Description
Some consumption activities are inherently interesting, pleasurable, gratifying and
potentially important to consumers’ lives. The primary aim of this paper is to further understanding of the
role pleasurable consumption plays in consumers’ lives.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Pursuing pleasure: consumer value in leisure travel
Cynthia M. Webster Vanessa A. Rennie
Article information:
To cite this document:
Cynthia M. Webster Vanessa A. Rennie, (2011),"Pursuing pleasure: consumer value in leisure travel", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 4 pp. 334 - 344
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Russell Belk, J oyce Hsiu-yen Yeh, (2011),"Tourist photographs: signs of self", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
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Drew Martin, Arch G. Woodside, (2012),"Structure and process modeling of seemingly unstructured leisure-travel decisions and behavior",
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Pursuing pleasure: consumer value in
leisure travel
Cynthia M. Webster and Vanessa A. Rennie
Abstract
Purpose – Some consumption activities are inherently interesting, pleasurable, gratifying and
potentially important to consumers’ lives. The primary aimof this paper is to further understanding of the
role pleasurable consumption plays in consumers’ lives.
Design/methodology/approach – To explore consumer value in pleasurable consumption
experiences, the consumer value typology in conjunction with the subjective personal introspection
(SPI) approach, is applied to experiences captured in travel photographs.
Findings – Analysis identi?es all eight consumer value types with play, aesthetics and, surprisingly,
spirituality the most evident. Pleasure is shown as much more than immediate, self-grati?cation. Issues
of competency, both active effort and appreciation of others’ abilities, individual growth and
development as well as sharing and feelings of relatedness are all important components of pleasure.
Research limitations/implications – The use of consumer value as a conceptual framework in
combination with a re?ective tool such as SPI suggests not only alternative approaches for future
research into pleasurable consumption, but also indicates some innovative strategies to put into
practice.
Practical implications – Communicating the different value types prior to consumption and
incorporating active re?ection, possibly could assist in improving consumers’ enjoyment of their
experiences which, in turn, could reduce post-purchase dissonance. Besides being used as a
promotional tool to increase customer satisfaction, the consumer value framework could facilitate
product bundling and possibly expand product bene?ts.
Originality/value – The paper illustrates the multidimensional nature of pleasure through two research
methods infrequently used, SPI and the photo essay, positioning both as valuable tools for exploring and
enhancing pleasurable consumption.
Keywords Pleasure, Consumer value, Subjective personal introspection, Photo essay,
Consumer behaviour, Photography
Paper type Research paper
S
ome consumption activities are inherently interesting, pleasurable, and gratifying.
Going out to dinner, to the movies or to a sporting event all may be considered
enjoyable experiences. Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) point out that these types of
experiential activities are potentially important to consumers’ lives because they stimulate
consumers’ feelings and imaginings. Such behaviors provide entertainment, give multiple
sensory pleasures, keep minds and bodies active and bring out strong emotions.
Consumers can derive intense meanings fromsuch experiences that go beyond the tangible
sensations immediately experienced.
Traditional consumer research in marketing has tended to neglect such experiential aspects
of behavior, resulting in limited understanding of the importance of the bene?ts gained from
pleasurable pursuits (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). Recent work directs some effort
towards the pleasurable aspects of products (Chaudhuri, 2006; Keiningham and Vavra,
2001; Norman, 2004; Postrel, 2003). Chitturi et al. (2008) show that products designed to
delight increase customer loyalty, more so than simply satisfying them. While the business
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VOL. 5 NO. 4 2011, pp. 334-344, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181111174673
Cynthia M. Webster is an
Associate Professor and
Vanessa A. Rennie is a
Research Associate, both
are based at the
Department of Marketing
and Management, Faculty
of Business and
Economics, Macquarie
University, Sydney,
Australia.
Received February 2009
Revised September 2009
Accepted January 2010
The authors would like to thank
Marylouise Caldwell and
Paul Henry as well as two
anonymous reviewers for their
valuable input. Their
recommendations have greatly
improved the quality of the
paper.
Please ?nd the video that
accompanies this article at:
http://www.emeraldinsight.
com/promo/hospitality_
research.htm
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case is gradually becoming stronger for incorporating hedonic bene?ts, the reasons behind
why consumers value pleasure remain unspeci?ed.
Hedonism versus eudaimonia
Research investigating the factors and social contexts conducive to the attainment of
pleasure distinguishes hedonic happiness from eudaimonic enjoyment. According to Plato
(1937), hedonism is a ‘‘lower’’ or ‘‘false’’ form of pleasure and can be described as
immediate grati?cation through pleasure seeking. Eudaimonia, on the contrary, is a ‘‘higher’’
order of pleasure and ‘‘true’’ form of happiness, restricted to those activities that allow for
excellence to be achieved, typically requiring intense involvement and ‘‘personal
expressiveness’’ (Waterman, 1993). Hedonic enjoyment is not limited to any speci?c
types of activities and may be ‘‘felt whenever pleasant affect accompanies the satisfaction of
needs, whether physically, intellectually or socially based’’, whereas eudaimonia includes
feelings of being alive, challenged, competent and ful?lled (Waterman, 2005, p. 679).
Clearly, pleasure is not necessarily effortless. While some pleasurable experiences, like
listening to music, may require relatively little mental or physical effort, other pursuits, such
as leisure travel, can involve a substantial amount of personal investment and expense.
Seeking out challenges, exploring new situations and extending one’s abilities can lead to
enjoyment but are not necessarily productive or goal directed (Ryan and Deci, 2000;
Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997). As such, it is intriguing as to why consumers devote so much,
as in the case of leisure travel, to such seemingly frivolous and momentary activities.
Research examining motivations and participation in high risk, challenging activities, such
as sky diving (Celsi et al., 1993) and white water rafting (Arnould and Price, 1993), illustrate
the complexity of extraordinary consumption experiences. These studies ?nd consumers
value intense experiences that provide opportunities for personal growth, freedom from the
ordinary and integration with both nature and others. Our aim here is to extend the work on
experiential consumption by exploring the value gained from the pleasurable pursuit of
leisure travel.
Method
Given that the value of pleasurable experiences is shaped by the subjective evaluation of the
interaction between the individual and the experience (Addis and Holbrook, 2001), the
methodological technique of the photo essay is used in combination with Holbrook’s
subjective personal introspection (SPI) to examine the subjective meanings of experiences
captured in holiday photographs. A brief description of each follows.
Photo essay
Within consumer research photographic methods are increasingly being used both to
provide rich sources of data and as a vibrant format to present results (Belk, 1991; Belk et al.,
1989; Hill and Stamey, 1990; Joy and Venkatesh, 1994; Schouten and McAlexander, 1995).
Following the Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique (ZMET), the photo essay requires the
collection and interpretation of meaningful photographs illustrating speci?c consumption
experiences (Zaltman, 1996, 1997). To explore the value of leisure travel, photographs taken
by and of one of the authors while on a six week holiday through the US commencing in 2007
provide the primary data for this study. The photos used are typical holiday snaps and have
not been created with the pre-conceived intent of consumer value in mind.
Subjective personal introspection
Although photographs provide a concrete record of consumption behaviors, Holbrook and
Kuwaharar (1998) advise that care must be taken to ensure the photographs examined are
interpreted in relevant and legitimate ways originally intended. Moreover, Deshpande (1983)
notes as with all qualitative interpretations ‘‘[. . .] a complete and ultimately honest analysis
can only be achieved by actively participating in the life of the subject of observation and
gaining insights by means of introspection’’ (p. 106). For these reasons, Holbrook’s (2005)
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subjective personal introspection (SPI) technique is used to explore consumer value in the
travel photos. SPI is a qualitative, re?ective technique in which researchers consider their
own consumption experiences to examine human behaviors. Holbrook (2005) describes SPI
as a type of autoethnography in ‘‘which the author enjoys privileged access to the relevant
phenomena of interest’’ (p. 45). As such, the researcher is intimately involved in both the
creation of the images and is best able to interpret their relevance and value.
As a method, introspection has been criticized. Wallendorf and Brucks (1993) identify
several issues to be considered. The type of introspection matters, with a more interactive
approach suggested. Utilizing multiple informants and researchers, rather than relying on
the accounts and analyses of a single researcher, allows for data replication and greater
analytic distance. The type of data collected is important as well, with reports of speci?c
events preferred. Detailed empirical evidence allows further analytic distance, with multiple
researchers able to analyze data regularities without depending on informants’ conclusions
(Wallendorf and Brucks, 1993, p. 345). Researchers also must take into account well-known
biases when relying on recall data (Loftus and Loftus, 1980), noting that people typically
recall extreme events rather than less salient ones (Kahneman and Tversky, 1972; Tversky
and Kahneman, 1974). Moreover, people are very good at reconstructing general patterns of
behaviors that re?ect what is important now, not necessarily what was important when the
event occurred (Freeman et al., 1987).
Value of pleasure travel
To improve analytic distance and deal with possible sampling distortions in recall, we do not
take a grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1990) to
data analysis. Instead, we employ Holbrook’s (1999) consumer value typology to explore
value in consumption experiences, which is in line with Wallendorf and Brucks’ (1993)
recommended use of frameworks for data sampling and analytical interpretation.
Holbrook identi?es three dimensions, two of which are apparent in the psychological
discussion of pleasure: intrinsic versus extrinsic and active opposed to reactive. The third
dimension goes beyond the individual and considers self-oriented versus other-oriented.
Taking into account the three dimensions results in eight types of consumers. Both play and
aesthetics are self-oriented and intrinsically satisfying, with play being an active pursuit and
aesthetics more of a reactive, appreciation. Ef?ciency and excellence are extrinsic and
self-oriented, with ef?ciency displayed in active and functional deeds while excellence is
reactive and expressed in the quality of experiences. Status and esteem are both extrinsic,
other-oriented consumer values in that they are utilitarian and relate to others, with status
behaviors as active and deliberately performed to make favorable impressions on others
while esteem is more of a spontaneous reaction and exempli?ed through desired
experiences and material possessions. Ethics and spirituality are the ?nal two
other-orientated, intrinsic value types, with ethics seen in deeds of kindness, compassion
and moderation while spirituality is the appreciation of how an encounter touches ones’
relationships with other individuals, one’s own self or a greater force.
We now consider the relevance of each value type to pleasurable consumption. Speci?cally,
we seek both to determine whether each of the value dimensions is evidenced in the travel
photos and to extend our current understanding of howpleasurable experiences are valued.
Self-oriented, intrinsic experiences
As many young consumers primarily travel for pleasure and to experience travel for its own
sake (Kale et al., 1987), it is not surprising to ?nd the most evident categories in the travel
photos are that of play and aesthetics. Both play and aesthetics are self-oriented and
intrinsically satisfying consumption experiences, with play being an active pursuit and
aesthetics more of a reactive, appreciation. Many play experiences are purely hedonic in
nature with the consumer needing no expertise for enjoyment. Such activities include: hot air
ballooning (Figure 1a), playing the slot machines in Vegas (Figure 1b), going on rides at
Disneyland and having a cocktail while watching the sunset on Waikiki Beach in Hawaii
(Figure 1c). Interestingly, certain play activities do involve some level of competence and
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typically include others, such as bowling with friends, group karaoke performances and
playing on the huge piano, which featured in the movie Big starring Tom Hanks, in FAO
Schwartz in New York City.
For all of these play activities, no functional purpose exists. There are no speci?ed goals to
achieve. Instead, some of the fun appears to be in the sharing of the experience. Although
classi?ed as self-oriented, many of the experiences con?rm that play activities are done with
others. Some of the enjoyment also seems to revolve around physical sensations: hearing
music, tasting unusual drinks, feeling the excitement of riding roller coasters and seeing the
colorful lights of Vegas. Such physical sensations are short-lived, but can recur if the
activities are repeated. The activities and the resulting sensations, however, typically are tied
to particular locations which do take effort to reach and once traveling is resumed the
experiences are not easily relived. To some extent, value in play appears to come from
physical sensations experienced while interacting with others in exclusive activities
restricted by place, time and presence.
Other photos represent aesthetic value and openly relate to the enjoyment of beauty, culture
and the arts. Many of the travel photos are of the beautiful scenery and landscape seen while
traveling. The researcher captures Spanish moss in Savannah, Georgia, Monument Valley in
Navajo Tribal Park, Arizona (Figure 2a), Mooney Falls in the Grand Canyon, Arizona and the
Botanical Gardens in San Francisco, California. In addition to natural scenery, photos of
constructed beauty also feature. These photos include the Christmas decorations in
Rockefeller Center (Figure 2b), the Empire State Building (Figure 2c) and Saint Patrick’s
Cathedral in NYC, the Wright Brother’s plane in the National Air and Space Museum and the
Hope Diamond in the Museum of Natural History in Washington DC.
Upon re?ection, although actually viewing these natural and constructed objects requires
little effort, much of the appreciation comes from the information learned regarding the
uniqueness of their creation. In this case, value is not entirely reactive. Although gaining the
information does not serve any purpose, it certainly is not thoughtless. In fact, the aesthetic
value in part comes from educating the mind, which not only leads to personal growth but
also involves an element of social exchange as well. Moreover, many of the constructed
objects are cultural goods in that they are products ‘‘which have to do with the intellectual,
moral and artistic aspects of human life’’ (Throsby, 2001, p. 4). From a cultural economics
perspective, Throsby (2001, 2003) assesses the worth of both social and aesthetic value
and further identi?es spiritual, historical, symbolic and authenticity value dimensions.
Figure 1 Play
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Self-oriented, extrinsic experiences
The two extrinsic, self-oriented consumer value types of ef?ciency and excellence also are
present in the travel photos. Ef?ciency, active and productive behavior, is displayed in the
functional characteristics of the travel process. Many of the activities are undertaken
because they are both functional and economical. Shopping in Wal-Mart, for example, is an
ef?cient travel experience. The researcher is able to obtain food, toiletries and other
necessities, such as an additional suitcase, from this convenient one-stop-shop. A photo of
the researcher standing at the departure gate at Sydney International Airport (Figure 3a)
represents the commencement of her carefully planned holiday. Traveling requires an
exertion of human effort in order to arrive at the airport on time, carry luggage fromthe airport
and walk or organize various forms of transportation to explore the scenic attractions.
Getting the most value out of leisure travel, in part, is a consequence of how actively one
participates in and not just observes the experience.
Ef?ciency also appears in photos of the researcher on a hike in the Grand Canyon, Arizona.
Only through physical effort is the researcher able to see landscape not witnessed by
everyone visiting the canyon. Down in the canyon the researcher faces breathtaking
waterfalls. In order to get down to the base of the Mooney Falls the researcher climbs
Figure 2 Aesthetics
Figure 3 Self-oriented, extrinsic experiences
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through a dark tunnel (Figure 3b) and down a steep cliff face. Climbing down the cliff is the
researcher’s ?rst experience of having her life ?ash before her eyes. This challenging and
fearful experience is worth it once the Mooney Falls are unveiled. These experiences
associated with the value of ef?ciency have produced stories the researcher repeatedly tells
friends and family, such memories she will have forever.
In contrast to ef?ciency, excellence captures the reactive side of extrinsic, self-oriented
consumer value. Excellence is expressed in the quality of the travel experience and in the
ability of objects to performtheir function well. Examples of excellence are seen in Figure 4a.
After the long ?ight from Australia, the researcher is very happy to be inside a hotel with a
comfortable bed. The photo also shows the researcher’s backpack lying on the ?oor of the
room. While crediting the ability of the space bags inside the backpack, the researcher is
amazed at the amount of clothes she was able to cram inside the pack.
Excellence is also recognized in the logistics and coordination required in both
manufacturing and transportation. Figure 4b is of the Budweiser Beer Factory in
Jacksonville, Florida, where the researcher enjoys sampling two of the factory’s end
products, Bud Light and Budweiser Select. Standing inside Grand Central Terminal in NYC,
the researcher appreciates the complexity of operating the subway. Whilst in San Francisco,
California, she enjoys the cable cars (Figure 4c), which are not only functional and
economic, but also a fun way to get from the Civic Center to Fisherman’s Wharf.
With ef?ciency and excellence we again see evidence of valuing experiences that include:
challenges requiring competency, social interaction, the stimulation of physical sensations
and the signi?cance of exclusivity. We also question the extent to which products and
experiences are appreciated without some active participation. There are few examples of
excellence in which the researcher does not also use the product. This observation
highlights the multi-dimensionality of some experiences and raises additional measurement
issues. To what extent does the inclusion of multiple value dimensions lead to increased
enjoyment? Which combinations of value dimensions enhance pleasure? The cable cars are
a prime illustration as they are fun, ef?cient, aesthetically pleasing and maintained at an
excellent standard.
Other-oriented, extrinsic experiences
Having considered the relevance of the self-oriented aspects of consumer value, we now
move to the other-oriented categories. Other-oriented value depends on how some product
or experience relates to others, whether the other is an individual person or a spiritual being.
Status and esteem are both extrinsic consumer values in that they are utilitarian, with status
behaviors as active and deliberately performed to make favorable impressions on others
while esteem is more reactive and exempli?ed through material possessions and desired
experiences.
Status is shown in the photos of the researcher standingin front of iconic buildings, landmarks
and natural wonders of the world. The purpose is to create photographic evidence of the
researcher beinginvoguelocations. Examplesincludetheresearcher standingout thefront of
Figure 4 Excellence
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Tiffany & Co. on 5th Avenue in NYC (Figure 5a), the Rockefeller Center Christmas tree, and
Cadillac Ranch in Amarillo. Status also is demonstrated by photos of the researcher with
celebrities, such as Mickey Mouse in Disneyworld in Orlando, Florida and an Ambercrombie
& Fitch male model in the organization’s NYC store. Photos of the researcher in fashion label
clothing are yet another way to show off status. Whilst the researcher is attempting to make a
favorable impression on those with whomshe is traveling, she is also mindful of those people
who will view her photos when she returns home. In Figure 5b the researcher is wearing her
Ksubi label jeans and her Oneteaspoon label jacket in Times Square, NYC.
Some photos exhibiting esteem capture the researcher purchasing desired souvenirs,
which is one way of impressing others. Prized souvenirs consist of clothing from
Ambercrombie & Fitch, a silver and black mother of pearl ring and Ghirardelli chocolate from
San Francisco, California. Photos of artifacts from socially desirable consumption activities
also transmit esteem. Examples include photos of famous places, iconic street signs and
buildings: 5th Avenue store fronts in NYC (Figure 6a), Bourbon Street in New Orleans,
Louisiana (Figure 6b) and Rodeo Drive in Beverley Hills (Figure 6c). Being able to shop on
5th Avenue or live in Beverly Hills most likely will never be realized, but nevertheless such
activities are very admired.
Other-oriented, intrinsic experiences
The ?nal two other-orientated and intrinsic value types of ethics and spirituality also are
supported with travel photos. Of the eight types of consumer value ethics is the least evident
in the photos. Even so, photos exhibiting ethics on the grounds of kindness, compassion and
Figure 5 Status
Figure 6 Esteem
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moderation are found. A photo taken of Benjamin Franklin’s grave tells the story of ethical
value in travel (Figure 7a). From viewing the photo, the observer cannot see that above the
grave there is a window in the wall. A person can easily stick their camera through this
window to take a photo of the grave instead of paying the entry fee into the gravesite. The
researcher is ethical and pays the entry fee for the gravesite. Kindness is represented in a
photo of a birthday cake for a travel companion (Figure 7b). On one of the tour rest stops a
group of travel friends organizes a birthday cake for one of the group as he is away from his
family and friends on this day. Photos of other ethical issues include: a photo of a tip jar
(Figure 7c) and a picture of the researcher carrying out all her rubbish from her hike in the
bottom of the Grand Canyon in the Havasupai Indian Reservation.
The most powerful type of customer value evident across all the travel photos is that of
spirituality. In fact, many photos are of sculptures indicating respect devoted to sanctity of
life. While traveling, the researcher visits locations of the US that have been affected by a
national tragedy. Witnessing all of these places is a very sobering experience paired with
silent moments of re?ection and incredible respect. Figure 8a is of the Helping Hand in St
Paul’s Memorial Chapel near the World Trade Center site in NYC. A notice board near the
hands reads that they ‘‘represented the countless hands that came together at St Paul’s to
pray, heal, comfort and embrace all those who walked through our doors after September
11th’’. Memorials also are visited. Figure 8b is of the National World War II Memorial in
Washington DC, each one of the stars represents 100 soldiers who died in the second world
war. To pay respect to inspirational people in US history, the researcher visits cemeteries
such as the Tomb of the Unknowns in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, and locations
where some in?uential people were assassinated, such as the Lorraine Motel (Figure 8c)
where Dr Martin Luther King was killed in Memphis. The ?nal picture under the consumer
value of spirituality (Figure 8d) is from the Havasupai Indian Reservation. This shows inside
the Grand Canyon with one of the three dogs that escorted the ten hikers through Havasu
Canyon. Here the researcher is on her own, to explore the bottomof the canyon. All in all, it is
a most spiritual experience.
While ethical value causes us to re?ect on the integrity of our actions, spiritual value appears
to be very much linked to place. These places of stillness and silence invite us to think
beyond the minutia, the mundane, the profane of our everyday world (Belk et al., 1989). The
vastness of the Grand Canyon instills in us a sense of awe and makes us confront our
insigni?cance. Memorials serve as markers of history and remind us to never forget the
courage and conviction of individuals who went before. We are connected to our past and to
our world, but not in control. Do we need sacred sites to move beyond the mundane and
reach for what is possible, not what is the norm?
Discussion
Examining travel photos from a consumer value perspective together with SPI emphasizes
the multidimensional meanings associated with pleasurable pursuits that, perhaps
Figure 7 Other-oriented, intrinsic experiences
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otherwise, would not be identi?ed. Pleasure is much more than self-indulgence and
immediate grati?cation. Issues of competency, both active effort and appreciation of others’
abilities, are apparent. Individual growth and development also are important, yet sharing
and feelings of relatedness are powerful components as well. Evidently, pleasure is valued
only partly for ‘‘hedonic’’ reasons. Philosophers (Aristotle, 1985; Plato, 1937), theorists
(Fromm, 1947; Maslow, 1968) and researchers (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; La Guardia et al.,
2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Waterman et al., 2003) contend that a ‘‘higher’’ order of
pleasure, eudaimonia, is derived from striving for excellence and engaging in challenging
activities requiring intense, personal involvement. With more consumers seeking
pleasurable consumption experiences, research exploring the importance of hedonic
versus eudaimonic consumption is warranted. Further work on the dimensionality of value
incorporating historical, symbolic and authenticity (Throsby, 2001) also can add to our
understanding of pleasurable consumption experiences.
In addition to proposing alternative approaches for future research into pleasurable
consumption, the results also indicate some innovative strategies to put into practice.
Communicating the different value types prior to consumption and incorporating active
re?ection, possibly can assist in improving consumers’ enjoyment of their experiences
which, in turn, can reduce post-purchase dissonance. Besides being used as a promotional
tool to increase customer satisfaction, the consumer value framework can facilitate product
bundling and possibly expand product bene?ts.
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Figure 8 Spirituality
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propositions’’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46 No. 3, pp. 92-101.
Wallendorf, M. and Brucks, M. (1993), ‘‘Introspection in consumer research: implementation and
implications’’, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 339-59.
Corresponding author
Cynthia M. Webster can be contacted at: [email protected]
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doc_632454957.pdf
Some consumption activities are inherently interesting, pleasurable, gratifying and
potentially important to consumers’ lives. The primary aim of this paper is to further understanding of the
role pleasurable consumption plays in consumers’ lives.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Pursuing pleasure: consumer value in leisure travel
Cynthia M. Webster Vanessa A. Rennie
Article information:
To cite this document:
Cynthia M. Webster Vanessa A. Rennie, (2011),"Pursuing pleasure: consumer value in leisure travel", International J ournal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 5 Iss 4 pp. 334 - 344
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Pursuing pleasure: consumer value in
leisure travel
Cynthia M. Webster and Vanessa A. Rennie
Abstract
Purpose – Some consumption activities are inherently interesting, pleasurable, gratifying and
potentially important to consumers’ lives. The primary aimof this paper is to further understanding of the
role pleasurable consumption plays in consumers’ lives.
Design/methodology/approach – To explore consumer value in pleasurable consumption
experiences, the consumer value typology in conjunction with the subjective personal introspection
(SPI) approach, is applied to experiences captured in travel photographs.
Findings – Analysis identi?es all eight consumer value types with play, aesthetics and, surprisingly,
spirituality the most evident. Pleasure is shown as much more than immediate, self-grati?cation. Issues
of competency, both active effort and appreciation of others’ abilities, individual growth and
development as well as sharing and feelings of relatedness are all important components of pleasure.
Research limitations/implications – The use of consumer value as a conceptual framework in
combination with a re?ective tool such as SPI suggests not only alternative approaches for future
research into pleasurable consumption, but also indicates some innovative strategies to put into
practice.
Practical implications – Communicating the different value types prior to consumption and
incorporating active re?ection, possibly could assist in improving consumers’ enjoyment of their
experiences which, in turn, could reduce post-purchase dissonance. Besides being used as a
promotional tool to increase customer satisfaction, the consumer value framework could facilitate
product bundling and possibly expand product bene?ts.
Originality/value – The paper illustrates the multidimensional nature of pleasure through two research
methods infrequently used, SPI and the photo essay, positioning both as valuable tools for exploring and
enhancing pleasurable consumption.
Keywords Pleasure, Consumer value, Subjective personal introspection, Photo essay,
Consumer behaviour, Photography
Paper type Research paper
S
ome consumption activities are inherently interesting, pleasurable, and gratifying.
Going out to dinner, to the movies or to a sporting event all may be considered
enjoyable experiences. Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) point out that these types of
experiential activities are potentially important to consumers’ lives because they stimulate
consumers’ feelings and imaginings. Such behaviors provide entertainment, give multiple
sensory pleasures, keep minds and bodies active and bring out strong emotions.
Consumers can derive intense meanings fromsuch experiences that go beyond the tangible
sensations immediately experienced.
Traditional consumer research in marketing has tended to neglect such experiential aspects
of behavior, resulting in limited understanding of the importance of the bene?ts gained from
pleasurable pursuits (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). Recent work directs some effort
towards the pleasurable aspects of products (Chaudhuri, 2006; Keiningham and Vavra,
2001; Norman, 2004; Postrel, 2003). Chitturi et al. (2008) show that products designed to
delight increase customer loyalty, more so than simply satisfying them. While the business
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VOL. 5 NO. 4 2011, pp. 334-344, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 DOI 10.1108/17506181111174673
Cynthia M. Webster is an
Associate Professor and
Vanessa A. Rennie is a
Research Associate, both
are based at the
Department of Marketing
and Management, Faculty
of Business and
Economics, Macquarie
University, Sydney,
Australia.
Received February 2009
Revised September 2009
Accepted January 2010
The authors would like to thank
Marylouise Caldwell and
Paul Henry as well as two
anonymous reviewers for their
valuable input. Their
recommendations have greatly
improved the quality of the
paper.
Please ?nd the video that
accompanies this article at:
http://www.emeraldinsight.
com/promo/hospitality_
research.htm
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case is gradually becoming stronger for incorporating hedonic bene?ts, the reasons behind
why consumers value pleasure remain unspeci?ed.
Hedonism versus eudaimonia
Research investigating the factors and social contexts conducive to the attainment of
pleasure distinguishes hedonic happiness from eudaimonic enjoyment. According to Plato
(1937), hedonism is a ‘‘lower’’ or ‘‘false’’ form of pleasure and can be described as
immediate grati?cation through pleasure seeking. Eudaimonia, on the contrary, is a ‘‘higher’’
order of pleasure and ‘‘true’’ form of happiness, restricted to those activities that allow for
excellence to be achieved, typically requiring intense involvement and ‘‘personal
expressiveness’’ (Waterman, 1993). Hedonic enjoyment is not limited to any speci?c
types of activities and may be ‘‘felt whenever pleasant affect accompanies the satisfaction of
needs, whether physically, intellectually or socially based’’, whereas eudaimonia includes
feelings of being alive, challenged, competent and ful?lled (Waterman, 2005, p. 679).
Clearly, pleasure is not necessarily effortless. While some pleasurable experiences, like
listening to music, may require relatively little mental or physical effort, other pursuits, such
as leisure travel, can involve a substantial amount of personal investment and expense.
Seeking out challenges, exploring new situations and extending one’s abilities can lead to
enjoyment but are not necessarily productive or goal directed (Ryan and Deci, 2000;
Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997). As such, it is intriguing as to why consumers devote so much,
as in the case of leisure travel, to such seemingly frivolous and momentary activities.
Research examining motivations and participation in high risk, challenging activities, such
as sky diving (Celsi et al., 1993) and white water rafting (Arnould and Price, 1993), illustrate
the complexity of extraordinary consumption experiences. These studies ?nd consumers
value intense experiences that provide opportunities for personal growth, freedom from the
ordinary and integration with both nature and others. Our aim here is to extend the work on
experiential consumption by exploring the value gained from the pleasurable pursuit of
leisure travel.
Method
Given that the value of pleasurable experiences is shaped by the subjective evaluation of the
interaction between the individual and the experience (Addis and Holbrook, 2001), the
methodological technique of the photo essay is used in combination with Holbrook’s
subjective personal introspection (SPI) to examine the subjective meanings of experiences
captured in holiday photographs. A brief description of each follows.
Photo essay
Within consumer research photographic methods are increasingly being used both to
provide rich sources of data and as a vibrant format to present results (Belk, 1991; Belk et al.,
1989; Hill and Stamey, 1990; Joy and Venkatesh, 1994; Schouten and McAlexander, 1995).
Following the Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique (ZMET), the photo essay requires the
collection and interpretation of meaningful photographs illustrating speci?c consumption
experiences (Zaltman, 1996, 1997). To explore the value of leisure travel, photographs taken
by and of one of the authors while on a six week holiday through the US commencing in 2007
provide the primary data for this study. The photos used are typical holiday snaps and have
not been created with the pre-conceived intent of consumer value in mind.
Subjective personal introspection
Although photographs provide a concrete record of consumption behaviors, Holbrook and
Kuwaharar (1998) advise that care must be taken to ensure the photographs examined are
interpreted in relevant and legitimate ways originally intended. Moreover, Deshpande (1983)
notes as with all qualitative interpretations ‘‘[. . .] a complete and ultimately honest analysis
can only be achieved by actively participating in the life of the subject of observation and
gaining insights by means of introspection’’ (p. 106). For these reasons, Holbrook’s (2005)
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subjective personal introspection (SPI) technique is used to explore consumer value in the
travel photos. SPI is a qualitative, re?ective technique in which researchers consider their
own consumption experiences to examine human behaviors. Holbrook (2005) describes SPI
as a type of autoethnography in ‘‘which the author enjoys privileged access to the relevant
phenomena of interest’’ (p. 45). As such, the researcher is intimately involved in both the
creation of the images and is best able to interpret their relevance and value.
As a method, introspection has been criticized. Wallendorf and Brucks (1993) identify
several issues to be considered. The type of introspection matters, with a more interactive
approach suggested. Utilizing multiple informants and researchers, rather than relying on
the accounts and analyses of a single researcher, allows for data replication and greater
analytic distance. The type of data collected is important as well, with reports of speci?c
events preferred. Detailed empirical evidence allows further analytic distance, with multiple
researchers able to analyze data regularities without depending on informants’ conclusions
(Wallendorf and Brucks, 1993, p. 345). Researchers also must take into account well-known
biases when relying on recall data (Loftus and Loftus, 1980), noting that people typically
recall extreme events rather than less salient ones (Kahneman and Tversky, 1972; Tversky
and Kahneman, 1974). Moreover, people are very good at reconstructing general patterns of
behaviors that re?ect what is important now, not necessarily what was important when the
event occurred (Freeman et al., 1987).
Value of pleasure travel
To improve analytic distance and deal with possible sampling distortions in recall, we do not
take a grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1990) to
data analysis. Instead, we employ Holbrook’s (1999) consumer value typology to explore
value in consumption experiences, which is in line with Wallendorf and Brucks’ (1993)
recommended use of frameworks for data sampling and analytical interpretation.
Holbrook identi?es three dimensions, two of which are apparent in the psychological
discussion of pleasure: intrinsic versus extrinsic and active opposed to reactive. The third
dimension goes beyond the individual and considers self-oriented versus other-oriented.
Taking into account the three dimensions results in eight types of consumers. Both play and
aesthetics are self-oriented and intrinsically satisfying, with play being an active pursuit and
aesthetics more of a reactive, appreciation. Ef?ciency and excellence are extrinsic and
self-oriented, with ef?ciency displayed in active and functional deeds while excellence is
reactive and expressed in the quality of experiences. Status and esteem are both extrinsic,
other-oriented consumer values in that they are utilitarian and relate to others, with status
behaviors as active and deliberately performed to make favorable impressions on others
while esteem is more of a spontaneous reaction and exempli?ed through desired
experiences and material possessions. Ethics and spirituality are the ?nal two
other-orientated, intrinsic value types, with ethics seen in deeds of kindness, compassion
and moderation while spirituality is the appreciation of how an encounter touches ones’
relationships with other individuals, one’s own self or a greater force.
We now consider the relevance of each value type to pleasurable consumption. Speci?cally,
we seek both to determine whether each of the value dimensions is evidenced in the travel
photos and to extend our current understanding of howpleasurable experiences are valued.
Self-oriented, intrinsic experiences
As many young consumers primarily travel for pleasure and to experience travel for its own
sake (Kale et al., 1987), it is not surprising to ?nd the most evident categories in the travel
photos are that of play and aesthetics. Both play and aesthetics are self-oriented and
intrinsically satisfying consumption experiences, with play being an active pursuit and
aesthetics more of a reactive, appreciation. Many play experiences are purely hedonic in
nature with the consumer needing no expertise for enjoyment. Such activities include: hot air
ballooning (Figure 1a), playing the slot machines in Vegas (Figure 1b), going on rides at
Disneyland and having a cocktail while watching the sunset on Waikiki Beach in Hawaii
(Figure 1c). Interestingly, certain play activities do involve some level of competence and
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typically include others, such as bowling with friends, group karaoke performances and
playing on the huge piano, which featured in the movie Big starring Tom Hanks, in FAO
Schwartz in New York City.
For all of these play activities, no functional purpose exists. There are no speci?ed goals to
achieve. Instead, some of the fun appears to be in the sharing of the experience. Although
classi?ed as self-oriented, many of the experiences con?rm that play activities are done with
others. Some of the enjoyment also seems to revolve around physical sensations: hearing
music, tasting unusual drinks, feeling the excitement of riding roller coasters and seeing the
colorful lights of Vegas. Such physical sensations are short-lived, but can recur if the
activities are repeated. The activities and the resulting sensations, however, typically are tied
to particular locations which do take effort to reach and once traveling is resumed the
experiences are not easily relived. To some extent, value in play appears to come from
physical sensations experienced while interacting with others in exclusive activities
restricted by place, time and presence.
Other photos represent aesthetic value and openly relate to the enjoyment of beauty, culture
and the arts. Many of the travel photos are of the beautiful scenery and landscape seen while
traveling. The researcher captures Spanish moss in Savannah, Georgia, Monument Valley in
Navajo Tribal Park, Arizona (Figure 2a), Mooney Falls in the Grand Canyon, Arizona and the
Botanical Gardens in San Francisco, California. In addition to natural scenery, photos of
constructed beauty also feature. These photos include the Christmas decorations in
Rockefeller Center (Figure 2b), the Empire State Building (Figure 2c) and Saint Patrick’s
Cathedral in NYC, the Wright Brother’s plane in the National Air and Space Museum and the
Hope Diamond in the Museum of Natural History in Washington DC.
Upon re?ection, although actually viewing these natural and constructed objects requires
little effort, much of the appreciation comes from the information learned regarding the
uniqueness of their creation. In this case, value is not entirely reactive. Although gaining the
information does not serve any purpose, it certainly is not thoughtless. In fact, the aesthetic
value in part comes from educating the mind, which not only leads to personal growth but
also involves an element of social exchange as well. Moreover, many of the constructed
objects are cultural goods in that they are products ‘‘which have to do with the intellectual,
moral and artistic aspects of human life’’ (Throsby, 2001, p. 4). From a cultural economics
perspective, Throsby (2001, 2003) assesses the worth of both social and aesthetic value
and further identi?es spiritual, historical, symbolic and authenticity value dimensions.
Figure 1 Play
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Self-oriented, extrinsic experiences
The two extrinsic, self-oriented consumer value types of ef?ciency and excellence also are
present in the travel photos. Ef?ciency, active and productive behavior, is displayed in the
functional characteristics of the travel process. Many of the activities are undertaken
because they are both functional and economical. Shopping in Wal-Mart, for example, is an
ef?cient travel experience. The researcher is able to obtain food, toiletries and other
necessities, such as an additional suitcase, from this convenient one-stop-shop. A photo of
the researcher standing at the departure gate at Sydney International Airport (Figure 3a)
represents the commencement of her carefully planned holiday. Traveling requires an
exertion of human effort in order to arrive at the airport on time, carry luggage fromthe airport
and walk or organize various forms of transportation to explore the scenic attractions.
Getting the most value out of leisure travel, in part, is a consequence of how actively one
participates in and not just observes the experience.
Ef?ciency also appears in photos of the researcher on a hike in the Grand Canyon, Arizona.
Only through physical effort is the researcher able to see landscape not witnessed by
everyone visiting the canyon. Down in the canyon the researcher faces breathtaking
waterfalls. In order to get down to the base of the Mooney Falls the researcher climbs
Figure 2 Aesthetics
Figure 3 Self-oriented, extrinsic experiences
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through a dark tunnel (Figure 3b) and down a steep cliff face. Climbing down the cliff is the
researcher’s ?rst experience of having her life ?ash before her eyes. This challenging and
fearful experience is worth it once the Mooney Falls are unveiled. These experiences
associated with the value of ef?ciency have produced stories the researcher repeatedly tells
friends and family, such memories she will have forever.
In contrast to ef?ciency, excellence captures the reactive side of extrinsic, self-oriented
consumer value. Excellence is expressed in the quality of the travel experience and in the
ability of objects to performtheir function well. Examples of excellence are seen in Figure 4a.
After the long ?ight from Australia, the researcher is very happy to be inside a hotel with a
comfortable bed. The photo also shows the researcher’s backpack lying on the ?oor of the
room. While crediting the ability of the space bags inside the backpack, the researcher is
amazed at the amount of clothes she was able to cram inside the pack.
Excellence is also recognized in the logistics and coordination required in both
manufacturing and transportation. Figure 4b is of the Budweiser Beer Factory in
Jacksonville, Florida, where the researcher enjoys sampling two of the factory’s end
products, Bud Light and Budweiser Select. Standing inside Grand Central Terminal in NYC,
the researcher appreciates the complexity of operating the subway. Whilst in San Francisco,
California, she enjoys the cable cars (Figure 4c), which are not only functional and
economic, but also a fun way to get from the Civic Center to Fisherman’s Wharf.
With ef?ciency and excellence we again see evidence of valuing experiences that include:
challenges requiring competency, social interaction, the stimulation of physical sensations
and the signi?cance of exclusivity. We also question the extent to which products and
experiences are appreciated without some active participation. There are few examples of
excellence in which the researcher does not also use the product. This observation
highlights the multi-dimensionality of some experiences and raises additional measurement
issues. To what extent does the inclusion of multiple value dimensions lead to increased
enjoyment? Which combinations of value dimensions enhance pleasure? The cable cars are
a prime illustration as they are fun, ef?cient, aesthetically pleasing and maintained at an
excellent standard.
Other-oriented, extrinsic experiences
Having considered the relevance of the self-oriented aspects of consumer value, we now
move to the other-oriented categories. Other-oriented value depends on how some product
or experience relates to others, whether the other is an individual person or a spiritual being.
Status and esteem are both extrinsic consumer values in that they are utilitarian, with status
behaviors as active and deliberately performed to make favorable impressions on others
while esteem is more reactive and exempli?ed through material possessions and desired
experiences.
Status is shown in the photos of the researcher standingin front of iconic buildings, landmarks
and natural wonders of the world. The purpose is to create photographic evidence of the
researcher beinginvoguelocations. Examplesincludetheresearcher standingout thefront of
Figure 4 Excellence
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Tiffany & Co. on 5th Avenue in NYC (Figure 5a), the Rockefeller Center Christmas tree, and
Cadillac Ranch in Amarillo. Status also is demonstrated by photos of the researcher with
celebrities, such as Mickey Mouse in Disneyworld in Orlando, Florida and an Ambercrombie
& Fitch male model in the organization’s NYC store. Photos of the researcher in fashion label
clothing are yet another way to show off status. Whilst the researcher is attempting to make a
favorable impression on those with whomshe is traveling, she is also mindful of those people
who will view her photos when she returns home. In Figure 5b the researcher is wearing her
Ksubi label jeans and her Oneteaspoon label jacket in Times Square, NYC.
Some photos exhibiting esteem capture the researcher purchasing desired souvenirs,
which is one way of impressing others. Prized souvenirs consist of clothing from
Ambercrombie & Fitch, a silver and black mother of pearl ring and Ghirardelli chocolate from
San Francisco, California. Photos of artifacts from socially desirable consumption activities
also transmit esteem. Examples include photos of famous places, iconic street signs and
buildings: 5th Avenue store fronts in NYC (Figure 6a), Bourbon Street in New Orleans,
Louisiana (Figure 6b) and Rodeo Drive in Beverley Hills (Figure 6c). Being able to shop on
5th Avenue or live in Beverly Hills most likely will never be realized, but nevertheless such
activities are very admired.
Other-oriented, intrinsic experiences
The ?nal two other-orientated and intrinsic value types of ethics and spirituality also are
supported with travel photos. Of the eight types of consumer value ethics is the least evident
in the photos. Even so, photos exhibiting ethics on the grounds of kindness, compassion and
Figure 5 Status
Figure 6 Esteem
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moderation are found. A photo taken of Benjamin Franklin’s grave tells the story of ethical
value in travel (Figure 7a). From viewing the photo, the observer cannot see that above the
grave there is a window in the wall. A person can easily stick their camera through this
window to take a photo of the grave instead of paying the entry fee into the gravesite. The
researcher is ethical and pays the entry fee for the gravesite. Kindness is represented in a
photo of a birthday cake for a travel companion (Figure 7b). On one of the tour rest stops a
group of travel friends organizes a birthday cake for one of the group as he is away from his
family and friends on this day. Photos of other ethical issues include: a photo of a tip jar
(Figure 7c) and a picture of the researcher carrying out all her rubbish from her hike in the
bottom of the Grand Canyon in the Havasupai Indian Reservation.
The most powerful type of customer value evident across all the travel photos is that of
spirituality. In fact, many photos are of sculptures indicating respect devoted to sanctity of
life. While traveling, the researcher visits locations of the US that have been affected by a
national tragedy. Witnessing all of these places is a very sobering experience paired with
silent moments of re?ection and incredible respect. Figure 8a is of the Helping Hand in St
Paul’s Memorial Chapel near the World Trade Center site in NYC. A notice board near the
hands reads that they ‘‘represented the countless hands that came together at St Paul’s to
pray, heal, comfort and embrace all those who walked through our doors after September
11th’’. Memorials also are visited. Figure 8b is of the National World War II Memorial in
Washington DC, each one of the stars represents 100 soldiers who died in the second world
war. To pay respect to inspirational people in US history, the researcher visits cemeteries
such as the Tomb of the Unknowns in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, and locations
where some in?uential people were assassinated, such as the Lorraine Motel (Figure 8c)
where Dr Martin Luther King was killed in Memphis. The ?nal picture under the consumer
value of spirituality (Figure 8d) is from the Havasupai Indian Reservation. This shows inside
the Grand Canyon with one of the three dogs that escorted the ten hikers through Havasu
Canyon. Here the researcher is on her own, to explore the bottomof the canyon. All in all, it is
a most spiritual experience.
While ethical value causes us to re?ect on the integrity of our actions, spiritual value appears
to be very much linked to place. These places of stillness and silence invite us to think
beyond the minutia, the mundane, the profane of our everyday world (Belk et al., 1989). The
vastness of the Grand Canyon instills in us a sense of awe and makes us confront our
insigni?cance. Memorials serve as markers of history and remind us to never forget the
courage and conviction of individuals who went before. We are connected to our past and to
our world, but not in control. Do we need sacred sites to move beyond the mundane and
reach for what is possible, not what is the norm?
Discussion
Examining travel photos from a consumer value perspective together with SPI emphasizes
the multidimensional meanings associated with pleasurable pursuits that, perhaps
Figure 7 Other-oriented, intrinsic experiences
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otherwise, would not be identi?ed. Pleasure is much more than self-indulgence and
immediate grati?cation. Issues of competency, both active effort and appreciation of others’
abilities, are apparent. Individual growth and development also are important, yet sharing
and feelings of relatedness are powerful components as well. Evidently, pleasure is valued
only partly for ‘‘hedonic’’ reasons. Philosophers (Aristotle, 1985; Plato, 1937), theorists
(Fromm, 1947; Maslow, 1968) and researchers (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; La Guardia et al.,
2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Waterman et al., 2003) contend that a ‘‘higher’’ order of
pleasure, eudaimonia, is derived from striving for excellence and engaging in challenging
activities requiring intense, personal involvement. With more consumers seeking
pleasurable consumption experiences, research exploring the importance of hedonic
versus eudaimonic consumption is warranted. Further work on the dimensionality of value
incorporating historical, symbolic and authenticity (Throsby, 2001) also can add to our
understanding of pleasurable consumption experiences.
In addition to proposing alternative approaches for future research into pleasurable
consumption, the results also indicate some innovative strategies to put into practice.
Communicating the different value types prior to consumption and incorporating active
re?ection, possibly can assist in improving consumers’ enjoyment of their experiences
which, in turn, can reduce post-purchase dissonance. Besides being used as a promotional
tool to increase customer satisfaction, the consumer value framework can facilitate product
bundling and possibly expand product bene?ts.
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Corresponding author
Cynthia M. Webster can be contacted at: [email protected]
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