Description
Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study, or the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
? Two types of approaches towards research
1) Quantitative Approaches 2)Qualitative Approaches
8/13/2013
Quantitative Approaches
? Quantitative Approaches
1) Research Focus: test hypothesis 2)Researcher involvement: Limited 3)Sample size & Design: Large and probability 4)Data : Represent in numerical codes 5)RD: single or multiple methods, Consistency is critical 6)Data analysis: Clear distinction between fact and judgments
8/13/2013
Examples
? No. of customer liking your products
? No. of People responded to your advertisement
8/13/2013
Qualitative Approaches
? 1) Research Focus: Explores attitudes, behavior and
?
? ?
?
? ? ?
experiences in depth understanding 2)Researcher involvement: High 3) Sample size & Design: Small and mostly non probability 4) Data : Verbal or pictorial 5 ) RD: multiple methods, Consistency is not expected 6) Data analysis: Human analysis following computer or human coding , primarily non quantitative 7) Attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants 8) Participants are less but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer
8/13/2013
Example
? How customers use our product to support their
lifestyles? ? What is the influence of culture/religion on product choice? ? What images should we use to connect with our target customer?
8/13/2013
? Importance of Research in Management
1) To overcome Business Competitions (customers, products, competitors) 2)business environment 3)Uses of technology in business 4)Challenging global markets 5)Low cost data collection 6)Powerful computation with better visualization tools 7)Advanced analytical tools for enhanced insights
8/13/2013
In research, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.
Research Approach
INDUCTIVE
DEDUCTIVE
8/13/2013
MEANING OF RESEARCH
? Hunting for facts or truth about a subject.
? Organized scientific investigations to solve
problems, test hypothesis, develop or invent new products.
8/13/2013
Research Problems in Management
? Marketing ? Production
? Finance
? Personal
8/13/2013
? Marketing:
Product Identification, Market Segmentation, Product Development, Sales Promotion, Buying Behavior etc ? Production: Plant Location, Inventory Control, Project Management, Aggregate planning etc ? Finance: Economic Growth Models, Primary and Secondary Market study etc ? Personnel: Manpower planning, Performance appraisal system, leadership styles etc
8/13/2013
Types of Research
1)Exploratory Research ? Initial research conducted to clarifying and defining the nature of a problem. ? Gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypothesis ? Basically depends on secondary data ? Provide information to use in analyzing the situations but uncovering the conclusive evidence
8/13/2013
Example of ER
? Finding the factors affecting the decrease in sales ratio
of a company ? Program to help employees with child care needs ? Students interested for a particular course
8/13/2013
Types of Research(contd)
2) Descriptive Research ? Research is carried out with a definite objectives and it results into a definite conclusions ? Also known as statistical research ? Required previous understanding of the nature of the problem ? Seeks answers to all “why” questions ? Help Segment and target market ? Will reach to the solution by describing the problem itself
8/13/2013
? E.g.: Degree of uses of TV by various respondents
TV Manufacturers
(Remote control, Child lock, Various models for different income groups, Internet Compatibility, wall mounting) ? E.g.: Characteristics of Consumers who purchase organic food
8/13/2013
ER/DR
? ER follows less structured and more flexible design
then DR ? ER is used to narrow down the research problem which is followed by DR
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
3) Causal Research ? Research conducted to identify cause and effect relationships among variables when the research problem has been narrowly defined. ? Criteria for CR 1. Establish the appropriate causal order or sequence of events 2. Measure the variation between the presumed cause and effect 3. Recognize the pressure or alternative causal factors Eg: Influence of price, packaging ,advertising on sales
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
4) Analytical Research ? Research is based on facts or information already exists. ? Analyze the data to make critical evaluation
? Eg: Analysis of profit or loss of a company
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
5) Applied Research ? Aiming to immediate problems faced by the society/ institutes/ organization ? Discover a solution for some pressing practical problems ? Eg: Fibre body instead of glass in a automobile Paperless office
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
6)Fundamental Research Also called pure/basic research ? Research concerning some natural phenomenon ? Targeting broad base of application ? Eg: Theories of general performance behavior (Individual perception and execution at work) Finding of leadership styles Learning Styles
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
7) Quantitative Research ? Based on measurement of quantity or amount ? Eg: No. of employees interested for a workshop/training
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
? 8) Quantitative Research
? Based on measurement of quantity or amount ? Eg: No. of employees interested for a
workshop/training
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
? 9) Qualitative Research
? Based on research of quality or kind ? Aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires using a depth interviews ? Types Motivation research Attitude/Opinion Research Action Research
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
10 )Conceptual Research ? Related to abstract ideas/theory ? Generally used by philosophers and thinkers ? It is to develop new concepts or to reinterpret the existing one Eg: Description about nature Product designed based on abstract ideas
8/13/2013
Research Methods
? Tools and techniques that are used for conducting
research operations - Statistical
(Measure of Central tendency, Measure of Dispersion, Sampling methods, ANOVA)
- Data collection
(Question, scales of measurement, interview methods, Schedule methods, published unpublished data )
- Models
(Manpower planning Model, Aggregate planning Model, Production Scheduling Model)
8/13/2013
?Definition :Research Process
It Consists of series of actions or steps necessary to carry out the research effectively
8/13/2013
Stage-I Clarifying the research problems
? Discover the management dilemma
? Define the management questions
? Define the research questions
8/13/2013
Stage-II Preparation of Research Proposals
? Executive Summery
Understand quick thrust of the proposal Goal to get positive evaluation by the sponsor to pass the proposals
? Problem Statement
Convince the sponsors Highlight the problems with consequences Expected benefit after the research
8/13/2013
Continue………..
? Research Objectives
Research questions
? Literature Review
Need for the proposed work To review informational gaps in secondary data
? Research Design
What actually you are going to do technically? Provide information regarding Sampling, size, data collection method , instrument, procedure, ethical requirement
? Data Analysis
Used only large scale research proposed handling of the data Theoretical basis for using particular techniques
8/13/2013
Continue………..
? Nature and form of Results
Telling sponsor what type of result you will get at the end Statistical Conclusion, applied finding, recommendation, action plan, models, strategic plan
? Qualifications of Researcher
Professional research competence Relevant management experience
? Budget
Estimated cost Budgetary items, Rate, Total days, Charges etc
8/13/2013
Continue………..
? Schedule
i. Exploratory research ii. Final execution iii. Data revision iv. Field interviews v. editing and coding vi. Data analysis and report generation
? Facilities and Special Resources
facility required during the research like sophisticated computer software, focus group interview, Video conferencing tools
? Research Management
Master plan to execute all the phases i. Research team organization ii. Control for executing the research plan iii. Financial and legal responsibility
? Appendices
8/13/2013
Stage-III
? Proposal Approval/ Repetition
8/13/2013
Stage IV Research Design strategy
Data collection
Design
Sampling design
Instrument Development & Pilot Testing
8/13/2013
Stage IV Data collection and preparation
Collection of Data
Entry of Data
Edit Data file
8/13/2013
Stage-V Data Analysis & Interpretation
? Descriptive Statistics
? Cross Verification with previous tabulation ? Preparation of data displays
? Data analysis
? Determine recommendations/suggestions
8/13/2013
Stage-V Data Analysis & Interpretation
? Descriptive Statistics
? Cross Verification with previous tabulation ? Preparation of data displays
? Data analysis
? Determine recommendations/suggestions
8/13/2013
Stage-VI Research Reporting
? Oral
? Written ? Short/Detailed
8/13/2013
Stage-VII
Management Decision
8/13/2013
Characteristics of good research
1.Purpose should clearly defined 2. Research process should mention in detailed 3. Research design should thoroughly planned 4. High ethical standard should be mentioned properly 5. Limitations should frankly revealed 6. Proper instrument/ reliable instrument should use for the data collection 7. Analysis adequate for decision makers
8/13/2013
Limitations to Research
? Budgetary Constraints
? Time Constraints
? Reliability of the data ? Dependence on electronic computers
? Non-quantifiable factors
? Distance between managers and researcher ? Implementation feasibility
8/13/2013
Thus
• Although every problem and research objective may seem unique, there are usually enough similarities among problems and objectives to allow decisions to be made in advance about the best plan to resolve the problem. • There are some basic research designs that can be successfully matched to given problems and research objectives.
8/13/2013
DATA Collection
? Two Types of Data
? Secondary data ? Primary data
Secondary data – data someone else has collected Advantages 1) It may be very accurate 2) It has great exploratory value Primary data – data you collect Uniqueness Researcher error
8/13/2013
Data collection choice
? To answer that
? You much first decide what your research
question is ? Then you need to decide what data/variables are needed to scientifically answer the question
8/13/2013
Data collection choice
? If that data exist in secondary form, then use
them to the extent you can, keeping in mind limitations. ? But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection, then it is the method of choice.
8/13/2013
Data Collection Options
? Data collection possibilities are wide and
varied with any one method of collection not inherently better than any other
? Each has pros and cons that must be
weighed up in view of a rich and complex context
8/13/2013
The Data Collection Process
? All methods of collection require rigorous and systematic design and execution that includes
? thorough planning ? well considered development ? effective piloting ? weighed modification ? deliberate implementation and execution
? appropriate management and analysis
8/13/2013
Surveys
? Surveying involves gathering information from individuals using a questionnaire. ? Surveys can
? reach a large number of respondents ? generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as
well as some qualitative data ? and offer confidentiality / anonymity
? Designing survey instruments capable of
generating credible data, however, can be difficult
8/13/2013
Survey Types
? Surveys can be ? descriptive or explanatory ? involve entire populations or samples of populations ? capture a moment or map trends ? can be administered in a number of ways
8/13/2013
Survey Construction
? Survey construction involves ? formulating questions and response categories ? writing up background information and instruction ? working through organization and length ? determining layout and design
8/13/2013
Interviewing
? Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of open-
ended questions ? Interviews can generate both standardized quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data ? However, the complexities of people and the complexities of communication can create many opportunities for miscommunication and misinterpretation
8/13/2013
Interview Types
? Interviews can range from ? formal to informal ? structured to unstructured ? can be one on one or involve groups
8/13/2013
Observation
? Observation relies on the researchers’ ability to gather
data though their senses - and allows researchers to document actual behaviour rather than responses related to behaviour ? However, the person in observation can act differently when asked and observations can be tainted by a researcher’s worldview
8/13/2013
Observation Types
? Observation can range from ? non-participant to participant ? candid to covert ? from structured to unstructured
8/13/2013
Unobtrusive Methods
? Unobtrusive methods involve researchers and research
processes that are removed from the researched ? Unobtrusive methods are ‘non-reactive’ and capitalize on existing data ? But researchers need to work through data not expressly generated for their proposes that may contain biases
8/13/2013
Experimentation
? Experimentation explores cause and effect
relationships by manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent variable
8/13/2013
Experimentation
? Pure experimentation requires both a controlled
environment and the use of a randomly assigned control group ? This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments conducted in the real-world
8/13/2013
8/13/2013
Guidelines and Recommendations for Data Collection
? Use multiple data sources.
? Collect existing archival data immediately, then move
to conventional and inventive sources. ? Collect data regularly. ? Seek technical assistance
8/13/2013
Check of data collection plan
? Is there congruence between your question and the data
sources that you identified? ? Are you using multiple data sources to clarify the picture being developed? ? Are you gathering data frequently enough so that it can be used to inform your current practice as well as your future actions?
8/13/2013
Check of data collection plan
? Are you collecting data about how
students/faculty/administration/parents feel and perceive their experiences? ? Are you collecting data about how you feel and perceive your experiences?
8/13/2013
Testing of Hypothesis
? Type I and Type II errors
? Explain Hypothesis ? Characteristics of good hypothesis
? List the formulae used for testing of hypothesis
? Limitations of hypothesis
8/13/2013
? ALL The BEST
8/13/2013
doc_866224115.pptx
Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study, or the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
? Two types of approaches towards research
1) Quantitative Approaches 2)Qualitative Approaches
8/13/2013
Quantitative Approaches
? Quantitative Approaches
1) Research Focus: test hypothesis 2)Researcher involvement: Limited 3)Sample size & Design: Large and probability 4)Data : Represent in numerical codes 5)RD: single or multiple methods, Consistency is critical 6)Data analysis: Clear distinction between fact and judgments
8/13/2013
Examples
? No. of customer liking your products
? No. of People responded to your advertisement
8/13/2013
Qualitative Approaches
? 1) Research Focus: Explores attitudes, behavior and
?
? ?
?
? ? ?
experiences in depth understanding 2)Researcher involvement: High 3) Sample size & Design: Small and mostly non probability 4) Data : Verbal or pictorial 5 ) RD: multiple methods, Consistency is not expected 6) Data analysis: Human analysis following computer or human coding , primarily non quantitative 7) Attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants 8) Participants are less but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer
8/13/2013
Example
? How customers use our product to support their
lifestyles? ? What is the influence of culture/religion on product choice? ? What images should we use to connect with our target customer?
8/13/2013
? Importance of Research in Management
1) To overcome Business Competitions (customers, products, competitors) 2)business environment 3)Uses of technology in business 4)Challenging global markets 5)Low cost data collection 6)Powerful computation with better visualization tools 7)Advanced analytical tools for enhanced insights
8/13/2013
In research, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.
Research Approach
INDUCTIVE
DEDUCTIVE
8/13/2013
MEANING OF RESEARCH
? Hunting for facts or truth about a subject.
? Organized scientific investigations to solve
problems, test hypothesis, develop or invent new products.
8/13/2013
Research Problems in Management
? Marketing ? Production
? Finance
? Personal
8/13/2013
? Marketing:
Product Identification, Market Segmentation, Product Development, Sales Promotion, Buying Behavior etc ? Production: Plant Location, Inventory Control, Project Management, Aggregate planning etc ? Finance: Economic Growth Models, Primary and Secondary Market study etc ? Personnel: Manpower planning, Performance appraisal system, leadership styles etc
8/13/2013
Types of Research
1)Exploratory Research ? Initial research conducted to clarifying and defining the nature of a problem. ? Gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypothesis ? Basically depends on secondary data ? Provide information to use in analyzing the situations but uncovering the conclusive evidence
8/13/2013
Example of ER
? Finding the factors affecting the decrease in sales ratio
of a company ? Program to help employees with child care needs ? Students interested for a particular course
8/13/2013
Types of Research(contd)
2) Descriptive Research ? Research is carried out with a definite objectives and it results into a definite conclusions ? Also known as statistical research ? Required previous understanding of the nature of the problem ? Seeks answers to all “why” questions ? Help Segment and target market ? Will reach to the solution by describing the problem itself
8/13/2013
? E.g.: Degree of uses of TV by various respondents
TV Manufacturers
(Remote control, Child lock, Various models for different income groups, Internet Compatibility, wall mounting) ? E.g.: Characteristics of Consumers who purchase organic food
8/13/2013
ER/DR
? ER follows less structured and more flexible design
then DR ? ER is used to narrow down the research problem which is followed by DR
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
3) Causal Research ? Research conducted to identify cause and effect relationships among variables when the research problem has been narrowly defined. ? Criteria for CR 1. Establish the appropriate causal order or sequence of events 2. Measure the variation between the presumed cause and effect 3. Recognize the pressure or alternative causal factors Eg: Influence of price, packaging ,advertising on sales
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
4) Analytical Research ? Research is based on facts or information already exists. ? Analyze the data to make critical evaluation
? Eg: Analysis of profit or loss of a company
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
5) Applied Research ? Aiming to immediate problems faced by the society/ institutes/ organization ? Discover a solution for some pressing practical problems ? Eg: Fibre body instead of glass in a automobile Paperless office
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
6)Fundamental Research Also called pure/basic research ? Research concerning some natural phenomenon ? Targeting broad base of application ? Eg: Theories of general performance behavior (Individual perception and execution at work) Finding of leadership styles Learning Styles
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
7) Quantitative Research ? Based on measurement of quantity or amount ? Eg: No. of employees interested for a workshop/training
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
? 8) Quantitative Research
? Based on measurement of quantity or amount ? Eg: No. of employees interested for a
workshop/training
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
? 9) Qualitative Research
? Based on research of quality or kind ? Aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires using a depth interviews ? Types Motivation research Attitude/Opinion Research Action Research
8/13/2013
Types of Research (contd )
10 )Conceptual Research ? Related to abstract ideas/theory ? Generally used by philosophers and thinkers ? It is to develop new concepts or to reinterpret the existing one Eg: Description about nature Product designed based on abstract ideas
8/13/2013
Research Methods
? Tools and techniques that are used for conducting
research operations - Statistical
(Measure of Central tendency, Measure of Dispersion, Sampling methods, ANOVA)
- Data collection
(Question, scales of measurement, interview methods, Schedule methods, published unpublished data )
- Models
(Manpower planning Model, Aggregate planning Model, Production Scheduling Model)
8/13/2013
?Definition :Research Process
It Consists of series of actions or steps necessary to carry out the research effectively
8/13/2013
Stage-I Clarifying the research problems
? Discover the management dilemma
? Define the management questions
? Define the research questions
8/13/2013
Stage-II Preparation of Research Proposals
? Executive Summery
Understand quick thrust of the proposal Goal to get positive evaluation by the sponsor to pass the proposals
? Problem Statement
Convince the sponsors Highlight the problems with consequences Expected benefit after the research
8/13/2013
Continue………..
? Research Objectives
Research questions
? Literature Review
Need for the proposed work To review informational gaps in secondary data
? Research Design
What actually you are going to do technically? Provide information regarding Sampling, size, data collection method , instrument, procedure, ethical requirement
? Data Analysis
Used only large scale research proposed handling of the data Theoretical basis for using particular techniques
8/13/2013
Continue………..
? Nature and form of Results
Telling sponsor what type of result you will get at the end Statistical Conclusion, applied finding, recommendation, action plan, models, strategic plan
? Qualifications of Researcher
Professional research competence Relevant management experience
? Budget
Estimated cost Budgetary items, Rate, Total days, Charges etc
8/13/2013
Continue………..
? Schedule
i. Exploratory research ii. Final execution iii. Data revision iv. Field interviews v. editing and coding vi. Data analysis and report generation
? Facilities and Special Resources
facility required during the research like sophisticated computer software, focus group interview, Video conferencing tools
? Research Management
Master plan to execute all the phases i. Research team organization ii. Control for executing the research plan iii. Financial and legal responsibility
? Appendices
8/13/2013
Stage-III
? Proposal Approval/ Repetition
8/13/2013
Stage IV Research Design strategy
Data collection
Design
Sampling design
Instrument Development & Pilot Testing
8/13/2013
Stage IV Data collection and preparation
Collection of Data
Entry of Data
Edit Data file
8/13/2013
Stage-V Data Analysis & Interpretation
? Descriptive Statistics
? Cross Verification with previous tabulation ? Preparation of data displays
? Data analysis
? Determine recommendations/suggestions
8/13/2013
Stage-V Data Analysis & Interpretation
? Descriptive Statistics
? Cross Verification with previous tabulation ? Preparation of data displays
? Data analysis
? Determine recommendations/suggestions
8/13/2013
Stage-VI Research Reporting
? Oral
? Written ? Short/Detailed
8/13/2013
Stage-VII
Management Decision
8/13/2013
Characteristics of good research
1.Purpose should clearly defined 2. Research process should mention in detailed 3. Research design should thoroughly planned 4. High ethical standard should be mentioned properly 5. Limitations should frankly revealed 6. Proper instrument/ reliable instrument should use for the data collection 7. Analysis adequate for decision makers
8/13/2013
Limitations to Research
? Budgetary Constraints
? Time Constraints
? Reliability of the data ? Dependence on electronic computers
? Non-quantifiable factors
? Distance between managers and researcher ? Implementation feasibility
8/13/2013
Thus
• Although every problem and research objective may seem unique, there are usually enough similarities among problems and objectives to allow decisions to be made in advance about the best plan to resolve the problem. • There are some basic research designs that can be successfully matched to given problems and research objectives.
8/13/2013
DATA Collection
? Two Types of Data
? Secondary data ? Primary data
Secondary data – data someone else has collected Advantages 1) It may be very accurate 2) It has great exploratory value Primary data – data you collect Uniqueness Researcher error
8/13/2013
Data collection choice
? To answer that
? You much first decide what your research
question is ? Then you need to decide what data/variables are needed to scientifically answer the question
8/13/2013
Data collection choice
? If that data exist in secondary form, then use
them to the extent you can, keeping in mind limitations. ? But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection, then it is the method of choice.
8/13/2013
Data Collection Options
? Data collection possibilities are wide and
varied with any one method of collection not inherently better than any other
? Each has pros and cons that must be
weighed up in view of a rich and complex context
8/13/2013
The Data Collection Process
? All methods of collection require rigorous and systematic design and execution that includes
? thorough planning ? well considered development ? effective piloting ? weighed modification ? deliberate implementation and execution
? appropriate management and analysis
8/13/2013
Surveys
? Surveying involves gathering information from individuals using a questionnaire. ? Surveys can
? reach a large number of respondents ? generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as
well as some qualitative data ? and offer confidentiality / anonymity
? Designing survey instruments capable of
generating credible data, however, can be difficult
8/13/2013
Survey Types
? Surveys can be ? descriptive or explanatory ? involve entire populations or samples of populations ? capture a moment or map trends ? can be administered in a number of ways
8/13/2013
Survey Construction
? Survey construction involves ? formulating questions and response categories ? writing up background information and instruction ? working through organization and length ? determining layout and design
8/13/2013
Interviewing
? Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of open-
ended questions ? Interviews can generate both standardized quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data ? However, the complexities of people and the complexities of communication can create many opportunities for miscommunication and misinterpretation
8/13/2013
Interview Types
? Interviews can range from ? formal to informal ? structured to unstructured ? can be one on one or involve groups
8/13/2013
Observation
? Observation relies on the researchers’ ability to gather
data though their senses - and allows researchers to document actual behaviour rather than responses related to behaviour ? However, the person in observation can act differently when asked and observations can be tainted by a researcher’s worldview
8/13/2013
Observation Types
? Observation can range from ? non-participant to participant ? candid to covert ? from structured to unstructured
8/13/2013
Unobtrusive Methods
? Unobtrusive methods involve researchers and research
processes that are removed from the researched ? Unobtrusive methods are ‘non-reactive’ and capitalize on existing data ? But researchers need to work through data not expressly generated for their proposes that may contain biases
8/13/2013
Experimentation
? Experimentation explores cause and effect
relationships by manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent variable
8/13/2013
Experimentation
? Pure experimentation requires both a controlled
environment and the use of a randomly assigned control group ? This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments conducted in the real-world
8/13/2013
8/13/2013
Guidelines and Recommendations for Data Collection
? Use multiple data sources.
? Collect existing archival data immediately, then move
to conventional and inventive sources. ? Collect data regularly. ? Seek technical assistance
8/13/2013
Check of data collection plan
? Is there congruence between your question and the data
sources that you identified? ? Are you using multiple data sources to clarify the picture being developed? ? Are you gathering data frequently enough so that it can be used to inform your current practice as well as your future actions?
8/13/2013
Check of data collection plan
? Are you collecting data about how
students/faculty/administration/parents feel and perceive their experiences? ? Are you collecting data about how you feel and perceive your experiences?
8/13/2013
Testing of Hypothesis
? Type I and Type II errors
? Explain Hypothesis ? Characteristics of good hypothesis
? List the formulae used for testing of hypothesis
? Limitations of hypothesis
8/13/2013
? ALL The BEST
8/13/2013
doc_866224115.pptx