America
5.2
9.1
Chile
2.3
4.3 Italy
1.7
2.9
Argentina
2.2
4.0 Mexico
1.5
2.6
Mexico
2.1
3.8 Chile
0.87
1.5
Spain
1.8
3.3 Uruguay
0.87
1.5
France
1.1
1.9 France
0.61
1.1
South Africa
0.62
1.1 Spain
0.46
0.8
Angola
0.60
1.1 United Kingdom
0.45
0.8
Italy
0.58
1.1 South African Customs Union
0.42
0.7
Germany
0.43
0.8 Germany
0.37
0.6
United Kingdom
0.42
0.8 Switzerland
0.37
0.6
Peru
0.41
0.7 Colombia
0.30
0.5
Rest of available countries
3.2
5.9 Rest of available countries
2.2
3.9
Imports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World
105.7
World
166.0
United States of America
30.4
28.8 United States of America
68.5
41.3
United Kingdom
17.2
16.3 Japan
18.1
10.9
Spain
8.7
8.2 United Kingdom
15.9
9.6
China
5.5
5.2 Chile
15.6
9.4
Argentina
5.5
5.2 Germany
8.4
5.0
France
4.2
4.0 Portugal
5.3
3.2
Germany
4.2
4.0 Italy
5.1
3.1
Japan
3.8
3.6 Hong Kong, China
4.0
2.4
Peru
3.4
3.3 Spain
3.9
2.3
Uruguay
3.4
3.2 France
3.6
2.2
Portugal
3.1
2.9 Denmark
3.2
1.9
Hong Kong, China
3.1
2.9 Argentina
2.8
1.7
Chile
2.6
2.5 Netherlands
1.5
0.9
Italy
2.6
2.4 Other Asia, n.e.s.
1.5
0.9
Sweden
1.1
1.0 Mexico
1.4
0.8
Rest of available countries
6.9
6.6 Rest of available countries
7.2
4.3
n.e.s. = Not elsewhere specified
- 74 -
Annex I
Table IV-5 Top 15 partner countries of Egypt, 1994 and 2002
Exports
Value 2002 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 10.72 World 15.48
Saudi Arabia 1.66 15.5 Saudi Arabia 3.96 25.6
United States of America 0.87 8.1 United States of America 1.31 8.5
Libya 0.81 7.6 United Arab Emirates 1.29 8.3
Yemen 0.72 6.7 Kuwait 0.89 5.7
Algeria 0.71 6.6 Germany 0.64 4.2
United Arab Emirates 0.66 6.2 Morocco 0.63 4.1
Lebanon 0.64 5.9 Israel 0.54 3.5
United Kingdom 0.39 3.7 France 0.51 3.3
Kuwait 0.32 3.0 Oman 0.48 3.1
Morocco 0.30 2.8 Bahrain 0.45 2.9
France 0.28 2.6 Qatar 0.43 2.8
Malaysia 0.27 2.5 United Kingdom 0.41 2.7
Oman 0.23 2.1 Greece 0.37 2.4
Jordan 0.23 2.1 Lebanon 0.36 2.4
Germany 0.22 2.1 Sudan 0.30 2.0
Rest of available countries 2.42 22.6 Rest of available countries 2.89 18.7
Imports
Value 2002 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 33.21 World 22.1
United Kingdom 7.23 21.8 United Kingdom 5.1 22.9
China 6.37 19.2 Lebanon 2.6 11.6
United States of America 2.93 8.8 United States of America 2.3 10.3
Lebanon 2.91 8.8 China 2.3 10.3
Germany 1.90 5.7 Germany 1.5 6.6
United Arab Emirates 1.57 4.7 Italy 0.9 4.3
France 1.36 4.1 Kuwait 0.9 4.2
Italy 1.25 3.8 France 0.8 3.6
Kuwait 1.11 3.3 Netherlands 0.8 3.6
Saudi Arabia 0.89 2.7 United Arab Emirates 0.8 3.5
Syria 0.70 2.1 Hong Kong, China 0.8 3.4
Qatar 0.39 1.2 Spain 0.5 2.3
Japan 0.36 1.1 Free Zones 0.3 1.4
Spain 0.34 1.0 Switzerland 0.3 1.4
Greece 0.32 1.0 Other Asia, n.e.s. 0.3 1.4
Rest of available countries 3.57 10.8 Rest of available countries 2.0 9.2
n.e.s. = Not elsewhere specified
- 75 -
Annex I
Tables V Top 20 importers and exporters for the main core cultural goods categories
Table V-1 Heritage goods
Heritage goods
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 1,807.4 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,579.0 87.4
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United Kingdom
1,052.6
58.2 -6.3
(a)
5.2
2 France
189.2
10.5 -6.2 1.0
3 United States of America
143.2
7.9 -31.4 8.3
4 Switzerland
120.2
6.7 24.2 -5.9
5 Germany
73.9
4.1 -10.7 6.0
6 Belgium
35.4
2.0 -12.9 -3.4
(b)
7 Canada
27.5
1.5 -13.5 -9.7
8 Norway
23.7
1.3 372.2 1.4
9 Zimbabwe
18.5
1.0 71.8 44.0
(c)
10 Denmark
16.7
0.9 -21.2 31.2
11 Netherlands
15.4
0.8 -16.0 -9.1
12 Austria
13.8
0.8 -0.5 0.0
13 Italy
9.9
0.5 -7.7 1.7
14 Australia
9.7
0.5 -30.9 7.1
15 South Africa
9.3
0.5 87.8 4.8
(c)
16 Japan
8.1
0.4 -76.8 11.4
17 Sweden
7.5
0.4 21.8 8.2
18 Ireland
5.4
0.3 -52.3 -8.1
19 Singapore
3.7
0.2 -42.7 25.0
20 Poland
3.3
0.2 1.7 -1.0
Heritage goods
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 2,644.2 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 2,322.1 60.04
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America
1394.2
52.7 -3.7 8.0
2 United Kingdom
673.2
25.5 24.5 2.2
3 Switzerland
99.0
3.7 -25.2 -5.1
4 Hong Kong, China
89.2
3.4 -30.4 8.7
5 France
66.5
2.5 14.2 5.4
6 Japan
50.7
1.9 0.5 -7.2
7 Germany
42.3
1.6 -25.7 -5.5
8 Canada
32.9
1.2 -94.3 7.2
9 Belgium
30.6
1.2
(b)
-4.0 -10.0
(b)
10 Australia
22.4
0.8 9.5 -5.1
11 Netherlands
20.5
0.8 -64.8 -0.3
12 Czech Republic
19.7
0.7 97.8 57.4
13 Austria
16.0
0.6 -6.2 6.5
14 Italy
10.8
0.4 -7.2 3.8
15 Spain
9.1
0.3 7.7 2.8
16 Sweden
8.7
0.3 27.0 22.1
17 Republic of Korea
6.5
0.2 8.0 -9.6
18 Denmark
5.2
0.2 -66.2 -4.1
19 Singapore
4.9
0.2 -4.6 -8.8
20 Poland
4.9
0.2 43.0 15.6
(a): Average between 2000 and 2002.
(b): 1999/2002. (c): 1995/2002.
- 76 -
Annex I
Table V-2 Books
Books
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 10,835.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 6,189.5 57.1
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 1,921.4 17.7 -3.3 0.4
2 United Kingdom 1,805.7 16.7 7.0 2.5
3 Germany 1,257.8 11.6 8.8 4.8
4 Spain 686.0 6.3 -3.7 5.0
5 France 518.5 4.8 -0.8 -0.6
6 Italy 510.3 4.7 -0.9 1.1
7 China 409.1 3.8 17.0 25.3
8 Canada 396.0 3.7 -1.5 10.6
9 Belgium 362.1 3.3 -1.5 -2.6
(a)
10 Singapore 349.9 3.2 -4.9 -0.1
11 Hong Kong, China 258.4 2.4 -3.9 -3.7
12 Netherlands 253.7 2.3 2.1 -2.2
13 Russian Federation 240.2 2.2 -5.8 -1.4
(b)
14 Switzerland 147.2 1.4 10.6 -4.5
15 Mexico 119.6 1.1 -0.2 5.6
16 Denmark 110.7 1.0 8.2 -1.3
17 Japan 107.5 1.0 -5.7 -7.6
18 Sweden 95.4 0.9 18.9 2.3
19 Ireland 93.8 0.9 -7.2 7.0
20 Malaysia 93.1 0.9 8.7 9.1
Books
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 11,738.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 5,555.0 47.3
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual
% change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 2,090.0 17.8 2.2 8.0
2 United Kingdom 1,272.8 10.8 13.3 2.2
3 Canada 1,019.3 8.7 6.3 -5.1
4 Germany 631.6 5.4 -3.6 8.7
5 France 541.3 4.6 -4.4 5.4
6 Hong Kong, China 472.7 4.0 5.9 -7.2
7 Mexico 414.5 3.5 2.3 -5.5
8 Switzerland 402.3 3.4 2.9 7.2
9 Japan 329.8 2.8 2.0 -10.0
10 Belgium 363.4 3.1 -0.1 -5.1
(a)
11 Australia 307.6 2.6 5.2 -0.3
12 Austria 258.5 2.2 -17.0 57.4
13 Italy 231.5 2.0 9.4 6.5
14 Netherlands 230.7 2.0 -5.6 3.8
15 Singapore 199.2 1.7 -0.6 2.8
16 Spain 196.4 1.7 17.4 22.1
17 Ireland 153.0 1.3 4.1 -9.6
18 Sweden 148.8 1.3 0.3 -4.1
19 Republic of Korea 120.5 1.0 2.6 -8.8
20 Denmark 115.1 1.0 -1.0 15.6
(a): 1999/2002.
(b): 1996/2002.
- 77 -
Annex I
Table V–3 Newspapers and periodicals
Newspapers and periodicals
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 4,398.3 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 2,954.0 66.9
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 880.5 20.0 -5.3 0.8
2 United Kingdom 745.0 16.9 30.8 5.5
3 Germany 711.1 16.2 7.8 -2.5
4 France 368.7 8.4 -4.2 -0.6
5 Spain 238.8 5.4 2.8 8.9
6 Italy 202.3 4.6 4.4 -0.2
7 Canada 160.9 3.7 10.4 2.1
8 Belgium 146.6 3.3 26.5 1.4
(a)
9 Netherlands 142.8 3.2 2.0 1.3
10 Finland 126.1 2.9 5.1 5.3
11 Austria 54.4 1.2 1.1 -5.0
12 Poland 49.8 1.1 30.0 36.4
13 Denmark 48.2 1.1 -25.1 0.0
14 Slovakia 42.5 1.0 4.2 13.6
15 Switzerland 41.0 0.9 -20.7 -7.8
16 Singapore 35.9 0.8 5.2 0.8
17 Hong Kong, China 35.1 0.8 -20.1 -1.3
18 Japan 34.4 0.8 -2.8 -4.3
19 Czech Republic 34.3 0.8 1.9 18.9
20 Mexico 32.9 0.7 -6.1 10.8
Newspapers and periodicals
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 4,675.1 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,983.4 42.4
2001/2002
% change in $
value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 Canada 646.7 13.8 -4.1 0.6
2 France 402.0 8.6 6.6 2.3
3 Germany 328.7 7.0 3.3 0.8
4 United States of America 303.1 6.5 4.7 3.6
5 Switzerland 303.0 6.5 12.4 0.0
6 United Kingdom 300.9 6.4 25.8 8.2
7 Belgium 259.2 5.5 0.5 -6.2
(a)
8 Italy 180.0 3.9 -3.6 6.6
9 Spain 165.9 3.5 7.9 5.2
10 Austria 164.4 3.5 16.8 -5.1
11 Russian Federation 164.3 3.5 16.5 -4.1
(b)
12 Australia 150.1 3.2 0.2 -1.0
13 Japan 127.1 2.7 -19.3 -2.6
14 Netherlands 92.1 2.0 -1.6 -3.1
15 Portugal 91.9 2.0 9.0 5.3
16 Ireland 87.6 1.9 5.1 1.5
17 Mexico 73.0 1.6 2.4 -3.1
18 Sweden 57.6 1.2 19.1 -4.7
19 New Zealand 56.7 1.2 8.9 -0.8
20 China 52.7 1.1 32.6 26.0
(a): 1999/2002.
(b): 1996/2002
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Annex I
Table V–4 Other printed matter
Other printed matter
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 2,158.9 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,315.5 60.9
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 400.7 18.6 -1.1 3.7
2 Germany 274.8 12.7 16.7 -0.3
3 United Kingdom 274.6 12.7 34.9 3.6
4 Canada 252.8 11.7 23.8 12.4
5 Italy 112.6 5.2 27.5 0.4
6 France 104.7 4.8 27.9 5.1
7 China 92.4 4.3 42.4 15.9
8 Switzerland 91.6 4.2 11.8 -2.9
9 Mexico 61.8 2.9 14.6 10.6
10 Belgium 51.3 2.4 18.9 -8.0
(a)
11 Netherlands 50.1 2.3 21.1 -1.0
12 Spain 45.4 2.1 29.2 13.6
13 Sweden 34.8 1.6 21.5 1.4
14 Denmark 32.0 1.5 -20 -0.3
15 Republic of Korea 24.9 1.2 -0.9 1.0
16 Austria 22.7 1.1 1.2 -0.8
17 Finland 20.8 1.0 17.5 7.0
18 Australia 18.2 0.8 46.9 6.0
19 Hong Kong, China 18.1 0.8 1.4 -6.2
20 Russian Federation 16.5 0.8 -20.1 7.1
(b)
Other printed matter
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 2,620.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,445.2 55.2
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 673.3 25.7 18.2 8.7
2 Canada 264.6 10.1 -7.6 6.9
3 United Kingdom 200.4 7.6 3.4 4.2
4 Germany 190.2 7.3 11.7 0.6
5 France 116.7 4.5 6.8 -0.7
6 Spain 112.4 4.3 28.9 17.1
7 Netherlands 112.1 4.3 8.8 3.7
8 Switzerland 105.0 4.0 5.7 0.1
9 Hong Kong, China 90.0 3.4 -0.3 6.3
10 Japan 70.1 2.7 4.8 -1.7
11 Mexico 65.3 2.5 38.3 3.1
12 Austria 56.6 2.2 18.6 -2.5
13 Belgium 53.0 2.0 7.2 6.6
(a)
14 Australia 47.5 1.8 14.9 -5.6
15 Republic of Korea 40.6 1.5 52.2 25.0
16 Italy 36.5 1.4 8.5 1.3
17 Denmark 33.7 1.3 2.0 4.0
18 Norway 32.7 1.2 3.1 0.9
19 Sweden 28.5 1.1 -2.6 -3.4
20 Ireland 25.4 1.0 19.3 3.5
(a): 1999/2002
(b): 1996/2002
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Annex I
Table V-5 Recorded media
Recorded media
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 18,509.4 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 10,670.5 57.6
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 3,068.8 16.6 -3.9 -2.4
2 Germany 2,281.0 12.3 72.1 7.9
3 Ireland 2,128.2 11.5 -28.9 -0.9
4 United Kingdom 1,640.2 8.9 15.3 4.6
5 Singapore 1,552.3 8.4 -9.5 18.5
6 Austria 1,261.2 6.8 18.9 20.5
7 Netherlands 955.7 5.2 -20.4 -0.3
8 France 741.2 4.0 25.2 6.4
9 Sweden 644.9 3.5 46.2 21.5
10 Japan 371.5 2.0 7.4 2.8
11 Canada 357.4 1.9 -4.2 3.3
12 Belgium 351.9 1.9 7.4 2.1
(a)
13 Spain 258.7 1.4 43.5 24.7
14 China 254.9 1.4 40.0 29.9
15 Hong Kong, China 254.5 1.4 1.0 27.6
16 Switzerland 254.2 1.4 5.6 -4.6
17 Denmark 194.5 1.1 -12.0 3.6
18 India 191.3 1.0 6.8 10.2
19 Republic of Korea 174.9 0.9 -10.9 27.4
20 Mexico 146.0 0.8 6.6 14.3
Recorded media
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 19,394.7 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 7,369.2 38.0
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average annual
% change
(1994/2002)
1 United Kingdom 1,953.9 10.1 14.3 6.2
2 Germany 1,487.8 7.7 2.2 -1.3
3 France 1,397.7 7.2 21.9 6.1
4 United States of America 1,358.3 7.0 4.5 7.2
5 Canada 1,171.5 6.0 1.6 1.5
6 Italy 992.0 5.1 5.0 13.4
7 China 873.4 4.5 8.2 39.9
8 Switzerland 821.1 4.2 -9.2 5.3
9 Japan 777.8 4.0 -14.2 0.2
10 India 708.0 3.7 60.7 37.7
11 Belgium 639.0 3.3 31.6 4.3
(a)
12 Republic of Korea 638.9 3.3 9.7 8.2
13 Netherlands 627.0 3.2 7.1 -0.4
14 Spain 507.3 2.6 19.3 7.7
15 Austria 435.8 2.2 10.2 3.8
16 Sweden 425.4 2.2 8.3 4.7
17 Australia 378.4 2.0 10.2 -3.9
18 Other Asia, n.e.s. 375.5 1.9 -27.5 1.1
19 Mexico 364.6 1.9 -21.3 4.5
20 Hong Kong, China 278.7 1.4 -18.4 1.6
(a): 1999/2002.
n.e.s.: Not elsewhere specified.
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Annex I
Table V-6 Visual arts
Visual arts
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 974.1 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 7,090.3 72.8
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual
% change
(1994/2002)
1 United Kingdom 2,700.2 27.7 36.4
(a)
9.4
2 China 2,229.6 22.9 39.6 14.1
3 United States of America 889.1 9.1 -27.8 -2.2
4 Switzerland 720.4 7.4 61.6 2.7
5 Germany 550.9 5.7 13.1 1.3
6 France 505.3 5.2 -13.8 2.2
7 Italy 273.5 2.8 11.7 -4.0
8 Spain 255.2 2.6 40.8 5.6
9 Canada 162.2 1.7 -23.0 11.8
10 Belgium 119.5 1.2 34.8 5.1
(b)
11 Mexico 111.7 1.1 11.8 6.7
12 Netherlands 108.7 1.1 -1.6 -5.9
13 Portugal 105.7 1.1 14.5 -5.6
14 Philippines 98.3 1.0 35.5 -3.8
15 Indonesia 85.4 0.9 34.9 7.0
16 Denmark 75.9 0.8 9.9 7.3
17 Austria 71.6 0.7 -4.0 11.4
18 Morocco 70.9 0.7 1074.0 43.5
19 Republic of Korea 69.1 0.7 73.4 -2.6
20 Japan 60.4 0.6 -19.9 -0.6
Visual arts
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 12,911.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 10,021.1 77.6
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 5,425.7 42.0 -2.8 8.9
2 United Kingdom 2,759.6 21.4 9.5 6.9
3 Switzerland 665.6 5.2 -23.5 4.3
4 Germany 592.7 4.6 -27.6 -1.1
5 Hong Kong, China 577.6 4.5 -2.2 5.3
6 Japan 397.7 3.1 -1.4 -6.5
7 France 355.3 2.8 7.6 1.3
8 Italy 305.5 2.4 52.1 11.7
9 Spain 220.6 1.7 -35.6 -10.8
10 Canada 190.1 1.5 22.3 6.9
11 Netherlands 186.5 1.4 -4.6 3.8
12 Belgium 117.0 0.9 5.1 3.0
(b)
13 Austria 94.8 0.7 6.5 3.6
14 Australia 89.3 0.7 12.2 3.6
15 Republic of Korea 73.2 0.6 72.5 1.9
16 Mexico 71.9 0.6 8.7 4.9
17 Sweden 69.2 0.5 47.8 3.7
18 Denmark 61.9 0.5 -4.3 7.8
19 Singapore 42.0 0.3 -11.1 -6.4
20 Israel 41.4 0.3 -36.2 4.3
(a): Annual change between 2000 and 2002:
(b): 1999/2002.
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Annex I
Table V–7 Audiovisual media
Audiovisual media
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 7,216.4 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 5,548.5 76.9
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 China 2,281.8 31.6 230.2 38.6
2 Japan 1,208.1 16.7 83.3 23.2
3 Mexico 771.9 10.7 351.9 38.3
4 Hungary 647.2 9.0 89.1 90.9
5 Germany 639.5 8.9 299.4 27.4
6 United States of America 344.8 4.8 16.1 3.5
7 United Kingdom 330.5 4.6 157.0 3.0
8 Canada 220.6 3.1 43.4 16.6
9 Italy 128.1 1.8 77.0 16.3
10 France 93.7 1.3 16.6 -1.1
11 Belgium 63.2 0.9 -9.0 4.4
(a)
12 Austria 52.5 0.7 42.3 24.1
13 Spain 47.4 0.7 -26.1 15.0
14 Republic of Korea 43.0 0.6 -16.0 -8.0
15 Australia 42.0 0.6 76.4 44.9
16 Singapore 41.4 0.6 17.6 9.5
17 Norway 40.3 0.6 27.7 73.0
18 Malaysia 32.4 0.4 1650.3 -7.3
19 Sweden 28.9 0.4 63.5 13.1
20 Finland 23.7 0.3 59.0 37.2
Audiovisual media
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 9,685.5 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 6,878.0 71.0
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 4,093.9 42.3 9.0 12.6
2 Germany 888.9 9.2 234.2 15.3
3 United Kingdom 711.2 7.3 128.6 23.1
4 Hong Kong, China 656.7 6.8 324.6 18.2
5 France 527.3 5.4 32.1 9.8
6 Canada 504.8 5.2 21.7 11.1
7 Spain 273.0 2.8 9.9 15.1
8 Japan 261.1 2.7 -29.1 25.1
9 Australia 214.7 2.2 344.4 22.8
10 Singapore 177.5 1.8 42.6 21.3
11 Mexico 158.7 1.6 157.2 20.8
12 Netherlands 156.7 1.6 -79.6 18.3
13 Republic of Korea 119.2 1.2 28.2 5.4
14 Sweden 92.0 1.0 70.0 15.5
15 Belgium 82.3 0.8 12.1 -18.4
(a)
16 Switzerland 70.1 0.7 24.9 7.7
17 Norway 69.4 0.7 142.7 25.3
18 Italy 63.2 0.7 -19.5 -2.1
19 China 57.8 0.6 -2.5 29.4
20 Portugal 52.8 0.5 111.8 15.4
(a): 1999/2002.
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Annex I
Table VI Detailed trade in cultural services for a selected number of countries
EXPORTS
IMPORTS
EBOPS
EBOPS CATEGORIES OR NATIONAL
CATEGORIES
Million
US$ in
2002
Annual
% change
2001-2002
Average
annual %
change
1994-2002
Million
US$ in
2002
Annual %
change
2001-2002
Average
annual %
change
(1994-2002)
AUSTRALIA
200 Total Services (billion US$) 17,887.5 7 2.9 1,8071.1 7 1.99
264 Information Services 12 34 4.5 25 -15 12.85
889 News agency Services 3 -43 .. 5 -73 ..
890 Other information provision Services 9 155 .. 20 77 ..
892 Other cultural royalties and license fees (a) 168 -16 -14.9 362 26 -2.97
Music (a) 35 20 -1.8 120 8 0.41
Computer software (a) 78 -30 -28.3 227 21 -5.19
Other (a) 55 -7 33.2 135 35 1.28
280 Architectural Services (a) 12 93 27.2 1 .. ..
288 Audiovisual and related Services 57 20 -2.5 399 22 2.10
289
Other cultural and recreational Services
126 19 7.7 442 24 3.41
897 Other (2) 70 19 .. 43 43 ..
CANADA
200 Total Services (billion US$) 37,165 -2 6 42,473 -2 3.4
266 Royalties and license fees 3,035 -5 28 4,379 0 10.1
892 Other royalties and license fees 1,629 -3 25 3,077 1 10.7
Copyrights and related rights 210 -9 25 368 8 8.6
Software and other royalties 1,197 -7 36 934 -3 8.9
288 Audiovisual and related Services 1,304 -2 13 1,541 10 9.1
CZECH REPUBLIC
200 Total Services (billion US$) 6,975 -0.1 4 6,308 16 4
264 Information Services 5 -8 .. 8 66 ..
889 News agency Services .. ..
890 Other information provision Services 5 -8 .. 8 66 ..
288 Audiovisual and related Services (b) 26 14 - 9 22 21 - 29
289 Other cultural and recreational Services (b) 136 -1 27 155 25 4
897 Other (c) 110 -4 - 13 133 25 4
NEW ZEALAND
200 Total Services (billion US$) 5,121 17 4 4,726.2 11 2
266 Royalties and license fees 87 56 23 346 10 5
Software royalties and license fees 25 26 .. 85 69 ..
Other 62 72 .. 261 -1 ..
UNITED STATES
200 Total Services billion US$) 288,723 1 5 227,380 4 7
266 Royalties and license fees 44,142 7 6 19,258 15 16
892 Other royalties and license fees (3) 38,212 -3 5 18,522 13 16
Books, records, and tapes (3) 523 0 8 346 13 13
Broadcasting and recording of live events (3) 277 59 6 946 622 16
General use computer software (3) (4) (b) 4,824 -4 12 481 6 0
Other (3) (4) 32,879 11 5 15,319 12 17
288 Audiovisual and related Services 6,919 5 15 149 48 1
Source: UIS based on data from Statistics on International Trade in Services, Volume I, OECD / Eurostat, 2004.
(1) This category contains more categories than displayed.
(2) Health Services credits for 2000 are included under Other personal, cultural and recreational Services, Other.
(3)
Royalties and license fees receipts and payments between affiliated enterprises are included in item Other royalties and license fees, Other.
(4)
Prior to 1997, General use computer software royalties and license fees are included in Other.
(a)
1999-2002; (b) : 1997-2002; (c): 1998-2002
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Annex II
Annex II: Glossary
Balance of Payments: statistical statement
that systematically summarises, for a specific
time period, the economic transactions of an
economy with the rest of the world. A
transaction itself is defined as an economic
flow that reflects the creation, transformation,
exchange, transfer or extinction of economic
value and involves changes in ownership of
goods and/or financial assets, the provision of
services, or the provision of labour and
capital.
Creative industries: Industries which include
the cultural industries plus all cultural or
artistic production, whether live or produced
as an individual unit. The creative industries
are those in which the product or service
contains a substantial element of artistic or
creative endeavour (WIPO, 2003).
Cultural industries: Industries which
combine the creation, production and
commercialisation of creative contents which
are intangible and cultural in nature. These
contents are typically protected by copyright
and they can take the form of a good or a
service. Cultural industries generally include
printing, publishing and multimedia, audio-
visual, phonographic and cinematographic
productions, as well as crafts and design.
Cultural goods: Consumer goods which
convey ideas, symbols, and ways of life. They
inform or entertain, contribute to build
collective identity and influence cultural
practices. They are the result of individual or
collective creativity.
Cultural products: Combination of cultural
goods and cultural services.
Cultural services: Consist of the overall set
of measures and supporting facilities for
cultural practices that government, private and
semi-public institutions or companies make
available to the community. Examples of such
services include the promotion of perform-
ances and cultural events as well as cultural
information and preservation (libraries, docu-
mentation centres and museums). Cultural
services may be offered for free or on a
commercial basis (Alonso Cano et al., 2000).
International trade in services: Trade
between residents and non-residents of an
economy. It also includes the value of services
provided through foreign affiliates established
abroad, described here as foreign affiliates
trade in services (FATS). Services are also
supplied by individuals located abroad, either
as service suppliers themselves or employed
by service suppliers including those in the host
country (UN et al., 2002).
Re-exports: Foreign goods exported from
any part of the economic territory of a country
in the same state as previously imported
(UNSD, 2004).
General Agreement on Trade in Services
GATS: Set of legally enforceable disciplines
and rules negotiated and agreed at the world
level to cover international trade in services. It
identifies four modes of supplies: cross
border, consumption abroad, commercial
presence and presence of natural persons.
Distinctions are made based on whether the
service supplier, the consumer, or neither,
moves from one country to another for the
transaction to be effected (UN et al, 2002).
Services: Heterogeneous range of intangible
products and activities defined by the System
of National Accounts 1993 as: “a group of
industries, generally classified as service
industries which produce outputs that have
many characteristics of goods, i.e. those
concerned with the provision, storage
- 84 -
Annex II
communication and dissemination of
information, advice and entertainment in the
broadest sense of those terms the production
of general or specialised information, news,
computer programs, movies, music” (UN et
al., 2002).
Audiovisual and related services: Services
and associated fees related to the production
post production, distribution, broadcasting
and projection of motion pictures (on film or
videotape), radio and television programmes
(live or on tape) and musical recordings (UN
et al., 2002).
Other personal, cultural and recreational
services: Services such as those associated
with museums, libraries, archives and other
cultural, sporting and recreational activities
including performing arts and live
entertainment (UN et al., 2002).
Information services consist of:
News agency services: Include the
provision of news, photographs, and feature
articles to the media.
Other information provision services
include database services. Also include direct,
non-bulk subscriptions to newspapers and
periodicals, whether by mail, electronic
transmission or by other means (UN et al.,
2002).
Other royalties and license fees: Include
international payments and receipts for the
authorised use of intangible, non-produced,
non-financial assets and proprietary rights
(such as patents, copyrights and industrial
processes and designs) and with the use,
through licensing agreements, of produced
originals or prototypes (such as manuscripts,
computer programs, and cinematographic
works and sound recordings) (UN et al.,
2002).
Advertising, market research and public
opinion polling services: Cover the design,
creation and marketing of advertisements by
advertising agencies; media placement,
including the purchase and sale of advertising
space; exhibition services provided by trade
fairs; the promotion of products abroad;
market research; telemarketing; and public
opinion polling on various issues (UN et al.,
2002).
Architectural, engineering and other
technical services: cover transactions
between residents and non-residents related to
architectural design of urban and other
development projects; planning and project
design and supervision of dams, bridges,
airports, turnkey projects, etc.; surveying;
cartography; product testing and certification;
and technical inspection services. Mining
engineering is excluded and included in
mining services (UN et al., 2002).
- 85 -
Annex III
Annex III: UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics (FCS)
0 CULTURAL HERITAGE
0.1 Historical monuments
0.2 Archaeological heritage
0.3 Musicological heritage
0.4 Archival heritage
0.5 Other forms of cultural heritage
1 PRINTED MATTER AND LITERATURE
1.1 Books and pamphlets
1.2 Newspapers and periodicals
1.3 Library services
2 & 3 MUSIC AND THE PERFORMING ARTS
2.1 Live music
2.2 Music theatre
3.1 Drama theatre
3.2 Dance
3.3 Other performing arts (circus, pantomime, etc.)
2/3 Common issues of which
audio and audiovisual records
4 VISUAL ARTS
Group A
4.1 Painting
4.2 Sculpture
4.3 Graphic arts
4.4 Art handicrafts
4.5 Other forms of visual arts
Group B
4.6 Photography
4.6.1 Creative-artistic photography
4.6.2 Other photography
5 & 6 AUDIO AND AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA
5 CINEMA AND PHOTOGRAPHY
5.1 Cinema
5.2 Photography
6 RADIO AND TELEVISION
6.1 Radio
6.2 Television
5/6 Video
7 SOCIO-CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
7.1 Associate life
7.2 Multipurpose socio-cultural facilities
7.3 Socio-cultural practices
7.3.1 Individual practices
7.3.2 Family life
7.3.3 Community life
7.4 Intercategory data
Tourism
8 SPORTS AND GAMES
9 ENVIRONMENT AND NATURE
9.1 Natural environment
9.2 Urban environment (quality of life in the urban setting)
- 86 -
Annex IV
- 87 -
Annex IV: Maps
A. Countries covered in the report
Country which is:
part of the study
not part of the study
UIS based on UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Annex IV
- 88 -
B. Countries by levels of income
Type of Economies:
Low-income economies
Lower-middle-income economies
Upper-middle-income economies
High-income economies
Data not available
UIS based on UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Annex V
- 89 -
Annex V: List of Products Used in the Report
A. List of codes used for cultural services (EBOPS, CPC)
Core cultural Services
EBOPS CPC
6
, Version 1.1
288 Audiovisual and related Services 9 Community, social and personal services
96 Recreational, cultural and sporting services
961 Audiovisual and related services
96111 Sound recording services
96112 Audio post-production services
96121 Motion picture, video tape and television programme production services
96122 Radio programme production services
96130 Audiovisual production support services
96141 Motion picture and television programme distribution services
96142 Film and video post-production services
96149 Other services related to the production of motion pictures and television and radio programmes
96151 Motion picture projection services
96152 Video tape projection services
96160 Broadcasting (programming and scheduling) services
73 Leasing or rental services without operator
73210 Leasing or rental services concerning televisions, radios, video cassette recorders and related equipment and
accessories
73220 Leasing or rental services concerning videotape
266 Royalties and license fees
Copyrights 733 Licensing services for the right to use non-financial intangible assets
7331 Licensing services for the right to use computer software
7332 Licensing services for the right to use entertainment, literary or acoustic originals
7339 Licensing services for the right to use other non-financial intangible assets
6
CPC: The Central Product Classification was used to describe the balance of payments services components recommended in BPM5. It serves as a guideline for the
elaboration of such classifications for specific areas of the economy, including international trade in services.
Annex V
- 90 -
897 Other personal, cultural, and recreational services*
EBOPS
CPC,
Version
1.1
897 Cultural services Recreational, cultural and sporting services
96210 Performing arts event promotion and organization services
96220 Performing arts event production and presentation services
96230 Performing arts facility operation services
96290 Other performing arts and live entertainment services
96310 Services of performing artists
96320 Services of authors, composers, sculptors and other artists, except performing artists
897 Personal services
Library and archive services
84510 Library services
84520 Archive services
Recreational, cultural and sporting services
96411 Museum services except for historical sites and buildings
96412 Preservation services of historical sites and buildings
*Presently no data available for this category.
Related cultural Services
278 Advertising, market research, and public opinion
polling
83610 Planning, creating and placement services of advertising
83690 Other advertising services
85970 Trade fair and exhibition organization services
280 Architectural, engineering, and other technical
services
832 Architectural Services and urban planning and landscape architectural services
83211 Architectural advisory and pre-design services
83212 Architectural design and contract administration services
83219 Other architectural services
889 News agency services News agency Services
84410 News agency services to newspapers and periodicals
84420 News agency services to audiovisual media
Note: Categories in italics are not uniformly agreed upon in the international community as cultural services.
Annex V
B. List of codes used for cultural goods in Harmonised System (HS) and Standard International Trade Classification,
Revision 3 (SITC REV. 3)
CORE CULTURAL PRODUCTS
FCS category SITC 3 SITC 3 label HS 96 HS 96 label
0. Cultural heritage
8965* Collections and collectors’ pieces of zoological, botanical,
mineralogical, anatomical, historical, archaeological,
paleontological, ethnographic or numismatic interest
9705 Collections and collectors pieces
Antiques 8966 Antiques of an age exceeding 100 years 9706 Antiques of an age exceeding 100 years
1. Printed matter 892 Printed matter 49 Printed books, newspapers, pictures and other product, etc.
Books 89215 Books, brochures and similar printed matter, in sheets
89216 Dictionaries and encyclopaedias, not in single sheets
89219 Other books, brochures and similar, printed matter, excluding
sheets
4901 Printed reading books, brochures, leaflets, etc.
89212 Children’s picture, drawing or colouring books 4903 Children’s picture, drawing or colouring books
Newspapers and
periodicals
8922
Newspapers, journals and periodicals
4902 Newspapers, journals and periodicals, whether or not illustrated or
containing advertising material
Other printed matter
89285 Music, printed or in manuscript, whether or not bound or
illustrated
4904 Music, printed or in manuscript, whether or not bound or illustrated
89213 Maps and charts in book form
89214 Maps and hydrographic or similar charts of all kinds (including
wall maps, topographical plans and globes), printed, not in book
form
4905 Maps and hydrographic or similar charts, including atlases, wall maps
8924 Postcards, personal greeting, message or announcement cards,
and transfers (decalcomanias), printed by any process
4909 Postcards, printed or illustrated; printed greeting cards
89284 Calendars of any kind, printed (including calendar blocks) 4910 Calendars of any kind, printed, including calendar blocks
89287 Pictures, designs and photographs 491191 Pictures, designs and photographs
8964 Postage or revenue stamps, stamp-postmarks, first-day covers,
postal stationery (stamped paper) and the like, used, or if unused
not of current or new issue in the country to which they are
destined
9704 Used postage/revenue stamps and the like/unused not of
current/new issue
2 & 3 Music and the
performing arts
Recorded media 89871 Gramophone records 852410 Gramophone records
89879* Recorded media, n.e.s. 852432 Discs for laser reading systems for reproducing sound only
89861 Magnetic tape recorded of a width not >4mm 852451 Magnetic tape recorded (excl. 852440) of a width not >4mm
89865 Magnetic tape recorded of a width not 4mm
In today’s world, music, books, crafts, films and many other cultural goods and services move across international borders, creating a complex picture of cultural trade flows. Cultural and creative industries alone are estimated to account for over 7% of the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
INTERNATIONAL FLOWS OF SELECTED
CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES, 1994-2003
Defining and capturing the flows of global cultural trade
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UNESCO Sector for Culture
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Montreal, 2005
UNESCO
The constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) was adopted by 20 countries at the London Conference in November 1945 and entered
into effect on 4 November 1946. The Organization currently has 191 Member States and six
Associate Members.
The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the world by promoting
collaboration among nations through education, science, culture and communication in order to
foster universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and the human rights and fundamental freedoms
that are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion,
by the Charter of the United Nations.
To fulfil its mandate, UNESCO performs five principal functions: 1) prospective studies on
education, science, culture and communication for tomorrow's world; 2) the advancement, transfer
and sharing of knowledge through research, training and teaching activities; 3) standard-setting
actions for the preparation and adoption of internal instruments and statutory recommendations; 4)
expertise through technical co-operation to Member States for their development policies and
projects; and 5) the exchange of specialized information.
UNESCO is headquartered in Paris, France.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is the statistical office of UNESCO and is the UN
depository for global statistics in the fields of education, science and technology, culture and
communication.
The UIS was established in 1999. It was created to improve UNESCO's statistical programme and
to develop and deliver the timely, accurate and policy-relevant statistics needed in today's increasingly
complex and rapidly changing social, political and economic environments.
The UIS is based in Montreal, Canada.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
P.O. Box 6128, Succursale Centre-Ville
Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7
Canada
Tel: (1 514) 343-6880
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Email: [email protected]http://www.uis.unesco.org
ISBN 92-9189-023-5
©UNESCO-UIS 2005
Cover design: JCNicholls Design – www.oglethorpe.ca
Ref: UIS/AP/05-01
Acknowledgements
The development of this publication has been a joint undertaking by the UNESCO Institute
for Statistics (UIS), UNESCO’s Arts and Cultural Enterprise Division (ACE), and
UNESCO’s Cultural Policies and Intercultural Dialogue Division (CPD).
Under the direction of Denise Lievesley, Director of the UIS, Milagros del Corral, Director
of ACE, and Katérina Stenou, Director of CPD, this publication was prepared and
coordinated by Lydia Deloumeaux, the UIS project manager, with the support of Guiomar
Alonso Cano from ACE. Melika Medici and Aitor Mate from ACE also contributed
substantially to the development of this report.
This report is based on data extracted from the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics
database. The UIS and UNESCO gratefully acknowledge other international organizations
that have supplied additional information and statistics, in particular the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Bank, as well as other
specialised institutions.
The UIS and ACE would also like to express thanks to Moe Chiba (CPD), Véronique
Guèvremont (CPD), Laurence Mayer-Robitaille (CPD) and Mélanie Smuga (UIS) for their
participation in the preparation of this report.
Special thanks are due to S. Venkatraman (UIS) who helped in editing and commenting.
Thanks are also presented to Ivan Bernier (consultant), Lluis Bonet (consultant), Michael
Bruneforth (UIS), Olivier Labé (UIS), Joscelyn Magdeleine (WTO), Diane Stukel (UIS) and
Bertrand Tchatchoua (UIS) who provided valuable comments and other inputs. Katja
Frostell coordinated the production of this report in print.
- 3 -
Foreword
This report is a collaborative effort by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) and the UNESCO
Sector for Culture. It looks at cross-border trade in selected cultural goods and, for the first time,
examines trade in selected cultural services. Based on UNESCO’s Framework for Cultural Statistics, it
adopts a fresh approach to measuring cultural flows by distinguishing between ‘core’ and ‘related’
cultural goods and services. In so doing, it attempts to address some of the shortcomings of
statistical data in previous UNESCO studies which, while they pictured trade in cultural ‘hardware’
(TV and radio sets, musical instruments, audiovisual equipment and so forth), said very little about
the actual trade in ‘content’ cultural goods.
Thus the present report is a step forward by giving a global picture of the nature and direction of
international cultural trade flows. However, the paucity of the available data, notably with regard to
cultural services, coupled with the very complex nature of cultural products, prevent any but a partial
view from emerging. Cross-border trade in cultural goods and supply of cultural services as reflected
in the balance of payments are presumably the tip of the iceberg of the much larger phenomena of
cultural trade flows and exchanges with major economic, cultural and political implications. We hope
this report will contribute to a better understanding of the field.
Mounir Bouchenaki Denise Lievesley
Assistant Director-General Director, UNESCO
Culture Sector Institute for Statistics
- 4 -
Table of Contents
Executive summary .................................................................................................................. 9
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11
2. Methodological approach .................................................................................................. 13
2.1. New methodology.......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2. Description of data used ............................................................................................................... 16
2.3. Methodological issues.................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1. Limitations of available trade data ................................................................................. 17
2.3.2. Limitations due to the special nature of cultural products ......................................... 18
3. Evolution and patterns of international trade in cultural goods ....................................... 19
3.1. Brief overview................................................................................................................................... 19
3.2. Trade by region and economic areas ............................................................................................ 21
3.3. Trade by level of income................................................................................................................. 23
3.3.1. Main trends ........................................................................................................................... 24
3.3.2. Evaluating the cultural trade balance ................................................................................ 25
3.3.3. Identification of some trading countries .......................................................................... 27
3.4. Origin and destination of cultural goods: Five case studies....................................................... 29
3.5. Components of trade....................................................................................................................... 36
3.5.1. Heritage goods...................................................................................................................... 37
3.5.2. Printed media........................................................................................................................ 37
3.5.3. Recorded media.................................................................................................................... 38
3.5.4. Visual arts .............................................................................................................................. 41
3.5.5. Audiovisual media................................................................................................................ 42
4. Measuring international trade in cultural services ............................................................46
4.1 Audiovisual and related services .................................................................................................. 46
4.2 Other cultural services................................................................................................................... 49
References................................................................................................................................52
Technical notes........................................................................................................................54
Annexes....................................................................................................................................56
Annex I: Statistical tables..................................................................................................................... 56
Annex II: Glossary................................................................................................................................. 84
Annex III: UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics .................................................................. 86
Annex IV: Maps....................................................................................................................................... 87
A. Countries covered in the report............................................................................... 87
B. Countries by levels of income.................................................................................. 88
- 5 -
Annex V: List of products used in the report.................................................................................... 89
A. List of codes used for cultural services (EBOPS, CPC) ...................................... 89
B. List of codes used for cultural goods in Harmonised System (HS) and
Standard International Trade Classification Revision 3 (SITC REV. 3)............ 91
Annex VI: Composition of regions and economic groupings.......................................................... 95
A. Geographical zones ................................................................................................ 95
B. Economic zones...................................................................................................... 97
List of Figures
Figure 1: Composition of cultural products ............................................................................................ 14
Figure 2: Exports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002 ............................................................ 20
Figure 3: Imports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002............................................................ 20
Figure 4: Exports by region of core cultural goods, 2002..................................................................... 21
Figure 5: Imports by region of core cultural goods, 2002..................................................................... 22
Figure 6: Entertainment and media markets by region (in million US$), 2003.................................. 23
Figure 7: Total exports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002 .................................................... 24
Figure 8: Total imports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002.................................................... 25
Figure 9: Trade coverage ratio of core cultural goods by level of income, 1994-2002 ..................... 26
Figure 10: Exports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002 .................. 27
Figure 11: Imports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002 .................. 28
Figure 12: Trade partners of the United States of America’ exports of core cultural goods, 2003 .. 29
Figure 13: Trade partners of the United States of America’ imports of core cultural goods, 2003 . 30
Figure 14: Trade partners of Chinese exports of core cultural goods, 2003......................................... 31
Figure 15: Trade partners of Chinese imports of core cultural goods, 2003........................................ 31
Figure 16: Trade partners of South African exports of core cultural goods, 2003.............................. 32
Figure 17: Trade partners of South African imports of core cultural goods, 2003 ............................. 33
Figure 18: Total trade partners of Brazilian exports of core cultural goods, 2003 .............................. 34
Figure 19: Total trade partners of Brazilian imports of core cultural goods, 2003.............................. 34
Figure 20: Total trade partners of Egyptian exports of core cultural goods, 2002.............................. 35
Figure 21: Total trade partners of Egyptian imports of core cultural goods, 2002 ............................. 36
Figure 22: Repertoire origin as % of market value, 2002......................................................................... 39
Figure 23: Number of films produced in India and the United States of America, 1999-2003......... 44
Figure 24: Audiovisual and related services exports for a selection of countries, 2002...................... 46
Figure 25: Origin of first-time release feature films in a selection of countries, 2000-2002............... 47
Figure 26: Estimates of the trade in audiovisual programmes (TV only) between the European
Union and North America, 1995-2000............................................................................. 48
Figure 27: Collection of copyright income by region, 2002.................................................................... 51
List of Tables
Table 1: Trade of core cultural goods, 1994-2002................................................................................. 36
Table 2: Trade of related cultural goods, 1994-2002 ............................................................................ 45
Table 3: Selected detailed trade cultural services, 2001-2002 .............................................................. 50
- 6 -
List of Boxes
Box 1: Goods and services covered in the report ................................................................................. 15
Box 2: International flows of artisanal/handmade products................................................................ 16
Box 3: Global markets of cultural and creative industries .................................................................... 23
Box 4: The music sector: market of recorded media............................................................................. 39
Box 5: Capturing the value of intangible assets: The case of the Jamaican music copyrights......... 40
Box 6: The major role of India in the film industry ............................................................................. 44
Box 7: Flows of related cultural goods .................................................................................................... 45
Box 8: Audiovisual content - assessing trade flows of movie feature films....................................... 47
Box 9: Audiovisual content - trade in broadcasting programmes ....................................................... 48
Box 10: Revenues collected by copyright management societies ......................................................... 51
- 7 -
Executive summary
In today’s world, music, books, crafts,
films and many other cultural goods and
services move across international
borders, creating a complex picture of
cultural trade flows. Cultural and creative
industries alone are estimated to account
for over 7% of the world’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP).
This report raises methodological issues
concerning the measurement of trade
flows of cultural goods and services. Due
to the special nature of cultural products,
it is necessary to have more than
improved customs or balance of payments
data. Furthermore, additional data are
needed to measure cultural flows
accurately. In this regard, the identification
of cultural products within the
international classifi-cations system would
be of great value.
The report provides an analysis of the
trade flows of cultural goods and services
between 1994 and 2003. The data used in
this report are customs-based and derived
from balance of payments expressed at
current United States of America dollar
values (US$). However imperfect these
data are, they give some indication of the
trend and distribution of global trade in
cultural goods and services. A new
methodological approach which focuses
on the notion of cultural content has been
used in the current report. Using this
notion, the core of the analysis is focused
on products having a cultural content,
such as books, statuettes or feature films,
while a short analysis is given for products
related to support or equipment, such as
blank CDs or television receivers. Further-
more, an analysis of cross-nationally
comparable services data has also been
introduced.
Customs-based data show that the trade
of cultural goods almost doubled during
the last ten years from US$ 38.3 billion in
1994 to 59.2 in 2002. However, in 2002
this market was restricted to a limited
number of countries where high-income
economies are still the largest producers
and consumers of cultural goods. A
notable exception is the emergence of
China as the third biggest exporter of
cultural goods in 2002. The United
Kingdom came out as the biggest exporter
of cultural goods with US$ 8.5 billion,
followed by the United States of America
with US$ 7.6 and China with US$ 5.2.
Although developing countries account
for less than 1% share of exports of
cultural goods, the analysis sheds new light
on the rise of a limited number of
emerging countries. However, this
presence is restricted to a few specific
markets, such as visual arts, statuettes and
video games.
In 2002, the European Union 15 (EU15)
occupied the leading position in the export
of cultural goods, with 51.8% of all report-
ing countries; a slight decrease compared
to a 54.3% share in 1994. The region
which has profited the most during the
last years is Asia, particularly South-East
Asia for recorded media and Eastern Asia
for visual arts and videogames. Indeed, in
2002 Asia appeared as the second largest
exporting region with 21.2% share, due to
the growth in Eastern Asia which doubled
its share between 1994 and 2002 to reach
15.6%. Consequently, North America
became the third largest exporter in 2002
with 16.9%, down from 25% in 1994. The
position of Latin America and the Carib-
bean improved in the market by gaining
one percentage point between 1994 and
- 9 -
2002, although its trade level was quite low
at 3%. Oceania and Africa did not show
progress in this market during the last ten
years, with a combined share of less than
1% in 2002.
A different scenario emerges for imports
where clearly demand for cultural goods
was restricted to a few high-income
countries, holding more than 90% market
share. The United States of America was
the biggest importer of cultural goods in
2002 with US$ 15.3 billion, which is twice
the value of the United Kingdom (US$ 7.8
billion) which is the second largest import-
er. Germany was the third largest importer
of cultural goods with US$ 4.1 billion.
The most substantial change in relative
terms occurred with audiovisual media
from 1994 to 2002, while printed media
lost its leading position. However,
recorded media (32%), printed media
(30.7%) and visual arts (19.1%) kept their
dominant position in 2002 within the
international flows of cultural goods.
Audiovisual media represented only 14.3%
of total trade in core cultural goods. Video
games are mainly responsible for the
predominance of audiovisual media, with
photographic and cinematographic goods
being only of secondary importance.
According to customs data, core cultural
goods represented approximately 1% of
the total trade in 2002. This percentage
has remained the same during the last ten
years. These figures might seem surprising
in light of the perceived growing
importance of cultural industries in the
world economy. In order to assess the
international exchanges they generate,
other sources of data are considered in
this report, such as services data.
Cultural services suffers from paucity of
data; they are often not part of the
statutory data collected by countries. The
current international classifications are not
detailed enough to identify the cultural
components. Data for the last ten years
are only available for a limited number of
countries. Audiovisual services is the only
category where enough coverage is
available based on balance of payments
data. The current data on audiovisual and
related services show that the United
States of America is the largest exporter of
cultural services with US$ 6.9 billion, far
beyond the United Kingdom which is the
second largest exporter with US$ 1.5
billion. Unfortunately, no internationally
comparable data are available in some key
areas, such as copyright royalties.
India’s role as a major producer of feature
films, with nearly 700 films made per year
compared to 400 films per year in the
United States of America, is not reflected
clearly in the trade data. In addition, other
key markets like the flows of broadcasting
programmes are not covered.
The absence of the majority of developing
countries and countries in transition from
the international market in cultural
products can be regarded as an indicator
of lack of information on key sectors, such
as crafts, which results in underestimates
of data for some of the trade flows that do
indeed take place. The phenomenon of
piracy, which was not considered in this
report, also had an impact on the
exchange of cultural products. Better
identification of new forms of trade flows
related to Information and Communi-
cation Technologies (ICTs) - such as e-
commerce - will require the development
of new statistical tools to measure such
phenomena.
- 10 -
1. Introduction
The number of products created and sold
throughout the world is increasing every year.
Similarly, the growing international trade of
these cultural products constitutes an
important part of the global economy.
According to the United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development (UNCTAD,
2005), the global market value of industries
with strong creative and cultural components
is estimated at US$ 1.3 trillion. Since 2000, the
industry has grown at an annual compound
rate of over 7%. Cultural and creative
industries have also taken up a key position in
the countries of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), with an annual growth rate of
between 5% and 20%, as well as in a number
of leading developing countries and countries
in transition (UNCTAD, 2004). Globally,
these industries are estimated to account for
more than 7% of the world’s Gross Domestic
Product (World Bank, 2003) and are forecast
to grow roughly at the same pace over the
next three years reaching US$ 1.7 trillion
(PWC, 2005).
The substantial growth of cultural and creative
industries has run parallel to expanding
international trade in cultural goods and
services. Today, diversified cultural products
of multiple origins are being increasingly
exchanged between countries. However, due
to the specific nature of cultural goods and
services, there is great difficulty in determining
the actual size of this growing cultural trade,
especially when it involves the direction of
trade flows and the participation of the
countries. It is difficult to assess whether or
not these expanding markets are able to
reduce the gap in the access to and circulation
of cultural products.
The reduced costs of cultural goods and
services resulting from expanding markets
may raise the opportunity for many creators
and producers to benefit from exports. But on
the other hand, imports may crowd out
domestic creative production. This raises
concern over the capacity of individual
countries to create and produce their own
cultural products.
This complex debate on the ability of
individual countries to enjoy and contribute to
the world’s cultural diversity has many
economic, political and ideological
underpinnings. The discussion is constrained
due to the lack of relevant data which could
inform better policy decisions that deals with
cultural exchanges and their impact on cultural
diversity.
The main objective of this report is to
contribute to an assessment of the relative
size, distribution and trends of the global trade
in cultural goods and services. Cross-
nationally comparable statistical data are
provided on the evolution of international
flows of selected cultural goods and services
between 1994 and 2002 or 2003.
The analysis focuses on the notion of cultural
content and develops a new conceptual
structure to accommodate the taxonomies
currently used for the collection of trade data.
This effort aims at better reflecting the trade
in products with cultural content. In this
regard, the report draws a distinction between
“core” and “related” cultural goods and
services. Within this structure, items are
classified based on their estimated degree of
cultural content which is understood as the
content or message originally intended by an
individual author or a group of creators.
The purpose of the analysis is therefore to be
able to distinguish between “content
products” and those products that make
possible their creation, production and
distribution. However, despite the improved
methodology, the data presented in this report
should be interpreted with caution due to the
very nature of cultural products and the major
gaps that exist in trade data, particularly for
- 11 -
audiovisual, copyrights and other cultural
services.
This report provides more than an update on
previous studies on cultural goods and
services carried out by UNESCO. Previous
reports (UNESCO, 2000 and UNESCO,
1992), which were based on the UNESCO
Framework for Cultural Statistics depicted cross-
border movements of cultural goods, which
mainly consisted of cultural equipment and
support materials. Because of the existing data
categories, cultural trade is often equated to
trade in equipment, and this leads to distorted
analysis and interpretation. Nonetheless, the
2000 report provided a useful indication of
cultural production and consumer preferences
throughout the world from 1980 and 1998
and reflected the rapid expansion of consumer
goods combined with the convergence of
consumer tastes.
By including data on cultural services, by
introducing a new classification that makes the
distinction between core cultural products and
related ones, and by presenting additional data
on the relative size of cultural and creative
industries which contextualise cross-border
exchanges, this report offers a more
comprehensive basis for the interpretation and
analysis of the implications of cultural trade.
It also identifies the main cultural components
being traded and describes changes that have
occurred in the involvement of the various
countries during the last ten years.
For the purpose of this report, trade in
cultural products is defined as the exports and
imports of tangibles and intangibles conveying
cultural content that might take either the
form of a good or a service (books, recorded
CDs, video games, printing or dubbing
services, etc.). Trade in cultural products also
includes the goods and services which are
required to produce and disseminate such
content, including cultural equipment and
support materials, as well as ancillary services
even if they are only partly cultural in their
content. This approach attempts to factor in
the development of the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) which
have changed the traditional ways of cultural
trade. Indeed the digital environment and the
Internet have been central to the expanding
trade system of cultural products. ICTs have
allowed the emergence of new tools of
creation, new means of distribution and new
formats, such as e-books and downloadable
music.
However, the challenge here is to capture the
intellectual property flows and other intangible
assets on which cultural products are
increasingly based, and not focus only on the
physical and tangible support material. This
report portrays the data currently available and
the areas where more detailed data is required.
The great complexity of measuring trade flows
of cultural goods and services requires more
than improved customs-based data and
services data. The statistics compiled, analysed
and presented in this report relate only to
quantifiable trade in cultural goods, namely
the declared value of goods crossing the
country border or being supplied across the
border, and not their actual market value
which is often considered far more important
than the declared value at customs. This
remains a continuing difficulty in the
evaluation of cultural trade.
Export statistics cannot accurately measure
the value of cultural products sold in foreign
markets. This is particularly true for those
core cultural products whose special nature
makes them endlessly available and
reproducible at insignificant cost. For
example, a single master version of a
copyrighted work, such as a music master
valued at few dollars according to national
export statistics, may be shipped to another
country where copies or exhibition rights
and/or reproduction license fees may generate
millions of dollars through sales.
- 12 -
Thus, caution should be employed when
drawing conclusions from the data presented
in this report. In particular, it is necessary to
bear in mind that:
• Customs statistics only include trade in
goods that physically enter or leave the
country. Under the Harmonised System
(HS) classification, these goods are
classified by their observable physical
characteristics and not according to the
status of national content, cultural value or
other similar criteria. Customs statistics
provide information about the country of
origin and the country of destination of
each good. Unfortunately, the “cultural
origin” of a cultural good is not easily
identifiable;
• Many transactions among subsidiaries of
large corporations which probably account
for a large part of international trade
operations in the cultural and creative
industries may not be included;
• Data on exports can substantially
underestimate the true value attributable
to cultural products; and
• Trade in services data in this report refer
to balance of payments services
transactions which relate mainly to the
cross-border supply of services (supplier
and consumer remain in their respective
countries and the services cross the
border).
In order to overcome the limitations of
international cultural trade data, additional
qualitative and quantitative data on cultural
products are presented in boxes throughout
the report, providing the necessary context to
interpret these data. These boxes relate to
areas that are crucial to some of the on-going
discussions arena on the understanding,
promotion and preservation of cultural
diversity. Such topics include international
flows of artisanal products, feature films,
broadcasting programmes and music
copyrights.
Despite these limitations, this overview of
international flows of selected cultural goods
and services provides some indication of the
patterns of production and consumption of
cultural products over the last ten years. It
shows the trends emerging as a result of the
creative economy. First, data reveal the
continuing wide variation in the capacities of
individual countries across the world to export
cultural products. In many developing or small
countries, with limited domestic markets,
these capacities appear to have shrunk.
Second, the distinction between core and
related cultural products reveals the gap
between many low-income and high-income
countries in producing content-based cultural
products. The difference is far less substantial
with respect to related cultural products,
which include equipment, support materials
and ancillary services.
Cultural and creative industries do not fall
neatly into the existing structure of standard
industrial or occupational codes, nor do the
products of these industries: cultural goods
and services. This analysis explores some new
ways of presenting the existing data and
identifying future data needs.
2. Methodological approach
2.1. New methodology
The primary objective of this report is to
identify the scope of the trade of cultural
goods and services and to examine data
available at the international level. The
UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
(FCS) has served as the basis for defining the
structure and scope of the report.
UNESCO’s former Division of Statistics
elaborated the FCS in the 1980s. The FCS
comprises ten distinct categories (see Annex III)
which have not been revised since 1985 and,
thus, do not capture the emergence of
information and communication technologies
which have developed rapidly since late 1980s.
Nonetheless, the FCS still serves as a key
reference for most cultural statistical frame-
- 13 -
works developed at regional and national
levels.
The FCS was inspired by a broad definition of
culture. However, the use of certain
categories, such as sports and games, tourism
or socio-cultural activities, is often questioned
and thus excluded from some national
frameworks for cultural statistics. For this
reason, they have been excluded from this
report.
This report focuses on cultural products
which can be defined as the output of cultural
and creative industries. Two points have been
considered while categorising the cultural
products into “core” and “related” cultural
products. First, these categories were inspired
from the distinction made between cultural
and creative industries. Creative industries
take into account a wider view of the creative
process than the more traditional view of
cultural industries by including other areas
such as software, advertising, architecture and
business intelligence services. Products
resulting from some of the above-mentioned
activities or industries are defined in the report
as “related products”, while the more
traditional cultural products have been
categorised under “core cultural products”.
Second, cultural products have a tangible
component (the physical support) and an
intangible one (cultural content). This
specificity of cultural products has been taken
into account by making the distinction
between “core” products directly associated
with cultural content and “related” cultural
products linked with those services, equip-
ment and support materials that serve the
creation, production and distribution of core
cultural products. This distinction means that,
for example, a recorded CD of music and the
associated copyrights are classified under
“core cultural products”, while the blank CDs
or the CD player are classified under “related
cultural products”.
Cultural products comprise both goods and
services. Cultural goods are defined as
consumer goods which convey ideas, symbols
and ways of life, such as books, magazines,
multimedia products, software, recordings,
films, videos, audiovisual programmes, crafts
and fashion design (Alonso Cano et al.,
2000). It is traditionally understood that
cultural services are those activities aimed at
satisfying cultural interests or needs. Cultural
services do not represent material goods in
themselves but facilitate their production and
distribution. They typically consist of licensing
activities and other copyright-related services,
audiovisual distribution activities, the promo-
tion of performing arts and cultural events, as
well as cultural information and preservation
of books, recordings and artefacts (in libraries,
documentation centres, museums), etc.
Figure 1 illustrates this distinction, and Box 1
presents the complete list of goods and
services categories used in this report.
Figure 1. Composition of cultural products
This report focuses on core cultural products,
although a small section is devoted to related
cultural products (see Box 7). Related cultural
services are not addressed separately since the
categories (such as architectural activities or
advertising) fall under much broader
categories of services (i.e. “advertising, market
research and public opinion polling”) and the
cultural aspect cannot be clearly identified.
The trade of crafts is also not covered since
no detailed internationally comparable data are
available (see Box 2).
- 14 -
Box 1. Goods and services covered in
the report
1
This list presents goods and services as defined
according to the product-based classification:
“Harmonised System” for goods and the BPM5
or EBOPS for services.
Core cultural goods
• Heritage goods
- Collections and collectors’ pieces
- Antiques of an age exceeding 100 years
• Books
- Printed books, brochures, leaflets, etc.
- Children’s pictures, drawing or colouring
books
• Newspapers and periodicals
• Other printed matter
- Printed music
- Maps
- Postcards
- Pictures, designs
• Recorded media
- Gramophone records
- Discs for laser-reading systems for
reproducing sound only
- Magnetic tape (recorded)
- Other recorded media for sound
• Visual arts
- Paintings
- Other visual arts (statuettes, sculptures,
lithographs, etc.)
• Audiovisual media
- Video games used with a television receiver
- Photographic and cinematographic film,
exposed and developed
2
Core cultural services
• Audiovisual and related services
• Copyright royalties and license fees
Related cultural goods
• Equipment/support material
- Musical instruments
- Sound player recorder and recorded sound
media
- Cinematographic and photographic supplies
- Television and radio receivers
• Architecture plans and drawing trade and
trade advertisement material
Related cultural services
• Information services, news agency services
• Advertising and architecture services
• Other personal, cultural and recreational
services
This means some double counting can occur
in measuring copyrights value by merging
goods data with services data. Goods data
captured by customs statistics can include
some copyrights, while services data may also
contain some of these copyrights for the same
product.
Data on cultural goods are customs-based,
whereas services data are defined according to
the balance of payments. As a result, the
analysis of the two areas is kept separate.
Another reason for the difficulty in combining
goods and services data in a single analysis is
because data on the trade of goods are derived
from customs declarations, while the services
data are based on business declarations.
1
Please refer to Annex V for details.
2
This category does not cover feature films (see Boxes 6
and 8).
- 15 -
Box 2. International flows of artisanal/handmade products
According to the International Trade Center (ITC) and UNESCO, artisanal products are defined as “those
produced by artisans, either completely by hand or with the help of hand-tools or even mechanical means, as long as the direct
manual contribution of the artisan remains the most substantial component of the finished product… The special nature of
artisanal products derives from their distinctive features, which can be utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally attached,
decorative, functional, traditional, religiously and socially symbolic and significant” (UNESCO/ITC, 1997).
International flows of artisanal products are a major component of cultural trade for many developing
countries. Unfortunately, they are difficult to measure within the international classification system of trade
statistics since most artisanal products are not identified separately in the Harmonised System (HS).
To address this issue and at the request of ITC, the World Customs Organisation (WCO) encouraged its
member countries to codify handmade products within their national statistical classification systems. The
extent to which this recommendation is being applied, as well as the quality of data being collected, is not
yet known. Since no change has yet been made to the HS itself; it is still difficult to identify those products
within international trade that are handmade.
UNESCO’s Methodological Guide to the Collection of Data on Crafts, published in 1997, divides artisanal products
under broad categories based on the materials used. The six main categories of this classification are:
Baskets/wickers/vegetable fibre-works; Leather; Metal; Pottery; Textiles and Wood. The guide also
identifies complementary categories comprising materials in craft production that are either very specific to
a given area, or rare, or difficult to work, such as: stone, glass, ivory, bone, shell, mother-of-pearl, etc. Extra
categories are also identified when different materials and techniques are applied at the same time and refer
to decorations, jewellery, musical instruments, toys, works of art, etc.
Another promising area to begin measuring international flows of artisanal products will be quantifying
expenditure by tourists on craft items. Data on consumer spending is of great importance to define better
the cultural and socio-economic impact of the crafts sector, as well as to help the sector’s managers
determine priorities in terms of training, production and promotion. Research in this area is being
undertaken, and a UNESCO Index of Tourist’s Crafts Expenditure is under preparation.
2.2. Description of data used
3
Goods data
Data for cultural goods were extracted from
the United Nations (UN) Comtrade database.
The database covers about 160 reporting
countries or areas, which cover more than
90% of world trade.
Valuation is based on customs records in
current United States of America dollars
(US$) and the trade data are classified using
the Harmonised System (HS).
3
For more information on data sources and
methodology, please refer to technical notes.
Services data
Internationally comparable data on trade
services statistics were compiled using the
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
classification for Balance of Payments
Transactions (BPM5). An extension of the
BPM5, called the Extended Balance of
Payments Services Classification (EBOPS),
was put in place in 2002. The EBOPS
classification provides a more extensive
breakdown of cultural activities which was
not previously available in the BPM5. Thus,
this new classification has been useful to the
- 16 -
study of cultural data. The availability of data
according to this classification will be further
explored in Section 4 which discusses
services.
2.3. Methodological issues
Providing an accurate estimation of the trade
flows of cultural products is a challenging
task. A number of limitations related to the
current data needs to be considered in order
to have an accurate interpretation of the data
presented in this report. These limitations can
be broadly classified into two groups. The
first one covers aspects of the quality of trade
data, such as measurement biases or lack of
inter-temporal and international consistency.
The second group deals with the specific
nature of cultural products which are in need
of statistical refinement and development of
alternative ways of measuring the intangible
assets of cultural products.
2.3.1. Limitations of available trade data
Statistical classifications. None of the
international classification systems presents
cultural goods or services as a distinct
category. Instead cultural products are
scattered under several categories and often
listed under the generic grouping of “other”
or “additional items”, making it impossible to
distinguish cultural trade data with the
required level of detail.
Sources of statistics for trade of goods. In
customs statistics, goods are classified by
their observable physical characteristics and
not according to the industry of their origin,
status of national content, cultural value or
similar criteria. Furthermore, national sources
show substantial divergence in terms of
interpretation and application of international
standards, as well as in methodology, periodi-
city and accuracy of data. In this respect,
import series are usually perceived to have
higher reliability than those of exports, since
they serve as a reference to impose duties,
quotas and other trade restrictions that are
absent in the control of exports.
Sources of statistics for trade of services.
Trade services data refer to the cross-border
supply of services, but they do not cover
other forms by which services could be
internationally traded, i.e. through consump-
tion abroad (the consumer goes abroad to
consume a cultural service), commercial
presence (the service supplier from abroad is
established in the country of the consumer in
order to supply the service) and presence of
natural persons (an individual enters the
country of the consumer to provide the
service) (UN et al., 2002).
Data on the trade of services are compiled
according to the latest classification provided
by EBOPS. This version includes more
detailed disaggregation of cultural services
than in the former BPM5 and has proved to
be very useful. However, most countries still
report according to the principles of BPM5 or
have not adopted a detailed classification for
different cultural services. As a result, they do
not provide information for the current
EBOPS categories which describe these trade
flows. Indeed, the countries which have
adapted the EBOPS classification to their
national statistical systems have placed
cultural services under different categories
and grouped them with other services, some
of which are not cultural in nature.
These obstacles, which will be further
explored in Section 4 on the topic of services,
restrict the estimation of the actual flows and
render it almost impossible to make any valid
international comparison.
Valuation at current US$. The fact that
import and export series are presented at
current US$ value implies that they are
dependent on the evolution of bilateral
exchange rates. Changes in relative positions
of some countries may be due to temporary
factors linked to exchange rate shifts, such as
appreciation or depreciation of the dollar
compared to the local currency, instead of
long-term changes in competitive capabilities.
- 17 -
Intra-firm trade. As a consequence of the
globalisation of the value chain in the
production of cultural products, some of the
trade flows occur due to transactions between
a multinational corporation and its local
subsidiaries. The transactions known as
transfer pricing may actually result in an
underestimation of trade figures.
International concentration. International
trade data are frequently used to estimate
international competition. However, a global
estimation of this phenomenon depends not
only upon the concentration of supplying
countries but also upon the degree of
competition within the countries. The
statistics presented in this report contain only
a partial approach to international concentra-
tion in cultural industries.
Electronic commerce. The period from
1994 to 2003 witnessed the rapid develop-
ment of ICTs. These technologies, in turn,
have considerably modified the environment
in which cultural goods and services are
created, reproduced and distributed. More-
over, the emergence of the Internet as a
channel of commerce had a major impact on
the exchange of cultural products. Although
statistical methods used to measure electronic
transactions have been developed, much of
this trade is not captured by customs or
balance of payments data. This results in an
underestimation of actual trade measurement.
Obviously, this issue is relevant only for
countries where on-line services are suf-
ficiently developed.
2.3.2. Limitations due to the special
nature of cultural products
Audiovisual media. In the framework of
this report, audiovisual media only covers
photographic film, cinematographic films and
video games. The last of these is the largest
increasing from 80% in 1994 to 88% in 2002.
It should be noted that data on feature films
are not accurately measured since the cate-
gory of cinematographic films is defined
differently across countries. For example, for
some countries it only represents TV com-
mercials. Due to the specific nature of feature
films, other types of data need to be
considered (see Box 8).
Intangible assets. Generally trade statistics
cannot accurately measure the economic
value of copyrighted cultural works sold in
foreign markets. Cultural products have both
a tangible element, such as the platform of
product format, and an intangible element
which determines their content and makes
them reproducible as many times as desired.
This intangible nature of cultural products
leads to underestimations of the actual global
value of exchanges. For example, trade
statistics assign a small value of US$ 100 to an
original work protected by copyright, i.e. a
film print or a master version, when exported
from one country to another. Yet, this origi-
nal work may generate millions of dollars in
sales and royalties through copies, exhibition
rights and reproduction license fees. How-
ever, if unsuccessful, this product may gener-
ate almost no revenue at all. Thus, trade
statistics as they are currently collected cannot
reflect the intangible assets or the market
value of many of the cultural products being
exchanged among countries. This constitutes
the main limitation to attempts to measure
cultural trade, which ideally requires the
formulation of alternative methodologies and
statistical classifications.
Copyrights. An accurate evaluation of the
flows relating to copyrights is not possible
with current trade data which is available,
resulting in a shortcoming in the analysis of
the trade of cultural products. Data on flows
of copyright royalties and licence fees
currently available at the international level
are very limited and not easily comparable.
Furthermore, it is not possible to estimate the
share on product price that is paid by
importers corresponding to intellectual
property for cultural goods coming from
other countries.
- 18 -
Origin of product. Only limited information
is available on the origin of the cultural
content of traded products. The rules applied
to origin and destination of imported and
exported products relate to the location of
where the product is processed, but do not
specify the origin of its cultural content. It is
possible for the original work and its copies
to be produced in different locations. For
example, many films created and projected in
country A may have been imported in the
form of release prints from country B, which
benefits from competitive laboratories that
process at lower prices. In trade records, the
products are declared as originating from
country B. However, from a cultural point of
view, country B is not considered as the
country of origin of this product.
3. Evolution and patterns of interna-
tional trade in cultural goods
This section explores the distribution and
trends of world trade in core cultural goods.
It presents in detail the status of international
flows of cultural goods in 2002 and 2003, and
how the situation has evolved since 1994.
Section 3.1 highlights the flows of global
exports and imports of cultural goods in
2002. Section 3.2 illustrates the evolution and
patterns of trade according to geographic and
economic areas. Section 3.3 presents a
detailed analysis by level of income of
reporting countries. Through a country-level
analysis, Section 3.4 presents international
patterns of demand and supply of core
cultural goods for selected countries. Finally,
Section 3.5 analyses the role of the different
core cultural categories in the flows of cul-
tural goods over the last ten years. The
analysis focuses on changes which have taken
place between 1994 and 2002. Since data for
2003 is not available for all countries, data for
2003 are only used in Section 3.4 which
presents individual country case studies.
3.1. Brief overview
Customs-based data show that trade in core
cultural goods increased between 1994 and
2002, from US$ 38 billion to US$ 60 billion.
Figures 2 and 3 present an overview of the
level of global exports and imports of core
cultural goods in 2002. These figures illustrate
the level of concentration within a limited
number of countries which participate in the
trade of cultural goods. Based on customs
data, high-income economies are the largest
producers and consumers of cultural goods.
In 2002, the United Kingdom was the biggest
producer of cultural goods with US$ 8.5
billion, followed by the United States of
America with $US 7.6 and China with
US$ 5.2. The United States of America was
the biggest consumer of cultural goods in
2002 with US$ 15.3 billion, which was twice
more than imports of the United Kingdom,
which was the second largest consumer with
US$ 7.8. Germany was the third largest im-
porter of cultural goods with US$ 4.1 (see
Statistical Tables I in Annex I).
The following sections analyse in detail these
results by giving other pertinent information
that provides a more complete picture of the
flows of cultural goods.
- 19 -
Figure 2. Exports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002
Exports in million US$
< 10
10 - < 100
100 - < 1,000
1,000 +
Not part of the study
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Figure 3. Imports of core cultural goods in million US$, 2002
Imports in million US$
< 10
10 - < 100
100 - < 1,000
1,000 +
Not part of the study
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 20 -
3.2. Trade by region and economic areas
4
Statistical Tables II (see Annex I) show some
striking patterns in importation of cultural
goods among the different regions. EU15
countries still led cultural trade in 2002 with a
share of 40.6% (see Figure 5), showing a
slight decrease compared to 1994 when the
share was 43.1%. Furthermore, the trend for
the last ten years shows that North America
increased its position mainly due to the
United States of America, with 26.7% of the
share in 1994 and reaching 30.1% in 2002.
Asia also experienced a slight increase during
this period.
As shown in Figure 4, from a regional
perspective the European Union 15
5
(EU15)
countries occupied the leading position in
exporting cultural goods in 2002, with a
percentage share among all reporting
countries of 51.8%. This percentage de-
creased slightly from 1994 when it was
54.3%. In 2002, Asia appeared as the second
largest exporting region with 20.6% share,
due to the growth in share of Eastern Asia
which doubled between 1994 and 2002 from
7.6% to reach 15.6%. As a result, North
America became the third region for export-
ing in 2002 with 16.9%, down from 25% in
1994. The less prominent situation of Latin
America and the Caribbean (LAC) in 1994
improved slightly in 2002 with a percentage
share that increased from 1.9% to 3%.
Exports from Africa and Oceania accounted
for less than 1% share in 1994 and this level
remained the same in 2002 (see Statistical
Tables II in Annex I).
By contrast, LAC and Oceania countries saw
their share in world imports reduce from
4.4% in 1994 to 3.6% in 2002 and from 3.9%
to 2.5% respectively. African countries only
played a marginal role in 2002 within the
international trade of cultural flows with 1%
of the total trade value in current US$ in
imports.
Figure 4. Exports by region of core cultural goods, 2002
Eastern Asia,
15.6%
South Central Asia,
0.5%
Western Asia,
0.5%
South Eastern Asia,
4.1%
Other Europe, 6.2%
Africa, 0.4%
Oceania, 0.6%
Asia,
20.8%
LAC, 3.0%
EU15, 51.8%
North America, 16.9%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
4
For composition of country groupings, see Annex VI, “Composition of regions and economic groupings”.
5
Compared to other economic regions, EU15 figures are over-valued. Most shipments from EU15 countries are
intended for other EU15 partners, thus registered as international trade even though these are transactions taking place
within a single market.
- 21 -
Figure 5. Imports by region of core cultural goods, 2002
EU15, 40.6%
LAC, 3.6%
North America, 30.1%
Western Asia,
1.0%
South Eastern Asia,
1.5%
South Central Asia,
1.3%
Eastern Asia,
10.9%
Other Europe, 7.5%
Oceania, 2.5%
Africa, 1.0%
Asia,
14.7%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
The EU15, the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) and, at a much lower
level, the Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) are the regional trade
agreements which constitute the largest share
of world trade of cultural goods (see Statistical
Tables II in Annex I). Other economic
groupings experienced increases in their share
in world trade between 1994 and 2002,
however their global weight is still quite
limited. Individually, none of them reached a
1% of share either for exports or imports.
During the last ten years, ASEAN has
emerged as a prominent trading block for
cultural goods at global level. This is espe-
cially true for exports, where ASEAN’s world
share rose from 3.6% in 1994 to 4.5% in
2002. This increase is mainly due to the
sectors of recorded media and books, which
grew during this period at an annual rate of
8.9% and 4.2% respectively.
In contrast with the rise of ASEAN,
MERCOSUR
6
faced a decline in exports,
with a decrease from US$ 229.3 million in
1994 to US$ 167.3 million in 2002. This de-
crease is explained by the shrinkage in exports
of books, newspapers and periodicals. In this
region, the book production industry changed
its way of processing in the 1990s. While pre-
publishing and book-editing activities are for
the most part still carried out in the
MERCOSUR countries, the actual printing
has been relocated outside the MERCUSOR
region. Thus, countries such as Argentina and
Chile, which were key producers in books
until the early 1990s, faced a substantial drop
in their exports from 2000 onwards.
6
Countries of the South Common Market.
- 22 -
Box 3. Global markets of cultural and creative industries
The growing economic importance of cultural and creative industries has redefined the strategic signifi-
cance of cultural goods and services today.
To complement the overview on the role of trade of cultural products, Figure 6 shows the economic
importance of the entertainment and media markets which, according to the E&M Outlook 2004 by Price
Waterhouse Coopers (PWC), is estimated at US$ 1,228 billion for 2003.
Taking a broad approach on the cultural and creative industries, the E&M Outlook provides global analyses
and market forecasts for 14 industry segments, including television networks (broadcast and cable) and
distribution (station, cable and satellite), filmed entertainment, recorded music, video games, radio, books,
newspapers and magazine publishing, as well as advertising, theme and amusement parks, and sports.
North America represents the largest market with 43.5% share, equivalent to US$ 523 billion for the United
States of America and US$ 23 billion for Canada. Europe, Middle East and Africa (EMEA) are second with
US$ 450 billion, followed by Asia with US$ 229 billion and Latin America with US$ 32 billion.
Figure 6. Entertainment and media markets by region (in million US$), 2003
EMEA, 35.8%
Asia Pacific,
18.2%
Latin America,
2.6%
North
America,
43.5%
U.S.A., 41.6%
Canada, 1.9%
Source: Global Entertainment and Media Outlook 2004-2008, PWC.
3.3. Trade by level of income
This section presents the change in the export
and import flows of core cultural goods
between 1994 and 2002 based on the income
classification of countries according to the
World Bank Atlas method
7
. It also uses trade
coverage ratio, as an indicator of trade deficit,
to highlight the relative performance of each
country grouping for every category. These
two approaches aim at better tracking the
different ways in which country groupings
integrate into the global markets for core
cultural goods.
7
Economies are divided according to the 2003 Gross National Income per capita, calculated using the World Bank
Atlas method. The groups are: low income, US$ 765 or less; lower-middle income, US$ 766-3,035; upper-middle
income, US$ 3,036-9,385; and high income, US$ 9,386 or more. The use of Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs) was
considered but, since no PPPs are available for 50 countries, the World Bank Atlas method was used.
- 23 -
3.3.1. Main trends
An analysis based on classification by level of
income (see Figure 7) shows that high-income
economies have kept their leading position in
exports during the last ten years. The most
substantial growth occurred for lower-middle-
income economies from 1995 onwards.
As shown in Statistical Table III-3 (see
Annex I), developing countries and countries
in transition
8
show a higher average annual
growth for exports, in current US$ value,
from 1994 to 2002 for each cultural compo-
nent. Although these results might seem
encouraging for developing countries and
countries in transition, the country-level
analyses, presented later in the document, will
show that these figures are heavily dependant
on a small number of countries which domi-
nate most of the trade of cultural goods.
Moreover, in absolute terms, developing
countries and countries in transition still lag
considerably behind the high-income econo-
mies. The value of exports in 1994 for high-
income economies was US$ 33 billion - eleven
times more than the value of exports in all
other countries (US$ 3 billion). In 2002, the
export value of high-income economies
(US$ 44.9 billion) was five times more than
the value of exports of all other countries
together (9 US$ billion). Nonetheless, as
shown in Section 3.3, the situation varies
greatly within the different categories of
cultural goods.
Figure 7. Total exports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Low income economies Lower-middle income economies Upper-middle income economies High income economies
E
x
p
o
r
t
s
i
n
b
i
l
l
i
o
n
U
S
$
(
l
o
g
s
c
a
l
e
)
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
8
Developing countries and countries in transition are grouped under three categories: low-income, lower-middle-
income and upper-middle-income economies.
- 24 -
Figure 8 shows that low-income economies
and lower-middle-income economies experi-
enced a rapid growth in their imports,
whereas growth was steadier for the upper-
middle-income economies and high-income
economies. However, the overall trend is less
marked than the trend for exports. The level
of imports is substantially higher for high-
income economies with US$ 56.5 billion in
2002, compared to the US$ 7.2 billion for the
other three categories (low-income, lower-
middle income and upper-middle income).
However, the situation had slightly improved
for developed countries and countries in
transition between 1994 and 2002.
Figure 8. Total imports value of core cultural products, 1994-2002
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Low income economies Lower-middle income economies Upper-middle income economies High income economies
I
m
p
o
r
t
s
i
n
b
i
l
l
i
o
n
U
S
$
(
l
o
g
s
c
a
l
e
)
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
3.3.2. Evaluating the cultural trade
balance
Figure 9 and Statistical Tables III (see
Annex I) distinguish between group of
countries which are net importers and those
which are net exporters of cultural goods.
They also show how the trade balance of
country groupings by level of economy has
evolved during the last ten years.
The trade balance for lower-middle-income
economies, which was 94.7 in 1996, has
continuously improved its position since then
to reach 200 in 2002 for all cultural goods.
The analysis by category shows that lower-
middle-income economies are net exporters
especially in visual arts and audiovisual media.
- 25 -
Figure 9. Trade coverage ratio of core cultural goods by level of income, 1994-2002
0
50
100
150
200
250
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Low income economies Lower-middle income economies Upper-middle income economies High income economies
T
r
a
d
e
c
o
v
e
r
a
g
e
r
a
t
i
o
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
In 1994, the coverage ratio of high-income
economies was close to the equilibrium for
core cultural goods. But in 2002, the drop in
the figure from 90 to 79.5 shows marked
deterioration of the trade balance over the
years. High-income economies had an equal
balance only in newspapers, periodicals and
recorded media in 2002. Increasingly they
became net importers of visual arts from 63.6
in 1994 to 55.3 in 2002. Similarly for audio-
visual media, the deficit of the trade balance
expanded from 67.8 in 1995 to 36.8 in 2002.
The low-income economies faced increasing
negative trade balance for core cultural goods
from 95.2 in 1994 to 32.8 in 2002. They were
net exporters for audiovisual media and visual
arts and heritage in 2002. Statistical Table III-
4 (see Annex I) shows that during this period
no clear pattern could be identified since the
results were unpredictable.
The upper-middle-income economies contin-
ually faced unbalance and volatility between
1994 and 2001. Equilibrium was reached in
2002 only due to audiovisual media which
accounted for a great proportion of core
cultural goods, while upper-middle-income
economies were still net importers for other
categories.
Trade coverage ratio is defined as exports
value divided by imports value in current US$
multiplied by 100. It is used to identify whether
a country is considered as a net exporter or
importer of cultural goods. It is not only a way
of visualising the foreign trade balance but also
gives a measure of exports relative to imports. A
value of 100 indicates that the foreign trade
balance is equal for core cultural goods. When
the results are higher than 100, exports are
larger than imports in value terms for the
category concerned.
- 26 -
3.3.3. Identification of some trading
countries
This section focuses on an analysis of the
relative position of exports and imports
separately for a number of developing
countries and countries in transition (falling
under low and middle economy categories).
The emphasis is on lower- and middle-
income countries to examine whether they
can challenge high-income economies since
little is known about trade flows in these
countries.
Figures 10 and 11 identify which countries
play a significant role within the various
country groupings categorised by level of
income (defined as low-, lower-middle- and
upper-middle-income economies). They are
only used to help identify trade patterns in
countries within the same category. They also
reflect the level of exports and imports that
are linked to other factors, such as the size of
a local market, infrastructure, etc.
As shown in Figure 10, a correlation is evi-
dent between Gross National Income (GNI)
per capita and exports of cultural goods. It
indicates that inevitably the bigger countries
have higher absolute levels of exports to
some extent. Figure 10 illustrates that 90% of
low-income countries have a marginal role in
exporting cultural goods, amounting to less
than US$ 10 million in 2002. Most of the
African countries which belong to this cate-
gory have a less significant role in the trade of
cultural goods. Interestingly, India, with
US$ 284.4 million, and Indonesia, with
US$ 112.3 million, were the only countries
from this category which surpassed the
US$ 100 million threshold in 2002.
Figure 10. Exports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002
9
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004. World Bank Atlas, 2003.
9
It should be noted that logarithmic axes are used in the graphic. Consequently, minor fluctuations are amplified and
larger fluctuations are flattened. Disparities among countries are significantly greater than they appear in the graph.
For example, India and China, which are close to one another, have significantly different levels of exports with
US$ 284 million and US$ 5.3 billion respectively.
- 27 -
Within the lower-middle-income economies,
Chinese exports were substantially higher
than for other developing countries and
countries in transition. South Africa and
Morocco, with levels of exports of US$ 56.9
million and US$ 83.3 million respectively,
also emerged as substantial suppliers of
cultural goods in 2002. Countries which are
beginning to play a more substantial role in
exporting cultural goods are Colombia, the
Philippines and the Russian Federation.
Other countries in the same income
category, including some Latin American
countries and African countries, hold very
low levels of exports.
Two-thirds of the countries belonging to the
category of upper-middle-income econo-
mies have a middle or high level of exports
of cultural goods (above US$ 10 million). In
this category, Mexico was the largest
exporter of cultural goods in 2002, with a
level of exports above US$ 1 billion,
followed by Hungary with US$ 719.5
million.
The correlation between GNI per capita and
imports is weaker than for exports.
Figure 11 illustrates that countries are less
dispersed for imports than for exports, since
most countries are minor importers. More
precisely, the level of imports was less than
US$ 10 million in 2002 for 65% of the low-
income economies, which shows the lesser
role played by these countries in imports.
India, with US$ 803.5 million of imports of
cultural goods, differentiates itself from the
rest of the countries in this category. Within
this group, Kenya, Nicaragua and Zambia
had levels of exports higher than US$ 10
million in 2002, totalling US$ 29.4, US$ 30
and US$ 23.3 million respectively.
Figure 11. Imports of core cultural goods classified according to level of income, 2002
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004. World Bank Atlas, 2003.
- 28 -
In the category of lower-middle-income
economies, the average level of imports of
cultural goods by country was less than
US$ 100 million. China had over US$ 1.1
billion in imports, whereas the level of
imports for Brazil, the Russian Federation,
South Africa and Turkey was higher than
US$ 100 million.
An even greater diversity is apparent for the
upper-middle-income economies where
countries are dispersed along the scale from
less than US$ 10 million to more than
US$ 500 million in imports. Mexico is the
only upper-middle-income economy with a
level of imports above US$ 1 billion.
3.4. Origin and destination of cultural
goods: Five case studies
The following section presents examples of
trading structure and distribution of trading
partners in five countries from different parts
of the world. These case studies present
different models of integration into the global
market of cultural goods in 2003.
The analysis identifies key trading partners of
the selected countries for both imports and
exports. It gives an indication of the source of
imported cultural goods that enter the country
and the type of destination of cultural goods
for a particular country’s exports.
Case 1: The United States of America
The United States of America (USA) was net
importer of cultural goods in 2003. It was the
major importer with US$ 13.7 billion and the
second largest exporter with US$ 7.9 billion.
The main destination of American exports
was high-income countries in 2003. Indeed,
more than one-third of the USA’s exports of
core cultural goods went to Canada (see
Figure 12). Canada’s share among all partner
countries increased between 1994 and 2003,
from 31.5% to 40.2%. The position of Canada
may be explained by the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) which provides
privileged access of American products to the
Canadian market. Mexico was the fifth
destination of American exports, benefiting
from the same agreement in 2003. The other
major destinations of American exports were
several high-income countries, such as Japan,
Germany and the United Kingdom.
Figure 12. Trade partners of the USA’s exports of core cultural goods, 2003
Switzerland, 5.6%
Japan, 5.2%
Australia, 2.4%
Netherlands, 2.2%
Mexico, 3.6%
France, 2.7%
Rep. of Korea, 2.5%
Germany, 3.3%
China, 1.4%
Rest of available
countries, 18.7%
Canada, 40.2%
United Kingdom, 12.0%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 29 -
The main origins of American imports were
mainly from China and other high-income
countries. The pattern for imports was
different, since in 1994 Japan had lost its
leading position in favour of China. China
became the USA’s major partner, with a
30.8% share in 2003 – this share was only 8%
in 1994 (see Figure 13 and Statistical Table IV-1
in Annex I). Leaving Japan and China aside,
the source of American imports was concen-
trated among the high-income countries in
2003.
Figure 13. Trade partners of the USA’s imports of core cultural goods, 2003
France, 10.9%
China, 30.8%
Spain, 1.8%
Canada, 10.5%
Rest of available
countries, 14.7%
United Kingdom, 11.0%
Germany, 4.2%
Japan, 3.6%
Italy, 4.0%
Hong Kong, China, 3.3%
Mexico, 3.0%
Switzerland, 2.1%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Case 2: China
China started to be an important player in
trade flows from the early 1990s. Since the
mid-1990s, the Chinese trade balance has
become positive. It is also the case for core
cultural goods; China is a net exporter with
US$ 5.8 billion in exports but only US$ 1.2
billion in imports (see Statistical Table IV-2 in
Annex I).
Members of the high-income economies are
the main partners of Chinese exports. As
stated earlier in the case study for the U.S.A.,
in 2003 one-third of Chinese cultural goods
were going to the USA (see Figure 14). This
figure increased slightly between 1994 and
2003 with a percentage share from 31.3 to
34.7 (see Statistical Table IV-2 in Annex I).
- 30 -
Figure 14. Trade partners of Chinese exports of core cultural goods, 2003
U.S.A., 34.7%
Rest of available
countries, 11.9%
Japan, 6.6%
United Kingdom, 6.5%
Netherlands, 14.5%
Italy, 1.2%
Australia, 2.0%
Hong Kong, China, 17.9%
Canada, 2.4%
Germany, 2.3%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
The sources of Chinese imports have been
diversified since 1994. The top four partner
countries represented 84% of Chinese
imports, which had dropped however to 60%
in 2003. Two countries, the USA with 22.2%
(a decrease from 29% in 1994) and Germany
with 14% in 2003, were the main sources of
imports (see Figure 15).
Figure 15. Trade partners of Chinese imports of core cultural goods, 2003
U.S.A., 22.2%
Free Zones, 3.2%
Hong Kong, China, 12.5%
Rest of available
countries, 10.7%
United Kingdom, 2.6%
Germany, 14.7%
Singapore, 10.2%
Finland, 7.1%
Japan, 6.4%
Other Asia, nes, 5.7%
Ireland, 4.7%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 31 -
Case 3: South Africa
10
South Africa is the only country in sub-
Saharan Africa to play a prominent role in the
trade of core cultural goods. Zimbabwe is
starting to export some goods but at a much
lower level. South Africa was a net importer,
with total exports of US$ 64.1 million
compared to US$ 322.6 million of imports for
all core cultural goods in 2003.
South Africa exported about 40% of goods to
other sub-Saharan African countries in 2003.
Nevertheless, the USA was the first destina-
tion for South African goods, with a share of
20% in 2003 (see Figure 16).
Figure 16. Trade partners of South African exports of core cultural goods, 2003
Rest of available
countries, 17.3%
Mauritius, 2.6%
Nigeria, 2.6%
Malawi, 3.7%
Angola, 2.9%
Germany, 3.2%
U.S.A., 19.9%
Dem. Rep. of Congo,
2.5%
United Rep. of Tanzania,
3.9%
Zimbabwe, 4.5%
Mozambique, 4.5%
Zambia, 10.4%
Kenya, 2.3%
United Kingdom, 16.2%
Australia, 2.2%
Africa,
39.8%
Netherlands, 1.3%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Whereas other sub-Saharan African countries
receive a large number of goods from South
Africa, they are not the major exporters to the
South African market (see Figure 17). Indeed
60% of the South African imports of cultural
goods originated from high-income countries
in 2003. Of these, the United Kingdom and
the USA provided almost half of the imports
in 2003.
10
No trend analysis can be made for South Africa since its trade data were previously amalgamated within the data of
the South African Customs Union until 1999.
- 32 -
Figure 17. Trade partners of South African imports of core cultural goods, 2003
Rest of available
countries, 15.3%
United Kingdom, 27.2%
U.S.A., 21.3%
Ireland, 10.7%
Germany, 6.3% Areas, nes, 5.9%
China, 5.2%
Netherlands, 2.6%
Japan, 1.6%
Australia, 1.8%
France, 2.1%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Case 4: Brazil
Brazil was a net importer of cultural goods in
1994, with a level of imports of US$ 165.9
million, which was three times higher than the
value of its exports (US$ 56.9 million) (see
Statistical Table IV.4 in Annex I). The balance
was negative in 2003 but has fallen since due
to the loss of one-third of the value of imports
(totalling US$ 105.7 million in 2003) while the
value of exports remained almost at the same
level. The decrease in Brazilian imports is
explained by the drastic drop in the value of
video games and recorded media, with a
decrease of 50% between 1994 and 2002.
Another possible factor is the creation of a
free economic zone of Manaus in the mid-
1990s which increased Brazil’s own produc-
tion capacity and lessened the need for
imports.
Mexico is the only country within the Latin
American and Caribbean (LAC) region which
appears among the top 20 countries importing
or exporting cultural goods in 2003. Thus the
destination of Brazilian products did not show
a strong regional bias in 2003 (see Figure 18).
The regional focus was more marked in 1994
when 38.1% of Brazilian exports were directed
to Hispanic countries but decreased to 21% in
2003. Between 1994 and 2003, Japan lost its
position as leader among all recipient coun-
tries in favour of Portugal (dropping from
28.8% to 11.9%). In 2003, the USA became
the second most common destination for
Brazilian exports.
- 33 -
Figure 18. Total trade partners of Brazilian exports of core cultural goods, 2003
South Africa, 1.1%
Angola, 1.1%
Italy, 1.1%
Germany, 0.8%
United Kingdom, 0.8%
France, 1.9% Rest of available
countries, 5.9%
Colombia, 4.4%
Chile, 4.3%
Argentina, 4.0%
Mexico, 3.8%
Spain, 3.3%
Peru, 0.7%
Japan, 11.9%
U.S.A., 25.9%
Portugal, 28.9%
LAC,
21.0%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
In 2003, 45.1% of Brazilian imports originated
from only two countries - the USA (with 28.8
percentage share) and the United Kingdom
(with 16.3 percentage share) (see Figure 19),
while LAC countries represented only 14% of
originators of Brazilian imports. Nevertheless,
since 1994 Brazil has diversified the prove-
nance of its imports to a small degree. The
USA encountered a significant drop in relative
share from 41.3% in 1994 to 28.8% in 2003.
Japan fell from 10.9% to 3.6%; Argentina and
Chile also faced a small decrease in their
percentage share. The countries which in-
creased their share in 2003 were the United
Kingdom, Spain and China.
Figure 19. Total trade partners of Brazilian imports of core cultural goods, 2003
Chile, 2.5%
Uruguay, 3.2%
Peru, 3.3%
Argentina, 5.2%
Sweden, 1.0%
Italy, 2.4%
Hong Kong, China, 2.9%
Portugal, 2.9%
Japan, 3.6%
Germany, 4.0%
France, 4.0%
China, 5.2%
Rest of available
countries, 6.6%
Spain, 8.2%
United Kingdom, 16.3%
U.S.A., 28.8%
LAC,
14.0%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
- 34 -
Case 5: Egypt
Egypt was a net importer of cultural goods in
2002. Exports of cultural goods from Egypt
lost one-third of their current US$ value
between 1994 and 2002, with a decrease from
US$ 15.5 million to US$ 10.7 million (see
Statistical Table IV-5 in Annex I). During the
same time, imports gained an increase of one-
third in dollar value, from US$ 22.1 million in
1994 to US$ 33.2 million in 2002.
Key destinations of Egypt’s exports were
mainly Arabic countries, with 58.4% of the
share in 2002, and the USA. (see Figure 20).
The destinations of Egyptian exports have
changed moderately between 1994 and 2002,
since Saudi Arabia remained the first destina-
tion country of exports, even tough its share
dropped from 25.6% in 1994 to 15.5% in
2002.
Figure 20. Total trade partners of Egyptian exports of core cultural goods, 2002
U.S.A., 8.1%
Morocco, 2.8%
Kuwait, 3.0%
Lebanon, 5.9%
United Arab Emirates,
6.2%
Rest of available
countries, 22.6%
Germany, 2.1%
Malaysia, 2.5%
France, 2.6%
United Kingdom, 3.7%
Arabic
countries,
58.4%
Jordan, 2.1%
Saudi Arabia, 15.5%
Libya, 7.6%
Yemen, 6.7%
Algeria, 6.6%
Oman, 2.1%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Arabic countries account for 22.8% of
Egyptian imports of cultural goods (see
Figure 21). China and the United Kingdom
were the major sources of cultural goods in
2002. The position of the United Kingdom
remained the same between 1994 and 2002,
while China doubled its share for the same
period from 10.3% to 19.2%.
- 35 -
Figure 21. Total trade partners of Egyptian imports of core cultural goods, 2002
Qatar, 1.2%
Syria, 2.1%
Saudi Arabia, 2.7%
Kuwait, 3.3%
United Arab Emirates,
4.7%
Lebanon, 8.8%
Italy, 3.8%
France, 4.1%
Germany, 5.7%
U.S.A., 8.8%
China, 19.2%
United Kingdom, 21.8%
Spain, 1.0% Japan, 1.1%
Rest of available
countries, 10.8%
Greece, 1.0%
Arabic
countries,
22.8%
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
3.5. Components of trade
This section presents a detailed analysis of the
main core cultural categories. It looks at the
share of each sector in relation to the global
trade of core cultural goods, the evolution of
exports and imports, and the position of main
trade players. The analysis is based on Table 1
and Statistical Tables II, III and V (see
Annex I).
According to customs data, the trade of core
cultural goods almost doubled from US$ 39.3
billion in 1994 to US$ 59.2 in 2002. However,
based on these figures, it represented approxi-
mately 1% of the total trade in 2002. This
percentage has remained the same during the
last ten years. These figures might look
surprising in the light of the perceived grow-
ing importance of cultural industries in the
world economy. In order to assess the real
value of cultural industries and the interna-
tional exchanges they generate, there is a need
to draw data from sources other than
customs. Such data would relate to both
cultural production and markets.
Table 1. Trade
11
of core cultural goods,
1994-2002
Core cultural goods
2002
value
in
billion
US$
Share
in
2002
Change
in share
between
1994-
2002
Heritage goods 2.2 3.8 -13.9
Printed media 18.2 30.0 -16.6
Books 11.3 19.1 -14.4
Newspapers and periodicals 4.5 7.7 -23.1
Other printed matter 2.4 4.0 -13.2
Recorded media 19.0 32.0 -1.0
Visual arts 11.3 19.1 -3.6
Audiovisual media 8.5 14.3 117.4
Total of core cultural goods 59.2 100
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade,
DESA/UNSD, 2004.
11
Trade is calculated as the sum of exports plus imports divided by two.
- 36 -
Table 1 shows that audiovisual media experi-
enced the most substantial change in relative
terms during this period, while printed media
lost its leading position. However, recorded
media (31%), printed media (30%) and visual
arts (20%) kept their leading position in 2002
within the international flows of cultural
goods. Audiovisual media represented only
14% of this trade. A detailed analysis by
individual cultural category is presented below.
3.5.1. Heritage goods
The category heritage goods corresponds to
‘collections and collector pieces’ and ‘antiques
of an age exceeding 100 years’. These two
items are not likely to be fully representative
of heritage goods, hence a shorter analysis is
presented in this section. Since this category is
not fully covered, this could also explain the
relative marginal role of heritage goods within
the trade of cultural goods with a 3.7% share
and value of US$ 2.2 billion in 2002. For
imports and exports, high-income economies
dominated the market with a share of over
98% in 2002. This share remained at the same
level between 1994 and 2002.
Within the category of heritage goods, Europe
plays a major role, having an 87% share of
exports in 2002 and 38.5% in imports. North
America increased its share from 1994 to
2002, from 41% to 54%.
In exports, the United Kingdom was the
single country to dominate this market in 2002
with a value of US$ 1 billion, representing
58% of this category. Interestingly, Zimbabwe
experienced a high average annual growth rate
during 1994 and 2002 and became the ninth
largest exporter country in 2002, though with
a mere 1% share.
The USA led imports of heritage goods with
US$ 1.4 billion, accounting for a 52.7% of the
share in 2002. Taken together with the United
Kingdom, these two countries held a 78.2%
share in 2002.
3.5.2. Printed media
The category of printed media comprises
books, newspapers, periodicals and other
printed matter. Together, they represent
30.8% of the share of total trade of cultural
goods, of which 19.1% represents the trade of
books, which is the major component within
this category (see Table 1). In 2002, trade of
printed media as a whole amounted to
US$ 18.2 billion, including US$ 11.3 billion on
the trade of books, US$ 4.5 billion on
newspapers and periodicals, and US$ 2.4
billion on other printed matter.
In 2002, printed media was now the second
most traded category, behind recorded media
which dropped from the leading 36% share
that it held in 1994. The fact that this trend is
especially noticeable for printed newspapers
and periodicals sheds light on the nature of
transformations which these industries are
undergoing. Certainly, the impact caused by
the emergence of new media, as a result of the
development of digital technology, cannot be
ignored. Competition with electronic sources
of information may be having an influence on
the need for international exchanges of
printed newspapers. In high-income econo-
mies, the percentage of newspapers having a
website is estimated to have almost doubled,
from 40% to 70% between 1998 and 2002
(World Association of Newspapers, 2003).
The loss of importance of printed media
compared to other cultural goods is explained
by the low growth rates that their trade
registered during the reported period.
International exchanges of newspapers and
periodicals had the lowest growth rates, with
an average annual increase of 2.2%, while
books and other printed matter enjoyed an
annual growth of 3.5% and 3.7% respectively
between 1994 and 2002 (see Statistical Table III-
3
12
in Annex I). However, the data available
also reveal substantial differences in perform-
ance among countries according to their levels
12
Printed media comprises books, newspapers and
periodicals and other printed matter.
- 37 -
of income. While the growth in trade of dif-
ferent printed media was between 1.8% and
3.4% for high-income countries, all other
countries registered substantially higher rates
between 1994 and 2002. Despite the fact that
low-income economies benefit from average
annual growth rates of 12.3% for newspapers
and periodicals, 12.5% for books and 14.3%
for other printed matter, their share in the
global trade for these categories of goods
remained insignificant during this period.
Shipments from high-income economies
amount to 86.7% of all exports of books,
87.8% of other printed matter and 93.1% of
newspapers and periodicals. Similar figures
were observed for imports where flows from
all other countries were small (see Statistical
Tables II in Annex I).
Europe registered higher volumes of
exchanges in all categories for both imports
and exports. In 2002, European countries
accounted for 51.3% of world trade in other
printed matter, 53.1% in books and 66.6% in
newspapers and periodicals (see Statistical
Tables IV in Annex I). North America is the
second most active region in this area, with its
trade amounting to between one-third and
two-thirds that of Europe, depending on the
specific category. In general terms, the region-
al structure of trade remained stable between
1994 and 2002, with Europe and North
America capturing most of the exchanges. The
figures reveal minor participation by Asian
countries, while African countries registered
insignificant levels of trade.
Germany, France, Spain, the United Kingdom
and the USA were the world’s largest export-
ers in 2002. In this year, their joint supply
accounted for 58.8% of global exports. As for
imports, Canada, France, Germany, the
United Kingdom and the USA constituted the
main destinations with 47.2% of all imports
for the same year (see Statistical Tables V in
Annex I). It is interesting to note that the high
growth rates were registered by some non-
traditional exporters, such as Malaysia and
China for books or the Czech Republic and
Poland for newspapers and periodicals. This
phenomenon is partly explained by their initial
low amount of exports, while their market
share (with the exception of China) usually
remained at 1%.
3.5.3. Recorded media
This category comprises gramophone records,
discs for laser-reading systems for repro-
ducing sound only, magnetic tape (recorded)
and other recorded media for sound
reproduction.
Within the international flows of cultural
goods, the share of recorded media fell only
by 1% between 1994 and 2002. In 2002, this
category represented a substantial share of
32% of the value of all trade of cultural goods.
The aggregate value of recorded media
worldwide in 2002 was US$ 19.4 billion in
imports and US$ 18.5 billion in exports. These
figures should be put into perspective by
comparing them with the global size of the
sound recording industry
13
(see Box 4).
- 38 -
Box 4. The music sector: Market for recorded media
Despite the widely reported crisis during the mid-1990s, the music industry still remains powerful and plays an
important role in the economic growth of many countries at all level of development. The music industry’s reported
global retail sales for 2002 reached 3 billion units and amounted to US$ 31 billion.
In 2002, global music markets were led both in volume and value by the USA (39.8% of world sales), Europe (34.6%)
and Japan (14.8%). Asia shared 17.7% of the global music market and was the third largest player, with Japan
accounting for around 80% of sales in the region. Latin America, where music was considered the fastest growing
segment of the global entertainment economy in the mid-1990s, had only 3.2% of the global music market in 2002.
The African music market was the smallest regional market, with only US$ 130.7 million in 2002, representing a mere
0.4% of total global sales. However, the basis for assessing the size of the African market seems questionable as data
on recording sales were only available for two countries.
A key element in understanding international flows of recorded music is the domestic demand for locally produced
music and its relation to imported recorded music. Figure 22 illustrates the market share of imported contents in
selected music markets. The data for locally produced music are available only for recording sales, and even these
figures are incomplete. Existing data suggest a 10% growth in the world’s average demand for domestic repertoires
during the 1990s, although since 2000 there is some evidence of demand slowing down. The preference for domestic
repertoire might indicate a certain improvement of the ability of local music industries to serve their domestic
audiences; it does not necessarily mean that high local repertoire is always produced and distributed by local companies
only.
Figure 22. Repertoire origin as % of market value
14
, 2002
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
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Source: The recording industry in numbers, 2003, IFPI.
13
Global reported retail sales in 2002 were about 3 billion units for a value of US$ 31 billion (see Box 4).
14
Multi-artist included where supplied and “Others” covers regional, classical and multi-artist.
- 39 -
In regard to trade by level of income, Statis-
tical Tables II (see Annex I) show that in 2002
high-income countries still held a leading
position and accounted for 94.1% of global
exports and 82.5% of global imports of
recorded media (the USA and EU15 countries
in Europe alone accounting for 74.8% and
55.6% of global exports and imports respec-
tively). However, encouraging signs also have
emerged for developing countries and coun-
tries in transition. They saw their position rise
from an 8.8% share in 1994 to 17.5% in 2002,
enjoying a particularly rapid annual growth
rate during this period (20% on average for
the three categories). However, as in other
sectors of cultural industries, this growth has
not been homogeneous and has benefited
only a small number of developing countries
and countries in transition, notably those in
Asia. Asia ranked third among all regions
exporting musical industry goods, growing
from 7.6% of world exports in 1994 to 18.2%
in 2002, and from 15.8% of global imports to
21.8%.
In 2002, the three principal exporters
(Germany, Ireland and the USA) accounted
for 40.4% of global exports, followed by the
United Kingdom (8.9%) and Singapore
(8.4%). Imports were slightly more evenly
spread among the five leading importers
(Canada, France, Germany, the United
Kingdom and the USA) which together
accounted for 38% of global imports. Hence
the importance of Ireland, Japan, Germany,
the United Kingdom and the USA as the
major participants in physical trade in music-
related products were apparent. The advan-
tageous position of Ireland was mainly due to
the presence of a number of multinationals
specialising in software and information
technology, contributing to the production of
music-related products.
However, the data presented above do not
provide a comprehensive picture of the direc-
tion and magnitude of international music
flows. Since they are based on customs
information, they can only show the imports
and exports of tangible musical products,
whereas much of the trade occurs in the form
of original masters which are then processed
locally for domestic retail distribution. Box 5
illustrates the difficulties of capturing the
value of such intangible assets.
Box 5. Capturing the value of intangible assets: The case of the Jamaican music copyrights
It has been estimated that in 2000 Jamaican music represented nearly 3.5% share of the global music market,
generating revenues of over US$ 1 billion. However, little of this business activity took place in Jamaica,
whose domestic music industry has been assessed within the range of US$ 60-100 million for the year 2000.
This includes income from sales of recorded music estimated at US$ 40-50 million and income from foreign
tours, local concerts/festivals and other activities at US$ 20-25 million. These figures, however, do not
include the substantial amount of revenue generated worldwide from public performance royalties due to
Jamaican songwriters, interpreters and music publishers, as well as similar royalties earned by music producers
and performers which bear no relation to actual record sales. For Jamaican composers and performers alone,
royalties received by European, American and Asian copyright royalty collecting societies are estimated at
about US$ 385 million.
Sources: Music and the Jamaican Economy, Michael Witter. WIPO UNCTAD 2000.
Becoming a globally competitive player : The case of the Jamaican Music Industry, Discussion paper n° 138,
UNCTAD Zeljka Kozul-Wright and Lloyd Stanbury, 1998.
- 40 -
3.5.4. Visual arts
This category comprises paintings and other
materials, such as engravings, prints, original
sculptures and statuary and other ornaments.
In absolute terms, trade of visual arts amount-
ed to US$ 11.3 billion in 2002. With a share of
19.1% in total trade of cultural goods, these
items represented the third most traded
category after recorded media and printed
media, a relative position that has remained
steady between 1994 and 2002 with a share
change of -3.6. The figures for this category
may not be internationally comparable due to
several reasons, including the regulation of the
market which is governed by laws that restrict
exports. Another reason would be the lack of
clarity of the definition and its inherent bias
towards Europe.
Although both exports and imports of visual
arts have grown slightly less than audiovisual
and recorded media during the reported
period, they increased at a remarkable average
annual rate of 4.8% and 5.3% respectively
between 1994 and 2002. This growth has been
especially important for developing countries
and countries in transition. Low-income
economies had observed an average annual
increase of 8.4% in exports and 9.2% in
imports; while these figures reached 12% and
11% for lower-middle-income economies (see
Statistical Table III-3 in Annex I). Upper-middle-
income economies showed a robust annual
growth in imports of 7.2%, coupled with a
severe reduction of exports of 5.9% between
1994 and 2002. High-income economies
performed moderately in terms of growth
rates for both flows.
These patterns are explained by the fact that
exchange flows, in absolute terms, are mainly
concentrated between high-income and lower-
middle-income economies. In 2002, high-
income economies contributed 71% of world
exports and lower-middle-income economies
contributed 26.5%. And 96.9% of all imports
of visual art goods had high-income
economies as their final destination.
An analysis by region reveals that in 2002
European countries were the main exporters
of visual art goods, with a world share of
58.3%, of which members of the EU15 alone
were responsible for 49.6% of total world
exports. However, this figure was lower than
the 49.8% that EU15 enjoyed in 1994. In a
sense, this relates to the ascension of East
Asian countries, whose share in world exports
increased from 14.5% in 1994 to 25.1% in
2002. As a result, North America was
relegated to second position, with only 10.8%
of total exports in 2002. Exports from LAC
and Africa are almost non-existent, represent-
ing 1.4% and 1.1% respectively of the world
total. For imports, data show only two large
markets: North America, growing from 33.6%
to 43.5% of world share between 1994 and
2002; and Europe, whose share of imports fell
during this period from 49.2% to 44.4%.
The United Kingdom, China, the USA,
Germany and Switzerland were the five largest
exporters of visual art goods, with a combined
share of 59.9% of world exports in 2002.
These countries also constituted the largest
world importers, with the exception of China.
This could be explained by the fact that these
countries serve as marketplaces, where arts
and antiques are traded. Thus, the prominent
role of London as a central exchange for
Europe explains the position of the United
Kingdom as the largest world exporter.
Finally, in 2002, developing countries, such as
Indonesia, Morocco and the Philippines, with
a high average annual growth rate during the
last ten years, appeared among the top 20
exporters. However, despite this major
growth, the share for each of these three
countries represented less than 1% of trade
across all countries studied.
- 41 -
3.5.5 Audiovisual media
This category covers exposed and developed
photographic films, exposed and developed
cinematographic films, and video games to be
used with a television receiver. The continued
rise of the share represented by video games
(from 80% in 1994 to 88% in 2002) had
reduced the other audiovisual media items to a
token presence. Thus, it is video games that
are mainly responsible for the evolution of
this category, with photographic and cinema-
tographic goods being only of secondary
importance.
In 2002, trade in audiovisual media goods
represented 14.3% of total trade in core
cultural goods. Although this share is still
lower than that of recorded media, visual arts
or books, audiovisual media was the only
category whose relative weight has grown
during this reported period. The percentage
more than doubled between 1994 and 2002,
illustrating the increasing importance of
exchanges which already amounted to US$ 8.5
billion.
International exchanges of audiovisual media
goods have benefited from dynamic growth
rates. Data for exports registered an average
annual rate of 20.8%, while statistics for
imports suggest a more limited but still a
significant annual rise of 14% (see Statistical
Tables III in Annex I). The fact that both
figures are well above the 6% average for total
international trade of merchandise confirms
the dynamic character of this sector. This is
especially remarkable as both export and
import flows for all other cultural goods have
exceeded the average.
The fast expansion of trade flows was accom-
panied by changes in the structure of interna-
tional exchanges, especially in supply but also
noticeably in demand. Lower- and upper-
middle-income economies have registered
sharp increases in their exports at average
annual rates of 36.1% and 35.8% respectively,
while high-income economies registered a
much more moderate rate of 13.4% between
1994 and 2002. Consequently, audiovisual
media became the single category for which
developing countries and countries in transi-
tion hold 50% of the exports. International
demand had shown a less dynamic evolution,
with imports from low-income economies
registering the highest growth rate at 17.1%
during the same period. Nevertheless, in the
case of imports, high-income economies have
benefited by an increase in the percentage
share compared to other countries.
From a regional perspective, the growth of
exports originating from Eastern Asia rose
from 30.9% of the world total in 1994 to
49.1% in 2002. It eroded the shares of
industrialised regions, such as the EU15 and
North America, where exports fell from
35.9% and 20.6% in 1994 to 20.4% and 7.8%
in 2002, respectively. The rest of Europe has
faced a substantial increase during this period
due to the level of exports by Hungary.
For imports, the Asian growth was, however,
moderate from 10.8% to 14.3%, which
partially balanced the reduction in the share of
imports from North American markets, down
to 47.5% in 2002 from 53.1% in 1994. Both
imports and exports as a percentage of world
total for African countries remained well
below 1%.
China, Germany, Hungary, Japan and Mexico,
as the five largest exporters, accounted for
76.9% of total world exports in 2002. The
main international market was the USA, which
alone represented 42.3% of world demand,
followed by France; Germany; Hong Kong,
China; and the United Kingdom (see Statistical
Table V-7 in Annex I).
To a great extent, the accelerated growth rates
of audiovisual media trade between 1994 and
2002 were due to the performance of China, a
country whose video games account for 99%
of its audiovisual exports. During this period,
- 42 -
China demonstrated an unmatched compara-
tive advantage in the production of video
games, being able to increase its exports at an
average annual rate of 38.6%. Consequently,
by 2002 China had consolidated its position as
a leading exporter, with a 31.6% share of the
world market and US$ 2.3 billion in exports
value, well over the US$ 1.2 billion of Japan,
the second largest exporter.
An analysis excluding video games and con-
sidering only cinematographic and photo-
graphic films would give totally different
results. In this scenario, China would not
remain the largest exporter and India would
become one of the largest exporters along
with high-income countries. When video
games are excluded, the share of Eastern
Asia’s exports falls from 50% to 30%.
Measuring the international distribution of
cinematographic films poses a major challenge
for customs statistics. Typically, films are
exported to the destination market in the form
of goods produced originally, which is then
copied and distributed locally. As a conse-
quence, the low number of traded goods has a
negligible value declared at customs, while the
bulk of the international exchanges are
gathered at balance of payments in the forms
of receipts for royalties and licenses. A
prominent example is India which, based on
customs statistics, is not considered among
the top exporters of audiovisual media
products although it plays a major role as a
film producer (see Box 6).
To conclude, this section demonstrates the
emergence of some developing countries as
suppliers of cultural products in a limited
range of areas, but their levels of trade are still
far behind those of the high-income countries.
No such scenario has emerged for imports
where the clear demand for cultural goods is
still restricted to high-income countries. The
absence of the majority of developing coun-
tries and countries in transition from the
international market in cultural products may
be regarded as an indicator reflecting the lack
of information on key sectors, such as crafts,
resulting in underestimates in data for some of
the trade flows that do take place. The pheno-
menon of piracy, which was not considered in
this report, also has an impact on the
exchange of cultural products. However, it
would be useful to consider it while studying
consumption patterns, as well as other con-
textual issues, such as locality, language, popu-
lation, socio-cultural traditions, etc.
- 43 -
Box 6. The major role of India in the film industry
With 877 films produced in 2003, India maintained its leading position as the main moviemaker in the
world, ahead of the USA (see Figure 23). Indian film production is progressively catering to foreign
audiences. Although small by comparison with American productions, the revenues generated by Indian
movies abroad have registered a ten-fold expansion in the last ten years.
The experience of serving a massive domestic demand has allowed the Indian film industry to expand its
competitive capacity considerably. As an increased sells of some prominent Bollywood
15
productions
overseas has resulted in financially attractive ventures, Indian filmmakers have realised that the industry is
mature enough to approach foreign markets in a more systematic manner. Some films have started to
collect 25-30% of their receipts from exports. For the estimated US$ 990 million earned by the whole
Indian film sector in 2004, revenues from overseas have already reached US$ 220 million.
Royalties from the reproduction of movies is the most important, but not the sole, source of revenue for
the exporting Indian film industry. Income from cable and satellite television, Internet rights, merchan-
dising, video, CD and DVD rentals are also important sources of revenue, and Indian productions may
obtain as much as 15% of total earnings from music rights only.
Today the value of Indian cultural and creative industries is estimated at US$ 4.3 billion. This sector is
growing at an annual rate close to 30%, and analysts forecast that exports may continue to grow by 50% in
the coming years. An important factor in this impressive performance is that Indian companies are
succeeding in bringing international audiences to the cinemas, in addition to the traditional diaspora
communities of the USA, the United Kingdom and the Middle East. This strategy includes expansion to
non-traditional countries, both industrialised and emerging, such as Japan and China.
Figure 23. Number of films produced in India and the USA, 1999-2003
764
855
1,013
943
877
758
683
611
543
593
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
India U.S.A.
Source: India Central Board of Film Certification, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
(FICCI), UK Film Council, Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).
15
In this report, Bollywood movies refers to all Indian commercial movies.
- 44 -
Box. 7 Flows of related cultural goods
Related cultural goods are defined as equipment goods and support materials which serve to create,
produce and distribute cultural content. They comprise, for example, blank CDs, cinematographic supplies,
TV receivers and architectural plans. Related cultural goods do not necessarily have any cultural content.
For the purpose of this report, it was decided to separate them from core cultural goods, such as books or
recorded CDs, which do convey cultural content.
In 2002, trade in related cultural goods (US$ 248 billion) was four times that for core cultural goods
(US$ 60 billion). These figures result mainly from the nature of products measured. Customs data capture
flows of physical goods, which is the main characteristic of the goods considered under the related cultural
goods category.
Table 2. Trade of related cultural goods, 1994- 2002
UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
Categories
2002 value
in billion
US$
Share in
2002
Change in
share
between
1994-2002
Equipment/Support material 244.0 98.3 -0.1
Musical instruments 3.7 1.5 -13.4
Sound player and recorded sound media 167.6 67.5 4.8
Cinematographic and photographic supplies 24.9 10.0 -12.6
Television and radio receivers 47.9 19.3 -7.2
Other related cultural goods 4.3 1.7 3.9
Total related cultural goods 248.3 100
Source: UIS based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
The main component of this category in 2002 was “sound player and unrecorded sound media”, with a
67.5% share among all categories. This figure probably illustrates the growing importance of the market for
DVD players and music, as well as the increasing demand for supports (such as blank CDs or DVDs) for
private copying. The second component was TV and radio receivers. Historically strong, the share of this
component has shown a tendency to decrease during the last ten years, which is probably due to the fact
that this market has already reached its saturation point. Most households are already equipped with TV
and radio receivers, which reached, in 2002, 75% and 70% respectively for most parts of the world (ITU,
2003).
Finally, the category “other related cultural goods” refers to architecture plans and advertising. Despite their
ingredient of creativity, architecture and advertising goods are, for the purposes of this report, considered
as support materials rather than core cultural goods.
- 45 -
4. Measuring international trade in
cultural services
For the purposes of this report, core cultural
services comprise audiovisual and related
services, (including film production, distribu-
tion services, broadcasting and sound record-
ing services), copyright royalties and perform-
ing arts. The related cultural services category
covers advertising, architecture services and
news information agencies (see Annex I and
IV).
The analysis of trade in services differs from
the analysis of trade in cultural goods since
services statistics are quite recent and a
historic time series is not available, especially
for the categories presented in this section.
Hence, it focuses rather on the methodology
of measuring trade in cultural services, identi-
fying the relevant categories, analysing the
availability of information and presenting the
current limitations of using these statistics.
4.1. Audiovisual and related services
As explained in Section 1, cultural services
data are not part of the statutory data which
countries provide to international institutions,
such as OECD and IMF. Therefore, it is diffi-
cult to draw a complete picture of interna-
tional cultural trade services. However, there is
relatively good coverage of the balance of
payments item for “audiovisual and related
services” as it is a standard component of
BPM5.
Some of these data are presented in Figure 24
which shows that in 2002 the USA had the
highest level of exports of audiovisual and
related services (US$ 7 billion) while the
Figure 24. Audiovisual and related services exports for a selection of countries, 2002
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
U
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Source: UIS based on data from IMF, Balance of Payments Statistics CD-ROM, 2004.
- 46 -
United Kingdom, in the second position, had
only US$ 1.5 billion. For Hungary, Canada
and Ecuador, audiovisual and related services
represented a higher proportion related to
total services with 5.2%, 3.7% and 3.2%
shares respectively.
To analyse audiovisual services, it is important
to identify all the sub-categories which
constitute audiovisual services (broadcasting,
feature films, etc.). However, current balance
of payments data are not detailed enough to
determine the proportion of each sub-
category.
Furthermore, the nature of the trade of broad-
casting contents, which is mainly expressed
through transactions gathered in the balance
of payments, leads to very different
conclusions from those obtained through
market surveys (see Box 8 on trade in broadcasting
programmes between EU and USA). To complete
the overview, Box 9 provides other sources of
data for audiovisual services.
Box 8. Audiovisual content – assessing trade flows of movie feature films
Several elements are necessary to draw a comprehensive picture of international flows of feature films. The first one
is the overall size of the sector. In 2003, the motion picture industry sold over 7.25 billion tickets in 145,598 theatres
around the world and generated US$ 21.8 billion in revenues. Secondary exploitation of movie features in the form
of different types of licensing, videos and DVD generated revenues of US$ 55 billion, giving a total market value
close to US$ 75 billion.
The second element is the production of movies. Africa as a whole has produced only 600 movies (UNCTAD, 2002)
in its history, a figure which needs to be put in relation to the average production in the USA of 400 movies per year
or in India of over 700 movies yearly. Finally, more than one-third of all countries in the world do not produce any
films at all.
A third element is the penetration of foreign movies into national markets. Since there is a shortage of internationally
comparable data on movies by origin, Figure 25 presents the origin of first-time release feature films for a selection
of countries. This shows the large penetration of American movies into mostly European countries, despite
European legislation protecting their own production. The share of American movies was more than 50% on
average between 2000-2002 for most of the countries compared with the marginal share of movies originating from
outside Europe or the USA. France was the single exception where national production has a higher percentage
(40%) of national first-time release feature films compared to American movies (33%) for the same period.
Figure 25.: Origin of first-time release feature films in a selection of countries, 2000-2002
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
L
u
x
e
m
b
o
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l
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y
F
r
a
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e
National Europe U.S.A. Others
Sources: Focus 2004, World Film Market Trends and 2003 Yearbook, Film and Home Video, Volume 3,
European Audiovisual Observatory;
Screen Digest, September 2004; UNCTAD 2002 AV in Developing countries Complete.
- 47 -
Box 9. Audiovisual content – trade in broadcasting programmes
Figure 26 presents trade flows of broadcasting contents for 1995-2000 between the European Union (EU)
and North America, estimated from the revenues obtained by their domestic companies in the other’s
market. As shown in the figure, this trade is far from balanced. Although exports from both sides had been
steadily growing, the proportion of the flow from the EU to North America remained the same. Exports
from the EU to North America have fluctuated around a mere 6.3% of the value of exports from North
America to the EU (the highest value 13.5%, which was reached in 1997). Thus EU countries sustained a
trade deficit fifteen times the total value of their exports to North America.
Figure 26. Estimates of the trade in audiovisual programmes (TV only) between the European
Union and North America, 1995-2000
2,062
1,934
3,187
4,384
-1,933
-2,484
-1,668
-2,874
-3,497
2,645
3,781
129 161
266 313 284 275
-4,109
-5,000
-4,000
-3,000
-2,000
-1,000
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
U
S
$
North American revenues in European Union
European revenues in North America
Net
Source: ETS/European Audiovisual Observatory, 2002.
- 48 -
4.2. Other cultural services
Table 3 presents the limited data on cultural
services statistics which are available in terms
of country coverage and detail. Even though
there are few data, the trend shows some
improvement from a few years ago when no
data were available. Nevertheless, this
indicates the difficulty of obtaining any
internationally comparable data in the trade of
cultural services. Unlike with cultural goods, it
is not possible to identify the different
categories in the trade in services. Key
components, such as services related to
performing arts or broadcasting, are difficult
to determine.
The use of EBOPS classification started in
2002 mainly with OECD countries (see detailed
list in Annex V-A). Within this classification,
some cultural components of services are
included in the category “other personal
cultural and recreational services” category,
and the part dedicated to cultural services
16
is
thus difficult to isolate. The coverage of this
particular category is minimal, with only
Australia and the Czech Republic providing
data for 2002. The coverage is superior for
categories which are part of “related services”,
such as “computer services” and “information
services”, where 60% of the countries
provided the data for 2002.
Among the few countries providing data in
this field, different cultural services show
different patterns of growth. These data are
based on EBOPS categories provided by
country, as well as national classifications. No
accurate comparisons can be made at this
stage, because no harmonisation of the
categories has yet been made. Nevertheless, it
gives an indication of what kind of data can be
obtained. It shows as well some useful
breakdowns for copyrights where, for
example, only the USA makes the distinction
between books and music recordings.
The data on copyright mentioned above are
key in the analysis of cultural products due to
the distinctive nature of cultural products
whose market value includes a certain amount
of intellectual property rights. Unfortunately,
the only alternative data currently available
relate to revenues generated by collecting
societies of authors’ rights. These give only a
partial view of the international exchanges of
copyrights (see Box 10).
To conclude, some cultural services data have
started to be available during recent years.
Unfortunately, the current limited coverage
prevents the presentation of a complete
picture of the trade of cultural services.
Furthermore, in order to establish comparable
data at a global level, harmonisation is still
warranted. Countries should be encouraged to
provide a greater range of data to illustrate
evolution of cultural services. Additional work
is also needed to identify relevant indicators.
16
For more details on services data, see Technical Notes.
- 49 -
Table 3: Selected detailed trade cultural services, 2001-2002
EXPORTS IMPORTS
EBOPS categories or national categories Annual change %
2001-2002
Annual change %
2001-2002
AUSTRALIA
Information services 0.34 -0.15
News agency services -0.43 -0.73
Other information provision services 1.55 0.77
Other cultural royalties and license fees
(1) (a)
-0.16 0.26
Music
(a)
0.20 0.08
Computer software
(a)
-0.30 0.21
Other
(a)
-0.07 0.35
Architectural services
(a)
0.93 ..
Audiovisual and related services 0.20 0.22
Other cultural and recreational services
(1)
0.19 0.24
Other
(2)
0.19 0.43
CANADA
Royalties and license fees -0.05 0.00
Other royalties and license fees
(1)
-0.03 0.01
Copyrights and related rights -0.09 0.08
Software and other royalties -0.07 -0.03
Audiovisual and related services -0.02 0.10
CZECH REPUBLIC
Information services -0.08 0.66
News agency services .. ..
Other information provision services -0.08 0.66
Audiovisual and related services
(b)
0.14 0.21
Other cultural and recreational services
(1) (b)
-0.01 0.25
Other
(c)
-0.04 0.25
NEW ZEALAND
Royalties and license fees 0.56 0.10
Software royalties and license fees 0.26 0.69
Other 0.72 -0.01
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Royalties and license fees
(1)
0.07 0.15
Other royalties and license fees
(3)
-0.03 0.13
Books, records, and tapes
(3)
0.00 0.13
Broadcasting and recording of live events
(3)
0.59 6.22
General use computer software
(3) (4) (b)
-0.04 0.06
Other
(3) (4)
0.11 0.12
Audiovisual and related services 0.05 0.48
Source: UIS based on data from Statistics on International Trade in Services, Volume I, OECD/ Eurostat, 2004.
Footnotes:
(1) This category contains more sub-categories than displayed.
(2) Health services credits for 2000 are included under “Other personal, cultural and recreational
services, Other”.
(3) Royalties and license fees receipts and payments between affiliated enterprises are included in item
“Other royalties and license fees, Other”.
(4) Prior to 1997, “General use computer software royalties and license fees” are included in “Other”.
(a) 1999-2002.
(b) 1997-2002.
(c) 1998-2002.
- 50 -
Box 10. Revenues collected by copyright management societies
Figure 27 presents data on the collection of copyrights for 210 management societies in 109 countries that
are affiliated to the International Confederation of Authors and Composers Societies (CISAC). Data cover
only amounts raised by licensing activities of these societies in their national territories thus income from
international exchanges is not included.
Copyright management societies collected US$ 6.8 billion in 2002 in royalties. European societies alone
collected almost US$ 3.8 billion, which represented 57% of the world’s total, while North America and
Asia-Pacific obtained 25% and 17% respectively of total copyright payments. Collections by Latin
American and African countries were negligible and reached less than 3% of total payments.
Figure 27. Collection of copyright income by region, 2002
Western Europe
38.5%
Other Europe
17.1%
Africa
0.4%
Latin America
2.5%
Asia Pacific
16.8%
North America
24.8%
Europe
55.5%
Source: Survey of the CISAC Member Societies’ Collections in their National Territories for the
Years 2000-2002, CISAC, 2003.
- 51 -
REFERENCES
Alonso Cano, G., M. del Corral, and G. Poussin, UNESCO, 2000, “Culture, Trade and
Globalisation: 25 Questions and Answers”, UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2003, “World Telecom Development Report”,
Geneva.
OECD/Eurostat, 2004, “Statistics on International Trade in Services”, Volume I.
Price WaterHouse Coopers (PWC), 2005, “Global Entertainment and Media Outlook: 2004-
2008”.
UN Statistics Division (UNSD), 2004,“International Merchandise Trade Statistics, Compilers
Manual”, UN Statistics Division, New-York.
UN, European Commission, IMF, OECD, UNCTAD and WTO, 2002, (UN et al., 2002),
“Manual on Statistics of international trade in services”, United Nations Publication, New York.
UNCTAD, 2004, “UNCTAD XI High-Level Panel on Creative Industries and Development.
Backgrounder UNCTAD XI Creative Industries and Development”, (TD(XI)BP/13 4 June
2004)”, Geneva.
UNCTAD, 2002, “Audiovisual Services: Improving Participation of Developing Countries”
(TD/B/COM.1/EM.20/2 30 September 2002), Geneva.
UNESCO, Cultural Policies Division, UIS with Phillip Ramsdale, 2000, “International Flows of
Selected Cultural Goods, 1980-98”, UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
UNESCO Division of Statistics and Mrs Fariba Razavi Tavakoli, 1992, “International Flows of
Selected Cultural Goods, 1970-87”, UNESCO Publishing, Paris.
UNESCO/ITC, 1997, “International Symposium on “Crafts and the International Market: Trade
& Customs Codification”, Manila.
UNESCO, 1986, “The UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics”.
United Nations Population Division (UNPD), 2003, “World Population Prospects: The 2002
Revision”, New-York.
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 2003 “Guide on surveying the economic
contribution of the copyright-based industries”, WIPO, Geneva.
World Association of Newspapers (WAN), 2003, “World Press Trends 2003”.
World Bank, 2003, “Urban Development Needs Creativity: How Creative Industries Affect
Urban Areas. Development Outreach”, Washington.
- 52 -
Other sources:
Statistics Canada, Jamie Carson, 2004, “Culture Goods Trade Estimates: Methodology and
Technical Notes”, Statistics Canada, Ottawa.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Denis Trewin, 2001, “Measuring Wellbeing: Framework
for Australian Social Statistics”, ABS, Canberra.
Department for Culture, Media and Sport and the English Regional Cultural Consortia, 2002,
“Regional Cultural Data Framework: A User’s Guide”, United Kingdom.
Eurostat working papers, 2000, “Cultural Statistics in the European Union”, European
Commission 2000.
Ministerio de Cultura de Colombia Convenio Andrés Bello, Equipo Economía y Cultura, 2003,
“Impacto económico de las industrias culturales en Colombia”, Bogota.
Ministère de la communication et de la culture, « Annuaire statistique du secteur de la
communication et de la culture 2000-2001 », Algérie.
Ministry of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, 1998, “Creative South Africa: a Strategy for
Realising the Potential of the Cultural Industries”.
- 53 -
Technical notes
For this report, data were extracted in
November 2004 from the UN Comtrade
database using the Harmonised System (HS)
classification, version 1992. The UN
Comtrade database contains data disaggre-
gated by commodity and trading partners,
covering some 230 countries or areas.
Data source:
United Nations Commodity Trade
Statistics Database
Department of Economic and Social
Affairs/Statistics Division
Data are available athttp://unstats.un.org/unsd/comtrade/
The Harmonised System Commodity
Description and Coding System (also referred
to as the “Harmonised System” (HS)) was
created by the Customs Cooperation Council
in Brussels in 1983. The HS is updated every
four or five years by the World Customs
Organisation. The HS 2002 is the latest
version of this classification and is often used
in customs declarations. Implementing a new
version within each national system can take a
substantial amount of time. The 2002 version
of the HS is still not universally used,
especially within developing countries. The
1992 version of the HS has been chosen for
this report in order to have a better coverage
of reporting countries. Furthermore, it allows
study of the trends of cultural trade flows for
the last ten years.
The HS was preferred to the Standard
International Trade Classification System
(SITC Revision 3) - which was used for
International Flows of Selected Cultural Goods,
1980-98 - because the SITC does not take into
account the recent evolution of traded goods,
such as the emerging technologies. Further-
more, the HS is more precise and allows for a
more accurate selection of cultural goods. It
makes the distinction between cultural and
non-cultural goods within the same family of a
specific good. Both classification systems
present data on, amongst other things, the
materials used during production, the process
of production and the end use of the product
on the market. The HS provides international
statistical and administrative comparability of
trade information (HS codes) but this is
sometimes not accurate for cultural goods.
For some codes, cultural and non-cultural
goods may be combined.
Two systems of compilation of international
merchandise trade statistics are in common
use, namely the general trade system and the
special trade system. The two systems differ
mainly in classification of how goods entered
in countries or how warehoused and re-
exported goods are treated. General trade
figures are larger than the corresponding
special trade figures because the latter exclude
certain trade flows, such as goods shipped
through bonded warehouses. Consequently,
the International Merchandise Trade Statistics:
Compilers Manual recommends the use of the
general trade system to record international
merchandise trade statistics. To the extent
possible, total merchandise trade is defined in
this report according to the general trade
definition. It covers all types of inward and
outward movement of goods through a
country or territory, including movements
through customs warehouses and free zones.
Goods include all merchandise that either add
to or reduce the stock of material resources of
a country or territory by entering (imports) or
leaving (exports) the country’s economic
territory.
The exports are valued at transaction value
(Free on Board: F.O.B.), i.e. the price includes
the cost of transportation and insurance to the
border of the exporter country. The imports
- 54 -
are recorded at transaction value (Cost
Insurance Freight: C.I.F.), which means that
the price includes cost of transportation and
insurance to the border of the importing
country.
Low-value transactions are not included, but
in general they represent less than 1% of total
global exports.
When data were available, re-exports have
been deducted from exports data in order to
measure domestic exports.
Data on audiovisual and related services are
extracted from the IMF Balance of Payments
Statistics in current US$. The source on other
services data is from the publication Statistics
on International Trade in Services.
EBOPS can be characterised as a dis-
aggregation of the BPM5 in trade in services.
It was based on the recommendations of the
Manual on Statistics of International Trade in
Services”. EBOPS was defined in order to fulfil
the data needs generated from the General
Agreements on Trade Services (GATS)
recommendations.
Under the category “other personal, cultural,
and recreational services”, a new distinction
was made between education, health services
and “cultural and recreational services” (897).
Nevertheless, the new breakdown “other
personal, cultural, and recreational services”
still includes categories that are non-cultural.
A key additional category is “royalties and
licence fees” from which it is necessary to
identify the part which is dedicated to
copyrights.
Another category that is linked to related
services is “computer and information
services”. EBOPS contains two distinct sub-
categories, namely “computer services” and
“information services”. The category
“information services” offers a further
breakdown into “news agencies services” and
“other information provision services”.
The source of population data used for the
calculation of the trade per capita is the World
Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision, 2003,
from the United Nations Population Division.
Data on Gross National Income is acquired
from the World Bank Atlas, 2003.
- 55 -
Annex I
Annex I: Statistical Tables
Tables I Total trade of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Table I–1 Exports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Table I–2 Imports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Tables II Analysis by region
Table II–1 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
Table II–2 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
Table II–3 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
Table II–4 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
Tables III Trade by level of income
Table III–1 Trade exports by category, 1994-2002
Table III–2 Trade imports by category, 1994-2002
Table III–3 Trend in trade of core cultural goods
Table III–4 Trade coverage ratio of core cultural goods by category, 1994-2002
Tables IV Partner country analysis
Table IV–1 Top 15 partner countries of the United States of America, 1994 and 2003
Table IV–2 Top 15 partner countries of China, 1994 and 2003
Table IV–3 Top 15 partner countries of South Africa, 2003
Table IV–4 Top 15 partner countries of Brazil, 1994 and 2003
Table IV–5 Top 15 partner countries of Egypt, 1994 and 2002
Tables V Top 20 importers and exporters for the main core cultural goods categories
Table V–1 Heritage goods
Table V–2 Books
Table V–3 Newspapers and periodicals
Table V–4 Other printed matter
Table V–5 Recorded media
Table V–6 Visual arts
Table V-7 Audiovisual media
Table VI Detailed trade in cultural services for a selected number of countries
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics based on data from UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD,
2004.
- 56 -
Annex I
Tables I Total trade of core cultural goods by country, 2002
Table I-1 Exports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
EXPORTS in
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Albania .. 94.9 455.3 47.7 0.7 118.2 0.3 717.1
Algeria .. 85.2 1,914.9 1.0 26.5 81.8 .. 2,109.4
Andorra 1.7 1,038.3 931.3 9.0 479.2 18.9 260.9 2,739.3
Anguilla 12.9 1.3 .. 3.5 3.7 621.1 .. 642.4
Argentina 85.6 33,381.1 6,730.6 3,798.8 14,048.3 1,585.3 10,925.7 70,555.2
Armenia 0.2 199.1 .. 0.0 .. 20.4 3.0 222.7
Australia 9,736.6 72,530.3 29,855.4 18,203.0 101,311.0 44,096.6 42,035.5 317,768.4
Austria 13,813.1 85,025.4 54,411.7 22,690.8 1,261,205.5 71,606.0 52,472.8 1,561,225.2
Azerbaijan .. 91.4 0.1 17.9 762.6 74.8 .. 946.8
Bahrain .. 210.7 .. .. .. 126.6 0.2 337.5
Barbados 3.3 169.4 292.5 166.4 49.1 220.4 0.1 901.3
Belarus 8.2 15,695.0 404.4 339.1 11,090.2 350.5 47.5 27,934.8
Belgium 35,432.2 362,091.0 146,584.4 51,272.6 351,912.7 119,528.7 63,192.0 1,130,013.6
Belize .. 0.2 .. 1.8 .. 18.1 .. 20.1
Benin .. 251.3 .. 1.6 1.2 50.3 .. 304.4
Bolivia .. 288.2 3.6 73.0 688.4 484.3 1.1 1,538.6
Brazil 391.3 11,616.6 10,525.3 1,412.9 10,595.9 4,007.3 27.8 38,577.2
Brunei Darussalam .. 0.6 .. .. .. .. .. 0.6
Bulgaria 21.5 1,382.7 1,770.6 325.7 1,708.9 1,550.7 7,685.9 14,446.1
Burkina Faso 100.0 13.8 .. 0.0 10.8 776.8 5.1 906.5
Burundi .. 0.0 0.0 .. .. 6.8 .. 6.8
Canada 27,490.6 395,964.9 160,852.7 252,804.8 357,374.3 162,190.1 220,552.3 1,577,229.5
Central African Rep. .. 38.8 .. .. .. 0.1 .. 38.8
Chile 54.2 17,371.0 5,382.4 1,568.2 24,150.0 1,389.3 1,418.7 51,333.8
China 2,372.0 409,105.7 4,612.6 92,420.5 254,936.0 2,229,649.0 2,281,804.9 5,274,900.7
China, Hong Kong 490.6 258,416.2 35,148.8 18,143.7 254,528.8 7,592.0 3,537.6 577,857.7
China, Macao .. 17.7 23.9 .. 178.7 122.8 .. 343.0
Colombia .. 90,711.8 20,747.7 3,026.7 31,202.4 3,635.5 6.7 149,330.7
Costa Rica 14.1 6,854.6 747.3 185.3 6,653.3 717.3 0.4 15,172.3
Cote d'Ivoire 1.4 977.2 0.5 86.0 10.3 945.1 0.5 2,021.0
Croatia 27.8 5,689.5 23,610.6 886.4 5,948.1 1,401.4 2,234.6 39,798.3
Cyprus 0.7 361.9 413.9 25.7 1,100.4 127.1 0.1 2,030.0
Czech Republic 1,590.5 78,199.9 34,325.8 14,169.6 67,562.3 21,816.4 1,017.9 218,682.3
Denmark 16,717.0 110,712.7 48,234.5 31,998.3 194,518.4 75,872.4 20,709.6 498,762.9
Dominica .. .. .. .. 13.5 17.9 .. 31.4
Ecuador .. 694.2 20.0 28.5 701.6 925.6 .. 2,369.9
Egypt 1.1 5,721.9 1,377.0 49.9 350.3 3,211.6 5.5 10,717.3
El Salvador .. 2,694.4 .. 1,631.7 1,236.5 938.2 131.6 6,632.3
Estonia 89.2 2,806.0 6,648.8 419.7 1,599.1 3,883.2 36.1 15,482.0
Ethiopia 8.9 13.0 1.5 240.9 0.8 54.6 4.2 323.8
Fiji 17.6 123.8 13.1 16.7 66.4 168.9 3.9 410.4
Finland 126.5 70,603.3 126,143.7 20,783.6 46,039.1 2,860.7 23,659.5 290,216.5
France 189,181.4 518,539.2 368,724.5 104,716.3 741,180.9 505,250.0 93,681.0 2,521,273.3
French Polynesia 4.1 73.4 .. 1.3 66.1 166.8 45.0 356.5
Germany 73,858.5 1,257,829.7 711,078.1 274,817.7 2,280,960.0 550,891.3 639,495.6 5,788,930.8
Greece 60.3 23,478.0 10,167.1 3,858.9 23,284.3 7,044.9 9,870.0 77,763.6
Greenland 33.9 41.3 1.4 986.3 91.2 22.1 .. 1,176.2
- 57 -
Annex I
EXPORTS in
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Grenada .. 2.5 .. 2.8 .. 4.5 0.0 9.8
Guatemala 0.1 0.6 0.0 15.6 4,109.4 321.4 0.4 4,447.5
Guinea 16.6 .. .. .. .. 17.3 .. 33.9
Guyana 2.0 9.6 7.5 0.4 0.2 36.9 0.0 56.6
Honduras 0.0 38.0 20.0 0.3 6.1 41.0 0.3 105.7
Hungary 421.0 18,684.0 6,583.0 5,740.0 27,284.0 13,579.0 647,220.0 719,511.0
Iceland .. 2,288.4 61.6 1,529.2 141.1 161.2 6.5 4,188.0
India 917.8 42,588.7 12,628.6 6,180.8 191,335.1 15,257.6 15,552.4 284,461.1
Indonesia 35.2 10,187.2 530.8 5,787.6 9,595.8 85,422.5 742.0 112,301.0
Iran (Islamic Rep. of) .. 1,005.0 .. 1,509.7 76.0 535.1 0.0 3,125.8
Ireland 5,356.3 93,797.9 26,721.0 5,309.7 2,128,151.0 10,416.9 7,107.2 2,276,860.1
Israel 1,493.0 44,242.0 906.0 4,067.0 77,571.0 18,858.0 7,830.0 154,967.0
Italy 9,864.2 510,284.3 202,342.8 112,557.6 144,092.1 273,523.9 128,065.6 1,380,730.5
Jamaica .. 64.5 141.6 12.5 166.4 97.5 .. 482.5
Japan 8,054.2 107,524.0 34,439.9 15,189.8 371,455.9 60,394.6 1,208,074.3 1,805,132.8
Jordan 14.8 3,832.5 96.7 54.8 81.1 337.4 .. 4,417.5
Kenya 4.1 1,361.5 760.5 86.8 153.0 2,266.9 6.7 4,639.3
Kyrgyzstan .. 8.6 0.6 1.2 0.3 279.3 3.7 293.8
Latvia 79.8 3,975.5 1,069.5 707.5 2,571.5 284.4 14.6 8,702.8
Lebanon 1,880.9 47,947.9 90.6 270.9 1,727.3 2,871.7 664.1 55,453.5
Lesotho .. 28.7 .. 0.7 0.1 0.3 .. 29.9
Luxembourg 233.0 6,160.7 5,634.7 359.4 97,838.8 1,302.3 2,692.4 114,221.4
Madagascar 81.1 34.3 1.7 13.2 2.1 538.5 3.5 674.4
Malawi 0.3 205.1 .. 21.4 1.4 78.6 .. 306.9
Malaysia 1,508.5 93,059.8 2,315.2 3,931.2 71,347.6 11,269.1 32,420.4 215,851.7
Mauritius 10.8 3,406.9 171.9 626.1 947.7 934.4 73.5 6,171.4
Mexico 567.9 119,585.4 32,936.3 61,805.8 145,956.5 111,705.5 771,890.3 1,244,447.8
Mongolia 15.1 21.2 .. 0.9 0.2 24.5 .. 61.9
Morocco 821.9 1,020.1 0.7 2,010.1 5,554.9 70,918.5 0.0 80,326.2
Namibia 1,197.2 592.9 5.1 504.3 283.1 620.8 10.1 3,213.7
Netherlands 15,353.4 253,673.4 142,824.2 50,085.4 955,687.7 108,741.9 20,076.9 1,546,442.9
New Caledonia 4.3 315.3 266.0 10.5 117.6 133.3 3.0 850.0
New Zealand 1,006.5 11,941.5 1,475.7 5,350.3 7,394.8 4,194.2 751.4 32,114.4
Nicaragua .. 184.5 20.3 9.6 197.0 2,017.8 2.9 2,432.1
Niger .. .. .. .. 4.3 .. .. 4.3
Norway 23,697.3 26,934.1 7,699.3 7,255.5 30,830.4 18,265.6 40,258.8 154,940.9
Oman .. 622.3 91.2 16.5 197.4 201.1 12.9 1,141.4
Other Asia, n.e.s. 30.7 35,310.9 8,743.0 6,252.9 374,940.7 76,945.6 4,497.5 506,721.4
Panama .. 50.9 23.4 11.6 .. 16.1 1.0 102.9
Papua New Guinea 5.8 4.3 13.5 0.1 4.8 38.2 .. 66.7
Paraguay .. 792.6 .. 19.6 20.9 19.8 4.1 856.9
Peru 230.0 20,188.2 537.9 3,270.0 836.5 5,012.0 10.5 30,085.2
Philippines 174.1 1,651.5 652.1 1,441.7 13,124.5 98,281.6 1,228.9 116,554.4
Poland 3,317.0 50,009.0 49,841.0 12,463.0 59,624.0 33,231.0 875.0 209,360.0
Portugal 123.4 24,880.1 2,529.3 6,366.9 16,370.6 105,716.8 2,013.9 158,001.2
Qatar .. 135.4 0.3 1.4 .. 2.1 .. 139.2
Rep. of Korea 952.1 71,900.1 3,664.6 24,915.6 174,867.6 69,108.4 43,035.5 388,443.9
Rep. of Moldova .. 658.2 0.0 5.7 20.3 11.7 0.0 615.0
Romania .. 1,661.0 5,319.0 436.0 6,930.0 9,381.0 1,320.0 25,047.0
Russian Federation 1,282.7 240,227.0 15,477.6 16,517.3 59,331.6 13,434.9 786.2 347,057.3
Rwanda 1.5 0.2 .. 0.2 .. 34.9 .. 36.8
- 58 -
Annex I
EXPORTS in
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Saint Lucia .. 7.9 31.6 .. 0.6 71.6 0.4 112.1
St Vincent & the
Grenadines .. 2.7 .. .. .. 17.6 .. 20.2
Samoa 0.1 6.3 2.4 0.9 .. 0.2 0.2 10.0
Sao Tome & Principe .. .. .. .. .. 0.2 .. 0.2
Saudi Arabia 8.3 2,268.6 647.6 37.5 1,964.8 598.3 577.7 6,102.8
Senegal 0.2 181.9 5.1 0.1 3.9 1,420.3 .. 1,611.5
Serbia & Montenegro 1.3 2,932.8 4,821.3 505.3 5,309.7 273.1 18.8 13,862.3
Seychelles .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 .. 0.1
Sierra Leone .. .. .. .. 725.4 .. .. 725.4
Singapore 3,685.5 349,859.5 35,934.4 7,554.5 1,552,343.9 10,167.7 41,443.9 2,000,989.4
Slovakia 401.2 48,327.1 42,518.4 6,676.6 10,373.2 4,704.9 201.0 113,202.4
Slovenia 25.4 40,658.3 3,331.1 1,660.6 11,962.6 694.9 61.1 58,393.9
South Africa 9,340.8 18,859.4 1,698.9 3,023.9 7,641.1 15,392.2 1,014.5 56,970.8
Spain 1,188.2 685,967.9 238,801.0 45,415.0 258,742.7 255,184.4 47,390.2 1,532,689.3
Sri Lanka 1.7 914.2 1,081.0 189.6 520.1 12,389.4 0.5 15,096.4
Sudan 0.1 107.2 29.0 .. 47.7 248.5 .. 432.5
Swaziland 13.8 112.6 133.3 8.9 29.6 81.0 1.6 380.8
Sweden 7,512.4 95,405.8 20,117.2 34,788.7 644,907.7 43,664.8 28,903.2 875,299.8
Switzerland 120,238.4 147,190.9 40,966.0 91,620.2 254,227.2 720,389.2 9,241.1 1,383,873.0
Syria .. 216.0 328.8 1,599.1 .. 183.6 .. 2,327.5
TFYR of Macedonia .. 103.7 96.2 47.6 223.4 71.5 9.5 551.8
Togo 2.2 18.7 .. 0.9 0.4 187.4 .. 209.5
Tunisia 0.2 596.7 136.0 30.8 3,391.6 1,094.0 0.0 5,249.3
Turkey 157.4 7,817.6 2,221.2 5,043.5 12,812.0 21,368.8 46.7 49,467.1
Uganda 7.2 152.8 .. 17.4 3.4 26.0 .. 206.8
Ukraine 21.1 5,745.4 869.7 446.9 856.3 430.9 44.0 8,414.3
United Kingdom 1,052,550.0 1,805,746.6 744,952.6 274,640.6 1,640,203.3 2,700,214.4 330,464.7 8,548,772.1
United Rep. of
Tanzania 8.8 38.3 0.2 7.1 507.9 191.3 1.2 754.8
Uruguay 45.9 80.7 0.5 15.1 3,291.5 1,007.4 6.5 4,447.6
United States of
America 143,174.1 1,921,368.5 880,488.7 400,657.7 3,068,793.9 889,146.3 344,785.1 7,648,414.3
Venezuela 0.1 4,672.5 240.4 684.5 1,954.3 1,221.4 14.1 8,787.2
Zambia 7.1 197.3 26.0 1.8 10.6 622.0 0.2 864.9
Zimbabwe 18,482.0 1,134.9 70.9 315.5 115.8 6,843.8 8.3 26,971.3
- 59 -
Annex I
Table I-2 Imports of core cultural goods by country, 2002
IMPORTS
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Albania .. 881.3 768.1 352.6 3,911.8 1,061.1 218.3 7,193.2
Andorra 177.8 3,345.0 2,563.7 379.7 18,652.1 2,760.9 3,404.0 31,283.2
Anguilla 0 417.9 14.3 57.9 36.2 341.5 0.3 868.1
Argentina 193.5 24,308.5 6,027.5 1,408.1 22,400.5 1,340.9 1,263.9 56,942.9
Armenia .. 1,381.2 735.4 148.5 118.5 157.6 30.2 2,571.3
Australia 22,419.7 307,581.6 150,136.4 47,547.4 378,425.4 89,258.9 214,652.4 1,210,021.8
Austria 15,955.0 258,485.5 164,421.8 56,628.8 435,839.1 94,849.6 51,812.4 1,077,992.2
Azerbaijan .. 1,434.7 884.2 99.0 1,620.3 1,257.3 12.8 5,308.3
Bahrain 10.2 4,341.4 1,957.7 697.1 3,766.5 3,181.3 1,202.8 15,156.9
Barbados 9.5 7,479.1 1,891.7 878.3 4,135.9 1,582.3 816.4 16,793.2
Belarus 4.7 8,742.7 3,248.3 3,672.7 8,281.8 739.9 374.4 25,064.4
Belgium 30,549.2 329,618.8 259,246.5 53,049.2 638,997.4 117,021.4 82,255.3 1,510,737.7
Belize .. 1,936.2 116.6 549.5 153.2 251.9 43.7 3,051.1
Benin .. 1,877.7 41.1 130.6 50.6 34.0 0.2 2,134.2
Bolivia 69.0 6,746.7 714.6 335.8 3,527.4 1,147.0 429.4 12,969.9
Brazil 2,846.6 90,205.1 21,685.0 3,417.6 100,260.9 10,253.0 6,852.8 235,520.9
Bulgaria 2.6 3,784.0 2,728.6 1,134.6 10,676.0 1,317.4 401.6 20,044.7
Burkina Faso 51.9 2,280.6 183.9 128.2 2,125.1 34.0 11.6 4,815.3
Burundi .. 544.6 48.2 22.4 3.2 6.8 0.6 625.9
Canada 32,877.6 1,019,337.3 646,659.5 264,609.3 1,171,495.8 190,083.5 504,829.4 3,829,892.5
Chile 1,944.2 34,029.4 6,495.1 2,676.9 35,993.8 9,782.6 8,569.4 99,491.3
China 729.6 97,172.2 52,694.1 15,565.9 873,359.6 16,069.2 57,795.8 1,113,386.4
China, Hong Kong 89,176.8 472,680.9 24,301.9 90,007.1 278,678.7 577,594.8 656,733.4 2,189,173.6
China, Macao 0.2 2,187.3 155.7 220.7 6,346.9 644.3 299.4 9,854.4
Colombia 55.0 47,814.4 6,079.6 2,676.8 31,755.5 5,841.6 2,138.9 96,361.8
Costa Rica 63.6 21,521.6 5,868.1 1,788.5 19,446.5 3,867.7 796.7 53,352.6
Cote d'Ivoire 0.2 8,994.7 7,513.3 242.0 368.4 213.1 49.3 17,381.0
Croatia 60.1 13,025.9 13,533.4 3,076.3 43,040.6 9,623.4 4,686.4 87,046.0
Cyprus 532.5 18,782.9 13,279.8 2,448.8 15,836.1 7,614.3 2,760.5 61,254.9
Czech Rep. 19,724.9 110,955.1 26,296.6 16,724.1 75,473.7 30,955.4 7,260.3 287,390.2
Denmark 5,199.9 115,082.7 39,158.6 33,701.4 219,966.0 61,908.3 39,385.8 514,402.7
Dominica 2.3 1,379.3 85.1 126.3 180.0 58.7 68.8 1,900.7
Ecuador 21.4 43,123.4 5,547.0 1,663.9 15,468.2 6,533.9 1,167.9 73,525.8
Egypt .. 16,649.0 4,258.0 1,746.5 2,781.4 4,829.1 3,066.7 33,330.6
El Salvador 27.6 24,421.0 1,756.4 1,524.6 12,109.8 1,986.5 625.4 42,451.3
Estonia 167.6 7,424.8 1,832.8 1,382.9 9,551.2 1,864.7 1,198.6 23,422.5
Ethiopia 43.9 10,137.2 442.6 2,569.9 1,612.0 213.1 182.5 15,201.0
Faeroe Islands 2.1 1,425.2 1,657.3 353.4 2,798.9 361.0 429.9 7,027.8
Fiji 0.5 3,219.6 38.1 365.2 1,182.4 559.4 1,105.1 6,470.4
Finland 284.4 60,731.0 31,949.2 13,371.4 174,960.0 12,881.6 50,244.0 344,421.6
France 66,513.0 541,265.6 402,028.5 116,724.4 1,397,715.5 355,300.1 527,299.2 3,406,846.1
French Polynesia 143.5 5,131.6 2,752.2 421.3 8,933.9 4,139.8 776.4 22,298.6
Germany 42,337.7 631,609.4 328,659.7 190,160.2 1,487,769.5 592,662.5 888,920.6 4,162,119.7
Greece 946.2 51,013.3 33,841.2 8,114.8 77,221.4 31,863.3 21,786.7 224,787.0
Greenland 13.8 2,096.5 59.4 406.3 2,377.0 251.5 218.6 5,423.1
Grenada .. 2,334.5 173.6 305.4 331.6 183.1 16.9 3,345.0
Guatemala 9.9 29,719.2 3,194.0 3,427.8 37,549.2 5,300.9 2,100.9 81,302.0
Guinea 21.0 556.7 139.4 151.8 54.1 7.6 16.2 946.7
Guyana 5.4 2,205.3 201.8 253.1 127.0 412.9 17.7 3,223.1
- 60 -
Annex I
IMPORTS
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Honduras 0.5 2,191.1 1,011.1 199.6 352.9 927.5 37.8 4,720.6
Hungary 227.0 49,215.0 12,547.0 8,481.0 120,778.0 7,369.0 6,744.0 205,361.0
Iceland 20.8 6,928.0 2,149.5 838.0 12,048.9 1,743.9 2,196.8 25,925.9
India 262.0 78,589.1 5,245.6 1,486.7 708,047.6 5,019.2 4,930.8 803,580.9
Indonesia 118.0 6,763.6 3,482.7 1,631.7 4,039.3 2,644.2 1,965.0 20,644.5
Iran .. 20,406.2 52.9 296.5 7,124.8 280.7 314.6 28,475.7
Ireland 1,874.2 153,025.8 87,608.9 25,398.9 244,235.7 30,816.4 31,860.6 574,820.5
Israel 112.0 31,950.0 5,534.0 2,986.0 120,350.0 41,376.0 26,027.0 228,335.0
Italy 10,783.2 231,513.9 180,016.5 36,450.7 991,957.5 305,456.5 63,240.5 1,819,418.7
Jamaica 0.3 38,202.0 98.9 1,350.0 11,338.3 1,485.5 238.2 52,713.2
Japan 50,654.0 329,759.9 127,076.7 70,065.4 777,849.2 397,669.8 261,098.4 2,014,173.5
Jordan .. 14,887.4 124.9 701.8 6,632.8 1,102.0 288.7 23,737.7
Kenya 13.1 11,619.2 1,388.0 3,574.2 13,047.0 250.0 175.3 30,066.7
Kyrgyzstan 1.2 631.7 51.8 107.2 70.7 414.1 3.1 1,279.8
Latvia 2.1 5,973.6 6,271.0 1,204.6 17,099.1 1,462.8 285.7 32,299.0
Lebanon 80.9 21,802.5 5,701.8 921.8 11,377.8 10,243.6 4,783.9 54,912.3
Lesotho 0.3 2,637.3 161.5 476.1 41.8 108.7 8.4 3,434.1
Luxembourg 2,492.7 33,815.0 33,291.7 3,548.5 102,062.2 11,074.4 9,870.7 196,155.2
Malaysia 4,302.5 94,832.1 9,243.3 3,714.3 87,139.2 6,789.9 14,234.1 220,255.3
Maldives .. 1,911.5 251.2 276.4 536.0 404.8 83.6 3,463.5
Mauritius 7.3 8,209.9 2,890.9 405.1 2,544.2 1,090.5 655.9 15,803.7
Mexico 1,410.9 414,474.1 72,974.1 65,289.2 364,597.6 71,942.3 158,698.1 1,149,386.4
Morocco 284.8 26,102.5 15,464.9 819.4 32,574.7 2,998.1 1,280.4 79,524.8
Netherlands 20,457.4 230,663.8 92,130.8 112,076.2 626,976.6 186,490.7 156,747.9 1,425,543.5
New Caledonia 102.7 5,896.4 3,334.2 293.7 7,137.2 1,252.0 1,134.5 19,150.7
New Zealand 3,468.9 82,552.6 56,697.0 14,570.5 94,795.0 19,689.8 29,909.5 301,683.4
Nicaragua 5.1 15,014.2 1,529.0 773.7 4,621.8 1,071.0 376.3 23,391.1
Niger .. 1,186.1 99.1 73.2 205.3 87.6 5.7 1,657.1
Norway 2,780.0 108,574.3 37,072.2 32,674.5 265,968.6 35,969.7 69,370.4 552,409.8
Oman 11.4 5,476.0 4,933.9 1,433.8 4,100.4 1,986.4 1,017.2 18,959.1
Other Asia, n.e.s. 2,208.5 105,879.5 27,446.4 6,389.9 375,450.2 31,722.4 35,684.2 584,781.1
Panama 2.9 15,071.0 6,947.0 2,606.9 13,208.4 4,401.9 2,752.8 44,990.9
Paraguay .. 3,529.7 303.9 150.5 3,263.3 1,720.9 2,964.2 11,932.6
Peru 11.7 32,322.6 6,103.1 1,344.3 13,903.6 4,178.6 2,865.5 60,729.5
Philippines 39.0 41,217.4 5,600.5 828.7 17,927.7 3,494.7 2,972.0 72,080.0
Poland 4,848.0 78,749.0 25,041.0 24,555.0 88,714.0 31,120.0 7,845.0 260,872.0
Portugal 2,315.4 57,321.1 91,929.6 6,703.3 146,245.3 36,697.1 52,801.3 394,013.1
Qatar 97.3 2,966.2 1,835.8 966.5 8,201.7 1,791.3 404.9 16,263.8
Rep. of Korea 6,532.6 120,502.0 22,102.0 40,598.1 638,872.4 73,191.3 119,179.0 1,020,977.6
Rep. of Moldova .. 2,296.8 1,209.7 198.0 535.8 79.2 11.8 4,331.3
Romania .. 17,465.0 4,670.0 2,123.0 10,976.0 2,181.0 528.0 37,943.0
Russian Federation 533.2 103,125.7 164,338.4 18,875.1 59,111.6 24,103.7 2,789.0 372,876.7
Rwanda .. 2,010.8 447.0 139.9 165.5 50.6 95.7 2,909.6
Saint Lucia .. 3,034.7 422.1 382.1 417.5 469.7 44.0 4,770.1
St Vincent &
Grenadines 28.1 1,127.7 245.4 169.7 113.8 241.5 24.4 1,950.8
Samoa 0.8 620.7 78.5 101.2 132.1 22.7 12.6 968.6
Sao Tome & Principe .. 13.6 2.1 1.8 3.4 2.3 0.0 23.3
Saudi Arabia 304.0 30,131.6 869.9 3,895.4 24,907.3 25,897.8 8,329.3 94,335.3
Senegal .. 5,391.6 3,042.5 337.4 434.4 336.9 31.8 9,574.5
Serbia & Montenegro 40.0 4,042.7 6,051.9 448.8 60,821.7 1,845.5 1,491.4 74,742.0
- 61 -
Annex I
IMPORTS
thousands US$
Heritage
goods
Books
Newspapers
and
periodicals
Other
printed
matter
Recorded
media
Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
Total core
cultural
goods
Seychelles 2.3 670.3 111.0 40.3 .. 80.9 2.6 907.5
Sierra Leone .. 339.0 0.0 59.6 18.5 11.1 26.9 455.0
Singapore 4,885.9 199,171.7 26,641.1 18,801.3 170,562.1 41,989.7 177,462.7 639,514.6
Slovakia 239.6 24,174.8 17,149.5 3,967.0 40,252.0 6,288.5 2,773.3 94,844.7
Slovenia 81.5 10,305.7 7,054.8 2,825.7 24,035.1 4,692.9 1,109.6 50,105.3
South Africa 3,405.6 96,330.7 9,081.7 7,235.9 148,600.9 33,023.6 11,716.0 309,394.4
Spain 9,128.6 196,354.8 165,860.1 112,400.6 507,268.2 220,580.2 273,013.7 1,484,606.2
Sri Lanka 29.5 7,494.2 760.7 457.5 5,963.3 1,046.2 175.1 15,926.5
Sudan 5.8 1,612.1 583.1 147.4 2,269.3 4,168.6 156.9 8,943.1
Swaziland 0.6 5,017.7 423.4 215.3 525.8 216.4 35.7 6,434.8
Sweden 8,701.4 148,761.2 57,583.8 28,465.1 425,398.6 69,207.8 92,024.6 830,142.5
Switzerland 98,999.8 402,311.0 302,954.7 105,023.6 821,082.5 665,591.9 70,079.5 2,466,043.0
Syria .. 423.0 .. .. 1,301.1 .. .. 1,724.1
TFYR of Macedonia 1.2 2,000.8 1,735.6 263.5 1,604.0 440.8 190.4 6,236.3
Togo .. 1,072.9 47.7 70.4 135.0 13.4 0.3 1,339.6
Tunisia 101.7 10,000.1 5,390.5 1,267.4 23,881.2 1,376.0 317.7 42,334.6
Turkey 1,298.0 17,032.1 20,786.7 3,293.6 100,128.2 13,151.4 8,591.9 164,281.8
Uganda 5.5 11,794.4 449.4 1,545.9 365.8 98.6 39.1 14,298.7
Ukraine 14.0 15,833.7 10,716.7 1,373.5 18,152.1 2,056.7 902.0 49,048.7
United Kingdom 673,242.6 1,272,757.9 300,862.2 200,402.7 1,953,886.2 2,759,551.3 711,198.9 7,871,901.8
United Rep. of
Tanzania 101.7 9,282.2 535.8 854.7 297.8 203.6 38.7 11,314.4
Uruguay 52.5 317.8 197.2 405.4 1,685.2 347.7 709.8 3,715.7
United States of
America 1,394,183.1 2,089,998.0 303,128.6 673,322.1 1,358,347.6 5,425,732.7 4,093,870.7 15,338,583.0
Venezuela 19.3 67,238.1 24,584.0 6,416.5 42,284.8 7,775.3 3,920.0 152,237.9
Wallis & Futuna
Islands .. 89.8 132.8 9.7 66.1 19.6 16.8 334.8
Zambia 14.3 26,212.3 1,723.8 463.5 814.3 162.1 77.8 29,468.1
Zimbabwe 47.9 8,394.6 1,396.5 260.4 5,202.6 226.3 262.1 15,790.4
.. : Nil.
0: Less than US$ 1,000
n.e.s.: Not elsewhere specified
- 62 -
Annex I
- 63 -
Tables II Analysis by region
Table II-1 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
EXPORTS
Total core cultural
goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
1994
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 36,222.5 1,461.5 8,441.4 3,806.3 1,669.2 12,563.3 6,690.4 1,590.4
Regional groupings
Americas 9,778.0 27.0 203.4 13.9 2,299.5 27.2 1,071.1 28.1 445.8 26.7 4,124.7 32.8 1,244.9 18.6 388.6 24.4
North America 9,072.9 25.0 202.7 13.9 2,033.2 24.1 959.7 25.2 401.2 24.0 4,018.1 32.0 1,130.9 16.9 327.0 20.6
Latin America and the Caribbean 705.1 1.9 0.7 0.05 266.3 3.2 111.3 2.9 44.6 2.7 106.6 0.8 114.0 1.7 61.5 3.9
Europe 21,892.8 60.4 1,208.0 82.7 4,928.7 58.4 2,561.6 67.3 1,026.9 61.5 7,417.0 59.0 4,157.0 62.1 593.7 37.3
EU15 19,675.8 54.3 988.1 67.6 4,548.2 53.9 2,447.4 64.3 875.6 52.5 6,916.8 55.1 3,328.8 49.8 570.7 35.9
Other Europe 2,217.1 6.1 219.9 15.0 380.5 4.5 114.2 3.0 151.2 9.1 500.1 4.0 828.2 12.4 23.0 1.4
Africa 58.2 0.2 2.6 0.2 17.5 0.2 7.3 0.2 2.4 0.1 4.2 0.03 22.6 0.3 1.7 0.1
SACU 27.3 0.1 2.5 0.2 7.4 0.1 1.5 0.04 1.1 0.1 3.1 0.03 10.2 0.2 1.4 0.1
Other sub-Saharan countries 4.1 0.0 0.02 0.001 1.6 0.02 0.1 0.002 0.4 0.02 0.3 0.002 1.5 0.02 0.2 0.01
Northern Africa 26.8 0.1 0.04 0.002 8.5 0.1 5.7 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.8 0.01 10.9 0.2 0.05 0.003
Asia 4,288.8 11.8 45.7 3.1 1,117.6 13.2 141.6 3.7 176.1 10.6 956.6 7.6 1,247.6 18.6 603.6 38.0
Eastern Asia 2,741.6 7.6 34.8 2.4 655.9 7.8 91.9 2.4 107.6 6.4 391.7 3.1 967.9 14.5 491.9 30.9
South Central Asia 162.3 0.4 0.1 0.01 18.6 0.2 7.1 0.2 3.3 0.2 88.3 0.7 36.1 0.5 8.7 0.6
South Eastern Asia 1,319.3 3.6 10.7 0.7 432.3 5.1 40.0 1.0 59.4 3.6 450.9 3.6 223.3 3.3 102.8 6.5
Western Asia 65.6 0.2 0.1 0.004 10.8 0.1 2.6 0.1 5.9 0.4 25.8 0.2 20.3 0.3 0.2 0.01
Oceania 204.6 0.6 1.8 0.1 78.1 0.9 24.8 0.7 18.0 1.1 60.8 0.5 18.3 0.3 2.9 0.2
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 143.9 0.40 0.12 0.008 20.2 0.24 6.48 0.2 3.2 0.19 88.3 0.70 16.8 0.25 8.8 0.6
Lower-middle-income economies 1,734.4 4.8 31.7 2.2 232.6 2.8 60.8 1.6 87.5 5.2 86.1 0.7 1,041.1 15.56 194.5 12.2
Upper-middle-income economies 1,207.2 3.3 26.7 1.83 310.4 3.7 101.0 2.7 65.9 3.9 230.2 1.83 346.2 5.2 126.9 8.0
High-income economies 3,3136.9 91.5 1,403.0 96.0 7,878.2 93.3 3,638.0 95.6 1,512.5 90.6 12,158.7 96.8 5,286.3 79.0 1,260.2 79.2
COMESA 2.6 0.01 0.02 0.001 0.8 0.01 0.02 0.0004 0.4 0.02 0.1 0.001 1.1 0.02 0.2 0.01
CIS
(a)
352.8 1.0 0.8 0.1 276.5 3.3 4.7 0.1 12.0 0.7 55.9 0.4 2.2 0.03 0.8 0.05
Arab States 36.4 0.1 0.1 0.01 16.6 0.2 6.1 0.2 1.1 0.1 1.0 0.01 11.4 0.2 0.2 0.01
MERCOSUR 229.3 0.6 0.1 0.01 89.5 1.1 64.2 1.7 6.2 0.4 43.4 0.3 23.3 0.3 2.6 0.2
NAFTA 9,366.8 25.9 203.0 13.9 2,110.3 25.0 974.3 25.6 428.9 25.7 4,068.3
32.4 1,197.2 17.9 384.8 24.2
(a): data for 1996
Annex I
- 64 -
Table II-2 Exports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
EXPORTS
Total core cultural
goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
2002
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 54,666.4 1,807.4 1,0835.0 4,398.3 2,158.9 18,509.4 9,741.0 7,216.4
Regional groupings
Americas 10,860.3 19.9 172.1 9.5 2,626.8 24.2 1,119.8 25.5 732.2 33.9 3,672.1 19.8 1,187.5 12.2 1,349.8 18.7
North America 9,226.8 16.9 170.7 9.4 2,317.4 21.4 1,041.3 23.7 654.4 30.3 3,426.3 18.5 1,051.4 10.8 565.3 7.8
Latin America and the Caribbean 1,633.5 3.0 1.4 0.08 309.5 2.9 78.4 1.8 77.7 3.6 245.9 1.3 136.2 1.4 784.4 10.9
Europe 3,1670.8 57.9 1,572.6 87.0 6,598.9 60.9 3,096.4 70.4 1,201.5 55.7 11,344.3 61.3 5,676.0 58.3 2,181.1 30.2
EU15 28,301.2 51.8 1,421.4 78.6 5,904.2 54.5 2,849.3 64.8 1,039.7 48.2 10,785.1 58.3 4,831.8 49.6 1,469.8 20.4
Other Europe 3,369.5 6.2 151.2 8.4 694.7 6.4 247.1 5.6 161.8 7.5 559.2 3.0 844.2 8.7 711.3 9.9
Africa 206.2 0.4 30.1 1.7 35.2 0.3 6.3 0.1 7.0 0.3 19.8 0.1 106.6 1.1 1.1 0.02
SACU 60.6 0.1 10.6 0.6 19.6 0.2 1.8 0.04 3.5 0.2 8.0 0.04 16.1 0.2 1.0 0.01
Other sub-Saharan countries 46.8 0.1 18.7 1.0 8.0 0.1 1.0 0.02 1.4 0.1 2.5 0.01 15.0 0.2 0.1 0.001
Northern Africa 98.8 0.2 0.8 0.05 7.5 0.1 3.5 0.08 2.1 0.1 9.4 0.05 75.6 0.8 0.01 0.0001
Asia 11,577.5 21.2 21.8 1.2 1,489.2 13.7 144.2 3.3 194.6 9.0 3,364.3 18.2 2,722.1 27.9 3,641.5 50.5
Eastern Asia 8,553.5 15.6 11.9 0.7 882.3 8.1 86.6 2.0 156.9 7.3 1,430.9 7.7 2,443.8 25.1 3,540.9 49.1
South Central Asia 303.0 0.6 0.9 0.1 44.5 0.4 13.7 0.3 7.9 0.4 191.9 1.0 28.5 0.3 15.6 0.2
South Eastern Asia 2,445.7 4.5 5.4 0.3 454.8 4.2 39.4 0.9 18.7 0.9 1,646.4 8.9 205.1 2.1 75.8 1.1
Western Asia 275.4 0.5 3.6 0.2 107.6 1.0 4.4 0.1 11.1 0.5 95.0 0.5 44.6 0.5 9.1 0.1
Oceania 351.6 0.6 10.8 0.6 85.0 0.8 31.6 0.7 23.6 1.1 109.0 0.6 48.8 0.5 42.8 0.6
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 329.0 0.6 19.7 1.1 48.2 0.4 13.5 0.3 7.0 0.3 193.2 1.04 31.9 0.3 15.6 0.2
Lower-middle-income economies 6,411.1 11.7 16.1 0.9 857.1 7.9 76.0 1.7 141.9 6.6 444.2 2.4 2,581.0 26.5 2,295.0 31.8
Upper-middle-income economies 3,005.4 5.5 10.1 0.6 537.2 5.0 214.3 4.9 114.2 5.3 447.3 2.4 212.8 2.2 1,469.6 20.4
High-income economies 44,920.9 82.2 1,761.5 97.46 9,392.5 86.7 4,094.5 93.1 1,895.9 87.8 1,7424.9 94.1 6,915.4 71.0 3,436.2 47.6
COMESA 43.8 0.1 19.8 1.1 7.2 0.1 1.2 0.03 1.8 0.1 1.5 0.01 12.1 0.1 0.1 0.001
CIS 385.4 0.7 1.3 0.1 262.6 2.4 16.7 0.4 17.3 0.8 71.9 0.4 14.6 0.1 0.9 0.01
Arab States 168.2 0.3 2.7 0.2 62.8 0.6 4.1 0.1 4.2 0.2 13.3 0.1 79.9 0.8 1.3 0.02
MERCOSUR 167.3 0.3 0.6 0.03 63.5 0.6 22.6 0.5 6.9 0.3 52.8 0.3 8.5 0.1 12.4 0.2
NAFTA 10,471.3 19.2 171.3 9.5 2,437.0 22.5 1,074.3 24.4 716.3 33.2 3,572.2 19.3 1,163.1 11.9 1,337.2 18.5
Annex I
- 65 -
Table II-3 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 1994
IMPORTS
Total core
cultural goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
1994
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 40,421.1 1,887.9 8,640.2 3,833.9 1,896.6 12,244.7 8,525.8 3391.9
Regional groupings
Americas 12,541.4 31.0 780.6 41.3 2,906.6 33.6 1,062.4 27.7 579.3 30.5 2,348.9 19.2 2,964.2 34.8 1,899.4 56.0
North America 10,780.4 26.7 774.1 41.0 2,181.1 25.2 844.1 22.0 502.3 26.5 1,818.2 14.8 2,860.4 33.6 1,800.1 53.1
Latin America and the Caribbean 1,761.0 4.4 6.5 0.3 725.5 8.4 218.2 5.7 77.0 4.1 530.7 4.3 103.8 1.2 99.3 2.9
Europe 20,572.8 50.9 895.7 47.4 4,086.2 47.3 2,196.7 57.3 950.0 50.1 7,188.1 58.7 4,191.6 49.2 1,064.5 31.4
EU15 17,433.6 43.1 736.5 39.0 3,319.6 38.4 1,696.6 44.3 776.3 40.9 6,263.8 51.2 3,643.6 42.7 997.2 29.4
Other Europe 3,139.3 7.8 159.2 8.4 766.6 8.9 500.0 13.0 173.8 9.2 924.3 7.5 548.0 6.4 67.4 2.0
Africa 452.7 1.1 4.8 0.3 222.0 2.6 39.6 1.0 12.0 0.6 140.4 1.1 20.9 0.2 13.0 0.4
SACU 255.6 0.6 4.3 0.2 123.1 1.4 8.8 0.2 6.7 0.4 94.5 0.8 12.5 0.1 5.8 0.2
Other sub-Saharan countries 95.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 47.0 0.5 17.3 0.5 3.4 0.2 19.9 0.2 5.1 0.1 2.9 0.1
Northern Africa 101.5 0.3 0.4 0.0 52.0 0.6 13.4 0.3 1.9 0.1 26.1 0.2 3.3 0.0 4.28 0.1
Asia 5,269.0 13.0 164.8 8.7 950.9 11.0 312.7 8.2 268.0 14.1 1,938.4 15.8 1,267.6 14.9 366.6 10.8
Eastern Asia 3,912.2 9.7 153.3 8.1 517.1 6.0 230.2 6.0 149.3 7.9 1,412.7 11.5 1,148.0 13.5 301.5 8.9
South Central Asia 134.3 0.3 0.02 0.0 60.1 0.7 6.7 0.2 2.9 0.2 56.8 0.5 6.0 0.1 1.8 0.1
South Eastern Asia 1,032.9 2.6 10.7 0.6 286.7 3.3 61.6 1.6 107.4 5.7 422.8 3.5 90.4 1.1 53.3 1.6
Western Asia 189.6 0.5 0.7 0.0 87.0 1.0 14.1 0.4 8.4 0.4 46.2 0.4 23.2 0.3 9.9 0.3
Oceania 1,585.0 3.9 42.1 2.2 474.5 5.5 222.6 5.8 87.3 4.6 628.8 5.1 81.4 1.0 48.3 1.4
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 151.3 0.37 0.02 0.001 73.3 0.85 8.6 0.2 3.6 0.19 57.6 0.47 6.3 0.07 1.8 0.05
Lower-middle-income economies 1,260.1 3.1 8.7 0.5 546.2 6.3 116.5 3.0 33.5 1.8 413.1 3.4 67.7 0.79 74.5 2.20
Upper-middle-income economies 2,030.8 5.0 6.8 0.36 792.6 9.2 293.3 7.7 109.6 5.8 612.9 5.01 135.9 1.6 79.8 2.35
High-income economies 36,978.9 91.5 1,872.4 99.18 7,228.2 83.7 3,415.6 89.1 1,749.8 92.3 11,161.1 91.2 8,316.0 97.5 3,235.8 95.4
COMESA 33.0 0.1 0.04 0.002 19.2 0.2 4.8 0.1 1.7 0.1 4.7 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.7 0.0
CIS
(a)
459.7 1.1 0.4 0.02 129.9 1.5 215.1 5.6 18.8 1.0 86.2 0.7 6.6 0.1 2.7 0.1
Arab States 204.7 0.5 0.8 0.04 88.5 1.0 16.4 0.4 9.3 0.5 53.3 0.4 23.8 0.3 12.5 0.4
MERCOSUR 470.1 1.2 2.2 0.12 158.1 1.8 66.8 1.7 11.6 0.6 149.7 1.2 27.4 0.3 54.4 1.6
NAFTA 11,598.4 28.7 777.1 41.2 2,510.0 29.0 937.9 24.5 553.3 29.2 2,075.6
17.0 2,909.5 34.1 1,835.2 54.1
(a): Data for 1996.
Annex I
- 66 -
Table II-4 Imports of core cultural goods by region, 2002
IMPORTS
Total core
cultural goods
Heritage goods Books
Newspapers and
periodicals
Other printed
matter
Recorded media Visual arts
Audiovisual
media
2002
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
Value
million
US$
Share
All available countries 63,668.4 2,644.2 11,738.0 4,675.1 2,620.0 19,394.7 12,911.0 9,685.5
Regional groupings
Americas 21,465.5 33.7 1,433.9 54.2 4,041.6 34.4 1,124.1 24.0 1,038.5 39.6 3,271.5 16.9 5,759.5 44.6 4,796.5 49.5
North America 19,173.9 30.1 1427.1 54.0 3,111.4 26.5 949.8 20.3 938.3 35.8 2,532.2 13.1 5,616.1 43.5 4,598.9 47.5
Latin America and the Caribbean 2,291.6 3.6 6.8 0.3 930.2 7.9 174.3 3.7 100.2 3.8 739.3 3.8 143.4 1.1 197.5 2.0
Europe 30,620.7 48.1 1,019.2 38.5 5,311.4 45.2 2,933.5 62.7 1,229.6 46.9 11,159.9 57.5 5,727.6 44.4 3,239.5 33.4
EU15 25,837.9 40.6 890.8 33.7 4,312.0 36.7 2,268.6 48.5 997.2 38.1 9,430.5 48.6 4,886.4 37.8 3,052.5 31.5
Other Europe 4,782.8 7.5 128.5 4.9 999.4 8.5 664.9 14.2 232.4 8.9 1,729.4 8.9 841.2 6.5 187.1 1.9
Africa 658.1 1.0 4.1 0.2 268.9 2.3 55.9 1.2 23.0 0.9 238.1 1.2 49.8 0.4 18.3 0.2
SACU 319.3 0.5 3.4 0.1 104.0 0.9 9.7 0.2 7.9 0.3 149.2 0.8 33.3 0.3 11.8 0.1
Other sub-Saharan countries 174.7 0.3 0.3 0.0 110.6 0.9 20.5 0.4 11.1 0.4 27.4 0.1 3.1 0.0 1.7 0.0
Northern Africa 164.1 0.3 0.4 0.0 54.4 0.5 25.7 0.5 4.0 0.2 61.5 0.3 13.4 0.1 4.82 0.0
Asia 9,363.2 14.7 160.9 6.1 1,711.0 14.6 348.5 7.5 265.6 10.1 4,234.5 21.8 1,259.1 9.8 1,383.6 14.3
Eastern Asia 6,932.3 10.9 149.3 5.6 1,128.2 9.6 253.8 5.4 222.8 8.5 2,950.6 15.2 1,096.9 8.5 1,130.8 11.7
South Central Asia 852.7 1.3 0.3 0.0 109.0 0.9 6.4 0.1 2.6 0.1 721.7 3.7 7.2 0.1 5.5 0.1
South Eastern Asia 952.5 1.5 9.3 0.4 342.0 2.9 45.0 1.0 25.0 1.0 279.7 1.4 54.9 0.4 196.6 2.0
Western Asia 625.6 1.0 1.9 0.1 131.8 1.1 43.4 0.9 15.1 0.6 282.5 1.5 100.1 0.8 50.7 0.5
Oceania 1,560.9 2.5 26.1 1.0 405.1 3.5 213.2 4.6 63.3 2.4 490.7 2.5 114.9 0.9 247.6 2.6
Economic groupings / Regional trade agreement
Low-income economies 1,003.3 1.6 0.6 0.0 202.6 1.7 26.4 0.6 13.8 0.5 740.6 3.8 12.8 0.1 6.5 0.07
Lower-middle-income economies 3,198.7 5.0 9.7 0.4 844.4 7.2 361.1 7.7 79.6 3.0 1,631.6 8.4 156.2 1.2 116.1 1.2
Upper-middle-income economies 2,988.3 4.7 33.7 1.3 1,044.9 8.9 252.4 5.4 152.8 5.8 1,029.9 5.3 237.0 1.8 237.5 2.5
High-income economies 56,478.1 88.7 2,600.3 98.34 9,646.1 82.2 4,035.2 86.3 2,373.7 90.6 15,992.5 82.5 12,505.0 96.9 9,325.3 96.3
COMESA 131.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 84.6 0.7 9.3 0.2 9.2 0.4 24.3 0.1 2.4 0.0 1.5 0.02
CIS 460.5 0.7 0.6 0.02 133.4 1.1 181.2 3.9 24.5 0.9 87.9 0.5 28.8 0.2 4.1 0.04
Arab States 389.2 0.6 0.9 0.03 134.4 1.1 41.1 0.9 12.6 0.5 121.8 0.6 57.6 0.4 20.8 0.2
MERCOSUR 420.6 0.7 5.1 0.2 159.1 1.4 35.4 0.8 8.4 0.3 167.1 0.9 24.6 0.2 20.8 0.2
NAFTA 20,323.3 31.9 1,428.5 54.0 3,525.9 30.0 1,022.8 21.9 1,003.6 38.3 2,896.8 14.9 5,688.0 44.1 4,757.6 49.1
Annex I
- 67 -
Tables III Trade by level of income
Table III–1 Trade exports by category, 1994-2002
Total exports in million US$ 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Heritage goods Low-income economies 0.1 7.6 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.2 11.5 1.6 19.7
Lower–middle-income economies 31.7 33.0 37.4 53.9 41.0 34.0 27.8 10.1 16.1
Upper-middle-income economies 26.7 45.9 19.3 241.8 42.2 29.7 9.7 7.5 10.1
High-income economies 1,403.0 1,499.9 1,407.5 1,526.5 1,597.1 1,759.1 2,026.9 840.1 1,761.5
Total of all available countries 1,461.5 1,586.3 1,465.0 1,822.4 1,680.4 1,823.0 2,075.9 859.4 1,807.4
Books Low-income economies 20.2 26.1 27.0 24.3 30.0 35.4 48.0 37.7 48.2
Lower-middle-income economies 232.6 305.2 563.0 673.1 802.3 723.6 804.8 875.9 857.1
Upper-middle-income economies 310.4 416.0 399.9 440.5 493.3 461.4 485.4 496.1 537.2
High-income economies 7,878.2 9,233.3 9,387.1 9,312.9 9,293.0 9,328.6 9,192.4 9,250.7 9,392.5
Total of all available countries 8,441.4 9,980.5 10,377.0 10,450.9 10,618.7 10,549.0 10,530.7 10,660.4 10,835.0
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 6.5 7.9 11.9 10.6 13.7 15.9 11.4 11.9 13.5
Lower-middle-income economies 60.8 67.4 51.9 63.3 61.6 62.6 60.1 72.3 76.0
Upper-middle-income economies 101.0 155.9 180.0 222.9 256.6 214.0 223.1 230.4 214.3
High-income economies 3,638.0 4,614.6 4,502.8 4,179.5 4,256.2 4,074.0 3,851.2 3,875.0 4,094.5
Total of all available countries 3,806.3 4,845.9 4,746.7 4,476.3 4,588.2 4,366.6 4,145.8 4,189.7 4,398.3
Other printed matter Low-income economies 3.2 6.5 3.2 3.5 3.7 5.2 5.4 5.5 7.0
Lower–middle-income economies 87.5 102.0 82.1 118.2 124.2 107.0 135.8 125.2 141.9
Upper-middle-income economies 65.9 71.0 79.1 89.8 90.1 106.5 120.5 104.9 114.2
High-income economies 1,512.5 1,765.6 1,796.5 1,820.5 1,781.0 1,783.0 1,727.2 1,757.5 1,895.9
Total of all available countries 1,669.2 1,945.2 1,961.0 2,031.9 1,999.1 2,001.7 1,988.9 1,993.1 2,158.9
Recorded media Low income economies 88.3 127.3 149.8 208.4 215.4 205.8 330.2 180.2 193.2
Lower middle income economies 86.1 75.8 201.7 302.8 270.0 342.6 366.2 503.4 444.2
Upper-middle-income economies 230.2 358.0 459.9 285.8 336.5 355.2 343.6 384.5 447.3
High-income economies 12,158.7 13,453.3 14,496.3 14,950.9 15,347.8 17,610.7 18,068.8 16,869.3 17,424.9
Total of all available countries 12,563.3 14,014.4 15,307.6 15,747.9 16,169.7 18,514.3 19,108.8 17,937.4 18,509.4
Visual arts Low-income economies 16.8 24.0 18.0 21.8 22.4 59.1 29.7 19.6 31.9
Lower-middle-income economies 1,041.1 1,150.7 1,281.2 1,583.3 1,657.6 1,948.5 2,397.9 2,289.6 2,581.0
Upper-middle-income economies 346.2 236.5 251.1 342.2 326.0 372.4 287.2 243.0 212.8
High-income economies 5,286.3 5,383.3 4,980.9 5,775.8 5,785.7 5,913.5 7,120.8 5,096.6 6,915.4
Total of all available countries 6,690.4 6,794.4 6,531.2 7,723.1 7,791.8 8,293.5 9,835.7 7,648.8 9,741.0
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 8.8 11.5 15.0 23.3 24.0 27.5 25.9 18.1 15.6
Lower–middle-income economies 194.5 437.3 399.1 189.1 239.1 327.8 460.3 700.7 2,295.0
Upper-middle-income economies 126.9 227.6 304.3 96.6 201.7 161.8 68.6 532.9 1,469.6
High-income economies 1,260.2 2,306.7 2,866.4 3,547.2 3,718.7 4,819.4 2,956.6 2,961.9 3,436.2
Total of all available countries 1,590.4 2,983.1 3,584.7 3,856.2 4,183.6 5,336.4 3,511.5 4,213.5 7,216.4
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 143.9 210.9 225.6 292.1 309.5 349.0 462.1 274.5 329.0
Lower-middle-income economies 1,734.4 2,171.3 2,616.4 2,983.7 3,195.9 3,546.3 4,253.0 4,577.2 6,411.1
Upper-middle-income economies 1,207.2 1,510.8 1,693.6 1,719.6 1,746.5 1,700.9 1,538.2 1,999.3 3,005.4
High-income economies 33,136.9 38,256.7 39,437.6 41,113.3 41,779.6 45,288.4 44,944.0 40,651.2 44,920.9
Total of all available countries 36,222.5 42,149.8 43,973.3 46,108.8 47,031.4 50,884.5 51,197.3 47,502.3 54,666.4
Annex I
- 68 -
Table III–2 Trade imports by category, 1994-2002
Total imports in million US$ 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Heritage goods Low-income economies 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.6
Lower-middle-income economies 8.7 29.3 25.4 14.9 14.7 16.6 115.3 40.3 9.7
Upper-middle-income economies 6.8 43.7 10.0 43.8 27.8 60.5 14.8 10.2 33.7
High-income economies 1,872.4 1,813.6 1,925.3 2,495.3 2,604.9 2,836.7 2,924.0 2,667.4 2,600.3
Total of all available countries 1,887.9 1,886.7 1,960.8 2,554.2 2,647.6 2,914.0 3,054.4 2,718.2 2,644.2
Books Low-income economies 73.3 146.4 125.6 179.2 188.2 193.9 234.8 156.9 202.6
Lower–middle-income economies 546.2 703.6 978.9 1,071.6 1,055.9 775.3 839.6 912.9 844.4
Upper-middle-income economies 792.6 782.1 832.1 889.5 1,021.7 1,022.8 1,100.3 1,156.0 1,044.9
High-income economies 7,228.2 8,573.9 8,718.5 8,853.1 8,792.3 9,159.9 9,205.8 9,355.2 9,646.1
Total of all available countries 8,640.2 10,206.0 10,655.0 10,993.5 11,058.1 11,151.9 11,380.4 11,581.0 11,738.0
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 8.6 30.4 24.5 29.8 34.1 32.1 29.3 31.4 26.4
Lower–middle-income economies 116.5 199.2 482.4 529.8 492.9 326.5 336.7 364.5 361.1
Upper-middle-income economies 293.3 290.6 266.1 280.8 356.1 318.7 283.4 291.8 252.4
High-income economies 3,415.6 4,110.7 4,001.8 3,951.8 4,190.3 4,317.8 4,065.2 3,904.7 4,035.2
Total of all available countries 3,833.9 4,630.8 4,774.8 4,792.2 5,073.5 4,995.0 4,714.6 4,592.5 4,675.1
Other printed matter Low-income economies 3.6 8.2 9.2 9.0 15.3 11.9 14.3 8.8 13.8
Lower–middle-income economies 33.5 58.5 65.7 94.7 89.6 64.7 69.8 78.2 79.6
Upper-middle-income economies 109.6 117.9 119.4 127.8 132.2 158.6 138.8 144.6 152.8
High-income economies 1,749.8 1,955.9 2,023.9 2,092.0 1,965.5 2,018.1 2,117.7 2,172.3 2,373.7
Total of all available countries 1,896.6 2,140.5 2,218.2 2,323.5 2,202.6 2,253.2 2,340.7 2,403.9 2,620.0
Recorded media Low-income economies 57.6 160.5 120.6 221.0 237.0 312.7 406.5 475.6 740.6
Lower–middle-income economies
404.1 630.8 925.9 890.0 931.8 1,184.3 1,463.0 1,586.9 1,626.0
Upper-middle-income economies 612.9 624.4 772.6 1,001.6 1,105.8 1,180.9 1,291.9 1,311.6 1,029.9
High-income economies 11,161.1 13,624.7 14,303.5 14,250.8 14,932.6 16,295.1 16,235.1 15,486.1 15,992.5
Total of all available countries
12,235.7 15,040.5 16,122.6 16,363.4 17,207.2 18,973.0 19,396.5 18,860.0 19,389.0
Visual arts Low-income economies 6.3 3.9 5.1 4.6 6.0 7.5 11.7 13.5 12.8
Lower–middle-income economies 67.7 86.4 122.8 153.9 118.4 128.5 153.2 133.1 156.2
Upper-middle-income economies 135.9 149.0 131.3 284.7 228.0 266.6 202.9 213.1 237.0
High-income economies 8,316.0 8,383.1 8,290.9 9,532.4 10,518.0 11,290.2 12,909.2 12,834.2 12,505.0
Total of all available countries 8,525.8 8,622.3 8,550.0 9,975.6 10,870.3 11,692.8 13,276.9 13,193.9 12,911.0
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 1.8 4.0 5.9 7.3 7.9 7.8 7.9 5.9 6.5
Lower–middle-income economies 74.5 118.6 160.3 143.0 145.7 136.1 112.6 117.9 116.1
Upper-middle-income economies 79.8 73.4 109.1 85.1 116.1 145.2 119.4 145.9 237.5
High-income economies 3,235.8 3,401.9 4,109.5 6,457.7 6,696.4 6,340.0 5,574.6 7,470.3 9,325.3
Total of all available countries 3,391.9 3,598.0 4,384.9 6,693.2 6,966.1 6,629.1 5,814.5 7,740.0 9,685.5
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 151.3 353.4 291.2 451.0 488.8 566.1 704.8 692.4 1,003.3
Lower–middle-income economies 1,251.2 1,826.4 2,761.4 2,897.9 2,849.0 2,632.0 3,090.2 3,233.8 3,193.1
Upper-middle-income economies 2,030.8 2,081.0 2,240.5 2,713.4 2,987.7 3,153.3 3,151.4 3,273.2 2,988.3
High-income economies 36,978.9 41,863.9 43,373.3 47,633.2 49,700.0 52,257.7 53,031.6 53,890.1 56,478.1
Total of all available countries
40,412.0 46,124.9 48,666.4 53,695.6 56,025.4 58,609.1 59,978.0 61,089.5 63,662.8
Annex I
- 69 -
Table III–3 Trend in trade of core cultural goods
4
Calculated as Annual compound growth rate is defined as the following: 100 * ] 1 [
0
? n
n
V
V
Average annual growth rates
4
, 1994-2002
Goods categories Level of income Exports Imports
Heritage goods Low-income economies 90.0 49.8
Lower-middle-income economies -8.1 1.3
Upper-middle-income economies -11.4 22.2
High-income economies 2.9 4.2
Total of all available countries 2.7 4.3
Books Low-income economies 11.5 13.5
Lower–middle-income economies 17.7 5.6
Upper-middle-income economies 7.1 3.5
High-income economies 2.2 3.7
Total of all available countries 3.2 3.9
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 9.6 15.1
Lower–middle-income economies 2.8 15.2
Upper-middle-income economies 9.9 -1.9
High-income economies 1.5 2.1
Total of all available countries 1.8 2.5
Other printed matter Low-income economies 10.3 18.3
Lower-middle-income economies 6.2 11.4
Upper-middle-income economies 7.1 4.2
High-income economies 2.9 3.9
Total of all available countries 3.3 4.1
Recorded media Low-income economies 10.3 37.6
Lower-middle-income economies 22.8 19.0
Upper-middle-income economies 8.7 6.7
High-income economies 4.6 4.6
Total of all available countries 5.0 5.9
Visual arts Low-income economies 8.4 9.2
Lower-middle-income economies 12.0 11.0
Upper-middle-income economies -5.9 7.2
High-income economies 3.4 5.2
Total of all available countries 4.8 5.3
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 7.4 17.1
Lower–middle-income economies 36.1 5.7
Upper-middle-income economies 35.8 14.6
High-income economies 13.4 14.1
Total of all available countries 20.8 14.0
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 10.9 26.7
Lower–middle-income economies 17.8 12.4
Upper-middle-income economies 12.1 4.9
High-income economies 3.9 5.4
Total of all available countries 5.3 5.8
70 -
Table III-4 Trade coverage ratio
5
of core cultural goods by category, 1994-2002
Total imports in million US$ 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Heritage goods
Low-income economies 512.1 11495.7 478.8 136.6 84.8 60.9 5040.1 495.5 3,426.6
Lower–middle-income economies 364.1 112.3 147.2 361.0 278.6 205.5 24.1 25.2 166.9
Upper-middle-income economies 394.3 105.0 193.7 551.7 151.9 49.0 65.4 73.9 30.0
High-income economies 74.9 82.7 73.1 61.2 61.3 62.0 69.3 31.5 67.7
Books Low-income economies 27.6 17.8 21.5 13.6 16.0 18.2 20.5 24.0 23.8
Lower–middle-income economies 42.6 43.4 57.5 62.8 76.0 93.3 95.9 95.9 101.5
Upper-middle-income economies 39.2 53.2 48.1 49.5 48.3 45.1 44.1 42.9 51.4
High-income economies 109.0 107.7 107.7 105.2 105.7 101.8 99.9 98.9 97.4
Newspapers and periodicals Low-income economies 75.6 26.1 48.6 35.5 40.0 49.6 38.8 38.0 51.0
Lower–middle-income economies 52.3 33.9 10.8 12.0 12.5 19.2 17.9 19.8 21.1
Upper-middle-income economies 34.4 53.7 67.6 79.4 72.1 67.2 78.7 78.9 84.9
High-income economies 106.5 112.3 112.5 105.8 101.6 94.4 94.7 99.2 101.5
Other printed matter Low-income economies 88.6 79.8 35.2 39.1 24.4 43.8 37.5 62.7 50.6
Lower–middle-income economies 260.9 174.4 124.9 124.7 138.7 165.5 194.4 160.1 178.1
Upper-middle-income economies 60.1 60.2 66.3 70.3 68.2 67.2 86.8 72.5 74.7
High-income economies 86.4 90.3 88.8 87.0 90.6 88.3 81.6 80.9 79.9
Annex I
-
Recorded media Low-income economies 153.3 79.3 124.2 94.3 90.9 65.8 81.2 37.9 26.1
Lower–middle-income economies 21.3 12.0 21.8 34.0 29.0 28.9 25.0 31.7 27.3
Upper-middle-income economies 37.6 57.3 59.5 28.5 30.4 30.1 26.6 29.3 43.4
High-income economies 108.9 98.7 101.3 104.9 102.8 108.1 111.3 108.9 109.0
Visual arts Low-income economies 265.3 613.1 351.4 478.9 375.0 784.1 254.6 145.1 248.9
Lower–middle-income economies 1,538.9 1,332.5 1,043.5 1,028.7 1,400.2 1,516.4 1,565.5 1,720.2 1,652.7
Upper-middle-income economies 254.8 158.8 191.3 120.2 143.0 139.7 141.6 114.0 89.8
High-income economies 63.6 64.2 60.1 60.6 55.0 52.4 55.2 39.7 55.3
Audiovisual media Low-income economies 477.7 284.8 252.5 319.8 302.9 353.1 328.3 305.6 239.2
Lower–middle-income economies 261.2 368.6 248.9 132.2 164.2 240.8 408.9 594.3 1,976.7
Upper-middle-income economies 159.1 310.1 278.8 113.5 173.7 111.4 57.5 365.2 618.7
High-income economies 38.9 67.8 69.8 54.9 55.5 76.0 53.0 39.6 36.8
Total core cultural goods Low-income economies 95.2 59.7 77.5 64.8 63.3 61.7 65.6 39.6 32.8
Lower–middle-income economies 138.6 118.9 94.7 103.0 112.2 134.7 137.6 141.5 200.8
Upper-middle-income economies 59.4 72.6 75.6 63.4 58.5 53.9 48.8 61.1 100.6
High-income economies 89.6 91.4 90.9 86.3 84.1 86.7 84.7 75.4 79.5
5
Coverage ratio (CR) is defined as the following : 100 *
M
X
CR = , where X = exports and M = imports.
Annex I
Tables IV Partner country analysis
Table IV-1 Top 15 partner countries of the USA, 1994 and 2003
Exports
Value
2003 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value
1994 in
million US$
Share
World 7,977.0 World 8,222.8
Canada 3,210.4 40.2 Canada 2,592.7 31.5
United Kingdom 955.2 12.0 United Kingdom 848.6 10.3
Switzerland 448.8 5.6 Japan 782.9 9.5
Japan 417.2 5.2 Germany 472.6 5.7
Mexico 284.6 3.6 Mexico 418.0 5.1
Germany 263.6 3.3 Australia 335.9 4.1
France 219.0 2.7 Switzerland 323.7 3.9
Republic of Korea 203.3 2.5 France 261.6 3.2
Australia 192.0 2.4 Netherlands 207.9 2.5
Netherlands 175.6 2.2 Rep. of Korea 174.6 2.1
Spain 125.1 1.6 Singapore 164.7 2.0
Hong Kong, China 121.4 1.5 Hong Kong SAR of China 138.0 1.7
India 114.0 1.4 Brazil 126.8 1.5
China 112.0 1.4 Other Asia, n.e.s. 118.7 1.4
Singapore 94.2 1.2
South African Customs
Union 91.2 1.1
Rest of available countries 1,040.6 13.0 Rest of available countries 1,164.9 14.2
Imports
Value
2003 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value
1994 in
million US$
Share
World 13,662.8 World 7,674.1
China 4,209.1 30.8 Japan 1,396.8 18.2
United Kingdom 1,504.9 11.0 United Kingdom 1,222.0 15.9
France 1,489.9 10.9 France 642.5 8.4
Canada 1,428.2 10.5 China 639.6 8.3
Germany 575.7 4.2 Canada 633.0 8.2
Italy 548.3 4.0 Switzerland 304.1 4.0
Japan 498.4 3.6 Hong Kong, China 286.6 3.7
Hong Kong, China 456.0 3.3 Other Asia, n.e.s 281.5 3.7
Mexico 407.2 3.0 Germany 279.8 3.6
Switzerland 288.0 2.1 Italy 278.5 3.6
Spain 249.2 1.8 Mexico 234.1 3.1
Other Asia, n.e.s 223.5 1.6 Singapore 198.8 2.6
Netherlands 222.6 1.6 Spain 153.4 2.0
Singapore 157.3 1.2 Netherlands 148.0 1.9
Republic of Korea 151.9 1.1 Thailand 123.8 1.6
Rest of available countries 1,252.6 9.2 Rest of available countries 851.6 11.1
- 71 -
Annex I
Table IV–2 Top 15 partner countries of China, 1994 and 2003
Exports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 5,821.3 World 1,091.3
United States of America 2,019.9 34.7 United States of America 341.2 31.3
Hong Kong, China 1,040.5 17.9 Hong Kong, China 215.6 19.8
Netherlands 843.3 14.5 Japan 122.7 11.2
Japan 385.9 6.6 Germany 56.5 5.2
United Kingdom 376.9 6.5 United Kingdom 52.5 4.8
Canada 137.1 2.4 Spain 29.6 2.7
Germany 135.2 2.3 Netherlands 29.1 2.7
Australia 118.4 2.0 France 22.1 2.0
Italy 69.5 1.2 Canada 21.5 2.0
Other Asia, n.e.s. 62.2 1.1 Singapore 20.7 1.9
Spain 55.1 0.9 Italy 18.7 1.7
France 47.1 0.8 Other Asia, n.e.s. 17.3 1.6
United Arab Emirates 38.8 0.7 Australia 12.9 1.2
Republic of Korea 36.5 0.6 Saudi Arabia 9.4 0.9
Belgium 36.0 0.6 Russian Federation 7.9 0.7
Rest of available countries 418.8 7.2 Rest of available countries 113.5 10.4
Imports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 1,285.8 World 141.1
United States of America 285.5 22.2 United States of America 41.3 29.3
Germany 189.2 14.7 Hong Kong, China 35.0 24.8
Hong Kong, China 160.5 12.5 Japan 26.5 18.8
Singapore 131.4 10.2 Other Asia, n.e.s 15.7 11.2
Finland 91.2 7.1 Germany 4.34 3.1
Japan 82.5 6.4 Republic of Korea 4.16 3.0
Other Asia, n.e.s. 73.5 5.7 France 2.27 1.6
Ireland 60.8 4.7 Singapore 2.25 1.6
Free Zones 40.7 3.2 Italy 2.22 1.6
United Kingdom 33.0 2.6 United Kingdom 2.19 1.6
Republic of Korea 25.0 1.9 Free Zones 1.52 1.1
Australia 24.0 1.9 Canada 0.48 0.3
Denmark 15.7 1.2 Switzerland 0.36 0.3
France 13.3 1.0 Australia 0.30 0.2
Russian Federation 12.1 0.9 Macao, China 0.27 0.2
Rest of available countries 47.4 3.7 Rest of available countries 2.13 1.5
n.e.s. = Not elsewhere specified
- 72 -
Annex I
Table IV-3 Top 15 partner countries of South Africa, 2003
Exports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
World 64.1
United States of America 12.8 19.9
United Kingdom 10.4 16.2
Zambia 6.6 10.4
Mozambique 2.9 4.5
Zimbabwe 2.9 4.5
United Rep. of Tanzania 2.5 3.9
Malawi 2.4 3.7
Germany 2.0 3.2
Angola 1.9 2.9
Nigeria 1.7 2.6
Mauritius 1.7 2.6
Dem. Rep. of the Congo 1.6 2.5
Kenya 1.5 2.3
Australia 1.4 2.2
Netherlands 0.8 1.3
Rest of available countries 11.1 17.3
Imports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
World 322.6
United Kingdom 87.8 27.2
United States of America 68.8 21.3
Ireland 34.6 10.7
Germany 20.2 6.3
Areas, n.e.s. 19.1 5.9
China 16.7 5.2
Netherlands 8.3 2.6
France 6.6 2.1
Australia 5.8 1.8
Japan 5.2 1.6
Singapore 4.8 1.5
Italy 4.5 1.4
Other Asia, n.e.s. 4.3 1.3
Switzerland 4.0 1.2
Hong Kong, China 3.9 1.2
Rest of available countries 27.9 8.7
- 73 -
Annex I
Table IV-4 Top 15 partner countries of Brazil, 1994 and 2003
Exports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World
54.4
World
56.9
Portugal
15.7
28.9 Argentina
18.2
32.0
United States of America
14.1
25.9 Japan
16.4
28.8
Japan
6.5
11.9 Portugal
7.1
12.4
Colombia
2.4
4.4 United States of America
5.2
9.1
Chile
2.3
4.3 Italy
1.7
2.9
Argentina
2.2
4.0 Mexico
1.5
2.6
Mexico
2.1
3.8 Chile
0.87
1.5
Spain
1.8
3.3 Uruguay
0.87
1.5
France
1.1
1.9 France
0.61
1.1
South Africa
0.62
1.1 Spain
0.46
0.8
Angola
0.60
1.1 United Kingdom
0.45
0.8
Italy
0.58
1.1 South African Customs Union
0.42
0.7
Germany
0.43
0.8 Germany
0.37
0.6
United Kingdom
0.42
0.8 Switzerland
0.37
0.6
Peru
0.41
0.7 Colombia
0.30
0.5
Rest of available countries
3.2
5.9 Rest of available countries
2.2
3.9
Imports
Value 2003 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World
105.7
World
166.0
United States of America
30.4
28.8 United States of America
68.5
41.3
United Kingdom
17.2
16.3 Japan
18.1
10.9
Spain
8.7
8.2 United Kingdom
15.9
9.6
China
5.5
5.2 Chile
15.6
9.4
Argentina
5.5
5.2 Germany
8.4
5.0
France
4.2
4.0 Portugal
5.3
3.2
Germany
4.2
4.0 Italy
5.1
3.1
Japan
3.8
3.6 Hong Kong, China
4.0
2.4
Peru
3.4
3.3 Spain
3.9
2.3
Uruguay
3.4
3.2 France
3.6
2.2
Portugal
3.1
2.9 Denmark
3.2
1.9
Hong Kong, China
3.1
2.9 Argentina
2.8
1.7
Chile
2.6
2.5 Netherlands
1.5
0.9
Italy
2.6
2.4 Other Asia, n.e.s.
1.5
0.9
Sweden
1.1
1.0 Mexico
1.4
0.8
Rest of available countries
6.9
6.6 Rest of available countries
7.2
4.3
n.e.s. = Not elsewhere specified
- 74 -
Annex I
Table IV-5 Top 15 partner countries of Egypt, 1994 and 2002
Exports
Value 2002 in
million US$
Share
Exports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 10.72 World 15.48
Saudi Arabia 1.66 15.5 Saudi Arabia 3.96 25.6
United States of America 0.87 8.1 United States of America 1.31 8.5
Libya 0.81 7.6 United Arab Emirates 1.29 8.3
Yemen 0.72 6.7 Kuwait 0.89 5.7
Algeria 0.71 6.6 Germany 0.64 4.2
United Arab Emirates 0.66 6.2 Morocco 0.63 4.1
Lebanon 0.64 5.9 Israel 0.54 3.5
United Kingdom 0.39 3.7 France 0.51 3.3
Kuwait 0.32 3.0 Oman 0.48 3.1
Morocco 0.30 2.8 Bahrain 0.45 2.9
France 0.28 2.6 Qatar 0.43 2.8
Malaysia 0.27 2.5 United Kingdom 0.41 2.7
Oman 0.23 2.1 Greece 0.37 2.4
Jordan 0.23 2.1 Lebanon 0.36 2.4
Germany 0.22 2.1 Sudan 0.30 2.0
Rest of available countries 2.42 22.6 Rest of available countries 2.89 18.7
Imports
Value 2002 in
million US$
Share
Imports
Value 1994 in
million US$
Share
World 33.21 World 22.1
United Kingdom 7.23 21.8 United Kingdom 5.1 22.9
China 6.37 19.2 Lebanon 2.6 11.6
United States of America 2.93 8.8 United States of America 2.3 10.3
Lebanon 2.91 8.8 China 2.3 10.3
Germany 1.90 5.7 Germany 1.5 6.6
United Arab Emirates 1.57 4.7 Italy 0.9 4.3
France 1.36 4.1 Kuwait 0.9 4.2
Italy 1.25 3.8 France 0.8 3.6
Kuwait 1.11 3.3 Netherlands 0.8 3.6
Saudi Arabia 0.89 2.7 United Arab Emirates 0.8 3.5
Syria 0.70 2.1 Hong Kong, China 0.8 3.4
Qatar 0.39 1.2 Spain 0.5 2.3
Japan 0.36 1.1 Free Zones 0.3 1.4
Spain 0.34 1.0 Switzerland 0.3 1.4
Greece 0.32 1.0 Other Asia, n.e.s. 0.3 1.4
Rest of available countries 3.57 10.8 Rest of available countries 2.0 9.2
n.e.s. = Not elsewhere specified
- 75 -
Annex I
Tables V Top 20 importers and exporters for the main core cultural goods categories
Table V-1 Heritage goods
Heritage goods
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 1,807.4 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,579.0 87.4
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United Kingdom
1,052.6
58.2 -6.3
(a)
5.2
2 France
189.2
10.5 -6.2 1.0
3 United States of America
143.2
7.9 -31.4 8.3
4 Switzerland
120.2
6.7 24.2 -5.9
5 Germany
73.9
4.1 -10.7 6.0
6 Belgium
35.4
2.0 -12.9 -3.4
(b)
7 Canada
27.5
1.5 -13.5 -9.7
8 Norway
23.7
1.3 372.2 1.4
9 Zimbabwe
18.5
1.0 71.8 44.0
(c)
10 Denmark
16.7
0.9 -21.2 31.2
11 Netherlands
15.4
0.8 -16.0 -9.1
12 Austria
13.8
0.8 -0.5 0.0
13 Italy
9.9
0.5 -7.7 1.7
14 Australia
9.7
0.5 -30.9 7.1
15 South Africa
9.3
0.5 87.8 4.8
(c)
16 Japan
8.1
0.4 -76.8 11.4
17 Sweden
7.5
0.4 21.8 8.2
18 Ireland
5.4
0.3 -52.3 -8.1
19 Singapore
3.7
0.2 -42.7 25.0
20 Poland
3.3
0.2 1.7 -1.0
Heritage goods
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 2,644.2 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 2,322.1 60.04
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America
1394.2
52.7 -3.7 8.0
2 United Kingdom
673.2
25.5 24.5 2.2
3 Switzerland
99.0
3.7 -25.2 -5.1
4 Hong Kong, China
89.2
3.4 -30.4 8.7
5 France
66.5
2.5 14.2 5.4
6 Japan
50.7
1.9 0.5 -7.2
7 Germany
42.3
1.6 -25.7 -5.5
8 Canada
32.9
1.2 -94.3 7.2
9 Belgium
30.6
1.2
(b)
-4.0 -10.0
(b)
10 Australia
22.4
0.8 9.5 -5.1
11 Netherlands
20.5
0.8 -64.8 -0.3
12 Czech Republic
19.7
0.7 97.8 57.4
13 Austria
16.0
0.6 -6.2 6.5
14 Italy
10.8
0.4 -7.2 3.8
15 Spain
9.1
0.3 7.7 2.8
16 Sweden
8.7
0.3 27.0 22.1
17 Republic of Korea
6.5
0.2 8.0 -9.6
18 Denmark
5.2
0.2 -66.2 -4.1
19 Singapore
4.9
0.2 -4.6 -8.8
20 Poland
4.9
0.2 43.0 15.6
(a): Average between 2000 and 2002.
(b): 1999/2002. (c): 1995/2002.
- 76 -
Annex I
Table V-2 Books
Books
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 10,835.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 6,189.5 57.1
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 1,921.4 17.7 -3.3 0.4
2 United Kingdom 1,805.7 16.7 7.0 2.5
3 Germany 1,257.8 11.6 8.8 4.8
4 Spain 686.0 6.3 -3.7 5.0
5 France 518.5 4.8 -0.8 -0.6
6 Italy 510.3 4.7 -0.9 1.1
7 China 409.1 3.8 17.0 25.3
8 Canada 396.0 3.7 -1.5 10.6
9 Belgium 362.1 3.3 -1.5 -2.6
(a)
10 Singapore 349.9 3.2 -4.9 -0.1
11 Hong Kong, China 258.4 2.4 -3.9 -3.7
12 Netherlands 253.7 2.3 2.1 -2.2
13 Russian Federation 240.2 2.2 -5.8 -1.4
(b)
14 Switzerland 147.2 1.4 10.6 -4.5
15 Mexico 119.6 1.1 -0.2 5.6
16 Denmark 110.7 1.0 8.2 -1.3
17 Japan 107.5 1.0 -5.7 -7.6
18 Sweden 95.4 0.9 18.9 2.3
19 Ireland 93.8 0.9 -7.2 7.0
20 Malaysia 93.1 0.9 8.7 9.1
Books
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 11,738.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 5,555.0 47.3
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual
% change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 2,090.0 17.8 2.2 8.0
2 United Kingdom 1,272.8 10.8 13.3 2.2
3 Canada 1,019.3 8.7 6.3 -5.1
4 Germany 631.6 5.4 -3.6 8.7
5 France 541.3 4.6 -4.4 5.4
6 Hong Kong, China 472.7 4.0 5.9 -7.2
7 Mexico 414.5 3.5 2.3 -5.5
8 Switzerland 402.3 3.4 2.9 7.2
9 Japan 329.8 2.8 2.0 -10.0
10 Belgium 363.4 3.1 -0.1 -5.1
(a)
11 Australia 307.6 2.6 5.2 -0.3
12 Austria 258.5 2.2 -17.0 57.4
13 Italy 231.5 2.0 9.4 6.5
14 Netherlands 230.7 2.0 -5.6 3.8
15 Singapore 199.2 1.7 -0.6 2.8
16 Spain 196.4 1.7 17.4 22.1
17 Ireland 153.0 1.3 4.1 -9.6
18 Sweden 148.8 1.3 0.3 -4.1
19 Republic of Korea 120.5 1.0 2.6 -8.8
20 Denmark 115.1 1.0 -1.0 15.6
(a): 1999/2002.
(b): 1996/2002.
- 77 -
Annex I
Table V–3 Newspapers and periodicals
Newspapers and periodicals
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 4,398.3 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 2,954.0 66.9
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 880.5 20.0 -5.3 0.8
2 United Kingdom 745.0 16.9 30.8 5.5
3 Germany 711.1 16.2 7.8 -2.5
4 France 368.7 8.4 -4.2 -0.6
5 Spain 238.8 5.4 2.8 8.9
6 Italy 202.3 4.6 4.4 -0.2
7 Canada 160.9 3.7 10.4 2.1
8 Belgium 146.6 3.3 26.5 1.4
(a)
9 Netherlands 142.8 3.2 2.0 1.3
10 Finland 126.1 2.9 5.1 5.3
11 Austria 54.4 1.2 1.1 -5.0
12 Poland 49.8 1.1 30.0 36.4
13 Denmark 48.2 1.1 -25.1 0.0
14 Slovakia 42.5 1.0 4.2 13.6
15 Switzerland 41.0 0.9 -20.7 -7.8
16 Singapore 35.9 0.8 5.2 0.8
17 Hong Kong, China 35.1 0.8 -20.1 -1.3
18 Japan 34.4 0.8 -2.8 -4.3
19 Czech Republic 34.3 0.8 1.9 18.9
20 Mexico 32.9 0.7 -6.1 10.8
Newspapers and periodicals
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 4,675.1 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,983.4 42.4
2001/2002
% change in $
value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 Canada 646.7 13.8 -4.1 0.6
2 France 402.0 8.6 6.6 2.3
3 Germany 328.7 7.0 3.3 0.8
4 United States of America 303.1 6.5 4.7 3.6
5 Switzerland 303.0 6.5 12.4 0.0
6 United Kingdom 300.9 6.4 25.8 8.2
7 Belgium 259.2 5.5 0.5 -6.2
(a)
8 Italy 180.0 3.9 -3.6 6.6
9 Spain 165.9 3.5 7.9 5.2
10 Austria 164.4 3.5 16.8 -5.1
11 Russian Federation 164.3 3.5 16.5 -4.1
(b)
12 Australia 150.1 3.2 0.2 -1.0
13 Japan 127.1 2.7 -19.3 -2.6
14 Netherlands 92.1 2.0 -1.6 -3.1
15 Portugal 91.9 2.0 9.0 5.3
16 Ireland 87.6 1.9 5.1 1.5
17 Mexico 73.0 1.6 2.4 -3.1
18 Sweden 57.6 1.2 19.1 -4.7
19 New Zealand 56.7 1.2 8.9 -0.8
20 China 52.7 1.1 32.6 26.0
(a): 1999/2002.
(b): 1996/2002
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Annex I
Table V–4 Other printed matter
Other printed matter
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 2,158.9 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,315.5 60.9
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 400.7 18.6 -1.1 3.7
2 Germany 274.8 12.7 16.7 -0.3
3 United Kingdom 274.6 12.7 34.9 3.6
4 Canada 252.8 11.7 23.8 12.4
5 Italy 112.6 5.2 27.5 0.4
6 France 104.7 4.8 27.9 5.1
7 China 92.4 4.3 42.4 15.9
8 Switzerland 91.6 4.2 11.8 -2.9
9 Mexico 61.8 2.9 14.6 10.6
10 Belgium 51.3 2.4 18.9 -8.0
(a)
11 Netherlands 50.1 2.3 21.1 -1.0
12 Spain 45.4 2.1 29.2 13.6
13 Sweden 34.8 1.6 21.5 1.4
14 Denmark 32.0 1.5 -20 -0.3
15 Republic of Korea 24.9 1.2 -0.9 1.0
16 Austria 22.7 1.1 1.2 -0.8
17 Finland 20.8 1.0 17.5 7.0
18 Australia 18.2 0.8 46.9 6.0
19 Hong Kong, China 18.1 0.8 1.4 -6.2
20 Russian Federation 16.5 0.8 -20.1 7.1
(b)
Other printed matter
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 2,620.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 1,445.2 55.2
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 673.3 25.7 18.2 8.7
2 Canada 264.6 10.1 -7.6 6.9
3 United Kingdom 200.4 7.6 3.4 4.2
4 Germany 190.2 7.3 11.7 0.6
5 France 116.7 4.5 6.8 -0.7
6 Spain 112.4 4.3 28.9 17.1
7 Netherlands 112.1 4.3 8.8 3.7
8 Switzerland 105.0 4.0 5.7 0.1
9 Hong Kong, China 90.0 3.4 -0.3 6.3
10 Japan 70.1 2.7 4.8 -1.7
11 Mexico 65.3 2.5 38.3 3.1
12 Austria 56.6 2.2 18.6 -2.5
13 Belgium 53.0 2.0 7.2 6.6
(a)
14 Australia 47.5 1.8 14.9 -5.6
15 Republic of Korea 40.6 1.5 52.2 25.0
16 Italy 36.5 1.4 8.5 1.3
17 Denmark 33.7 1.3 2.0 4.0
18 Norway 32.7 1.2 3.1 0.9
19 Sweden 28.5 1.1 -2.6 -3.4
20 Ireland 25.4 1.0 19.3 3.5
(a): 1999/2002
(b): 1996/2002
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Annex I
Table V-5 Recorded media
Recorded media
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 18,509.4 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 10,670.5 57.6
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 3,068.8 16.6 -3.9 -2.4
2 Germany 2,281.0 12.3 72.1 7.9
3 Ireland 2,128.2 11.5 -28.9 -0.9
4 United Kingdom 1,640.2 8.9 15.3 4.6
5 Singapore 1,552.3 8.4 -9.5 18.5
6 Austria 1,261.2 6.8 18.9 20.5
7 Netherlands 955.7 5.2 -20.4 -0.3
8 France 741.2 4.0 25.2 6.4
9 Sweden 644.9 3.5 46.2 21.5
10 Japan 371.5 2.0 7.4 2.8
11 Canada 357.4 1.9 -4.2 3.3
12 Belgium 351.9 1.9 7.4 2.1
(a)
13 Spain 258.7 1.4 43.5 24.7
14 China 254.9 1.4 40.0 29.9
15 Hong Kong, China 254.5 1.4 1.0 27.6
16 Switzerland 254.2 1.4 5.6 -4.6
17 Denmark 194.5 1.1 -12.0 3.6
18 India 191.3 1.0 6.8 10.2
19 Republic of Korea 174.9 0.9 -10.9 27.4
20 Mexico 146.0 0.8 6.6 14.3
Recorded media
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 19,394.7 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 7,369.2 38.0
2001/2002
% change
in $ value
Average annual
% change
(1994/2002)
1 United Kingdom 1,953.9 10.1 14.3 6.2
2 Germany 1,487.8 7.7 2.2 -1.3
3 France 1,397.7 7.2 21.9 6.1
4 United States of America 1,358.3 7.0 4.5 7.2
5 Canada 1,171.5 6.0 1.6 1.5
6 Italy 992.0 5.1 5.0 13.4
7 China 873.4 4.5 8.2 39.9
8 Switzerland 821.1 4.2 -9.2 5.3
9 Japan 777.8 4.0 -14.2 0.2
10 India 708.0 3.7 60.7 37.7
11 Belgium 639.0 3.3 31.6 4.3
(a)
12 Republic of Korea 638.9 3.3 9.7 8.2
13 Netherlands 627.0 3.2 7.1 -0.4
14 Spain 507.3 2.6 19.3 7.7
15 Austria 435.8 2.2 10.2 3.8
16 Sweden 425.4 2.2 8.3 4.7
17 Australia 378.4 2.0 10.2 -3.9
18 Other Asia, n.e.s. 375.5 1.9 -27.5 1.1
19 Mexico 364.6 1.9 -21.3 4.5
20 Hong Kong, China 278.7 1.4 -18.4 1.6
(a): 1999/2002.
n.e.s.: Not elsewhere specified.
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Annex I
Table V-6 Visual arts
Visual arts
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 974.1 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 7,090.3 72.8
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual
% change
(1994/2002)
1 United Kingdom 2,700.2 27.7 36.4
(a)
9.4
2 China 2,229.6 22.9 39.6 14.1
3 United States of America 889.1 9.1 -27.8 -2.2
4 Switzerland 720.4 7.4 61.6 2.7
5 Germany 550.9 5.7 13.1 1.3
6 France 505.3 5.2 -13.8 2.2
7 Italy 273.5 2.8 11.7 -4.0
8 Spain 255.2 2.6 40.8 5.6
9 Canada 162.2 1.7 -23.0 11.8
10 Belgium 119.5 1.2 34.8 5.1
(b)
11 Mexico 111.7 1.1 11.8 6.7
12 Netherlands 108.7 1.1 -1.6 -5.9
13 Portugal 105.7 1.1 14.5 -5.6
14 Philippines 98.3 1.0 35.5 -3.8
15 Indonesia 85.4 0.9 34.9 7.0
16 Denmark 75.9 0.8 9.9 7.3
17 Austria 71.6 0.7 -4.0 11.4
18 Morocco 70.9 0.7 1074.0 43.5
19 Republic of Korea 69.1 0.7 73.4 -2.6
20 Japan 60.4 0.6 -19.9 -0.6
Visual arts
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 12,911.0 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 10,021.1 77.6
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 5,425.7 42.0 -2.8 8.9
2 United Kingdom 2,759.6 21.4 9.5 6.9
3 Switzerland 665.6 5.2 -23.5 4.3
4 Germany 592.7 4.6 -27.6 -1.1
5 Hong Kong, China 577.6 4.5 -2.2 5.3
6 Japan 397.7 3.1 -1.4 -6.5
7 France 355.3 2.8 7.6 1.3
8 Italy 305.5 2.4 52.1 11.7
9 Spain 220.6 1.7 -35.6 -10.8
10 Canada 190.1 1.5 22.3 6.9
11 Netherlands 186.5 1.4 -4.6 3.8
12 Belgium 117.0 0.9 5.1 3.0
(b)
13 Austria 94.8 0.7 6.5 3.6
14 Australia 89.3 0.7 12.2 3.6
15 Republic of Korea 73.2 0.6 72.5 1.9
16 Mexico 71.9 0.6 8.7 4.9
17 Sweden 69.2 0.5 47.8 3.7
18 Denmark 61.9 0.5 -4.3 7.8
19 Singapore 42.0 0.3 -11.1 -6.4
20 Israel 41.4 0.3 -36.2 4.3
(a): Annual change between 2000 and 2002:
(b): 1999/2002.
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Annex I
Table V–7 Audiovisual media
Audiovisual media
EXPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 7,216.4 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 5,548.5 76.9
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average
annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 China 2,281.8 31.6 230.2 38.6
2 Japan 1,208.1 16.7 83.3 23.2
3 Mexico 771.9 10.7 351.9 38.3
4 Hungary 647.2 9.0 89.1 90.9
5 Germany 639.5 8.9 299.4 27.4
6 United States of America 344.8 4.8 16.1 3.5
7 United Kingdom 330.5 4.6 157.0 3.0
8 Canada 220.6 3.1 43.4 16.6
9 Italy 128.1 1.8 77.0 16.3
10 France 93.7 1.3 16.6 -1.1
11 Belgium 63.2 0.9 -9.0 4.4
(a)
12 Austria 52.5 0.7 42.3 24.1
13 Spain 47.4 0.7 -26.1 15.0
14 Republic of Korea 43.0 0.6 -16.0 -8.0
15 Australia 42.0 0.6 76.4 44.9
16 Singapore 41.4 0.6 17.6 9.5
17 Norway 40.3 0.6 27.7 73.0
18 Malaysia 32.4 0.4 1650.3 -7.3
19 Sweden 28.9 0.4 63.5 13.1
20 Finland 23.7 0.3 59.0 37.2
Audiovisual media
IMPORTS Million US$ in 2002 Share
All available countries 9,685.5 100
Rank Sub-total for five countries 6,878.0 71.0
2001/2002 %
change in $
value
Average annual %
change
(1994/2002)
1 United States of America 4,093.9 42.3 9.0 12.6
2 Germany 888.9 9.2 234.2 15.3
3 United Kingdom 711.2 7.3 128.6 23.1
4 Hong Kong, China 656.7 6.8 324.6 18.2
5 France 527.3 5.4 32.1 9.8
6 Canada 504.8 5.2 21.7 11.1
7 Spain 273.0 2.8 9.9 15.1
8 Japan 261.1 2.7 -29.1 25.1
9 Australia 214.7 2.2 344.4 22.8
10 Singapore 177.5 1.8 42.6 21.3
11 Mexico 158.7 1.6 157.2 20.8
12 Netherlands 156.7 1.6 -79.6 18.3
13 Republic of Korea 119.2 1.2 28.2 5.4
14 Sweden 92.0 1.0 70.0 15.5
15 Belgium 82.3 0.8 12.1 -18.4
(a)
16 Switzerland 70.1 0.7 24.9 7.7
17 Norway 69.4 0.7 142.7 25.3
18 Italy 63.2 0.7 -19.5 -2.1
19 China 57.8 0.6 -2.5 29.4
20 Portugal 52.8 0.5 111.8 15.4
(a): 1999/2002.
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Annex I
Table VI Detailed trade in cultural services for a selected number of countries
EXPORTS
IMPORTS
EBOPS
EBOPS CATEGORIES OR NATIONAL
CATEGORIES
Million
US$ in
2002
Annual
% change
2001-2002
Average
annual %
change
1994-2002
Million
US$ in
2002
Annual %
change
2001-2002
Average
annual %
change
(1994-2002)
AUSTRALIA
200 Total Services (billion US$) 17,887.5 7 2.9 1,8071.1 7 1.99
264 Information Services 12 34 4.5 25 -15 12.85
889 News agency Services 3 -43 .. 5 -73 ..
890 Other information provision Services 9 155 .. 20 77 ..
892 Other cultural royalties and license fees (a) 168 -16 -14.9 362 26 -2.97
Music (a) 35 20 -1.8 120 8 0.41
Computer software (a) 78 -30 -28.3 227 21 -5.19
Other (a) 55 -7 33.2 135 35 1.28
280 Architectural Services (a) 12 93 27.2 1 .. ..
288 Audiovisual and related Services 57 20 -2.5 399 22 2.10
289
Other cultural and recreational Services
126 19 7.7 442 24 3.41
897 Other (2) 70 19 .. 43 43 ..
CANADA
200 Total Services (billion US$) 37,165 -2 6 42,473 -2 3.4
266 Royalties and license fees 3,035 -5 28 4,379 0 10.1
892 Other royalties and license fees 1,629 -3 25 3,077 1 10.7
Copyrights and related rights 210 -9 25 368 8 8.6
Software and other royalties 1,197 -7 36 934 -3 8.9
288 Audiovisual and related Services 1,304 -2 13 1,541 10 9.1
CZECH REPUBLIC
200 Total Services (billion US$) 6,975 -0.1 4 6,308 16 4
264 Information Services 5 -8 .. 8 66 ..
889 News agency Services .. ..
890 Other information provision Services 5 -8 .. 8 66 ..
288 Audiovisual and related Services (b) 26 14 - 9 22 21 - 29
289 Other cultural and recreational Services (b) 136 -1 27 155 25 4
897 Other (c) 110 -4 - 13 133 25 4
NEW ZEALAND
200 Total Services (billion US$) 5,121 17 4 4,726.2 11 2
266 Royalties and license fees 87 56 23 346 10 5
Software royalties and license fees 25 26 .. 85 69 ..
Other 62 72 .. 261 -1 ..
UNITED STATES
200 Total Services billion US$) 288,723 1 5 227,380 4 7
266 Royalties and license fees 44,142 7 6 19,258 15 16
892 Other royalties and license fees (3) 38,212 -3 5 18,522 13 16
Books, records, and tapes (3) 523 0 8 346 13 13
Broadcasting and recording of live events (3) 277 59 6 946 622 16
General use computer software (3) (4) (b) 4,824 -4 12 481 6 0
Other (3) (4) 32,879 11 5 15,319 12 17
288 Audiovisual and related Services 6,919 5 15 149 48 1
Source: UIS based on data from Statistics on International Trade in Services, Volume I, OECD / Eurostat, 2004.
(1) This category contains more categories than displayed.
(2) Health Services credits for 2000 are included under Other personal, cultural and recreational Services, Other.
(3)
Royalties and license fees receipts and payments between affiliated enterprises are included in item Other royalties and license fees, Other.
(4)
Prior to 1997, General use computer software royalties and license fees are included in Other.
(a)
1999-2002; (b) : 1997-2002; (c): 1998-2002
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Annex II
Annex II: Glossary
Balance of Payments: statistical statement
that systematically summarises, for a specific
time period, the economic transactions of an
economy with the rest of the world. A
transaction itself is defined as an economic
flow that reflects the creation, transformation,
exchange, transfer or extinction of economic
value and involves changes in ownership of
goods and/or financial assets, the provision of
services, or the provision of labour and
capital.
Creative industries: Industries which include
the cultural industries plus all cultural or
artistic production, whether live or produced
as an individual unit. The creative industries
are those in which the product or service
contains a substantial element of artistic or
creative endeavour (WIPO, 2003).
Cultural industries: Industries which
combine the creation, production and
commercialisation of creative contents which
are intangible and cultural in nature. These
contents are typically protected by copyright
and they can take the form of a good or a
service. Cultural industries generally include
printing, publishing and multimedia, audio-
visual, phonographic and cinematographic
productions, as well as crafts and design.
Cultural goods: Consumer goods which
convey ideas, symbols, and ways of life. They
inform or entertain, contribute to build
collective identity and influence cultural
practices. They are the result of individual or
collective creativity.
Cultural products: Combination of cultural
goods and cultural services.
Cultural services: Consist of the overall set
of measures and supporting facilities for
cultural practices that government, private and
semi-public institutions or companies make
available to the community. Examples of such
services include the promotion of perform-
ances and cultural events as well as cultural
information and preservation (libraries, docu-
mentation centres and museums). Cultural
services may be offered for free or on a
commercial basis (Alonso Cano et al., 2000).
International trade in services: Trade
between residents and non-residents of an
economy. It also includes the value of services
provided through foreign affiliates established
abroad, described here as foreign affiliates
trade in services (FATS). Services are also
supplied by individuals located abroad, either
as service suppliers themselves or employed
by service suppliers including those in the host
country (UN et al., 2002).
Re-exports: Foreign goods exported from
any part of the economic territory of a country
in the same state as previously imported
(UNSD, 2004).
General Agreement on Trade in Services
GATS: Set of legally enforceable disciplines
and rules negotiated and agreed at the world
level to cover international trade in services. It
identifies four modes of supplies: cross
border, consumption abroad, commercial
presence and presence of natural persons.
Distinctions are made based on whether the
service supplier, the consumer, or neither,
moves from one country to another for the
transaction to be effected (UN et al, 2002).
Services: Heterogeneous range of intangible
products and activities defined by the System
of National Accounts 1993 as: “a group of
industries, generally classified as service
industries which produce outputs that have
many characteristics of goods, i.e. those
concerned with the provision, storage
- 84 -
Annex II
communication and dissemination of
information, advice and entertainment in the
broadest sense of those terms the production
of general or specialised information, news,
computer programs, movies, music” (UN et
al., 2002).
Audiovisual and related services: Services
and associated fees related to the production
post production, distribution, broadcasting
and projection of motion pictures (on film or
videotape), radio and television programmes
(live or on tape) and musical recordings (UN
et al., 2002).
Other personal, cultural and recreational
services: Services such as those associated
with museums, libraries, archives and other
cultural, sporting and recreational activities
including performing arts and live
entertainment (UN et al., 2002).
Information services consist of:
News agency services: Include the
provision of news, photographs, and feature
articles to the media.
Other information provision services
include database services. Also include direct,
non-bulk subscriptions to newspapers and
periodicals, whether by mail, electronic
transmission or by other means (UN et al.,
2002).
Other royalties and license fees: Include
international payments and receipts for the
authorised use of intangible, non-produced,
non-financial assets and proprietary rights
(such as patents, copyrights and industrial
processes and designs) and with the use,
through licensing agreements, of produced
originals or prototypes (such as manuscripts,
computer programs, and cinematographic
works and sound recordings) (UN et al.,
2002).
Advertising, market research and public
opinion polling services: Cover the design,
creation and marketing of advertisements by
advertising agencies; media placement,
including the purchase and sale of advertising
space; exhibition services provided by trade
fairs; the promotion of products abroad;
market research; telemarketing; and public
opinion polling on various issues (UN et al.,
2002).
Architectural, engineering and other
technical services: cover transactions
between residents and non-residents related to
architectural design of urban and other
development projects; planning and project
design and supervision of dams, bridges,
airports, turnkey projects, etc.; surveying;
cartography; product testing and certification;
and technical inspection services. Mining
engineering is excluded and included in
mining services (UN et al., 2002).
- 85 -
Annex III
Annex III: UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics (FCS)
0 CULTURAL HERITAGE
0.1 Historical monuments
0.2 Archaeological heritage
0.3 Musicological heritage
0.4 Archival heritage
0.5 Other forms of cultural heritage
1 PRINTED MATTER AND LITERATURE
1.1 Books and pamphlets
1.2 Newspapers and periodicals
1.3 Library services
2 & 3 MUSIC AND THE PERFORMING ARTS
2.1 Live music
2.2 Music theatre
3.1 Drama theatre
3.2 Dance
3.3 Other performing arts (circus, pantomime, etc.)
2/3 Common issues of which
audio and audiovisual records
4 VISUAL ARTS
Group A
4.1 Painting
4.2 Sculpture
4.3 Graphic arts
4.4 Art handicrafts
4.5 Other forms of visual arts
Group B
4.6 Photography
4.6.1 Creative-artistic photography
4.6.2 Other photography
5 & 6 AUDIO AND AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA
5 CINEMA AND PHOTOGRAPHY
5.1 Cinema
5.2 Photography
6 RADIO AND TELEVISION
6.1 Radio
6.2 Television
5/6 Video
7 SOCIO-CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
7.1 Associate life
7.2 Multipurpose socio-cultural facilities
7.3 Socio-cultural practices
7.3.1 Individual practices
7.3.2 Family life
7.3.3 Community life
7.4 Intercategory data
Tourism
8 SPORTS AND GAMES
9 ENVIRONMENT AND NATURE
9.1 Natural environment
9.2 Urban environment (quality of life in the urban setting)
- 86 -
Annex IV
- 87 -
Annex IV: Maps
A. Countries covered in the report
Country which is:
part of the study
not part of the study
UIS based on UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Annex IV
- 88 -
B. Countries by levels of income
Type of Economies:
Low-income economies
Lower-middle-income economies
Upper-middle-income economies
High-income economies
Data not available
UIS based on UN Comtrade, DESA/UNSD, 2004.
Annex V
- 89 -
Annex V: List of Products Used in the Report
A. List of codes used for cultural services (EBOPS, CPC)
Core cultural Services
EBOPS CPC
6
, Version 1.1
288 Audiovisual and related Services 9 Community, social and personal services
96 Recreational, cultural and sporting services
961 Audiovisual and related services
96111 Sound recording services
96112 Audio post-production services
96121 Motion picture, video tape and television programme production services
96122 Radio programme production services
96130 Audiovisual production support services
96141 Motion picture and television programme distribution services
96142 Film and video post-production services
96149 Other services related to the production of motion pictures and television and radio programmes
96151 Motion picture projection services
96152 Video tape projection services
96160 Broadcasting (programming and scheduling) services
73 Leasing or rental services without operator
73210 Leasing or rental services concerning televisions, radios, video cassette recorders and related equipment and
accessories
73220 Leasing or rental services concerning videotape
266 Royalties and license fees
Copyrights 733 Licensing services for the right to use non-financial intangible assets
7331 Licensing services for the right to use computer software
7332 Licensing services for the right to use entertainment, literary or acoustic originals
7339 Licensing services for the right to use other non-financial intangible assets
6
CPC: The Central Product Classification was used to describe the balance of payments services components recommended in BPM5. It serves as a guideline for the
elaboration of such classifications for specific areas of the economy, including international trade in services.
Annex V
- 90 -
897 Other personal, cultural, and recreational services*
EBOPS
CPC,
Version
1.1
897 Cultural services Recreational, cultural and sporting services
96210 Performing arts event promotion and organization services
96220 Performing arts event production and presentation services
96230 Performing arts facility operation services
96290 Other performing arts and live entertainment services
96310 Services of performing artists
96320 Services of authors, composers, sculptors and other artists, except performing artists
897 Personal services
Library and archive services
84510 Library services
84520 Archive services
Recreational, cultural and sporting services
96411 Museum services except for historical sites and buildings
96412 Preservation services of historical sites and buildings
*Presently no data available for this category.
Related cultural Services
278 Advertising, market research, and public opinion
polling
83610 Planning, creating and placement services of advertising
83690 Other advertising services
85970 Trade fair and exhibition organization services
280 Architectural, engineering, and other technical
services
832 Architectural Services and urban planning and landscape architectural services
83211 Architectural advisory and pre-design services
83212 Architectural design and contract administration services
83219 Other architectural services
889 News agency services News agency Services
84410 News agency services to newspapers and periodicals
84420 News agency services to audiovisual media
Note: Categories in italics are not uniformly agreed upon in the international community as cultural services.
Annex V
B. List of codes used for cultural goods in Harmonised System (HS) and Standard International Trade Classification,
Revision 3 (SITC REV. 3)
CORE CULTURAL PRODUCTS
FCS category SITC 3 SITC 3 label HS 96 HS 96 label
0. Cultural heritage
8965* Collections and collectors’ pieces of zoological, botanical,
mineralogical, anatomical, historical, archaeological,
paleontological, ethnographic or numismatic interest
9705 Collections and collectors pieces
Antiques 8966 Antiques of an age exceeding 100 years 9706 Antiques of an age exceeding 100 years
1. Printed matter 892 Printed matter 49 Printed books, newspapers, pictures and other product, etc.
Books 89215 Books, brochures and similar printed matter, in sheets
89216 Dictionaries and encyclopaedias, not in single sheets
89219 Other books, brochures and similar, printed matter, excluding
sheets
4901 Printed reading books, brochures, leaflets, etc.
89212 Children’s picture, drawing or colouring books 4903 Children’s picture, drawing or colouring books
Newspapers and
periodicals
8922
Newspapers, journals and periodicals
4902 Newspapers, journals and periodicals, whether or not illustrated or
containing advertising material
Other printed matter
89285 Music, printed or in manuscript, whether or not bound or
illustrated
4904 Music, printed or in manuscript, whether or not bound or illustrated
89213 Maps and charts in book form
89214 Maps and hydrographic or similar charts of all kinds (including
wall maps, topographical plans and globes), printed, not in book
form
4905 Maps and hydrographic or similar charts, including atlases, wall maps
8924 Postcards, personal greeting, message or announcement cards,
and transfers (decalcomanias), printed by any process
4909 Postcards, printed or illustrated; printed greeting cards
89284 Calendars of any kind, printed (including calendar blocks) 4910 Calendars of any kind, printed, including calendar blocks
89287 Pictures, designs and photographs 491191 Pictures, designs and photographs
8964 Postage or revenue stamps, stamp-postmarks, first-day covers,
postal stationery (stamped paper) and the like, used, or if unused
not of current or new issue in the country to which they are
destined
9704 Used postage/revenue stamps and the like/unused not of
current/new issue
2 & 3 Music and the
performing arts
Recorded media 89871 Gramophone records 852410 Gramophone records
89879* Recorded media, n.e.s. 852432 Discs for laser reading systems for reproducing sound only
89861 Magnetic tape recorded of a width not >4mm 852451 Magnetic tape recorded (excl. 852440) of a width not >4mm
89865 Magnetic tape recorded of a width not 4mm