Description
Selling is offering to exchange an item of value for a different item. The original item of value being offered may be either tangible or intangible. The second item, usually money, is most often seen by the seller as being of equal or greater value than that being offered for sale.
MBA ProMA Project Marketing and System Selling: Interaction/Network Approach
Hossein Dadfar Professor of Industrial Marketing/ International Marketing Linköping University, Sweden April 1, 2009
Network
•An industrial network consists of organizations that carry out productive activities and relationships between these organizations. • A firm has direct and/or indirect relationships to customers, suppliers, distributors, customer's customers, competitors, complimentary suppliers, political bodies, etc
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 2
1
Network...
•In network approach, marketing environment consists of other organizations • The market is a network of other organizations • An organization has primary network and secondary network • Position in the network, a very important issue, is defined by • relationships between involved organizations (who is related to whom) •function, division of work • power between the organizations • a company can be in many networks, thus has many positions, all integrated in a total position. © Professor Hossein Dadfar
3
Network Structure
Network structure: • Tightly structure: the interdependencies and bonds between the units/ actors are strong clear and strong position. Loosely structured network, the position of organizations are more diffuse and unclear. Low degree of dependence.
•
Tips: More tightly structured a network is more difficult it Will be to enter into it.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 4
2
Network Analysis
To analyze your company’s network here are some questions: • How strong are our bonds to the customers? •How dependent are we on specific customers and how dependent are they on us? •Is the network that we are about to enter, tightly or loosely structured? •Is our network changing, from being loosely structured to becoming more tightly structured? •Are our suppliers becoming more strongly committed to competitors than before? •What are the relationships between our customers can we use such relationships fro diffusion of information or learn more5 © Professor Hossein Dadfar about the network.
Network theory
•Social exchange •Resource dependence • Institutional economics(commons) •Graph theory (Harary & Norman 1953) • Cognitive and structural balance - Fritz Heider’s (1958), Cartwright and Harary (1956) • Communication & information diffusion • Social & generalized exchange • Power-dependence
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
• Structural embeddedness
6
3
IMP
IMP work is different than North Americans in terms of :
• Different business context (B to B) • Less focus on economics, drew more on behavioural theories from sociology and org theory (e.g. Aiken and Hage, 1968, Burns and stalker, 1961, Emery and Trist, 1965; Thompson, 1967) • Less focus on managerial implications. • Methodology they employed. • The nature of relationship (exchange relations)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
7
NETWORKING: What does it mean?
The Radar screen model, by Collin Hastings (1994)
People driven
global
fo cu s
Internally driven local regional Externally driven
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Technology driven
8
4
Dimensions of organisational networking
Strategic logic Internally driven Externally driven Technology driven People driven
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Core networking Purpose process Networking Boundary busting within organisations Networking Successful between partnerships organisations Hard networks Connecting computers Soft networking Connecting people
9
Time and Networks • Most (social) network research has been static, though there is a growing interest in modeling network dynamics. This is occurring in two related directions: • Two ways of thinking about time: • Movement of things through a network: Diffusion processes, changes in the distribution of an item over the
population, over time (I.e. the adoption of an innovation, the spread of an idea, etc.)
• Change in the network itself: Structural implications of relation change.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
10
5
Establishment Process
? Establishment is a process under which the company builds up a critical mass of relations with other actors in the market network. Establishment, therefore, refers to the situation that a company has built up the relations that its position in the network is secured, assumed be maintained. Critical mass means that the firm in the new market has a position that does not need additional recourse, and is self-sufficient.
11
?
?
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Critical Mass
Dimensions of critcal mass:
¾ ¾
Number of Relations: there must be enough number of relations. What is enough depends on the structure of the network and product type. The contents of relations: the bonds that were explained before.
Large
Number of relations Critical Mass
Small Weak bonds The contents of relations 12 Strong bonds
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
6
System Selling and Project Marketing
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 13
System Selling
System selling refers to the situation that the seller provides total problem solving by selling both machinery and services (knowledge). Types of system selling companies: 1. The companies that sell machinery and material ( e.g. Tetra Pak) 2. The companies that themselves manufacture the same product. They sell the manufacturing system in developing countries.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
14
7
What is a Project?: A Marketing Perspective
A project is a “ complex transaction covering a package of products and services and work, specially designed to create capital assets that produce benefits for a buyer over an extended period of time.” needs.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
15
Why Project Marketing?
Access Shortage Lack of Easier resources of knowledge: to Association to manage adequate otherwise BOT one Engineering technical/ supplier than difficult knolwedge managerial many Saving time and BOOT cost
Buyer
Motivations
Seller
Strategy growth/ Type text competitive marketing
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Selling knowledge otherwise Type text not commercialised
Using managenet Type text capabilty/ creating value
More control Type text opportunities
16
8
Some Characteristics of Projects and IPB
• Project Uniqueness • Project complexity: from products to systems to projects -“the technical performance of systems is always uncertain and is an inexact science” • Specific time schedules • Dyadic and network involvement • The role of local (recipient country) actors providing local relationship capabilities and other capabilities
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
17
Some Characteristics of Projects and PM
• D-U-C framework: – Discontinuity – Uniqueness • given unique characteristics, each project can be regarded as an isolated market for goods and services, thus marketing research in a traditional sense, to predict or, anticipate opportunities and customer requirements virtually impossible. – Complexity • technological complexity • organisational complexity • financial complexity • multi-actor and multiple organizations involved • complex tender procedure Time and cost strain Dyadic and network involvement
18
• •
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
9
FUNCTIONAL COM PLEXITY
POLITICAL COMPLE XITY
S PE CIFICATION COMPLE XITYU
PROJECT SELLING COM PLEXITY
COM M ERCIAL COM PLEXITY
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 19
Project typology
Based upon complexity level • A systematic classification of project type that have characteristics or traits in common: • Level one: an in-house (internal) project involving a single disciplinary team • Level Two: an in-house (internal) projects involving a multidisciplinary team. • Level Three: a multi-company multidisciplinary project. • Level four: a multi-country multidisciplinary
• (Source Association of Project Managers -AMP- UK)
20 © Professor Hossein Dadfar
10
Project Classification Based up on Technology and Scope: Matrix
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
21
Legal Definitions and Type of Projects
• Turnkey Project:
– after contract signature, the project marketer takes full responsibility for completion and functioning of agreed facilities
• Turnkey-plus:
– seller continues to manage the completed facilities for an agreed period after the turnkey project • An important part of project business is the organizational form for managing the business
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
22
11
360o Responsibility of a Project Manager
Leadership Team Steering Group Project Director Sponsors Internal Relation External Relation Line Departments Project Trading Partners Manager Other Projects Suppliers Contractors Project Team Participants Deliverables Tasks
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
23
Classification Based Upon Task
E n g in eerin g (o n e fu n ctio n -su b s ystem )
C on s e ta r fu v e c t n t ra in io l g ns
P ro je c t fo rm s
(b ase d u p o m tas k)
M ain co n tra ctin g (to tal ys tem excl.b u ild in g
Tu (t o c o n r n ta tra K e y ls c b u in c o l u t in g il d l . ti o n in g)
M an ag em en t C o n tractin g (JV )
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
24
12
Financnced by Ow ner or third party
B
ar
te
r
Project forms
(Financing system
BOT
C
B u o n y -b a n tra c a c k d t J V in g
BOOT
Parallel Parallel marketing marketing
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
25
OBS
R
eg
io
na
l
Tender (bidding)
CBS
In
te
rn
at
io
na
Local
l
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
26
13
Marketing Process for Project Selling
1. Scaning phase
6. The follow-up phaseHigher profit opportunity 2. The approach phase
The process for marketing project
5. The completion phase 4. The negotitation phase
3. The bid phase
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
27
Marketing Practices in Project marketing
• Deterministic: the project will be defined entirely by the customer.therefore, the supplier has a reactive approach (reaction to tender, to bid or not to bid, adaptive) • Constructivist: customer and various stakeholders define optimum solution and that contractor is one of key players in the process (anticipative)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 28
14
Project Marketing Process:Three periods of project
Independent of any project
Pre-tender Tender Preparation Offer
Adapted from Cova, Guari and Salle (2002)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
29
The Project Marketing Process
Strategy Independent
Functional development Relational development
Strategic priority
of any project External offer Core offer Milieu Customer
Project screening Pre-tender Project development Tender preparation Project offer Project negotiation
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Contracting
30
15
Project-supplier’s network position
• Position: the role and power that an organization exerts
– Relational position: more, and stronger the relations, with other actors a company has, stronger the company’s position is. – The functional position represents the capacity to elaborate differentiated solutions for the projects (global and specific/customer level)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 31
Project-marketing v.s. traditional marketing
• Project marketing is different, it can be characterised by DU-C • In traditional marketing (standard) products are developed by supplier, in PM the project is defined/developed by customer. • Marketing process in PM and traditional marketing is different • Traditional marketing research can not be applied in PM. • Value creation in PM should be by multidimensional solutions, thus marketing mix and merely price is not proper tool.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
• Project network is very complex containing business and non-business networks.
32
16
The selling process
Project of current interest
Inquiry
Tender for the project
Summary of tenders
Contract
Introduction phase
Preinquiry phase
Tender procedure phase
Tender Negotiation examination phase phase
Bengström’s Model
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
33
Project Selling Road Map
P
POST DELIVER
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
34
17
Identification
There are numerous ways of identifying a project. These are grouped in eight types:
1.
• •
International Financial Institutions (IFI)
World Bank
Project information documents can be found at:http://www.worldbank.org/html/opr/procure/bopage.html)
• • • •
The Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
The IDB project listing and can be found at:http://www.iadb.org
Asian Development Bank (AsDB) (Can be found at:http://www.asiandevbank.org) The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
The EBRD has a good listing that can be found at:http://www.ebrd.com
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
35
Identification (cont…)
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Networking
Networking, here, refers to getting out and meeting the people that can help in identifying a project.
Local Agent or Office United Nations Development Business Journal National and International Agencies
UN, SIDA, USAID, WHO, WTO will help in identifying a project.
Trade Missions Publicity Government Development plan/Budget
36
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
18
Evaluation
Criteria used for evaluating potential projects by construction companies Project type Size Transparency Ethical Financing Current economical situation Current political situation Current legal system Match the technical strength of the company. Preferably complex. Lower limits between U.S.$ 50 and 100 million. The bid process is preferably open and fair. The project has to fulfill requirements concerning for example its environmental impact. Must be secured and creditable. The client has to be able to pay for the project. The project ought to survive a change of regime. The safety of the workforce has to be guaranteed. The commercial laws have to create adequate protection.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
37
Project Business as Internationalization Strategy:Market Entry Mode
• Market scanning • Project design and contact taking • Financial engineering • Find network partners • Successful project marketing gives references and relationships for future project sales, improvement of the buyers’ perception
• Comparing project marketing with other market entry methods (Table 1)
38
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
19
Actors & Factors
• Successful project marketers constantly scan the external environment to determine which actors and factors can affect their their project selling. • Project should provide efficient solution to the customer requirement
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
39
Offering Strategy
• Who dictates the rules of the game: deterministic vs. constructivist (reactive or proactive approach)
Buyer/seller interaction
Weak Strong Strong Weak
Network Position
Influence strategy Creative offering strategy
Aggressive pricing strategy
’Risk’ Strategy
40
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Source: Cova & Hoskins
20
Issue for further research and discussion
– SWOR analysis – Iceberg theory of network – Networking across cultures
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
41
21
doc_640645288.pdf
Selling is offering to exchange an item of value for a different item. The original item of value being offered may be either tangible or intangible. The second item, usually money, is most often seen by the seller as being of equal or greater value than that being offered for sale.
MBA ProMA Project Marketing and System Selling: Interaction/Network Approach
Hossein Dadfar Professor of Industrial Marketing/ International Marketing Linköping University, Sweden April 1, 2009
Network
•An industrial network consists of organizations that carry out productive activities and relationships between these organizations. • A firm has direct and/or indirect relationships to customers, suppliers, distributors, customer's customers, competitors, complimentary suppliers, political bodies, etc
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 2
1
Network...
•In network approach, marketing environment consists of other organizations • The market is a network of other organizations • An organization has primary network and secondary network • Position in the network, a very important issue, is defined by • relationships between involved organizations (who is related to whom) •function, division of work • power between the organizations • a company can be in many networks, thus has many positions, all integrated in a total position. © Professor Hossein Dadfar
3
Network Structure
Network structure: • Tightly structure: the interdependencies and bonds between the units/ actors are strong clear and strong position. Loosely structured network, the position of organizations are more diffuse and unclear. Low degree of dependence.
•
Tips: More tightly structured a network is more difficult it Will be to enter into it.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 4
2
Network Analysis
To analyze your company’s network here are some questions: • How strong are our bonds to the customers? •How dependent are we on specific customers and how dependent are they on us? •Is the network that we are about to enter, tightly or loosely structured? •Is our network changing, from being loosely structured to becoming more tightly structured? •Are our suppliers becoming more strongly committed to competitors than before? •What are the relationships between our customers can we use such relationships fro diffusion of information or learn more5 © Professor Hossein Dadfar about the network.
Network theory
•Social exchange •Resource dependence • Institutional economics(commons) •Graph theory (Harary & Norman 1953) • Cognitive and structural balance - Fritz Heider’s (1958), Cartwright and Harary (1956) • Communication & information diffusion • Social & generalized exchange • Power-dependence
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
• Structural embeddedness
6
3
IMP
IMP work is different than North Americans in terms of :
• Different business context (B to B) • Less focus on economics, drew more on behavioural theories from sociology and org theory (e.g. Aiken and Hage, 1968, Burns and stalker, 1961, Emery and Trist, 1965; Thompson, 1967) • Less focus on managerial implications. • Methodology they employed. • The nature of relationship (exchange relations)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
7
NETWORKING: What does it mean?
The Radar screen model, by Collin Hastings (1994)
People driven
global
fo cu s
Internally driven local regional Externally driven
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Technology driven
8
4
Dimensions of organisational networking
Strategic logic Internally driven Externally driven Technology driven People driven
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Core networking Purpose process Networking Boundary busting within organisations Networking Successful between partnerships organisations Hard networks Connecting computers Soft networking Connecting people
9
Time and Networks • Most (social) network research has been static, though there is a growing interest in modeling network dynamics. This is occurring in two related directions: • Two ways of thinking about time: • Movement of things through a network: Diffusion processes, changes in the distribution of an item over the
population, over time (I.e. the adoption of an innovation, the spread of an idea, etc.)
• Change in the network itself: Structural implications of relation change.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
10
5
Establishment Process
? Establishment is a process under which the company builds up a critical mass of relations with other actors in the market network. Establishment, therefore, refers to the situation that a company has built up the relations that its position in the network is secured, assumed be maintained. Critical mass means that the firm in the new market has a position that does not need additional recourse, and is self-sufficient.
11
?
?
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Critical Mass
Dimensions of critcal mass:
¾ ¾
Number of Relations: there must be enough number of relations. What is enough depends on the structure of the network and product type. The contents of relations: the bonds that were explained before.
Large
Number of relations Critical Mass
Small Weak bonds The contents of relations 12 Strong bonds
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
6
System Selling and Project Marketing
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 13
System Selling
System selling refers to the situation that the seller provides total problem solving by selling both machinery and services (knowledge). Types of system selling companies: 1. The companies that sell machinery and material ( e.g. Tetra Pak) 2. The companies that themselves manufacture the same product. They sell the manufacturing system in developing countries.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
14
7
What is a Project?: A Marketing Perspective
A project is a “ complex transaction covering a package of products and services and work, specially designed to create capital assets that produce benefits for a buyer over an extended period of time.” needs.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
15
Why Project Marketing?
Access Shortage Lack of Easier resources of knowledge: to Association to manage adequate otherwise BOT one Engineering technical/ supplier than difficult knolwedge managerial many Saving time and BOOT cost
Buyer
Motivations
Seller
Strategy growth/ Type text competitive marketing
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Selling knowledge otherwise Type text not commercialised
Using managenet Type text capabilty/ creating value
More control Type text opportunities
16
8
Some Characteristics of Projects and IPB
• Project Uniqueness • Project complexity: from products to systems to projects -“the technical performance of systems is always uncertain and is an inexact science” • Specific time schedules • Dyadic and network involvement • The role of local (recipient country) actors providing local relationship capabilities and other capabilities
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
17
Some Characteristics of Projects and PM
• D-U-C framework: – Discontinuity – Uniqueness • given unique characteristics, each project can be regarded as an isolated market for goods and services, thus marketing research in a traditional sense, to predict or, anticipate opportunities and customer requirements virtually impossible. – Complexity • technological complexity • organisational complexity • financial complexity • multi-actor and multiple organizations involved • complex tender procedure Time and cost strain Dyadic and network involvement
18
• •
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
9
FUNCTIONAL COM PLEXITY
POLITICAL COMPLE XITY
S PE CIFICATION COMPLE XITYU
PROJECT SELLING COM PLEXITY
COM M ERCIAL COM PLEXITY
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 19
Project typology
Based upon complexity level • A systematic classification of project type that have characteristics or traits in common: • Level one: an in-house (internal) project involving a single disciplinary team • Level Two: an in-house (internal) projects involving a multidisciplinary team. • Level Three: a multi-company multidisciplinary project. • Level four: a multi-country multidisciplinary
• (Source Association of Project Managers -AMP- UK)
20 © Professor Hossein Dadfar
10
Project Classification Based up on Technology and Scope: Matrix
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
21
Legal Definitions and Type of Projects
• Turnkey Project:
– after contract signature, the project marketer takes full responsibility for completion and functioning of agreed facilities
• Turnkey-plus:
– seller continues to manage the completed facilities for an agreed period after the turnkey project • An important part of project business is the organizational form for managing the business
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
22
11
360o Responsibility of a Project Manager
Leadership Team Steering Group Project Director Sponsors Internal Relation External Relation Line Departments Project Trading Partners Manager Other Projects Suppliers Contractors Project Team Participants Deliverables Tasks
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
23
Classification Based Upon Task
E n g in eerin g (o n e fu n ctio n -su b s ystem )
C on s e ta r fu v e c t n t ra in io l g ns
P ro je c t fo rm s
(b ase d u p o m tas k)
M ain co n tra ctin g (to tal ys tem excl.b u ild in g
Tu (t o c o n r n ta tra K e y ls c b u in c o l u t in g il d l . ti o n in g)
M an ag em en t C o n tractin g (JV )
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
24
12
Financnced by Ow ner or third party
B
ar
te
r
Project forms
(Financing system
BOT
C
B u o n y -b a n tra c a c k d t J V in g
BOOT
Parallel Parallel marketing marketing
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
25
OBS
R
eg
io
na
l
Tender (bidding)
CBS
In
te
rn
at
io
na
Local
l
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
26
13
Marketing Process for Project Selling
1. Scaning phase
6. The follow-up phaseHigher profit opportunity 2. The approach phase
The process for marketing project
5. The completion phase 4. The negotitation phase
3. The bid phase
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
27
Marketing Practices in Project marketing
• Deterministic: the project will be defined entirely by the customer.therefore, the supplier has a reactive approach (reaction to tender, to bid or not to bid, adaptive) • Constructivist: customer and various stakeholders define optimum solution and that contractor is one of key players in the process (anticipative)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 28
14
Project Marketing Process:Three periods of project
Independent of any project
Pre-tender Tender Preparation Offer
Adapted from Cova, Guari and Salle (2002)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
29
The Project Marketing Process
Strategy Independent
Functional development Relational development
Strategic priority
of any project External offer Core offer Milieu Customer
Project screening Pre-tender Project development Tender preparation Project offer Project negotiation
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Contracting
30
15
Project-supplier’s network position
• Position: the role and power that an organization exerts
– Relational position: more, and stronger the relations, with other actors a company has, stronger the company’s position is. – The functional position represents the capacity to elaborate differentiated solutions for the projects (global and specific/customer level)
© Professor Hossein Dadfar 31
Project-marketing v.s. traditional marketing
• Project marketing is different, it can be characterised by DU-C • In traditional marketing (standard) products are developed by supplier, in PM the project is defined/developed by customer. • Marketing process in PM and traditional marketing is different • Traditional marketing research can not be applied in PM. • Value creation in PM should be by multidimensional solutions, thus marketing mix and merely price is not proper tool.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
• Project network is very complex containing business and non-business networks.
32
16
The selling process
Project of current interest
Inquiry
Tender for the project
Summary of tenders
Contract
Introduction phase
Preinquiry phase
Tender procedure phase
Tender Negotiation examination phase phase
Bengström’s Model
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
33
Project Selling Road Map
P
POST DELIVER
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
34
17
Identification
There are numerous ways of identifying a project. These are grouped in eight types:
1.
• •
International Financial Institutions (IFI)
World Bank
Project information documents can be found at:http://www.worldbank.org/html/opr/procure/bopage.html)
• • • •
The Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
The IDB project listing and can be found at:http://www.iadb.org
Asian Development Bank (AsDB) (Can be found at:http://www.asiandevbank.org) The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
The EBRD has a good listing that can be found at:http://www.ebrd.com
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
35
Identification (cont…)
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Networking
Networking, here, refers to getting out and meeting the people that can help in identifying a project.
Local Agent or Office United Nations Development Business Journal National and International Agencies
UN, SIDA, USAID, WHO, WTO will help in identifying a project.
Trade Missions Publicity Government Development plan/Budget
36
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
18
Evaluation
Criteria used for evaluating potential projects by construction companies Project type Size Transparency Ethical Financing Current economical situation Current political situation Current legal system Match the technical strength of the company. Preferably complex. Lower limits between U.S.$ 50 and 100 million. The bid process is preferably open and fair. The project has to fulfill requirements concerning for example its environmental impact. Must be secured and creditable. The client has to be able to pay for the project. The project ought to survive a change of regime. The safety of the workforce has to be guaranteed. The commercial laws have to create adequate protection.
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
37
Project Business as Internationalization Strategy:Market Entry Mode
• Market scanning • Project design and contact taking • Financial engineering • Find network partners • Successful project marketing gives references and relationships for future project sales, improvement of the buyers’ perception
• Comparing project marketing with other market entry methods (Table 1)
38
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
19
Actors & Factors
• Successful project marketers constantly scan the external environment to determine which actors and factors can affect their their project selling. • Project should provide efficient solution to the customer requirement
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
39
Offering Strategy
• Who dictates the rules of the game: deterministic vs. constructivist (reactive or proactive approach)
Buyer/seller interaction
Weak Strong Strong Weak
Network Position
Influence strategy Creative offering strategy
Aggressive pricing strategy
’Risk’ Strategy
40
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
Source: Cova & Hoskins
20
Issue for further research and discussion
– SWOR analysis – Iceberg theory of network – Networking across cultures
© Professor Hossein Dadfar
41
21
doc_640645288.pdf