Description
Notes on personality theories
Personality theories, types and tests
Personality types, behavioral styles theories, personality and testing systems - for selfawareness, self-development, motivation, management, and recruitment
Motivation, management, communications, relationships - focused on yourself or others - are a lot more effective when you understand yourself, and the people you seek to motivate or manage or develop or help. Understanding personality is also the key to unlocking elusive human qualities, for example leadership, motivation, and empathy, whether your purpose is self-development, helping others, or any other field relating to people and how we behave. The personality theories that underpin personality tests and personality quizzes are surprisingly easy to understand at a basic level. This section seeks to explain many of these personality theories and ideas. This knowledge helps to develop self-awareness and also to help others to achieve greater self-awareness and development too. Developing understanding of personality typology, personality traits, thinking styles and learning styles theories is also a very useful way to improve your knowledge of motivation and behaviour of self and others, in the workplace and beyond. Understanding personality types is helpful for appreciating that while people are different, everyone has a value, and special strengths and qualities, and that everyone should be treated with care and respect. The relevance of love and spirituality - especially at work - is easier to see and explain when we understand that differences in people are usually personality-based. People very rarely set out to cause upset they just behave differently because they are different. Personality theory and tests are useful also for management, recruitment, selection, training and teaching, on which point see also
the learning styles theories on other pages such as Kolb's learning styles, Gardner's Multiple Intelligences, and the VAK learning styles model. Completing personality tests with no knowledge of the supporting theories can be a frustrating and misleading experience - especially if the results from personality testing are not properly explained, or worse still not given at all to the person being tested. Hopefully the explanations and theories below will help dispel much of the mistique surrounding modern personality testing. There are many different personality and motivational models and theories, and each one offers a different perspective. If you find these materials helpful please try to contribute something to the self-publishing Space, for example details of another personality model or psychology theory. Here are details about the Space on Businessballs and the philosophy behind it. The more models you understand, the better your appreciation of motivation and behaviour.
personality theories and models - introduction
Behavioural and personality models are widely used in organisations, especially in psychometrics and psychometric testing (personality assessments and tests). Behavioural and personality models have also been used by philosophers, leaders and managers for hundreds and in some cases thousands of years as an aid to understanding, explaining, and managing communications and relationships. Used appropriately, psychometrics and personality tests can be hugely beneficial in improving knowledge of self and other people motivations, strengths, weaknesses, preferred thinking and working styles, and also strengths and preferred styles for communications, learning, management, being managed, and team-working.
Understanding personality - of your self and others - is central to motivation. Different people have different strengths and needs. You do too. The more you understand about personality, the better able you are to judge what motivates people - and yourself. The more you understand about your own personality and that of other people, the better able you are to realise how others perceive you, and how they react to your own personality and style. Knowing how to adapt the way you work with others, how you communicate, provide information and learning, how you identify and agree tasks, are the main factors enabling successfully managing and motivating others - and yourself. Importantly you do not necessarily need to use a psychometrics instrument in order to understand the theory and the basic model which underpins it. Obviously using good psychometrics instruments can be extremely useful and beneficial, (and enjoyable too if properly positioned and administered), but the long-standing benefit from working with these models is actually in understanding the logic and theory which underpin the behavioural models or personality testing systems concerned. Each theory helps you to understand more about yourself and others. In terms of 'motivating others' you cannot sustainably 'impose' motivation on another person. You can inspire them perhaps, which lasts as long as you can sustain the inspiration, but sustainable motivation must come from within the person. A good manager and leader will enable and provide the situation, environment and opportunities necessary for people to be motivated - in pursuit of goals and development and achievements that are truly meaningful to the individual. Which implies that you need to discover, and at times help the other person to discover, what truly motivates them - especially their strengths, passions, and personal aims - for some the pursuit of personal destiny - to achieve their own unique potential. Being able to explain personality, and to guide people towards resources that will help them understand more about themselves, is all part of the process. Help others to help you understand what they need - for work and for
whole life development, and you will have an important key to motivating, helping and working with people. Each of the different theories and models of personality and human motivation is a different perspective on the hugely complex area of personality, motivation and behaviour. It follows that for any complex subject, the more perspectives you have, then the better your overall understanding will be. Each summary featured below is just that - a summary: a starting point from which you can pursue the detail and workings of any of these models that you find particularly interesting and relevant. Explore the many other models and theories not featured on this site too - the examples below are a just small sample of the wide range of models and systems that have been developed. Some personality testing resources, including assessment instruments, are available free on the internet or at relatively low cost from appropriate providers, and they are wonderful tools for self-awareness, personal development, working with people and for helping to develop better working relationships. Some instruments however are rather more expensive, given that the developers and psychometrics organisations need to recover their development costs. For this reason, scientifically validated personality testing instruments are rarely free. The free tests which are scientifically validated tend to be 'lite' introductory instruments which give a broad indication rather than a detailed analysis. There are dozens of different personality testing systems to explore, beneath which sit rather fewer basic theories and models. Some theories underpin well-known personality assessment instruments (such as Myers Briggs®, and DISC); others are stand-alone models or theories which seek to explain personality, motivation, behaviour, learning styles and thinking styles (such as Benziger, Transactional Analysis, Maslow, McGregor, Adams, VAK, Kolb, and others), which are explained elsewhere on this website. In this section are examples personality and style models, which are all relatively easy to understand and apply. Don't allow providers to baffle you with science - all of these theories are quite accessible at a basic level, which is immensely helpful to understanding a lot of what you need concerning motivation and personality in work and life beyond.
Do seek appropriate training and accreditation if you wish to pursue and use psychometrics testing in a formal way, especially if testing or assessing people in organisations or in the provision of services. Administering formal personality tests - whether in recruitment, assessment, training and development, counselling or for other purposes - is a sensitive and skilled area. People are vulnerable to inaccurate suggestion, misinterpretation, or poor and insensitive explanation, so approach personality testing with care, and be sure you are equipped and capable to deal with testing situations properly. For similar reasons you need to be properly trained to get involved in counselling or therapy for clinical or serious emotional situations. People with clinical conditions, depression and serious emotional disturbance usually need qualified professional help, and if you aren't qualified yourself then the best you can do is to offer to help the other person get the right support. Beware of using unlicensed 'pirated' or illegally copied psychometrics instruments. Always check to ensure that any tools that are 'apparently' free and in the public domain are actually so. If in doubt about the legitimacy of any psychometrics instrument avoid using it. Psychometric tests that are unlikely to be free include systems with specific names, such as DISC®, Situational Leadership®, MBTI®, Cattell 16PF, Belbin Team Roles. If in doubt check. These systems and others like them are not likely to be in the public domain and not legitimately free, and so you should not use them without a licence or the officially purchased materials from the relevant providers.
personality types models and theories
As a general introduction to all of these theories and models, it's important to realise that no-one fully knows the extent to which personality is determined by genetics and hereditary factors, compared to the effects of up-bringing, culture, environment and experience. Nature versus Nurture: no-one knows. Most studies seem to indicate that it's a bit of each, roughly half and half, although obviously it varies person-to-person.
Given that perhaps half our personality is determined by influences acting upon us after we are conceived and born, it's interesting and significant also that no-one actually knows the extent to which personality changes over time. Certainly childhood is highly influential in forming personality. Certainly major trauma at any stage of life can change a person's personality quite fundamentally. Certainly many people seem to mature emotionally with age and experience. But beyond these sort of generalisations, it's difficult to be precise about how and when - and if - personality actually changes. So where do we draw the line and say a personality is fixed and firm? The answer in absolute terms is that we can't. We can however identify general personality styles, aptitudes, sensitivities, traits, etc., in people and in ourselves, especially when we understand something of how to define and measure types and styles. And this level of awareness is far better than having none at all. Which is is purpose of this information about personality and style 'types'. What follows is intended to be give a broad, accessible (hopefully interesting) level of awareness of personality and types, and of ways to interpret and define and recognise different personalities and behaviours, so as to better understand yourself and others around you.
the four temperaments - the four humours/humors
The Four Temperaments, also known as the Four Humours, is arguably the oldest of all personality profiling systems, and it is fascinating that there are so many echoes of these ancient ideas found in modern psychology. The Four Temperaments ideas can be traced back to the traditions of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations over 5,000 years ago, in which the health of the body was connected with the elements, fire, water, earth and air, which in turn were related to body organs, fluids,
and treatments. Some of this thinking survives today in traditional Eastern ideas and medicine. The ancient Greeks however first formalised and popularised the Four Temperaments methodologies around 2,500 years ago, and these ideas came to dominate Western thinking about human behaviour and medical treatment for over two-thousand years. Most of these concepts for understanding personality, behaviour, illness and treatment of illness amazingly persisted in the Western world until the mid-1800s. The Four Temperaments or Four Humours can be traced back reliably to Ancient Greek medicine and philosophy, notably in the work of Hippocrates (c.460-377/359BC - the 'Father of Medicine') and in Plato's (428-348BC) ideas about character and personality. In Greek medicine around 2,500 years ago it was believed that in order to maintain health, people needed an even balance of the four body fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These four body fluids were linked (in daft ways by modern standards) to certain organs and illnesses and also represented the Four Temperaments or Four Humours (of personality) as they later became known. As regards significant body fluids no doubt natural body waste products were discounted, since perfectly healthy people evacuate a good volume of them every day. Blood is an obvious choice for a fluid associated with problems there'd have generally been quite a lot of it about when people were unwell thousands of years ago, especially if you'd been hit with a club or run over by a great big chariot. Phlegm is an obvious one too - colds and flu and chest infections tend to produce gallons of the stuff and I doubt the ancient Greeks had any better ideas of how to get rid of it than we do today. Yellow bile is less easy to understand although it's generally thought have been the yellowish liquid secreted by the liver to aid digestion. In ancient times a bucketful of yellow bile would have been the natural upshot, so to speak, after a night on the local wine or taking a drink from the well that your next-door neighbour threw his dead cat into last week. Black bile is actually a bit of a mystery. Some say it was congealed blood, or more likely stomach bile with some blood in it. Students of the technicolour yawn might have observed that bile does indeed come in a variety of shades, depending on the ailment or what exactly you had to drink the night before. Probably the ancient Greeks noticed the same variation and thought it was two different biles. Whatever, these four were the vital fluids, and they each related
strongly to what was understood at the time about people's health and personality. Imbalance between the 'humours' manifested in different behaviour and illnesses, and treatments were based on restoring balance between the humours and body fluids (which were at the time seen as the same thing. Hence such practices as blood-letting by cutting or with with leeches. Incidentally the traditional red and white striped poles representing blood and bandages - can still occasionally be seen outside barber shops and are a fascinating reminder that these medical beliefs and practices didn't finally die out until the late 1800s. Spiritually there are other very old four-part patterns and themes relating to the Four Temperaments within astrology, the planets, and people's understanding of the world, for example: the ancient 'elements' - fire, water, earth and air; the twelve signs of the zodiac arranged in four sets corresponding to the elements and believed by many to define personality and destiny; the ancient 'Four Qualities' of (combinations of) hot or cold, and dry or moist/wet; and the four seasons, Spring, Summer Autumn, Winter. The organs of the body liver, lungs, gall bladder and spleen - were also strongly connected with the Four Temperaments or Humours and medicinal theory. Relating these ancient patterns to the modern interpretation of the Four Temperaments does not however produce scientifically robust correlations. They were thought relevant at one time, but in truth they are not, just as blood letting has now been discounted as a reliable medical treatment. But while the causal link between body fluids and health and personality has not stood the test of time, the analysis of personality via the Four Temperaments seems to have done so, albeit tenuously in certain models. The explanation below is chiefly concerned with the Four Temperaments as a personality model, not as a basis for understanding and treating illness.
early representations of the four temperaments as a personality model
Richard Montgomery (author of the excellent book People Patterns - A Modern Guide to the Four Temperaments) suggests that the origins of the Four Temperaments can be identified earlier than the ancient Greeks, namely in the Bible, c.590BC, in the words of the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel, who refers (chapter 1, verse 10) to four faces of mankind, represented by four creatures which appeared from the mist: "As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and they four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle." (from the Book of Ezekiel, chapter 1, verse 10) Montgomery additionally attributes personality characteristics to each of the four faces, which he correlates to modern interpretations of the Four Temperaments and also to Hippocrates' ideas, compared below.
four temperaments - earliest origins
Ezekiel c.590BC lion ox man eagle bold sturdy humane far-seeing Hippocrates c.370BC blood black bile yellow bile phlegm cheerful somber enthusiastic calm
N.B. The Ezekiel characteristics, (bold, sturdy, humane, far-seeing), do not appear in the Bible - they have been attributed retrospectively by Montgomery. The describing words shown here for the Hippocrates Four Temperaments are also those used by Montgomery, other similar descriptions are used in different interpretations and commentaries. Later, and very significantly, Galen, (c.130-201AD) the Greek physician later interpreted Hippocrates' ideas into the Four Humours, which you might more readily recognise and associate with historic writings and references about the Four Temperaments and Four Humours. Each of Galen's describing words survives in the English language although the meanings will have altered somewhat with the passing of nearly two thousand years.
Hippocrates c.370BC cheerful somber enthusiastic calm
Galen c.190AD sanguine melancholic choleric phlegmatic
The Four Temperaments or Four Humours continued to feature in the thinking and representations of human personality in the work of many great thinkers through the ages since these earliest beginnings, and although different theorists have used their own interpretations and descriptive words for each of the temperaments through the centuries, it is fascinating to note the relative consistency of these various interpretations which are shown in the history overview table below. Brewer's 1870 dictionary refers quite clearly to the Four Humours using the translated Galen descriptions above, which is further evidence of the popularity and resilience of the Four Temperaments/Humours model and also of the Galen interpretation.
The Four Temperaments also provided much inspiration and historical reference for Carl Jung's work, which in turn provided the underpinning structures and theory for the development of Myers Briggs'® and David Keirsey's modern-day personality assessment systems, which correlate with the Four Temperaments thus:
Isabel Myers 1950s Galen c.190AD David Keirsey 1998 artisan guardian idealist rationalist
SP sensing-perceiving sangine SJ sensing-judging NF intuitive-feeling melancholic choleric
NT intuitive-thinking phlegmatic
N.B. Bear in mind that certain copyright protections apply to the MBTI® and Keirsey terms so I recommend that you be wary of using these in
the provision of chargeable services or materials since under certain circumstances they are likely to be subject to licensing conditions.
David Keirsey's interpretation of the Four Temperaments is expressed by Montgomery in a 2x2 matrix, which provides an interesting modern perspective and helpful way to appreciate the model, and also perhaps to begin to apply it to yourself. Can you see yourself in one of these descriptions?
artisan says what is, does what works guardian says what is, does what's right rationalist says what's possible, does what works idealist says what's possible, does what's right
Again bear in mind that nobody is exclusively one temperament or type. Each if us is likely to have a single preference or dominant type or style, which is augmented and supported by a mixture of the other types. Different people possess differing mixtures and dominances - some people are strongly orientated towards a single type; other people have a more even mixture of types. It seems to be accepted theory that no person can possess an evenly balanced mixture of all four types. Most people can adapt their styles according to different situations. Certain people are able to considerably adapt their personal styles to suit different situations. The advantages of being adaptable are consistent with the powerful '1st Law Of Cybernetics', which states that: "The unit (which can be a person) within the system (which can be a situation or an organisation) which has the most behavioural responses available to it controls the system". The ability to adapt or bring into play different personal styles in response to different situations is arguably the most powerful capability that anyone can possess. Understanding personality models such as the Four Temperaments is therefore of direct help in achieving such personal awareness and adaptability. Understanding personality helps you recognise behaviour and type in others - and yourself. Recognising
behaviour is an obvious pre-requisite for adapting behaviour in yourself, and in helping others to adapt too.
overview history of the four temperaments - or four humours
From various sources and references, including Keirsey and Montgomery, here is a history of the Four Temperaments and other models and concepts related to the Four Temperaments or Four Humours. The words in this framework (from Hippocrates onwards) can be seen as possible describing words for each of the temperaments concerned, although do not attach precise significance to any of the words - they are guide only and not definitive or scientifically reliable. The correlations prior to Hippocrates are far less reliable and included here more for interest than for scientific relevance. N.B. the colours in these charts do not signify anything - they merely assist (hopefully) with continuity between the different tables. The initials K and M denote interpretations according to Keirsey and Montgomery. Ancient dates are approximate. Some cautionary notes relating to the inclusion of some of these theorists and interpretations is shown below the grid. For believers in astrology and star-signs please resist the temptation to categorise yourself according to where your star-sign sits in the grid - these associations are not scientific and not reliable, and are included merely for historical context and information.
Keirsey/MBTI® reference Ezekiel 590BC Empedocles 450BC The Seasons Signs of Zodiac artisan/SP sensingperceiving lion Goea (air) Spring Libra, Aquarius, Gemini guardian/SJ sensingjudging ox Hera (earth) Autumn Capricorn, Taurus, Virgo idealist/NF intuitivefeeling man Zeus (fire) Summer Aries, Leo, Sagittarius rationalist/NT intuitivethinking eagle Poseidon (water) Winter Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces
Hippocrates 370BC Hippocrates 370BC 'Four Qualities' Plato 340BC (M) Aristotle 325BC 'contribution to social order' (K) Aristotle 325BC Four Sources of Happiness (K) Galen 190AD Four Temperaments or Four Humours Paracelsus 1550 'Four Totem Spirits' (K) Eric Adickes 1905 Four World Views (K) Eduard Spranger 1914 Four Value Attitudes (K) Ernst Kretschmer 1920 (M) Eric Fromm 1947 (K)
blood hot and moist artistic
black bile cold and dry sensible
yellow bile hot and dry intuitive 'noetic' intuitive sensibility and morality 'ethikos' moral virtue choleric
phlegm cold and moist reasoning 'dianoetic' reasoning and logical investigator 'dialogike' logical investigation phlegmatic
'iconic'- artistic 'pistic' and art-making common-sense and caretaking 'hedone' sensual pleasure sanguine 'propraieteri' acquiring assets melancholic
Salamanders impulsive and changeable innovative
Gnomes industrious and guarded traditional
Nymph inspiring and passionate doctrinaire
Sylphs curious and calm sceptical
artistic
economic
religious
theoretic
manic exploitative
depressive hoarding sober, reserved, quiet, rigid judging scheduling SJ - sensible and judicious
oversensitive receptive restless, excitable, optimistic, impulsive feeling friendly NF - intuitive and fervent
insensitive marketing careful, controlled, thoughtful, reliable thinking tough-minded NT - ingenious and theoretical
Hans Eysenck 1950s lively, (trait examples from talkative, his inventory) carefree, outgoing Myers 1958 (M) Myers 1958 (K) Montgomery 2002 on Jung/Myers perceiving probing SP spontaneous and playful
Montgomery 2002 on Keirsey's Four Temperaments
says what is, does what works
says what is, does what's right
says what's possible, does what's right
says what's possible, does what works
Empedocles (c.450BC), the Sicilian-born Greek philosopher and poet was probably first to publish the concept of 'the elements' (Fire, Earth, Water, Air) being 'scientifically' linked to human behaviour: in his long poem 'On Nature' he described the elements in relation to emotional forces that we would refer to as love and strife. However 1870 Brewer says that Empedocles preferred the names of the Greek Gods, Zeus, Hera, Poseidon and Goea. (1870 Brewer, and Chambers Biographical, which references Jean Ballock's book, 'Empedocle', 1965.) Aristotle explained four temperaments in the context of 'individual contribution to social order' in The Republic, c.325BC, and also used the Four Temperaments to theorise about people's character and quest for happiness. Incidentally 1870 Brewer states that Aristotle was first to specifically suggest the four elements, fire, earth, water, air, and that this was intended as an explanation purely of the various forms in which matter can appear, which was interpreted by 'modern' chemists (of the late 1800s) to represent 'the imponderable' (calorie), the gaseous (air), the liquid (water), and solid (earth). Paracelsus was a German alchemist and physician and considered by some to be the 'father of toxicology'. His real name was Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, which perhaps explains why he adopted a pseudonym. According to Chambers Biographical Dictionary he lived from 1493-1541, which suggests that his work was earlier than 'c.1550'. Keirsey and Montgomery cite the connection between Paracelsus's Four Totem Spirits and the Four Temperaments, however there are others who do not see the same connection to or interpretation of the Four Totem Spirits. If you are keen to know more perhaps seek out the book The Life Of Paracelsus Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, by A Stoddart, published in 1911, referenced by Chambers Biographical. Hans Jurgen Eysenck was a German-born British psychologist whose very popular scalable personality inventory model contains significant overlaps with the Four Temperaments. It's not a perfect fit, but there are many common aspects. See the Eysenck section.
Galen was a Greek physician (c.130-201AD - more correctly called Claudius Galenus), who became chief physician to the Roman gladiators in Pergamum from AD 157, and subsequently to the Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Aurelius Commodus and Lucius Septimus Severus. Galen later interpreted Hippocrates' ideas into the Four Humours, which you might more readily recognise and associate with historic writings and references. Galen's interpretation survived as an accepted and arguably the principal Western medical scientific interpretation of human biology until the advancement of cellular pathology theory during the mid-late 1800s, notably by German pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902, considered the founder of modern pathology), in his work 'Cellularpathologie' (1858), building on the work of fellow cellular scientists Theodor Schwann, Johannes Muller, Matthias Schleiden and earlier, Robert Brown. Beware of erroneous correlations between the various sets of four temperaments, humours, elements, body organs, star-signs, etc - it's easy to confuse so many sets of four. I believe the above to be reliable as far as it goes. Please let me know if you spot a fault anywhere. Also remember that the correlation between these sets is not precise and in some cases it's very tenuous. The above table of correlated four temperaments and other sets of four is not designed as a scientific basis for understanding personality - it's a historical over view of the development of the Four Temperaments included here chiefly to illustrate the broad consistency of ideas over the past two-and-a-half thousand years, and to provoke a bit of thought about describing words for the four main character types. Keep the Four Temperaments in perspective: the history of the model provides a fascinating view of the development of thinking in this area, and certainly there are strands of the very old ideas that appear in the most modern systems, so it's very helpful and interesting to know the background, but it's not a perfect science. You'll see significant echoes of the Four Temperaments in David Keirsey's personality theory, which of all modern theories seems most aligned with the Four Temperaments, although much of the detail has been built by Keirsey onto a Four Temperaments platform, rather than using a great amount of detail from old Four Temperaments ideas. The Four Temperaments model also features in Eysenck'stheory, on which others have subsequently drawn. To a far lesser extent the Four
Temperaments can also be partly correlated to the Moulton Marston's DISC theory and this is shown in the explanatory matrix in the DISC section. Jung, Myers Briggs® and Benziger's theories also partly correlate with the Four Temperaments; notably there seems general agreement that the phlegmatic temperament corresponds to Jung's 'Intuitive-Thinking', and that the choleric temperament corresponds to Jung's 'Intuitive-Feeling'. The other two temperaments, sanguine and melancholic seem now to be represented by the Jungian 'Sensing' in combination with either Jungian 'Feeling' or a preference from the Myers Briggs® Judging-Perceiving dimension. The Four Temperaments are very interesting, but being over twothousand years old they are also less than crystal clear, so correlation much beyond this is not easy. Connections with modern theories and types and traits, such as they are, are explained where appropriate in the relevant sections below dealing with other theories. Dr Stephen Montgomery's 2002 book 'People Patterns' is an excellent guide to the Four Temperaments, in which he provides his own interpretations, and explains relationships between the Four Temperaments and various other behavioural and personality assessment models, notably the David Keirsey model and theories. Incidentally Montgomery is Keirsey's long-standing editor and also his son-in-law. Keirsey's acknowledges Montgomery's depth of understanding of the Four Temperaments in Keirsey's book, Please Understand Me II, which also provides a very helpful perspective of the Four Temperaments.
carl jung's psychological types
Given that Carl Jung's psychological theory so fundamentally underpins most of the popular and highly regarded personality systems today it makes sense to explain a little about it here. Carl Gustav Jung was born 26 July 1875 in Kesswil Switzerland and was the only son of a Swiss Reformed Church Evangelical Minister. According to Maggie Hyde who wrote the excellent Introduction to Jung (Icon Books 1992), he was a strange melancholic child who played his own imaginary games, alone, for the first nine years of his life. Eight of
Jung's uncles were in the clergy, as was his maternal grandfather, who held weekly conversations with his deceased wife, while his second wife and Carl's mother sat and listened to it all. A recipe for Jung's own extraordinary personality if ever there was one. The boy Jung was raised on diet of Swiss Protestantism and pagan spirituality and seemingly his only outlets were his father's books and sitting on a big rock. Poor kid... His weird family clearly had a lot to with Jung's troubled young life and his psychotic break-down in mid-life, and his ongoing obsession with trying to make sense of it all. It is amazing that from such disturbed beginnings such a brilliant mind could emerge. Jung's work and influence extend way beyond understanding personality - he is considered to be one of the greatest thinkers ever to have theorised about life and how people relate to it. For the purposes of this explanation however, we must concentrate on just the relevant parts of his work - Jung's Psychological Types - or we'll be here for ever. Carl Jung was among many great personality theorists who drew inspiration and guidance from the ancient Greek Four Temperaments model and its various interpretations over the centuries. Carl Jung's key book in this regard, which extended and explained his theories about personality type, was Psychological Types, published in 1921. His theory of Psychological Types was part of a wider set of ideas relating to psychic energy, in which he developed important concepts for clinical psychological therapy and psycho-analysis (psychiatric diagnosis and therapy). It's helpful to note that Jung approached personality and 'psychological types' (also referred to as Jung's psychological archetypes) from a perspective of clinical psychoanalysis. He was a main collaborator of Sigmund Freud - also a seminal thinker in the field of psycho-analysis, psychology and human behaviour. Jung and Freud were scientists, scholars, deeply serious and passionate academics. They were concerned to discover and develop and extend knowledge about the human mind and how it works. They were also great friends until they disagreed and fell out, which is a further example of the complexity of the subject: even among collaborators there is plenty of room for disagreement.
In psychoanalysis, it is important for the analyst to understand the structure or nature or direction of the 'psychic energy' within the other person. More simply we might say this is 'where the person is coming from', or 'how they are thinking'. Logically if the analyst can interpret what's going on, then he/she is better able to suggest how matters might be improved. As with any analytical discipline, if we have some sort of interpretive framework or model, then we can far more easily identify features and characteristics. Jung's work was often focused on developing analytical models - beyond simply being a psycho-analyst. Modern psychometrics has benefited directly from the analytical models that Jung developed for psycho-analysis, and while this section is essentially concerned with explaining the model for the purpose of understanding personality types, if you can extract some deeper therapeutic knowledge and self-awareness from the theories and ideas which underpin the models, then I would encourage you to so so. There is enormous value in deepening understanding of ourselves as people, and Jung's ideas help many people to achieve this. Jung accordingly developed his concepts of 'psychological types' in order to improve this understanding. The fact that Carl Jung's 'psychological types' structure continue to provide the basis of many of the leading psychometrics systems and instruments in use today, including Myers Briggs® and Keirsey, is testimony to the enduring relevance and value of Jung's work.
jung's ideas about the conscious and the unconscious
First it's important to understand that Jung asserted that a person's psychological make-up is always working on two levels: the conscious and the unconscious. According to Jung, and widely held today, a person's 'psyche' (a person's 'whole being') is represented by their conscious and unconscious parts. Moreover, a person's conscious and unconscious states are in a way 'self-balancing', that is to say - and this is significant - if a person's conscious side (or 'attitude') becomes dominant or extreme, then the unconscious will surface or manifest in some way to rectify the balance. This might be in dreams or
internal images, or via more physical externally visible illness or emotional disturbance. Jung also asserted that at times in people the unconscious can surface and 'project' (be directed at) the outside world, particularly other people. This acknowledgement of the power of the unconscious features strongly in the thinking of Freud and notably in the underpinning theory of Transactional Analysis (it's a big section take time to look at it separately).
jung's psychological 'general attitude types' introverted and extraverted
Jung divided psychic energy into two basic 'general attitude types': Introverted and Extraverted. These are effectively two 'type' behaviours that combine with others explained later to create Jung's psychological types. Moreover Jung's Introvert and Extravert 'general attitude types' feature strongly as two opposite characteristics within very many modern personality systems, including Myers Briggs® and Keirsey. The 1923 translation of Jung's 1921 book Psychological Types uses the words Introverted and Extraverted to describe these types, which in German would have been Introvertiert and Extravertiert. Some interpretations of Jung's ideas use the alternative words Introvert and Introversion, and Extravert and Extraversion to describe Jung's types. The word Extravert was devised by Jung, which is how it appears in German. He formed it from the Latin words 'extra' meaning outside, and 'vertere' meaning to turn. The words extrovert, extroverted and extroversion are English adaptations which appeared soon after Jung popularised the word in German. Both 'extra' and 'extro' versions are acceptable English. Jung formed the word Introvert from the Latin 'intro' meaning inward and 'vertere' to turn. The word 'attitude' in this sense means a deeper more settled mode of behaviour than the common day-to-day use of the word. In his 1921 book Psychological Types, Jung described the introverted and extraverted general attitude types as being:
".... distinguished by the direction of general interest or libido movement..... differentiated by their particular attitude to the object.." and "....The introvert's attitude to the object is an abstracting one.... he is always facing the problem of how libido can be withdrawn from the object...... The extravert, on the contrary, maintains a positive relation to the object. To such an extent does he affirm its importance that his subjective attitude is continually being orientated by, and related to the object...." (The 1923 translation by H Godwyn Baynes is understandably a little awkward for modern times. 'Abstracting' in this context means 'drawing way', from its Latin root meaning. 'Libido' in this context probably means 'desire', although the word seems first to have appeared in earlier translations of Freud, who used it in a more sexual sense.) Both attitudes - extraversion and introversion - are present in every person, in different degrees. No-one is pure extravert or pure introvert, and more recent studies (notably Eysenck) indicate that a big majority of people are actually a reasonably well-balanced mixture of the two types, albeit with a preference for one or the other. Not black and white - instead shades of grey.
extraverted
psychic energy is directed out of the person to the world outside them objective - outward "... maintains a positive relation to the object. To such an extent does he affirm its importance that his subjective attitude is continually being orientated by, and related to the object...." (Jung)
introverted
the person's psychic energy is internally directed subjective - inward ".... attitude to the object is an abstracting one.... he is always facing the problem of how libido can be withdrawn from the object...." (Jung)
"an extravert attitude is motivated "an introvert is motivated from from the outside and is directed by within and directed by inner, external, objective factors and subjective matters" (Hyde)
relationships" (Hyde) "behaviour directed externally, to influence outside factors and events" (Benziger) "behaviour directed inwardly to understand and manage self and experience" (Benziger)
Jung's 'general attitudes' of Introverted and Extraverted are clearly quite different. It is no wonder then that strongly orientated extraverts and introverts see things in quite different ways, which can cause conflict and misunderstanding. Two people may look at the same situation and yet see different things. They see things - as we all tend to - in terms of themselves and their own own mind-sets. It is almost incredible to think that these words - extravert and introvert - that we take so much for granted today to describe people and their personality and behaviour, were not used at all until Jung developed his ideas. Without wishing to add further complication Jung said that extraversion and introversion are not mutually exclusive and will be self-balancing or compensating through the conscious and unconscious. A strongly outward consciously extravert person will according to Jungian theory possess a compensatory strong inward unconscious introvert side. And vice versa. Jung linked this compensatory effect for example to repression of natural tendencies and the resulting unhappiness or hysteria or illness. We are each born with a natural balance. If our natural balance is upset due to repression or conditioning then our minds will in some way seek to restore the balance, which Jung saw as the power of the unconscious surfacing as 'the return of the repressed'.
jung's psychological types - the 'four functional types'
In addition to the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion, Jung also developed a framework of 'four functional types'. Jung described these four 'Functional Types' as being those from which the "...most differentiated function plays the principal role in an individual's adaptation or orientation to life..." (from Psychological Types, 1921) By 'most differentiated' Jung meant 'superior' or dominant. Jung's Four Functions contain significant echoes of the Four Temperaments and of the many related four-part patterns or sets ('quaternities') that relate to the Four Temperaments, dating back to ancient Greece and arguably earlier, although Jung's ideas are more a lot sophisticated and complex than the Four Temperaments model. Like many theorists before him who had attempted to define personality Jung opted for a four-part structure, which he used alongside his Introverted-Extraverted attitudes: Jung's Four Functions of the psyche are:
• •
thinking and feeling
which he said are the functions that enable us to decide and judge, (Jung called these 'Rational') and
• •
sensation and intuition
which Jung said are the functions that enable us to gather information and perceive (Jung called these 'Irrational').
Significantly Jung also asserted that each of us needs to be able to both perceive and to judge(gather information and decide) in order to survive and to carry on normal functioning behaviour. And he also said that in doing this each of us prefers or favours one of the functions from each of the pairings.
Jung's Four Functions are described below. These very brief definitions and keywords are based respectively on descriptions by Hyde, Fordham and Benziger, all experts and writers on Jungian theory. The final column explains the pairings according to Jung's 'Rational' and 'Irrational' criteria, which nowadays correspond to the Myers Briggs® functions of 'Judging' and 'Perceiving' as featured in Myers Briggs'® theories. The colours are to help the presentation and are not part of Jung's theory:
jung's four functional types - definitions
analytic, what objective, meaning and something principles, Thinking understanding is standards, criteria, whether it's good or not subjective, personal, valuing intimacy, humane realistic, down-toearth, practical, sensible hunches, future, speculative, fantasy, imaginative
Feeling
weight and value
both are oppositereasoning and judgingfunctions - people consciously 'prefer' one or the other - Jung called these functions 'rational'
Sensation
something sensual exists perception
Intuition
where it's from and where it's going
possibilities and atmosphere
both are oppositeperceiving functions people consciously 'prefer' one or the other - Jung called these functions 'irrational'
Katherine Benziger, a leading modern thinker in the field of personality, is not alone in suggesting Jung's Sensation function equates to Galen's Phelgmatic temperament, and that Jung's Intuitionfunction equates to Galen's Choleric temperament. Relationships between Jung's two other functions (Thinking and Feeling) and the other two of the Four Temperaments (Melancholic andSanguine) are more complex and are not a direct match, although common elements do exist between these Jungian functions and Galen temperaments. You
might find Benziger's model helpful for understanding more about each of the four functional types and the characteristics each represents. Benziger's four quadrants of the brain equate directly to Jung's four functional types. Jung said that Thinking and Feeling are 'Rational' because both of these functions evaluate experience. In Jung's theory the Thinking and Feeling functions are 'Rational' because they reason anddecide and judge. Jung said that Intuition and Sensation are 'Irrational' since they are concerned with perception and do not evaluate. According to Jung the Intuition and Sensation functions are 'Irrational' because they simply gather information and perceive the nature of something they do not reason or decide or judge. The Rational and Irrational descriptions that Jung attached to the four functions might not appear particularly significant at first, especially given that Jung's use of the words is rather different to the modern meanings. However consider the modern words that describe Jung's meaning of Rational and Irrational, respectively Judging ('rational' Thinking and Feeling) and Perceiving ('irrational' Sensation and Intuition) and you can begin to see how Myers Briggs® arrived at their Judging andPerceiving dimension, which they developed from Jung's ideas, largely as a way of determining the dominance or priority of auxiliary functions within the Jungian model. (This will hopefully make more sense when you know something of the Myers Briggs® model.) Here's another perspective - some short descriptions of each of Jung's Four Functional Types:
jung's four functional types - descriptions
Jung's 'Thinking' function is a 'rational' process of understanding reality, implications, causes and effects in a logical and analytical way. It is systematic, evaluates truth, and is objective to the extent that evaluation is based on personal intelligence and comprehension. 'Thinking' is the opposite to 'Feeling'. judging (Jung's 'rational' functions)
Thinking
Feeling
Jung's 'Feeling' function makes judgements on a personal subjective basis. It is a 'rational' process of forming personal subjective opinion about whether something is good or bad, right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable, etc., and involves sentimentality and humanity. 'Feeling' is the opposite to 'Thinking'. Jung's 'Sensation' function translates signals from the senses into factual data. There is no judgement of right or wrong, good or bad, implications, causes, directions, context, possibilities, themes, or related concepts. Sensation sees what is, as what it is. 'Sensation' is the opposite to 'Intuition'. Jung's 'Intuition' function translates things, facts and details into larger conceptual pictures, possibilities, opportunities, imaginings, mysticism and new ideas. Intuition largely ignores essential facts and details, logic and truth. 'Intuition' is the opposite to 'Sensation'.
Sensation
perceiving (Jung's 'irrational' functions)
Intuition
At this point you might like to pause and go make a cup of tea and some toast. Have a rest. Don't try to absorb and understand all this in one sitting if it's new to you.
Jung accordingly arranged his four functional types as two pairs of opposites, thinking or feeling(the rational 'judging' pairing), and sensation or intuition (the irrational 'perceiving' pairing), which are often shown as four points (like North South East West) on a compass.
thinking intuition or feeling sensation
Jung said that each person has a main natural conscious orientation towards one of the four functions (their 'superior' or most 'differentiated' function), in which case the opposite function (the 'inferior' or unconscious function) would be represented and compensated within the person's unconscious. Of the other two functions, either one could be next dominant, depending on the person, and generally would 'serve' as an auxiliary function in support of the person's 'superior' function. (Again just to complicate matters Jung said that in some cases both of these functions could serve as auxiliary functions, but generally the interpretation is that one auxiliary function would be more prevalent than the other. The point here is that the auxiliary functions are not as polarised - into conscious-unconscious - as the superior and inferior functions, which are more strongly polarised into conscious-unconscious.) So, a personality would generally be represented by a conscious dominant function from each opposite pair: one of these dominant functions being dominant overall ('superior') and the other dominant function being the supporting ('auxiliary') function. In the example above, the superior function is Thinking. The opposite Feeling function would largely or entirely be a compensatory unconscious element within the whole person. Depending on the person either the Sensation or Intuition function would be the prevalent auxiliary function, causing its opposite partner to reside to an appropriate extent in the unconscious, so again balancing the whole person. Jung's important principle of personality being represented by one type from two opposing types (or a series of single types from pairs of opposites) is featured strongly in the models developed by Keirsey and Myers Briggs®, amongst others. In his Psychological Types book and theory Jung presented his (major eight) 'psychological types' as simple combinations of Introverted or Extraverted together with one 'superior' function, eg, 'IntrovertedThinking' (IT). It is however perfectly appropriate and proper (as Jung explained) to extrapolate or extend the number of Jung types to include auxiliaries, eg, 'Introverted-Thinking-Sensation' (ITS - commonly shown as IT) in which case 'S' is the auxiliary. So, while Jung's work originally presented eight main psychological types (each represented
by a two-letter abbreviation), subsequent interpretations commonly add the auxiliary function (resulting in a three-letter abbreviation). In fact to assist this extension Myers Briggs® later introduced the JudgingPerceiving dimension, which acted mainly as a means of identifying which two of the four functions are dominant and auxiliary within the Jung framework for any particular personality (of which more later below). Here are the four conscious orientations (aside from extraversion and introversion which are added to the model later). In these examples the prevalent auxiliary function is not indicated. It could be either of the right or left functions, depending on the person.
thinking is superior function
thinking intuition < either is auxiliary > feeling < conscious 'superior' sensation < unconscious
feeling is superior function
feeling intuition < either is auxiliary > thinking < conscious 'superior' sensation < unconscious
intuition is superior function
intuition thinking < either is auxiliary > sensation
< conscious 'superior' feeling < unconscious
sensation is superior function
sensation thinking < either is auxiliary > intuition < conscious 'superior' feeling < unconscious
jung's eight psychological types
This all leads us to Jung's eight major 'Psychological Types', which as already explained Jung constructed by adding one or other of the introversion or extraversion 'general attitude types' to each of the possible four superior functions described above. Logically this produces eight main psychological types. The eight psychological types do not include 'auxiliary' functions and as such do not represent full personalities in themselves. The 'type characteristics' below are generally applicable keywords - they are not absolutes or exclusive. Interpretations can vary a lot - it impossible to summarise a personality type that encompasses millions of variations within it in just a few words, although hopefully the matrix helps to convey some sense of the collective and comparative types within the model. Fuller descriptions are available on specialised resources, for instance at Dr Robert Winer's excellent website www.gesher.org. Some commentators and resources suggest 'job examples' for the different types, and some
also suggest examples of famous people falling into each type, although stereotypical 'typing' guesswork of this sort can be misleading if taken at all seriously. Remember again that these eight main types are not the 'whole person' - people comprise a least one other functional preference, plus unconscious balancing functions, all to varying degrees, all of which which produce personality types that are much more complex than the basic eight main types shown here.
type name Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensation Introverted Sensation Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition type characteristics analytical, strategic, plans, implements, organises others contemplative, discovering, theoretical, seeks self-knowledge sociable, sentimental, seeks personal and social success inaccessible, enigmatic, self-contained, seeks inner intensity practical, hands-on, pleasure-seeking, hardheaded intense, obsessive, detached, connoisseur, expert adventurous, innovative, seeks novelty, proposes change idealistic, visionary, esoteric, mystical, aloof
jung's psychological types - principal and auxiliary functions
Jung's eight main psychological types are in themselves an oversimplification. This is borne out by Jung himself in his 1921 book Psychological Types following his presentation of each of the eight main types: "...In the foregoing descriptions I have no desire to give my readers the impression that such pure types occur at all frequently in actual practice. They are, as it were, only Galtonesque family-portraits, which
sum up in a cumulative image the common and therefore typical characters....... Accurate investigation of the individual case consistently reveals the fact that, in conjunction with the most differentiated function, another function of secondary importance, and therefore of inferior differentiation in consciousness, is constantly present, and is a relatively determining factor..." (Psychological Types, Chapter 10, General Description of the Types, point 11: The Principal and Auxiliary Functions) (Incidentally, the word 'Galtonesque' is a reference to Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), an eminent English scientist, cousin of Charles Darwin, who asserted that personality and other traits and abilities are hereditary (inherited or genetic) factors. Interestingly Galton also devised the finger-printing identification system which he first published in his book Finger Prints in 1892. Jung's use of the word Galtonesque intends to convey a general 'broad brush' meaning - the main family groups of personality - as if 'inherited' - not detailed personality types which implictly within Jung's concepts are subject to much influence and change after a person's conception, and therefore outside Galton's ideas of inherited 'genetic' traits.) Jung's theory does not aim to 'pigeon-hole' all people into one of eight personality types. The eight Psychological Types are simply the eight main groupings represented by Extraversion or Introversion and one 'Four Functional Types' (the superior or principal function). In reality each of these eight type-combinations (represented by E or I plus one Function) is augmented by one or other 'auxiliary' function according to the Jungian theory whereby conscious personality is represented by a dominant function from each of the 'Rational' and 'Irrational' (judging and perceiving) functional pairs of opposites. So, for example, an 'Extraverted Thinking' main psychological type would be augmented by a preferred auxiliary function from the 'Irrational' (or perceiving) Sensing-Intuition pairing, on the basis that Thinking is the preferred 'Rational' (or judging) Function. And also for example an 'Introverted Intuition' main psychological type would be augmented by a preferred auxiliary function from the 'Rational' Thinking-Feeling pairing, on the basis that Intuition is the preferred 'Irrational' (or perceiving) Function.
jung's sixteen personality types
These types are automatically and unavoidably implied by Jung's theory, although Jung himself never made a big song and dance about them. They do however help to build up a fuller picture of Jung's theory, and they also relate directly to Myers Briggs'® interpretation and equivalents of these types (for which Myers Briggs® used their additional Judging-Perceiving dimension to determine dominance between the two preferred functional types after the Jungian Introverted or Extraverted 'attitudes'). Logically, adding an auxiliary function to each of Jung's main eight Psychological Types now produces sixteen types, which (subsequent to Jung's Psychological Types book), might be shown as follows, and in each case the first 'Function' (the middle word) is the most dominant. Remember that Introversion and Extraversion are not 'Functions', they are Jungian 'Attitudes': 1. Extraverted Thinking Sensation - ET(S) 2. Extraverted Thinking Intuition - ET(N) 3. Extraverted Feeling Sensation - EF(S) 4. Extraverted Feeling Intuition - EF(N) 5. Extraverted Sensation Thinking - ES(T) 6. Extraverted Sensation Feeling - ES(F) 7. Extraverted Intuition Thinking - EN(T) 8. Extraverted Intuition Feeling - EN(F) 9. Introverted Thinking Sensation - IT(S) 10. Introverted Thinking Intuition - IT(N) 11. Introverted Feeling Sensation - IF(S) 12. Introverted Feeling Intuition - IF(N) 13. Introverted Sensation Thinking - IS(T) 14. Introverted Sensation Feeling - IS(F) 15. Introverted Intuition Thinking - IN(T) 16. Introverted Intuition Feeling - IN(F) Using what you know about each of these attitudes and functional types you might now be able to begin to identify and understand your own Jungian type.
(How each of these Jungian types including auxiliaries relate to the Myers Briggs® interpretation and system is explained in the Myers Briggs® section. As you will see when you come to it, the Myers Briggs® system uses the additional dimension or pairing of JudgingPerceiving, not only as a type indicator in its own right based on Jungian ideas, but also as a means of determining functional dominance among the two preferred functions, whose methodology depends also on whether the dominance is directed via Introversion or Extraversion.)
While Jung's theories are used widely in psychometrics and personality testing, his original purpose and focus was clinical, in pursuit of better understanding and treatment of mental illness, and improving the quality of human existence. As such Jung placed greater emphasis on the unconscious than is represented within modern psychometrics and 'commercialised' personality theories. On which point there is great value for us all in Carl Jung's thinking about the deeper workings of the mind, especially the unconscious, beyond simply seeing Jung's ideas as a model for categorising personality. Significantly Jung for instance observed that improving our awareness and acceptance of the four functions within ourselves - whether as conscious or unconscious elements - is important for developing a healthy existence, and 'life-balance', as we might say today. Conversely, repression of any of the functions, by oneself or by another person or pressure, is unhelpful and unhealthy, and leads to problems surfacing sooner or later, one way or another. We see evidence of this when parents condition or force certain behaviour on their children, or when adults inhibit their feelings, or deny themselves sensation of reality. We also see evidence of people's unconscious mind reverting from unconscious to conscious behaviour when they are under the influence of alcohol or significant stress. And we also see the unconscious mind as a chief element within the theories of Transactional Analysis, which when studied alongside Jung's ideas, together provide a powerful perspective of personality and behaviour. It's all mighty powerful and thoroughly fascinating stuff.
The aim of studying and learning about these ideas brings us back to Jung's own purposes and the fact that Jungian theory recommends that all people should strive to develop any neglected or suppressed functions, and to embrace all four functions as being part of the whole person.
myers briggs® type indicator (MBTI®)
The Myers Briggs® Type Indicator (MBTI®) is a widely used and highly regarded system for understanding and interpreting personality, and derives most of its underpinning theory from Carl Jung's Psychological Types ideas and to a lesser extent the Four Temperaments (or Four Humours). Myers Briggs® (in fact Isabel Briggs Myers working with her mother Katharine Briggs) essentially developed Carl Jung's theories into a usable methodology and system for understanding and assessing personality (more easily and accessibly than by becoming an expert on Jung and his theories). The owners of the system, the Myers Briggs® Foundation, explain that the purpose of their MBTI® 'personal inventory' system is to "make the theory of psychological types described by Carl G Jung understandable and useful in people's lives...", and that, "..The essence of the theory is that much seemingly random variation in the behavior is actually quite orderly and consistent, being due to basic difference in the way individual prefer to use their perception and judgment...." (This last sentence is interesting because it highlights Myers Briggs'® emphasis on and interpretation of their Judging-Perceiving dimension basically Jung's Rational/Irrational definitions - as a means of clarifying function dominance within each whole MBTI® personality type.) The MBTI® model and test instrument was developed by Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers in 1942 after their studies
particularly of Carl Jung, whose basic concepts relating to this aspect of personality and behaviour are described above. Myers Briggs'® MBTI® concept is featured in Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers' key book 'MBTI® Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®' which was first published in 1962, some years after the tests had been in use. Isabel Briggs Myers later extended and built on these ideas in her 1980 book 'Gifts Differing'. The Myers Briggs Foundation explains also that "...The theory of psychological type was introduced in the 1920s by Carl G. Jung. The MBTI® tool was developed in the 1940s by Isabel Briggs Myers and the original research was done in the 1940s and 50s. This research is ongoing, providing users with updated and new information about psychological type and its applications..." According to the Myers Briggs Foundation more than two million people are assessed using the MBTI® personal inventory instrument around the world every year. It's a big business... The MBTI® model (along with other personality theories and psychometrics models) is particularly useful for:
• • • • •
understanding and developing yourself understanding and developing others understanding what motivates others understanding others' strengths and weaknesses working in teams - by ensuring that all relevant necessary capabilities are represented in the team allocating and agreeing tasks and project responsibilities agreeing roles and development with others and for oneself
• •
Myers Briggs® theory and the MBTI® model is a method for understanding personality and preferred modes of behaving. It is not a measurement of intelligence or competence, emotional state or mental stability, 'grown-upness' or maturity, and must be used with great care in assessing aptitude for jobs or careers: people can do most jobs in a variety of ways, and the MBTI® gives little or no indication of
commitment, determination, passion, experience, ambition etc., nor 'falsification of type', all of which can have a far greater influence on personal success than a single personality test. In most respects psychometrics tests and personality models are aids to personal development and to helping people understand more about themselves. They are not to be used a single basis for recruitment or career decisions.
myers briggs® theory and the MBTI® model
The Myers Briggs® MBTI® system uses a four-scale structure for identifying and categorising an individual's behavioural preferences, based almost entirely on Carl Jung's theories and his (translated) descriptive words. Each of the four MBTI® scales represents two opposing 'preferences' (in other words, preferred styles or capabilities). All abbreviations are obvious first letters, other than N for Intuition, which causes the word to be shown sometimes as iNtuition - just in case you were wondering. The Myers Briggs® Judging-Perceiving dimension basically equates to Jung's Rational/Irrational categories of the two pairs of Jungian Functional types. The colour coding is consistent with the colours used in the Jung section - it was not part of Jung's or Myers Briggs'® theory, but hopefully the colours help explain the pattern and connections.
the focus or direction or orientation of our behaviour outward or inward how we gather information
(E)
Extraversion
or Introversion
(I)
'Attitude' or orientation
(S)
Sensing
or
iNtuition
(N)
Function(Jungian 'Irrational' or MB 'Perceiving') Function(Jungian 'Rational' or MB 'Judging') Myers Briggs'®
(T) (J)
Thinking Judging
or or
Feeling Perceiving
(F) (P)
how we decide how we react
to the world - added dimension do prefer to equating to Jung's make decisions 'Irrational' and or keep open to 'Rational' options (and also which middle 'Functions' do we favour)
Myers Briggs® (Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Briggs) added a fourth dimension to the three Jung dimensions (Introvert-Extravert, Thinking-Feeling, Sensation-Intuition), namely Judging-Perceiving, which is related to a personality's approach to decision-making, and particularly how the personality deals with the outer world (Extraverted) as distinct from the inner world (Introverted). The Myers Briggs® Judging-Perceiving dimension can also be used to determine functional dominance among the two preferred functional types (aside from Introvert-Extravert, which are not functions but 'Attitudes', or orientations). This can be a tricky little aspect of the Myers Briggs® theory and is explained at the end of this Myers Briggs® section. Happily it's not crucial to deriving value and benefit from Myers Briggs'® ideas, so don't agonise over it if you don't understand it straight away. Aside from determining functional dominance, irrespective of the way decisions are made (by Thinking or Feeling) the Judging type makes decisions sooner than the Perceiving type. As such the Myers Briggs'® Judging-Perceiving dimension is not found (as a functional dimension) in the Jung model, although Judging and Perceiving most certainly relate to the Jungian descriptions respectively of Rational and Irrational, which Jung uses to categorise the two pairs of Functional Types (the Rational 'judging' Thinking and Feeling, and the Irrational 'perceiving' Sensing and Intuition - refer to the Jung explanation). Moving on, David Keirsey, in his book Please Understand Me II, provides some additional helpful explanation of how Isabel Myers attached her own meanings to these Jungian words, he said, "putting her own spin on them". Keirsey interestingly also points out that Myers
differed markedly from Jung's use of the words Sensation and Perception, which Jung considered held the same meaning, but to which you can see here and elsewhere that the Myers Briggs® system attached different meanings. For this reason if you want to avoid doubt and any confusion in the minds of Jungian purists then it's safest to use the words 'Rational' and 'Irrational' when correlating these Jung terms to the Myers Briggs'® 'Judging' and 'Perceiving'. The right-side column is simply a translation, using more recognisable modern words, for showing the four MBTI® dimensions.
MBTI® type names, based on Jung's language (E) Extraversion or Introversion (I) (S) Sensing or Intuitive (N) (T) Thinking or Feeling (F)
alternative Myers Briggs® meaning or 'spin' (E) Expressive or Reserved (I) (S) Observant or Introspective (N) (T) Tough-minded or Friendly (F)
(J) Judging or Perceiving (P) (S) Scheduling or Probing (P)
It is interesting to note that many of these words above appear commonly in different personality testing systems, for example DISC systems, which again demonstrates the closely connected nature of many psychometrics models and products. Most people, to varying degrees at different times depending on circumstances, use both preferences within each of the four scales, but each of us tends to have (and therefore will indicate via testing) a certain preference for one style or another in each of the four scales. There are no 'right' or 'wrong' or 'good' or 'bad' preferences, and there are no good or bad or right or wrong 'types' although obviously certain 'preference' behaviours and personality 'types' can be more or less appropriate or effective in given situations. Within personal limits, adaptability, as ever, is a valuable attribute. Self-awareness enables
adaptability. If you seek confirmation of the value of adaptability look at the Cybernetics page (later best, not right now). Here are descriptions of each of the MBTI® preferences in slightly more detail.
preference for the outer world and one's own action and effect on it preference for inner self and Introversion ideas to (I) understand and protect or nurture it gathers information by: interpreting patterns, iNtuition (N) possibilities and meaning from information received decides according to what matters to Feeling (F) self and others, and personal values in dealing with the world responds and acts with flexibility, Perceiving (P) spontaneity, adaptability and understanding relatively slow to decide
(E) Extraversion
or
gathers information by: focusing on facts within information
(S) Sensing
or
decides by using logic, consistency, objective analysis, process-driven conclusions
(T) Thinking
or
in dealing with the world organises, plans, controls, and decides clear (J) Judging firm actions and responses relatively quick to decide
or
According to the Myers Briggs® (MBTI®) system each of us is represented by four preferences, one from each of the four scales. Can you begin to identify yourself, and others around you?
(E)
Extraversion or Introversion
do we focus on outside world (E) or inner self(I) - do we (I) find people energising (E) or somewhat draining (I)? the way we inform ourselves how we prefer to form a view and (N) receive information - observed facts and specifics (S) or what we imagine things can mean (N)? our way of deciding - how we prefer to make decisions (F) objective and tough-minded (T)or friendly and sensitive to others and ourselves (F)? our method for handling the outside world and particularly for making decisions - do quite soon (P) evaluate and decide (J) or continue gathering data and keep options open (P)?
(S)
Sensing or iNtuition
(T)
Thinking or Feeling
(J)
Judging or Perceiving
By measuring or categorising a person's overall personality or behavioural style according to four preferences - one from each of the four scales (E-I, S-N, T-F, J-P), the MBTI® system logically contains sixteen main 'types', each represented by four-letter code, for example: ESFJ or INFP or ESTJ, etc. The sequence of the four-letter preferences within the Myers Briggs® code, whatever the combination, does not change: The 1st letter denotes the Jungian 'Attitude' or orientation; the direction or focus of the personality - Introvert or Extravert The middle two letters denote the Jungian 'Functional Type' preferences, namely: The 2nd letter is the preferred Jungian 'Irrational' function (Myers Briggs® 'perceiving') -Sensing or Intuition The 3rd letter is the preferred Jungian 'Rational' function (Myers Briggs® 'judging') -Thinking or Feeling
The 4th letter is Myers Briggs'® added dimension to indicate the preferred way of dealing with the outer world; to evaluate and decide or to continue gathering information - Judging or Perceiving - equating to Jung's 'Irrational' and 'Rational' functional type categories, and thereby enabling functional dominance to be determined.
All sixteen different Myers Briggs® MBTI® personality type combinations, each being a four-letter code, are commonly presented in an MBTI® 'Type Table'. In the 'Type Table' example below the groupings correlate (according particularly to Keirsey) to the Four Temperaments, which for interest is reflected by the colour coding in the table below to to aid comparisons when you look again at the Four Temperaments types. However this is merely an interesting point of note, and is not significant in the workings of the Myers Briggs® theory or its application. The Four Temperaments correlations are more significant in the Keirsey model. The MBTI® 'Type Table' is typically shown elsewhere in other resources without these headings, and can be shown using other groupings, depending on the views of the theorist or interpreter.
the MBTI® 'type table' related to Four Temperaments Keirsey groupings
SP - sensing perceiving ESTP ISTP ESFP ISFP sanguine or artisan SJ - sensing judging ESTJ ISTJ ESFJ ISFJ melancholic or guardian NF intuitive feeling ENFJ INFJ ENFP INFP choleric or idealist NT - intuitive thinking ENTJ INTJ ENTP INTP phlegmatic or rationalist
I repeat that you will see these MBTI® types shown in different groupings than the Keirsey/Four Temperaments structure shown above. This is by no means the definitive arrangement of the MBTI® personality types. There are others. I place no particular significance on the structure of these groupings and perhaps neither should you since many great minds disagree about it. For example Myers Briggs® themselves prefer to show the types in no particular stated grouping, but which are actually grouped in four columns ST, SF, NF and NT, which are the four logical groupings when combining pairs of Jung's four functional types. This is close to Keirsey's presentation of them, but not the same. And highly the regarded MBTI® Jungian neurologist, psychiatrist, psychopharmacologist, and psychotherapist Robert I. Winer, M.D., prefers the following four-way grouping on the basis that he considers these types to be the four most distinguishable through observation of people's behaviour: TJ, ('Thinker-Judgers') FJ ('Feeler-Judgers'), SP ('Sensor-Perceiver') and NP ('Intuitive-Perceiver'). You pays yer money and takes yer choice as they say. Incidentally Winer's 'Winer Foundation' website (www.gesher.org) is one of the most impressive and wonderous on the web dedicated to MBTI®/Jungian theory, full of useful profiles and guidance for self-awareness and development. He seems a lovely fellow. Other interesting groupings of the sixteen MBTI® types are shown in matrix presentations in each of the Benziger and DISC sections. These different groupings attempt to correlate the personality types (and traits implied) between the different systems and as such can be very helpful in trying to understand it all. The Myers Briggs® organisation is at pains to point out, rightly, that all (MBTI®) types are equal. As with the individual 'preferences', there are no 'right' or 'wrong' or 'good' or 'bad' types, although again obviously, certain 'type' behaviours can be more or less appropriate in different given situations. Indeed most people will display type-behaviours resembling many of the sixteen types in any one day, depending on the circumstances. It is however the case that most of us will have a certain preferred
type with which we are most comfortable, and which is held to be, according to the MBTI® model, our 'personality'. In terms of understanding what personality characteristics each of these sixteen various 'MBTI®' types represent, at a very basic level you can simply combine the type descriptions, for example: An ISTJ is someone who is on balance focused inwardly (Introvert - I) who tends to or prefers to gather information by concentrating on facts (Sensing - S), makes decisions by logic and process (Thinking - T), and whose approach and response to the world is based on order, control, and firm decisions (Judging - J). And for a contrasting example, an ENFP is someone who is on balance focused on external things and people (Extravert - E) who tends to or prefers to gather information by interpreting patterns, possibilities and meaning (Intuitive - N), makes decisions according to personal values and what matters to self or others (Feeling - F), and whose approach and response to the world is flexible, adaptable and understanding (Perceiving - P). At a more detailed level it's useful to consider 'functional dominance', specifically relating to the original four Jungian functions (the middle two letters of the four-letter Myers Briggs® MBTI® code). The methodology for identifying dominant and auxiliary functions, and thereafter 3rd and 4th functions (which do not appear in each fourletter type code), is explained below in the MBTI® function dominance sub-section. While a little tricky for some people to grasp quickly, anyone can understand this if they put their mind to it, and it's well worth the effort because identifying functional dominance does provide an excellent and rapid way to define each and any of the sixteen main personality types from their four-letter codes without the need for reams of supporting notes. At a more complex and fully detailed level there are various resources which give detailed descriptions of the MBTI® personality types, including myersbriggs.org, and in my opinion far more fully and clearly at the excellent www.gesher.org. The Jungian psychologist Michael Daniels' website at www.mdani.demon.co.uk is also an excellent resource for learning about Myers Briggs® types and Jungian theory.
MBTI® function dominance
Acknowledgments to Simon Pusey for the in MBTI® Function Dominance diagram (Powerpoint slide)and a PDF diagram; also to Andrew Roughton for the alternative explanation of MBTI® dominance; to Ian Mitchell for correcting an error in the the ISTJ example below (previously wrongly shown as ISTJ), and to José María Ribal for correcting an error in two paragraphs which wrongly referred to the 2nd letter being 'Thinking or Feeling' instead of 'Sensing or iNtuition'. For a quick explanation see the in MBTI® Function Dominance diagram in Powerpoint slide format or as a PDF. For a more detailed explanation of function dominance read on. It's not vital to understand function dominance in order to benefit from the Myers Briggs® theory, but it does help explain how to identify the dominant function (of the middle two letters - the Jungian Functional Types) within any MBTI® four-letter type code, and logically from this the auxiliary function (and then also the 3rd and 4th functions). The methodology therefore enables rapid description and understanding of any four-letter MBTI® type code without supporting notes. It's a neat technique. An additional alternative explanation of MBTI® dominance using different examples and perspective follows this one. Feel free to skip ahead to it if the first explanation is not to your liking. In any event having two different perspectives of a complex theory is often helpful towards gaining best possible understanding. Remember that the first letter is the Introvert-Extravert 'Attitude' or orientation - it's not a 'function', and the fourth letter is the Myers Briggs® additional Judging-Perceiving dimension, it's not a Jungian 'Function', and was largely introduced by Myers Briggs® in order to determine dominance between the preferred Jungian Functions (second and third letters). Understanding Myers Briggs'® functional dominance methodology also helps explain how the Myers Briggs'® four-dimension model (four letters) relates to Jung's three-dimension model (main Jungian 'Psychological Type' plus auxiliary function - three letters), at least in the way that the Myers Briggs® interpretation implies and considers it to do so. (Just to repeat once more, Jung didn't use the Judging-
Perceiving dimension as such, he stuck with three dimensions: Introvert-Extravert; Sensing-Intuition, and Thinking-Feeling.) This explanation necessarily repeats the essential structure already explained in order to stand alone as a useful item in its own right. Here goes. Hold on to your hats. The Myers Briggs® MBTI® personality type is always presented as a four-letter code, in which the letters take the same positions in the code regardless of dominance. This is to say: function dominance is not indicated by the sequence of the letters. Again, here is the sequence of the MBTI® letters and descriptions of what they denote. View this table as columns, not rows:
1st letter Extravert or Introvert E or I 2nd letter Sensing or Intuition S or N 3rd letter Thinking or Feeling T or F how we decide 4th letter Judging or Perceiving J or P how do we handle the outside world? how soon do we decide? - do we judge or continue to perceive?
inwardly or how we get outwardly information focused/oriented
Jungian 'Attitude' or orientation
Jungian 'Irrational' or Jungian 'Rational' dimension added Myers Briggs® or Myers Briggs® by Myers 'Perceiving' Function 'Judging' Function Briggs® - also identifies which Function is used in dealing with the outer world
These four preferences produce a four-letter code, for example ENFP or ISTJ. It is very useful if we can determine within the personality which is the dominant Function of the essential Jungian 'Four Functional Types'. In
other words is it the 2nd or 3rd letter that is most dominant within the whole type? If we know the dominant superior function then obviously we can determine the auxiliary, because it will be the other middle letter in the code. (Incidentally when we've sorted out the superior and auxiliary functions, we can also then determine the 3rd and 4th functions, which is explained after we sort out the superior and auxiliary). So, for the examples above: Within the ENFP personality type is Intuition (N) or Feeling (F) dominant? And within the ISTJ personality type is Sensing (S) or Thinking (T) dominant? In fact the dominant function within the ENFP personality type is N (Intuition), which for the sake of this exercise we will show as ENFP. This means that F (Feeling) is the auxiliary function. And the dominant function within the ISTJ personality type is S (Sensing), which for the sake of this exercise we show as ISTJ. This means that T (Thinking) is the auxiliary function. But why? Here's my best explanation of the Myers Briggs® methodology for determining dominant function, which they based on their interpretation of Jung's theory, and it is quite logical when you think about it. The methodology operates by using different points of reference - it's like a formula or a process: First,
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Extraverts direct their dominant function outwardly, towards the outer world, and theirauxiliary function inwardly. Introverts direct their dominant function inwardly, towards their inner world, and theirauxiliary function outwardly. So whether the personality is Extravert or Introvert (1st letter E or I) is a factor in determining functional dominance (between the 2nd and 3rd letters).
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Second, Remember Jung categorised the two pairs of opposite functions as Irrational and Rational, which correlate to Myers Briggs® Judging and Perceiving:
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Myers Briggs® 'Perceiving' refers to Jung's 'Irrational' functions (2nd letter) - Sensing or Intuition. Myers Briggs® 'Judging' refers to Jung's 'Rational' functions (3rd letter) - Thinking or Feeling.
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Third,
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A Judging preference (4th letter J) indicates that the personality prefers to use the Judging function (3rd letter Thinking or Feeling) to deal with the outer world. A Perceiving preference (4th letter P) indicates that the personality prefers to use thePerceiving function (2nd letter Sensing or Intuition) to deal with the outer world.
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Fourth, therefore, If the personality is Extravert (1st letter E) and is also Judging (4th letter J) then the Judging Function (3rd letter Thinking or Feeling) will be the dominant function (since this is the function used chiefly to deal with the outside world, and Extroverts use their dominant function chiefly to deal with the outside world). For example in the ENFJ type, Feeling is the dominant function, which is mainly directed outwardly. The auxiliary function Intuition which tends to be directed inwardly. If the personality is Extravert (1st letter E) and is also Perceiving (4th letter P) then thePerceiving Function (2nd letter Sensing or iNtuition) will be the dominant function (again this is the function used to deal with the outside world, and Extroverts use their dominant function to deal with the outside world). For example in the ESTP type, Sensing is the dominant function, which is mainly directed outwardly. The auxiliary function is Thinking, which is mainly directed inwardly.
Fifth, (on the other hand), Remember that an Introvert's dominant function is mainly directed inwardly, towards theirinner world, therefore an Introvert's Judging-Perceiving preference (4th letter J or P) which represents how they approach the outer world will indicate their less dominant function, which means that for Introvert types, the letter other than the one indicated by the 4th letter J or P will be their dominant function. So it follows, if the personality is Introvert (1st letter I) and is also Judging (4th letter J) then theJudging Function (3rd letter Thinking or Feeling) will be the auxiliary function, since this is the function used to deal with the outside world. Remember, Introverts use their dominant function chiefly to deal with their inner world, not the outside world. An Introvert uses their auxiliaryfunction chiefly to deal with the outside world. For example, in the INTP type, Intuition is used mainly to deal with the outside world, but since the priority focus of the Introvert is their inner world, so Thinking is their dominant function. Similarly if the personality is Introvert (1st letter I) and is also Perceiving (4th letter P) then thePerceiving Function (2nd letter Sensing or iNtuition) will be the auxiliary function since this is the function used to deal with the outside world. The dominant function will be the other function, which the Introvert focuses on their inner world. For example, in the ISFJ type, the outside world approach indicated by the Judging preference (4th letter J) is Feeling, which because it is focused on the outside world in an Introvert is the auxiliary function. Therefore the other function, Sensing, is the dominant one focused on the Introvert's priority inner world. There. That's the difficult bit. You may now take a break. Here is additional explanation of MBTI® dominant functions. Having a second perspective can assist overall appreciation of any complex matter.
additional explanation of MBTI® function dominance
This additional explanation is kindly provided by Andrew Roughton, which is gratefully acknowledged. (I'm also grateful to Ian Mitchell for correcting an error in the ISTJ example above which was wrongly shown as ISTJ, and to Pierre Lemasson for correcting an error in 3b below - probably my typo, not Andrew's - which stated that the the remaining letter will be your auxiliary instead of dominant function.)
1) Your dominant function is found in either the 2nd or 3rd letter in your code. You also have an auxiliary (second) function. a) If the 2nd letter is your dominant function then the 3rd is your auxiliary function and vice versa. b) If the 3rd letter is your dominant function then the 2nd is your auxiliary function. Remember the 2nd letter in your code relates to your Perceiving function. Do you perceive information through your senses (S) or through intuition (N)? The 3rd letter in your code relates to your Judging function. Do you make judgements (decisions) through Thinking (T) or through Feeling (F)? 2) The 4th letter describes how you relate to the outside world. Do you prefer to deal with the world through your Judging function or through your Perceiving function? a) If your 4th letter is J then we first look to the Judging functions - Thinking or Feeling. i) If your code is ISFJ then we first look to the judging functions. b) If your 4th letter is P then we first look to the Perceiving functions - Sensing or Intuition.
i) If your code is ENFP then we first look to the Perceiving functions. 3) The 1st letter in your code (E or I) tells you whether you will first find your dominant or your auxiliary function. a) If your 1st letter is E (Extravert) then you will first identify your dominant function letter and the remaining letter will be your auxiliary function. i) If your code is ENFP then you will find your dominant function. Because the 4th letter is P we look to the perceiving function letter in your code which in this case is N for Intuition. So your dominant function is Intuition. Your auxiliary function is represented by the remaining letter F for Feeling. b) If your 1st letter is I (Introvert) then you will first identify your auxiliary code and the remaining letter will be your dominant function. i) If your code is ISFJ you will first identify your auxiliary function. Because the 4th letter is J we look to the judging function letter in your code which in this case is F for Feeling. So your auxiliary function is Feeling. Your dominant function is represented by the remaining letter S for Sensing. 4) The reason for the different treatment for Extravert and Introvert is to do with the preference for the outer (E) or inner (I) world, and the 4th letter only identifies how they relate to the outer world. For the Introvert this will always be their auxiliary function because their dominant function must relate to their inner world. a) Logically if the introvert relates to their outer world through, for example, their judging functions (thinking or feeling) then their remaining letter tells you which function they use in their inner world. This, for them, is their dominant function.
i) The ISFJ relates to the outer world through their Judging function (represented by the J) which in this case is Feeling (represented by the F). By elimination they must relate to their inner world through the Sensing function (represented by the S). Thus Sensing is the ISFJ's dominant function and Feeling is their auxiliary function. b) Extraverts on the other hand use their dominant function to relate to the outer world and so the 4th letter identifies how you relate to the outer world. i) The ENFP relates to the outer world through their Perceiving function (represented by the P) which is Intuition (represented by the N). Thus Intuition is the ENFP's dominant function and Feeling is their auxiliary function. Andrew Roughton, July 2006. National Principal Vision College New Zealand
identifying 3rd and 4th function dominance
Logically according to Jung's theory, and Myers Briggs® interpretation, functional dominance can be extended beyond the superior (dominant) and auxiliary (secondary) functions to potential tertiary (3rd) and quarternary (4th) functions. This enables the identification of the order (relative strength or preference) of all four functions - Thinking, Feeling, Sensing and Intuition - within any given type. The process for doing this is simple, once you crack the dominant and auxiliary methodology. Here's how to determine 3rd and 4th functional dominance:
Remember Jung's principle of opposites and the four compass points. The most dominant or 'superior' function is balanced by its opposite in the unconscious, and will be correspondingly the least dominant just as the superior function is the most dominant, to whatever extent. The 4th function therefore, available consciously in whatever degree, is always the opposite of the superior. For example, where a personality's superior or most dominant function is Thinking, logically its quaternary (or 4th or weakest function) function will be Feeling. Where a personality's superior function is Feeling, its 4th function will be Thinking. Where Intuition is dominant, soSensing will be least strong. Where Sensing is the superior function, so Intuition will be the weakest. And that's the full set. Applying the same 'balancing opposites' principle, logically, the 3rd function is the opposite of the 2nd or auxiliary. Same pattern as for the 1st-4th correlations. Easy. The extent to which any personality is able to make use of supporting functions depends on other factors. Some people are able to draw on the 3rd and 4th functions more ably than others (dominant and auxiliary as well for that matter). From the perspective of understanding and describing each of the sixteen MBTI® personality types simply from their four-letter codes, identifying functional dominance - from superior or dominant, to auxiliary, to 3rd and to 4th functions - is a very useful technique. When you understand the methodology you can say a great deal about any personality type just by looking at its MBTI® four-letter code - because you can determine the preference (which implies prevalence and priority) of each of the four functions, two of which will not even be represented in the MBTI® four-letter code! Below is the complete set of functional dominance mixtures, showing 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th preferred functions according to MBTI® type. By using this methodology we can also very usefully group the Myers Briggs® types according to their Jungian four dominant functions, which is a super matrix for understanding these theories, and for applying the thinking to team-building and job roles within teams, etc.
MBTI® types and functional dominance
The left column shows the MBTI® sixteen types, colour-coded as to Extravert or Introvert. These MBTI® types are grouped in four sets according to '1st functional dominance' ('superior' function) which are colour-coded in the middle and right columns accordingly. For each MBTI® type, the middle and right columns show the dominant (superior) function, followed by the 2nd (auxiliary) function, and then the 3rd and 4th functions, which are largely unconscious and can be accessed when required depending on the person. Note that each of the four main functional dominance groupings (Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuition, represented by the four colours) contains only two different sequential 'dominance sets', and that each of these can be formed by both an Extraverted and an Introverted type.
MBTI® type ESTJ ISTP ENTJ INTP ESTP ISTJ ESFP ISFJ ESFJ ISFP ENFJ INFP ENTP INTJ ENFP INFJ functional dominance - 1st to 4th TSNF TSNF TNSF TNSF STFN STFN SFTN SFTN FSNT FSNT FNST FNST NTFS NTFS NFTS NFTS Thinking, Sensing, Intuition, Feeling Thinking, Sensing, Intuition, Feeling Thinking, Intuition, Sensing, Feeling Thinking, Intuition, Sensing, Feeling Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuition Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuition Sensing, Feeling, Thinking, Intuition Sensing, Feeling, Thinking, Intuition Feeling, Sensing, Intuition, Thinking Feeling, Sensing, Intuition, Thinking Feeling, Intuition, Sensing, Thinking Feeling, Intuition, Sensing, Thinking Intuition, Thinking, Feeling, Sensing Intuition, Thinking, Feeling, Sensing Intuition, Feeling, Thinking, Sensing Intuition, Feeling, Thinking, Sensing
The extent to which people are able to call upon and make use of their auxiliary, and particularly 3rd and 4th functions depends on the individual person, and is also the subject of continuing debate and ongoing research by psychologists. Most people are capable of developing their less strong functions to some degree or other. Knowing what they are and that they exist in us is the starting point. Similarly everyone is capable of understanding their own functional dominance and how this style might be perceived by others. Using this matrix you might be able to have a good guess as to your own Myers Briggs® MBTI® type and your functional dominance. Look at the right column: ask yourself - and maybe also ask someone who knows you well - what order of preferences best represents your own personality? Having decided this, are you mainly extraverted or introverted? You might now have a reasonable idea of your own MBTI® personality type. If anyone can suggest more clearly how to present all this I am very much open to suggestions. Please let me know any daft typos or errors in this. It's not an easy thing to explain. Aside from using Myers Briggs® MBTI® model to understand one's own or other other people's personality types, the most important opportunity is that everyone can and should use systems such these to endeavour to access and develop their weaker functions. This was central to Jung's motivation, and this opportunity and encouragement echoes through Myers Briggs'® ideas too. Awareness of the fact that we all possess these unconscious under-developed functions is the first step towards realising that they can be developed and used, alongside our natural preferences, brought into play consciously, where we see the need and possibility to do so.
The Myers Briggs® MBTI® system typically involves the use of MBTI® testing instruments to determine people's own types or 'profiles', the process and analysis of which is best administered by a suitably qualified person to give proper explanation and feedback to people being 'tested'. There are significant commonalities between the Myers Briggs® personality model and that of David Keirsey. Both systems draw
strongly on the work of Carl Jung and (Keirsey's more than Myers Briggs®) also to the Four Temperaments. Further comparisons are indicated in the Four Temperaments and Keirsey sections on this page, and these cross-references between models (notablyBenziger) help with the understanding of each model independently, and also help to build up a variety of perspectives of oneself, and human personality and behaviour. There are some differences between Myers Briggs® and Keirsey's interpretations. Not least, as Keirsey points out, Myers Briggs® is effectively an interpretation and extension of Jung's model - both of which focus on the minds and thinking types of people, whereas Keirsey's system, building on Myers Briggs®, Jung, and others, seeks to identify and point to what the different personality types can do well in different circumstances. In addition there are some detailed differences between certain type descriptions of Myers Briggs® and Keirsey, which concern complex interpretations that seem to me to be a matter of personal opinion, based on the experiences of the theorists themselves and not matters that can be proven one way or another. As we've already seen, this is not a perfect science, and when we drill down deeper than broad definitions the detail is open to different interpretation, which I encourage you to do yourself. Despite the best efforts of some of the providers in the psychometrics industry to convince us that all this is highly complex and impenetrable, you can hopefully see that much of the thinking is extremely accessible and within the grasp of ordinary folk. As you learn about these concepts, see each model (Myers Briggs®, Jung, Keirsey, Four Temperaments, Eysenck, Benziger, etc) as selfsufficient and stand-alone. Note the common aspects between the models by all means because there are many: seeing the common aspects will greatly improve your overall understanding of the subject and of people; but do not try to overlay and match definitions and descriptions from model to model if the fit is not obvious and clear. Respect each model in isolation for what it is - a different perspective of the same highly complicated thing - the human mind. More information about the Myers Briggs® organisation and MBTI® system and types descriptions is at myersbriggs.org.
Note that Myers Briggs®, MBTI® and other terminology is likely to be protected trademarked intellectual property for use in direct training and testing applications, so beware of using any of these terms for commercial purposes without a licence, or at least checking whether a licence is required or not.
david keirsey's personality model and the 'keirsey temperament sorter'
As mentioned above, David Keirsey's work refers significantly to the age-old 'Four Temperaments' model, and to the work of Carl Jung, and Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, who also drew strongly on Jung's work. Keirsey's key book (with Bates) was 'Please Understand Me', first published in 1978 and since revised and re-issued several times, more recently as 'Please Understand Me II', which is a wonderful book and includes a self-test to discover your detailed temperament type (of the sixteen types). David Keirsey's ideas extend and develop the Four Temperaments and the ideas of Carl Jung, and also relate very directly to the Myers Briggs® MBTI® system. In fact according to Keirsey the two systems - Keirsey and MBTI® - are quite similar. (Here's a good explanation of the similarities and differences between the Keirsey and Myers Briggs® systems.) Keirsey's model has for many years underpinned a highly regarded personality assessment methodology, which Keirsey claims to be the most widely used in the world. Keirsey's model has also enabled the development of a considerable supporting business corporation, which markets his testing instruments and their associated training and accreditation. Like Myers Briggs®, Keirsey's personality model analyses human personality according to sixteen types, which are compared below to the Myers Briggs® MBTI® equivalents. There are fundamental
similarities between the Keirsey types and the Myers Briggs® types, but there are also some significant differences, so do not see the two systems as being the same thing.
keirsey/MBTI® types correlations
Keirsey's personality model is particularly helpful because of the meaningful personality 'type' descriptions, especially when used alongside Myers Briggs® abbreviated letter codes. The colour-coded groupings reflect Keirsey's view that certain categories of MBTI® or Keirsey types equate strongly to the Four Temperaments. Keirsey is a fan of the Four Temperaments. Not everyone is, particularly when it comes to categorising MBTI® types. This layout is shown because Keirsey favours it. The use of colours are purely to aid comparison with the Four Temperaments model shown earlier in this section. Other than an echo of Jung's 'Perceiving' and 'Judging' within the SP and SJ blocks, these colours do not relate to the colours used in the Jung and Myers Briggs® sections.
artisan promoter crafter performer composer guardian supervisor inspector provider protector SP sensingperceiving ESTP ISTP ESFP ISFP SJ sensingjudging ESTJ ISTJ ESFJ ISFJ rational fieldmarshall mastermind inventor architect idealist teacher counsellor champion healer NT intuitivethinking ENTJ INTJ ENTP INTP NF intuitivefeeling ENFJ INFJ ENFP INFP
N.B. Again bear in mind that certain copyright protections apply to the MBTI® and Keirsey terms so I recommend that you be wary of using these in the provision of chargeable services or materials since under
certain circumstances they are likely to be subject to licensing conditions. A free 'lite' Keirsey personality test and descriptions of each of the Keirsey sixteen types is available via the Keirsey website at Keirsey.com. The 'lite' test indicates your dominant or preferred temperament of the four main types, but not your detailed type within the temperament, which is something you need to pay to discover. In my view the most enjoyable and useful way to do this is to buy a copy of Keirsey's book 'Please Understand Me II', which contains the 70-question Keirsey Temperament Sorter II personality test, which will in a few minutes reveal your detailed Keirsey personality type, and also provides a vast amount of descriptive information relating to your type and all the other fifteen types within the Keirsey model.
eysenck's personality inventory and the four temperaments
British psychologist Hans Jurgen Eysenck (1916-97) was born in Berlin. A Jewish sympathiser, he left Germany in 1934 for England, where he studied and later taught psychology at London University. He became a prolific writer in the field of clinical psychology and also had a great interest in psychometrics. He disagreed with the principles of psychoanalysis and preferred the (at times controversial) view that genetics (inherited factors - our genes) are significant in determining the psychological differences between people, and more besides. Eysenck used extensive research and questionnaires to build a personality inventory which he related to Galen's Four Temperaments. The fit is not perfect with the more recent interpretations of the Four Temperaments (Keirsey, Myers Briggs®) but there are certainly many common aspects between the Eysenck and Galen models.
Eysenck's concepts are particularly interesting, and provide a valuable additional perspective compared to the Four Temperaments, Jung, Myers Briggs®, and Keirsey, because they explore and analyse a personality dimension related to emotional stability. Eysenck's approach to personality assessment was the first popular scalable mathematical methodology. Previous theories generally placed a person within one of the defining types, or between two types, or attributed a mixture of types to a person's personality. Eysenck's 1950s theory (he later added a third dimension) measures personality using two scales:
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introversion-extraversion stability-instability (unemotional-emotional*)
Eysenck's theory also refers to instability as unstable, emotionally unstable, or neurotic. *While Eysenck's scientific headings of 'stable' and 'unstable' or 'neurotic' can be seen as judgemental (good or bad) it's important not to see them in this way. Academics (including Eysenck) tend to write for other academics and forget or disregard that certain language carries negative meanings and stigmas in normal life, such as the words unstable and neurotic. Eysenck did not use the words to convey a sense of good or bad - he used them because he felt scientifically comfortable with the terms. If discussing these concepts with people who might be sensitive to words like 'unstable' or 'neurotic' it can be helpful to interpret Eysenck's 'instability' or 'neuroticism' to mean 'emotional', and for 'stable' to equate to 'unemotional'. 'Unemotional-emotional' was not Eysenck's alternative scale, it's my suggested alternative for seeing that this scale is not a question of good or bad. By surveying many thousands of people, using many and various adjectives (traits) representing behaviours and types, Eysenck built a scalable model which also formed the basis of what became the Eysenck personality test. Eysenck's theory regards the choleric and melancholic temperaments as being emotionallyunstable (let's say 'emotional'), and the sanguine and phlegmatic temperaments as being emotionally stable (unemotional). The theory sees
the phlegmatic and melancholictemperaments as being introverted, and the choleric and sangine temperaments as beingextraverted. At this point there is clear divergence from the Eysenck model and certain recent interpretations of the Four Temperaments, since, for example, Keirsey and Myers Briggs® clearly assert that introversion and extraversion appear in each of the four temperaments. Eysenck's ideas are a part-fit with MBTI® and Keirsey, but certainly not a direct overlay. The Eysenck theory produces four main types types of personality, which he said resembled Galen's Four Temperaments:
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unstable-introverted (emotional-introverted) = melancholic unstable-extraverted (emotional-extraverted) = choleric stable-introverted (unemotional-introverted) = phlegmatic stable-extraverted (unemotional-extraverted) = sanguine
Within which are several key words of graduated significance relative to the heading elements (Eysenck presented this as a four-quadrant circle containing his describing words, rather than the matrix shown here). The colours merely reflect those used in the Four Temperaments section for ease of comparison and do not appear in Eysenck's theory:
stable-extraverted (unemotionalextravert) sociable outgoing talkative responsive easy-going lively carefree leadership (sanguine) unstable-introvert (emotional-introvert) moody anxious rigid sober pessimistic reserved unsociable quiet (melancholic) stable-introverted (unemotional-introvert) calm even-tempered reliable controlled peaceful thoughtful careful passive (phlegmatic)
unstable-extravert (emotional-extravert) touchy restless aggressive excitable changeable impulsive optimistic active (choleric)
Can you see yourself, and others perhaps, in this model? Could you define yourself according to a mixture of these characteristics? Perhaps you can see in yourself a leading 'type' with one or two supporting types? (This is not how Eysenck intended the model to be used, but seeing it in this way can be helpful for understanding your own and others' personality types.) Again note that the fit is not perfect between Eysenck's model and recent interpretations of the Four Temperaments such as Keirsey and Myers Briggs®, but there are certainly many common aspects between Eysenck and Galen. The significant difference between Eysenck's ideas and the Four Temperaments interpretations of Galen and the older theorists is that Eysenck's (1950s) theory measures personality according to two scalable dimensions, introversion-extraversion and stabilityinstability; whereas traditional Four Temperaments ideas simply seek to define personality according to one of the four temperaments. In this respect Eysenck's model is far more sophisticated, and indeed add an extra dimension (stable-unstable) that is not found at all in popular systems such as Keirsey and Myers Briggs®. In this respect Eysenck's model offers a highly significant and helpful additional perspective to the Four Temperaments, Jung's Psychological Types, and the Keirsey and Myers Briggs® systems on which they were based. Eysenck's ideas have been developed and supported using studies and surveys of many thousands of people. Eysenck was one of the most prolific researchers and writers on the subject of personality and its measurement, and yet he continued to strive for improved understanding and interpretation into the 1990s, having worked for 60 years in the field. Proof, if any were needed, that this is indeed a complex area, and one which we are still a long long way from fully comprehending. It is interesting to note also that Eysenck's 1950s key words feature strongly in at least one modern version of the DISC personality testing system, which testifies to the enduring importance of Eysenck's work, and which provides yet another indication of the similarity and common themes between many of these 'different' personality models. Eysenck later theorised about a third dimension: psychoticism, from his studies of mentally disturbed people, and which can be related to risk-
taking and eccentricity. In his later life Eysenck also developed better scientific understanding of Jung's introversion and extraversion 'attitudes', which, along with his other ideas helped Katherine Benziger develop her own ideas of personality and behaviour. Hans Eysenck's key books include: Uses and Abuses of Psychology (1953); Know Your Own IQ (1962); Race, Intelligence and Education (1971), and the autobiographical Rebel without a Cause (1990).
katherine benziger's personality and brain-type theory
Benziger's model is relatively recent compared to the Four Temperaments, Jung, Eysenck, etc. Her theories and tools have been widely used by many of the world's major corporations, and are still the subject of ongoing research and refinement. Benziger's key book, The Art Of Using Your Whole Brain, was first published in 1989, revised as 'Thriving In Mind' in 2000. Benziger's main psychometrics instrument is the BTSA (Benziger Thinking Styles Assessment). Katherine Benziger is unusual compared to many other personality thinkers (and particularly the way that other seminal theories have been developed into highly commercialised 'testing' systems) because she places greatest emphasis on 'wellness' and the need to help people avoid 'falsifying' their true type. Benziger says that very many people 'falsify type', so as to fit into a role or career path that might not be right for them, which has a negative impact on health, happiness and personal effectiveness. Benziger drew great inspiration from Carl Jung and from the work of Myers Briggs® and Hans Eysenck. Her work has also been influenced and supported by the late 20th century scientific developments into brain imaging, using modern scanning technologies - basically using safe equivalents of X-Ray techniques - to actually determine which parts of the brain are being used for various functions and types of thinking
('thinking' here in the general sense of what the brain is doing, not in the 'logical' Jungian sense). Put simply, Benziger's theory expresses personality in terms of four quadrants of the brain (basal means rear or back):
• • • •
Basal Left - process and routine Basal Right - intuition and empathy Front Left - logic and results Front Right - vision and creativity
Benziger relates these modes of thinking to Jung's Four Functions, and Benziger's theory provides many people an immensely helpful way to make sense of what Jung said and advocated. For ease of comparison between Benziger's and Jung's models the same colours are used for corresponding 'functions' or 'styles', although these colours were not part of either theorist's concepts. Importantly Benziger acknowledges and uses the Jungian Extravert and Introvert dimension, but does not represent it within the four-quadrant model of the four functional types (Benziger's 'behaving' or 'thinking' or 'preferred' styles - the word 'thinking' is used here in a more general sense than the specific Jungian meaning). These brain-type functions also correlate to the Myers Briggs® and Keirsey models, naturally since all of these theories make use of the fundamental Jungian 'four functional types' reference points - Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuition.
Benziger's model uses this representation of the brain (viewed from above, top is front) and the summary definitions below. The brain has four specialised areas. Each is responsible for different brain functions (which imply strengths, behaviour and thinking style). Within Benziger's model the specialised areas are called 'modes'.
According to Benziger each of us possesses natural strengths in only one of these specialised areas, which causes us to favour and use a certain style ahead of others. Outside of that one style, we may have strengths and weaknesses which are based on what competencies we have been exposed to, or developed, and indeed which competencies we have not been exposed to. Katherine Benziger refers to the natural specialised area as the 'preferred thinking and behavioural mode'. Typically this will equate to the Jungian 'superior function' and the Myers Briggs® 'dominant function' as described in this section. Benziger's books ('The Art of Using Your Whole Brain', and in revised form 'Thriving in Mind') contain an excellent and simple personality assessment to illustrate this point. The benziger personality assessment relies on complete honesty when answering - if you are 'falsifying your type' then you will distort the analysis (which of course is true for any personality assessment or psychometrics test, although most theorists and providers seem to emphasise this aspect far less than Benziger). Incidentally the Benziger assessment also contains a section which determines the extent to which the person is falsifying type, and this for Benziger is a fundamentally important aspect of her theory and assessment methodology. Without wishing to go off on a long tangent, Benziger's ideas about 'falsification of type' relate strongly to the need for people to seek
proper 'congruence' and 'alignment' between their own true natural personal preferences, style, strengths, and the organisations and services within which they work. Organisations and employers need increasingly to wake up to these issues, both in terms of re-aligning their own values and aims so that they become more helpful for the world at large, and also in helping their people to identify and pursue and fulfil their own unique potential and destiny. Benziger's ideas are at the heart of this very modern sort of organisational philosophy. Now back to the model. Here's how Benziger's model relates to Jung's Four Functions. Once more the colours are merely to help with comparisons to the Jung and Myers Briggs® models:
Benziger brain quadrant frontal left Benziger's describing characteristics examples analytical, objective, principles, standards, criteria, critiques realistic, down-to-earth, practical, sensible, the past subjective, personal, values intimacy, sees extenuating circumstances, humane, sees harmony hunches, speculative, fantasy, imaginative, the future behaviour directed inwardly to understand and manage self and experience behaviour directly externally, to influence outside factors and events Jungian 'function' or 'attitude' Thinking
basal left basal right
Sensing Feeling
frontal right
Intuition Introversion
Extraversion
Remember while Benziger certainly acknowledges and makes use of Jung's Extravert-Introvert dimension, it is not represented within Benziger's four-quadrants brain model.
These are Benziger's brain functions or 'modes' in more detail. Note again the correlation to the Jungian functions.
mode 1 specialised area basal left brain functions response to stimulus Jungian function Sensing
Order and habit Remembers Ordered procedures definitions. What is, Sequential routines is as described. Spiritual experience Picks up emotional Rhythm and feeling tone and the Harmony presence or absence of harmony (including harmony between people). What is, is how we feel about it. Sees the essence of things, in pictures and metaphors. What is, is something meaning or enabling something else. Converts into logical results or effects. What is, leads to, or produces results.
2
basal right
Feeling
3
frontal right Internal imaging Metaphor and imagination Expressiveness
Intuition
4
frontal left
Structural analysis Prioritising and logic Mathematics
Thinking
Benziger says that people possess one and only one natural leading function or 'mode' in which their brain is naturally efficient. People can and often do however develop competencies in other modes. When they do in practice they will be using more areas of their brain, and when they do this the competencies outside their natural lead are always somewhat draining, which links to Benziger's ideas about the dangers of falsification of type. If it's 'draining' using competencies that are not our natural strength, it must be more
stressful still when we have to work exclusively in a competence other than our natural preference.
benziger and correlations to other personality models
Benziger's model is particularly helpful for many people in providing an excellent framework for comparing and understanding other personality models, including Jung's original four functional types, Kolb, and one or two other less well-known ideas from around the world. Once more the colours aim to help show the relationships with Jung's model, and are not part of the original theories. The correlations to the Myers Briggs® MBTI® types (and by implication Keirsey's also) are based on the functional dominance within each of these types (explained in the functional dominancesub-section of the Myers Briggs® section).
Benziger Benziger Jung's brain (broad) 'Four mode or types Functional quadrant Types' process basal left and routine intuition and empathy sensing Jungian 'superior' and 'auxiliary' Myers Keirsey Briggs® types MBTI® types promoter inspector performer protector provider composer teacher healer inventor mastermind champion counsellor Kolb's learning styles
ST and SF ESTP ISTJ ESFP ISFJ FS and FN ESFJ ISFP ENFJ INFP NT and NF ENTP INTJ ENFP INFJ ESTJ ISTP ENTJ INTP
Reflective Observation
feeling
basal right
Concrete Experience
frontal right
vision intuition and creativity logic and thinking results
Active Experimentation
frontal left
TS and TN
supervisor Abstract crafter Conceptualisation fieldmarshall architect
More detail about Katherine Benziger's fascinating theory is on the Benziger page.
DISC
You will see the DISC model often represented as DiSC®, which reflects the ownership of this particular logoform by the US Inscape Publishing company. Inscape has extensively researched and developed its own DISC systems, which according to the company's publicity have been used by over 40 million people since the early 1970s, which are used with the intention of enabling people to "...gain the insight they need to be more successful, productive, and fulfilled at work..." Inscape also say, "... DiSC® instruments are based on a simple idea - that the foundation of personal and professional success lies in knowing yourself, understanding others, and realizing the impact of your actions and attitudes on other people..." The DISC model is attributed to Dr William Moulton Marston, whose book Emotions Of Normal People (1928) first explained the model using the DISC terminology, and which also provided the descriptive words on which the commonly used DISC personality assessment systems were built. Marston didn't create an assessment tool. This was done initially by researchers at the University of Minnesota, in 1972 according to Inscape. Inscape, and others, have continued to develop, test and validate DISC assessment systems, which are marketed with gusto to the corporate and organisational development communities. The dimensions of Behaviour and Situation feature strongly in Marston's ideas. There are several slightly varying interpretations of this model. Here's a general outline.
DISC basic personality types model
There are different interpretations of this model, based on the same underpinning structure. This presentation of the DISC model borrows
from various interpretations. The colours mainly emphasise the columns - they are not part of the original DISC theory - but they also reflect the logical correlations to two of the Four Temperaments and Keirsey main types (D = Phlegmatic/Rational; I = Choleric/Idealist) and the Jungian Extravert-Introvert 'attitudes'. Other than this there is no attempt here to overlay the DISC model or personality traits directly onto any other personality model. There are overlaps and correlations between DISC and other personality systems but not a direct overlay. Logical comparisons and correlations between DISC types and the types contained in the theories ofJung, Benziger, etc, are shown lower in the grid below. D
Dominance
I
Influence
S
Steadiness
C
Compliance
generally proactive and extravert
generally reactive and introvert reliable, dependable, processorientated, listener, friendly, trustworthy, solid, ethical, finishes what others start and leave, methodical, decides according to process people motivated by time, space and continuity to do things properly dependence on process can become resistance
decisive, dominant, selfassured, forceful, taskorientated, instigates, leads and directs
motivates others via influence and persuasion, good communication skills, presents well, friendly, affable, inspires others, intuitive, gregarious, friendly
painstaking, investigative, curious, decides using facts and figures, correct, checker, detailed,
things motivated by responsibility and achievement
people motivated by recognition and personal approval
things motivated by attention to detail, perfection and truth need for perfection can delay or obstruct
strong focus on emphasis on task and image can neglect forceful style substance can upset people
fears failure and fears rejection and fears insecurity loss of power loss of reputation and change Benziger 'double frontal' (frontal right and frontal left), extraverted Jung's ET(N) and EN(T) IntuitiveThinking Myers Briggs® ENTJ, less so ENTP, INTJ, INTP closest Keirsey type equivalent is fieldmarshall temperament or humour implied by Keirsey is entirely phlegmatic (Keirsey's rationalist) Benziger 'double right' (basal right and frontal right), extraverted Jung's EF(N) and EN(F) Intuitive-Feeling Myers Briggs® ENFJ, less so ENFP, INFJ, INFP closest Keirsey type equivalent is teacher Benziger 'double basal' (basal left and basal right), introverted Jung's IF(S) and IS(F) SensingFeeling
fears inaccuracy and unpredictability Benziger 'double left' (basal left and frontal left) introverted Jung's IT(S) and IS(T) Sensing-Thinking
Myers Briggs® Myers Briggs® ISFP, less so ISTP, less so ISTJ, ISFJ, ESFP, ESTP, ESTJ ESFJ closest Keirsey type equivalent is composer closest Keirsey type equivalent is crafter temperament or humour implied by Keirsey is half sanguine half melancholic (Keirsey's artisan and guardian)
temperament or humour temperament or implied by humour implied Keirsey is half by Keirsey is sanguine half entirely choleric melancholic (Keirsey's idealist) (Keirsey's artisan and guardian)
N.B. The closest equivalent types shown above from the models of Jung, Myers Briggs® and Keirsey are just a guide, and have been arrived at by factoring in the typical DISC dimensions of extraversionintroversion and proactive-passive, which imply the obvious Extraverted or Introverted Jungian equivalents, and Judging (proactive) or Perceiving (reactive) Jungian equivalents. As we've seen, none of this is a perfect science, and the correlations are formed by logical extension rather than clear admissions of statements from the originating
theorists. Benziger's correlations however are those stated by Katherine Benziger herself.
Unlike testing systems such as Myers Briggs® and Keirsey which typically match people to defined 'types', The DISC model instead presents a series of four main 'type' descriptions (titled above as Dominance, Influence, Steadiness and Compliance). The DISC testing instruments tend to identify people's dominant or preferred type and one or two supporting types from the four available, and this mixture is then represented by a graph or personality description based on the mixture of the types. In this respect no person is exclusively just one of the four DISC types. Most people have a dominant or preferred main type, plus one or two supporting types in different degrees depending on the person and the situation. DISC systems commonly not only assess the person but also the person's mix of dominant types from different perspectives. It is important to note again that the DISC system of personality assessment, like all personality models, provides a guide and a perspective of personality; it is not a 100% reliable or definitive measurement. Under certain circumstances DISC and related terminology are protected or trademarked intellectual property, so if you have ideas to use any DISC theory or tools in connection with the commercial delivery of personality assessment or testing services it's wise to check whether you can do so freely or whether such use is governed by licensing conditions. DiSC® is a trademark of the US Inscape Publishing company.
belbin® team roles
Dr Meredith Belbin, UK academic and consultant developed the Belbin team roles model in the late 1970s. Belbin's work at Henley Management College demonstrated that balanced teams comprising people with different capabilities performed better than teams that are less well balanced. Belbin's key book 'Management Teams - Why They Succeed or Fail', was first published in 1981. According to Belbin publicity (Belbin founded Belbin Associates, who produce and provide psychometrics (personality and behavioural testing) instruments and other related services based on Belbin's theories) the Belbin Team Roles model is used by over 40% of the UK's top 100 companies, and thousands more internationally. N.B. The Belbin Team Role model and certain related teminology is © Belbin Associates - if in doubt about usage check with Belbin. The use of Belbin tests and training materials is subject to licence from Belbin. Meredith Belbin initially identified a set of eight roles, which, it is argued, are all present in a team provide good balance and increase likelihood of success. The eight roles were later increased to nine, with the addition of the 'Specialist' role. Presumably due to political correctness and changing attitudes in organisations, the names of certain roles have been altered in recent years. Below are the modern role names and brief descriptions, with notes of what they were previously called where appropriate. There are no 'good' or 'bad' roles. People are as they are, and all roles play important parts in successful teams. Belbin suggested that certain roles tend to be more extraverted (outgoing, proactive, outward-looking) while other roles tend to be more introverted (inward-looking, reactive). These days less emphasis is placed on whether a role was considered extravert or introvert, but for the record, the roles originally presented as extravert are indicated with an asterisk* within the roles listing and descriptions below:
belbin team roles and descriptions
It is not easy to correlate precisely the Belbin team roles to specific personality types in other personality models, although there are certain common elements, for example Extraverted and Introverted roles,
which are colour coded appropriately below. There are also some useful correlations with the Big Five Factors model. This colour-coding does not form part of the original Belbin theory, it simply aims to assist comparisons with other models explained in this section.
role name Coordinator (CO)* strengths and styles able to get others working to a shared aim; confident, mature - (originally called 'Chairman' by Belbin) motivated, energetic, achievement-driven, assertive, competitive innovative, inventive, creative, original, imaginative, unorthodox, problem-solving serious, prudent, critical thinker, analytical systematic, common sense, loyal, structured, reliable, dependable, practicable, efficient (originally called 'Company Workers') quick, good communicator, networker, outgoing, affable, seeks and finds options, negotiator supportive, sociable, flexible, adaptable, perceptive, listener, calming influence, mediator attention to detail, accurate, high standards, quality orientated, delivers to schedule and specification technical expert, highly focused capability and knowledge, driven by professional standards and dedication to personal subject area
Shaper (SH)* Plant (PL)* Monitor-Evaluator (ME)
Implementer (IMP)
Resource Investigator (RI)*
Team Worker (TW) Completer-Finisher (CF)
Specialist (SP)
* Belbin suggested these roles are more extravert than introvert. N.B. It does not follow that extraverted roles are always self-motivating. Neither does it follow that introverted roles need 'motivating' or instructing. The proactivity, direction, attitude and motivation of any roles, in a Belbin context (as for any other personality profiling system), depend on a wide variety of factors, including alignment of
organisational and personal aims and values, personal circumstances, emotional maturity, life-stage, leadership influences, reward systems, and more. Greater understanding of these issues can be achieved by considering many different behavioural perspectives, theories and models. The simplest central point relating to motivation is that different people respond to different stimuli. Therefore the more we understand about ourselves and people, then the more we understand about what motivates us. People are more motivated and happy when they are performing and working in a way that is natural to them. Expecting a person with a particular personality type (be it represented by a Belbin team role, a Jung psychological type, a Myers Briggs® MBTI®, or whatever) to perform well and enthusiastically in a role that is foreign or alien to their natural preferences and strengths is not helpful for anyone.
The UK DTI quality management guidance notes provides further some useful interpretation of the parts that these roles play in teams:
'belbin team roles' within teams
The Co-ordinator clarifies group objectives, sets the agenda, establishes priorities, selects problems, sums up and is decisive, but does not dominate discussions. The Shaper gives shape to the team effort, looking for pattern in discussions and practical considerations regarding the feasibility of the project. Can steamroller the team, but gets results. The Plant is the source of original ideas, suggestions and proposals that are usually original and radical. The Monitor-Evaluator contributes a measured and dispassionate analysis and, through objectivity, stops the team committing itself to a misguided task. The Implementer turns decisions and strategies into defined and manageable tasks, sorting out objectives and pursuing them logically.
The Resource Investigator goes outside the team to bring in ideas, information and developments to it. They are the team's sales-person, diplomat, liaison officer and explorer. The Team Worker operates against division and disruption in the team, like cement, particularly in times of stress and pressure. The Finisher maintains a permanent sense of urgency with relentless follow-through. All of these roles have value and are missed when not in a team; there are no stars or extras. An individual's team role can be determined by the completion of a Belbin questionnaire. It is not essential that teams comprise eight people each fulfilling one of the roles above, but that people who are aware and capable of carrying out these roles should be present. In small teams, people can, and do, assume more than one role. In addition, analysing existing teams and their performance or behaviour, using these team role concepts, can lead to improvements, for example:
• • •
Under-achievement demands a good coordinator or finisher Conflict requires a team worker or strong coordinator Mediocre performance needs a resource investigator, innovator or shaper Error prone teams need an evaluator Different roles are important in different circumstances, for example: New teams need a strong shaper to get started. Competitive situations demand an innovator with good ideas. In areas of high risk, a good evaluator may be needed. Teams should, therefore, be analysed both in terms of what team roles members can play, and also in relation to what team skills are most needed.
• •
• • • •
Despite having well defined roles within a team, the interaction between the different personalities of individuals can be a frequent source of friction. However, this can largely be avoided by understanding and valuing people's differences.
(The above notes about Belbin team roles within teams are UK DTI quality management guidance notes and are Crown Copyright.)
the 'big five' factors personality model - OCEAN
'The Big Five' is the commonly used term for the model of personality which describes the five fundamental factors of our personality. For reasons explained below the model is commonly referred to as OCEAN, being an acronym for names often used for the five traits. The alternative acronym CANOE is less commonly used. This summary and explanation has been provided by psychologist and psychometrics expert Paul Sinclair (see Paul's biography below), which is greatly appreciated. The Big Five 'super traits' have been researched and validated by many different psychologists (WT Norman 1963, McCrae & Costa 1987, Brand & Egan 1989, LR Goldman 1990 and P Sinclair 1992) and are at the core of many other personality questionnaires. While Raymond Cattell 'uncovered' 16 traits from his factor analysis (a statistical way of reducing a variety of things down to a smaller number of related clusters) in the development of the 16PF; no one else was able to replicate his work. On the other hand, the Big Five Factors have been replicated in studies across the world and give us a confident summary of our mental building blocks, according to trait theory. This had led to a number of slightly different 'translations' of the Big Five model, although each version essentially deals with the same theory and content. The words describing the characteristics change,
but the basic characteristics do not. The 'translations' between the different interpretations are explained later. Trait theory, on which many of our occupational questionnaires are based (for example, Cattell's 16PF and Saville & Holdsworth's 'OPQ' Occupational Personality Questionnaire), states that by the time we are in our early 20s and start work, our personality traits become more stable and reliable. This does not necessarily mean we become more stable or reliable, but that our individual personality traits become more fixed and are thus capable of being reliably measured. For example, loud, confident, creative people tend to remain loud, confident and creative people throughout their careers. Quiet, unassuming, dependable people tend to remain so also. When the first Big Five questionnaire was launched the UK in 1990, people were surprised and a little sceptical about the speed of the personality profiler; it took under 10 minutes to complete. This was because it was only measuring five factors and not sixteen or thirty-two personality factors. Suffice it to say, validation studies were published and presented to the British Psychology Society by the end of the 1990s the Big Five was established as a significant and fundamental personality testing model. N.B. The pink colour in the tables is used for the Big Five terminology recommended by Paul Sinclair. Aside from this, colour is used (hopefully) to improve presentation only, and does not relate to other personality models on this webpage.
the big five model - five 'bipolar' scales
The bold names in the left column are the recommended names (by Paul Sinclair) for these factors. Other names are used for each of the factors, which might equate to names in the left or right columns. See the OCEAN names below.
Extraversion vs Introversion
Confidence Detail-conscious Tough-minded Conforming
vs vs vs vs
Sensitive Unstructured Agreeable Creative
These scales are commonly alternatively represented by the OCEAN acronym and descriptions:
•
Openness to experience (equates to Creative, opposite Conforming above) Conscientiousness (equates to Detail-conscious above) Extraversion/Introversion (same as above) Agreeableness (equates to Agreeable, opposite Tough-minded above) Neuroticism (equates to Sensitive, opposite Confidence above)
• • •
•
While some psychologists refer to the OCEAN terminology it's not particularly recommended for use where people are likely to be sensitive to the words, notably 'neuroticism'. Other words in the OCEAN scale can also be perceived as judgmental or stigmatised. And while 'Conscientiousness' is technically accurate, using this word tends to influence decision-makers (notably users of psychometric testing systems) towards the characteristic and those displaying it, not least because the other end of the scale would logically be called 'Unconscientious'; better instead to refer to the scale of 'Detailconscious - Unstructured', which carries no sense of good or bad. It is generally more helpful to use the Big Five terms as detailed in the grid, which tend to present the scales as 'one or the other' rather than 'good or bad'. For the sake of reference however, here is the correlation between the OCEAN Big Five factor names and the more user-friendly names. See above for the precise description correlations.
Recommended Big Five Factor terms Common 'OCEAN' equivalents
Extraversion Introversion Confidence - Sensitive Detail-conscious Unstructured Tough-minded - Agreeable Conforming - Creative
Extraversion/Introversion Neuroticism/Stability Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness to experience
You will find other variations of how people refer to the Big Five Factors. For example The Big Five according to McCrae & Costa (1987) is typically shown as:
• • • • •
Neuroticism (vs Emotional Stability) Extraversion (vs Introversion) Openness to experience (vs Closedness to experiences) Agreeableness (vs Disagreeableness) Conscientiousness (vs Lack of conscientiousness)
The following tables show the typical behaviours within this model. Psychologists and psychometrics practitioners use the term 'Factor' to describe each of these five 'large traits' or scales. In turn, each of the Big Five Factors contains several behaviours, which are clustered under the five main Factor headings. Of course each main Factor can be further broken down into 'sub traits' or 'facets', for example, Extraversion could have sub-traits such as Sociable, Competitive, Energetic and Seeking Recognition. Each factor is named according to the 'high scoring' end of each scale. Low scores logically indicate behaviours at the opposite side of the scale.
High scores are not good or bad. Low scores are not good or bad. The majority of us actually tend to score close to the middle (the 'norm'). The higher a person scores for the behavioural elements shown within each of the five factors, the more (logically) they will exhibit these behaviours, and be less able to sustain the tendencies of the low scorer. And vice versa. Again, there is no good or bad. It's simply a measure of what we are.
the big five factors including behavioural elements
Other commonly used factor names (notably OCEAN) for the Big Five Factors are shown in Green.
extraversion
low score (introversion)
• • • • •
high score (extraversion)
• •
Reserved and shy in company Able to concentrate on long tasks Prefers a calm environment Dislikes the limelight and attention Inhibited and somewhat reluctant in teams Not a natural communicator Deliberate, and
Open and talkative Competitive, enthusiastic and persuasive Enjoys a fast pace and variety at work Gregarious Socially active and energetic Can be impulsive or indiscreet Needs praise enjoys attention Can lack
• • • • • •
• •
reflects on things
•
Lacks spontaneity
concentration in routine or long tasks
confidence
low score (sensitive, aka neuroticism)
•
high score (confidence, aka stability)
Unsure of self, hesitant, checks with superiors Prone to anxiety under pressure Dislikes making big/important decisions Not ambitious, somewhat pessimistic Concerned by change or the unexpected May be temperamental, low emotional control Nervous presenting self or own ideas
• • • • • • •
• •
Relaxed, calm under pressure High self esteem Decisive, asserts him/herself Optimistic, enjoys taking lead Resilient to pressure Copes with the unexpected Enjoys autonomy, ambitious
• •
•
•
detail-conscious
low score (unstructured) high score (detailconscious akaconscientiousness)
•
Flexible and informal approach to work Multi-tasker Not detail conscious - expedient Prefers 'big picture' - strategic Less committed to formal tasks Works well in a chaotic environment Dislikes paper work - unstructured
• • • • • • •
Structured approach to work Quality-conscious and detailed Plans and forecasts - organised Reliable and efficient Persevering and dutiful Committed to the job - striving Keen to achieve goals
• • • • • •
tough-minded
low score (agreeableness) high score (toughminded)
• • • • • •
• • • • •
Empathetic and consensus oriented Enjoys team participation Tolerant of others Seen as kind and generous Patient and democratic with others Can find disciplining others difficult Can be seen as too soft or submissive
Self reliant and independent - pushy Not a natural team player - dominant Goal oriented tough and determined Capable of dealing with 'office politics' Drives through obstacles Somewhat impatient with weaker colleagues Able to make unpopular decisions
•
•
•
•
Naturally democratic management style
•
Autocratic management style
conforming
low score (creative, akaopenness/openness to experience)
• • • • • • •
high score (conforming)
Finds routines and systems constricting Enjoys challenging the status quo Champions change - accepts risks Idealistic, with a variety of interests Creative thinker and problem solver Unconventional and intellectual Thinks on feet, improvises
• • •
Follow rules and procedures Risk-averse and cautious of change Adapts rather than creates new approaches Conservative and serious Obedient to corporate methodology Practical and down to earth Adheres to guidelines and systems
• •
• •
the combinations of factors define the personality - not single scales
When using this model, as with many other personality concepts, it is the combination of scores from all of the scales that shows us how people operate and identifies their underlying preferences. Looking at a single scale in isolation tells us hardly anything, and can be very misleading. For example: Although a creative (non-conformist) has the intellectual ability to be creative, if their non-conformity is combined with introversion and low confidence, they may not express their creative thoughts and ideas. A creative (non-conformist) who is also extravert, confident and unstructured (low detailconscious), will not only express their ideas but may also propose quite impractical suggestions.
usage of the big five factor model
The Big Five is a very useful model for assessing non-managerial staff, but it lacks some of the rigour required for assessing people in or destined for managerial and executive roles. The Big Five model gives us an accurate and fast way of assessing the main drivers of someone's personality. But the model by itself is not able to drill down into complex management capabilities or competencies. For this we must refer more to work-related behaviours rather than 'pure' personality. Management performance depends more on the subtle use of discretionary elements of the job, which the Big Five will not measure. The Big Five is a 'broad brush' personality methodology. A different approach is required for management assessment, to gauge the 'components' of people's behaviour and the detailed combinations of working style. Each of the Big Five factors consists of 'sub-traits', for example, 'Agreeable' (at the opposite end of the 'Tough-minded' scale) consists of sub-traits (behavioural elements) such as 'Tactful', 'Diplomatic',
'Team-centred', 'Submissive', 'Warm', 'Friendly','Tolerant' and 'Democratic'. In typical use of the Big Five model and tests, a person's score on the 'Agreeable' scale will be an average of how they match the sub-traits. Showing the detail and variance of the sub-traits scores would entail a vastly more complex and time-consuming analysis. The strengths of the Big Five Factor model lie in its speed and ease of use and this makes it a very useful tool for gaining a rapid overview of a person's key drivers. The Big Five Factor model has been very well validated, and while it has shown correlations with performance in jobs, studies indicate that the correlation with particular jobs does not exceed 0.30, which accounts for no more than 15% of the variables. There is a big difference between measuring job suitability, style, etc., and measuring personality per se. The Big Five model is a modern, widely replicated and validated methodology for understanding, explaining and measuring personality. Various Big Five tests have been developed. The first to be launched in the UK, and one of the most popular, is the RPQ (Rapid Personality Questionnaire), which is available from various suppliers. Here is a free Big Five mini-test (5 mins max) on the excellent website of Professor George Boeree (pronounced boo-RAY). This test gives a very quick Big Five profile and is more for understanding the model thank for serious personality assessment, although as a quick simple guide it works well. Bear in mind that the Big Five factor headings Professor Boeree's minitest vary slightly compared to factor names mentioned above, and correlate as follows (precise correlations in bold). Aside from 'Stability' Boeree uses the OCEAN headings:
Recommend Big Five Factor terms Extraversion - Introversion Confidence - Sensitive Detail-conscious - Unstructured Boeree mini-test equivalents Extraversion Stability Conscientiousness
Tough-minded - Agreeable Conforming - Creative
Agreeableness Openness
the big five - some notable combinations
The 'personality-based sub-types' in column one are broad generic profiles and do not relate to any particular model's definitions. Be careful not to read too much into these single-word descriptions - they provide a rough guide, not a detailed scientific correlation.
personalitybased 'subtypes' dependent social leader intellectual submissive need for praise confidence, extraversion defensive exhibitionist autonomous harm avoidance supportive conscientious extraversion, tough-minded confidence conforming extraversion detailconscious, conforming extraversion, conforming tough-minded tough-minded confidence, tough-minded will contain Big Five high scoring factors conforming confidence, extraversion extraversion conforming extraversion, tough-minded will contain Big Five low scoring factors confidence, tough-minded
impulsive authoritarian sensitive to criticism persuasive completerfinisher
tough-minded, extraversion tough-minded, conforming tough-minded extraversion, confidence detailconscious, conforming
conforming
confidence conforming confidence
'the big five' correlations with other personality models
Here are correlations between the Big Five factors and respectively the models of 16PF, OPQ and the Belbin 'team role' types. Below first are the Big Five correlations with Cattell's 16PF model. Understanding these correlations is aided by knowing the 16PF scale definitions. As ever, single word descriptions are open to different interpretations, hence inclusion of the 16PF letter codes. An explanation of the 16PF model will appear on this page in due course. The word 'negatively' below means that the correlation is with the opposite end of the Big Five scale concerned, for example, below, the 16PF description 'Shrewd' correlates to the opposite of the Big Five 'Extraversion', ie., 'Introversion'
big five and 16pf
Big Five Factors Extraversion Cattell's 16PF descriptive equivalents Assertive (E) Happy-go-lucky (F) Venturesome (H) Shrewd (N), negatively
Experimenting (Q1) Controlled (Q3), negatively Confidence Emotional (C) Assertive (E) Happy-go-lucky (F) Conscientious (G), negatively Apprehensive (O), negatively Experimenting (Q1), negatively Tense (Q4) Happy-go-lucky (F), negatively Conscientious (G) Controlled (Q3) Assertive (E) Happy-go-lucky (F) Conscientious (G), negatively Suspicious (L) Experimenting (Q1) Controlled (Q3), negatively Assertive (E), negatively Happy-go-lucky (F), negatively Conscientious (G) Venturesome (H), negatively Shrewd (N) Controlled (Q3)
Detail-conscious
Tough-minded
Conforming
the big five and opq (occupational personality questionnaire)
Below are the Big Five correlations with the OPQ model (Occupational Personality Questionnaire). Understanding these correlations is aided by knowing the OPQ scale definitions. As ever, single word descriptions are open to different interpretations, hence inclusion of the OPQ letter
codes. Again, an explanation of the OPQ model will appear on this page in due course. And again, the word 'negatively' signifies that the correlation is to the opposite end of the Big Five factor concerned, eg., OPQ description 'Modest' correlates to the opposite of the Big Five 'Extraversion', ie., 'Introversion'.
Big Five Factors OPQ (Occupational Personality Questionnaire) descriptive equivalents Persuasive (R1) Controlling (R2) Independent (R3) Outgoing (R4) Confident (R6) Modest (R7), negatively Traditional (T5), negatively Change Orientated (T6) Innovative (T8) Emotional Control (F4) Optimistic (F5) Critical (F6) Competitive (F8) Achieving (F9) Decisive (F10) Persuasive (R1) Controlling (R2) Independent (R3) Outgoing (R4) Socially Confident (R6) Modest (R7), negatively Traditional (T5), negatively Change Orientated (T6) Innovative (T8) Relaxed (F1) Worrying (F2), negatively Tough Minded (F3) Optimistic (F5) Traditional (T5) Detail Conscious (T10) Conscientious (T11) Independent (R3)
Extraversion
Confidence
Detail-conscious
Tough-minded
Democratic (R8), negatively Caring (R9), negatively Detail Conscious (T10), negatively Critical (F6) Conforming Persuasive (R1), negatively Independent (R3), negatively Outgoing (R4), negatively Modest (R7) Traditional (T5) Innovative (T8), negatively Competitive (F8), negatively Achieving (F9), negatively Decisive (F10), negatively
the big five and belbin 'team role' types
Below are the Big Five correlations with the Belbin team role types. Given the overlap of Big Five factors across the Belbin team role types, the correlations are shown between the Belbin types and the corresponding dominant Big Five factors. See the Belbin section above.
Belbin 'team role' type Coordinator/Chairman (CO)* Shaper (SH)* Plant (PL)* Monitor-Evaluator (ME) Big Five correlating scale score/emphasis Extraversion, Confidence Extraversion, Tough-minded, Creative Extraversion, Confidence, Tough-minded, Creative No strong correlations with the Big Five, probably because this Belbin team type is not high or low on any scale, ie., they are sober, detached, able to look at things objectively. They are most likely people with 'middle scores' across most of the Big Five scales, suggesting a balanced profile
with little emphasis on any specific scale, quite a rare Big Five profile. Implementer/Co Worker (IMP) Resource Investigator (RI)* Detail-conscious, Agreeable, Conforming Extraversion, Confidence, Creative Introversion, Sensitive, Detail-conscious, Conforming Sensitive, Detail-conscious, Agreeable, Conforming Not correlated with the Big Five. This recently added Belbin type is based less on personality and describes a technical specialism, thus linked to specialist knowledge/ability rather than temperament.
Team Worker (TW) Completer-Finisher (CF) Specialist (SP)
paul sinclair biography
Paul Sinclair is the founder and managing partner of Sinclair Associates and has spent fifteen years at the leading edge of psychological profiling and performance development. He works with companies to assess individual and team potential and develops plans to improve personal competencies. Paul co-launched the UK's first 'Big Five' personality profiler in 1990 and published a paper on 'Personality and Performance' in the British Psychological Society's journal - Selection and Development Review, and also presented a validation of the Big Five against the OPQ and the 16PF, at the BPS conference in 1992. Paul has been interviewed on BBC Radio 4 and consulted on the BBC2 TV series, 'Mind of the Millionaire'. Paul now focuses on business coaching and team building. A member of the European Mentoring & Coaching Council, Paul is based near Bath and works across the UK & Europe.
Paul's website is: www.cloudtalent.com and his email is [email protected]. Paul's contribution of this explanation of the Big Five Factor model is gratefully acknowledged.
firo-b®
FIRO-B® stands for Fundamental Interpersonal Relations OrientationBehaviour. Developed by William Schutz in 1958, Schutz first used the FIRO-B® tool to assess how teams performed in the US Navy. The FIRO-B® is an assessment tool used to help individuals and teams better understand their preferences in satisfying three basic social needs:
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Inclusion (the degree to which one belongs to a group, team or community) Control (the extent to which one prefers to have structure, hierarchy and influence) Affection (one's preference for warmth, disclosure and intimacy).
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For each of these factors, FIRO-B® assesses individuals as to:
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how much they express the needs and how much they want to have the needs expressed to them from others.
In this respect, FIRO-B® is measuring the three aspects of Inclusion, Control and Affection, from two 'needs perspectives' of expressing (outwardly directed behaviour towards others) andwanting (behaviour from others directed towards oneself).
The overall 'scores' from the assessment also reveal the degree to which people attain satisfaction from their interactions with others versus time spent alone. The FIRO-B® assessment data is particularly rich in enabling understanding individual and team behaviour. As with many other personality assessments, there are no 'right or wrong', nor 'good or bad' profiles. By reviewing the assessment information, an individual can gain insight into what kind of teams they prefer to work in, what kind of environment they'd like to work in, and what roles they prefer in the workplace. The FIRO-B® model and assessment tool can also provide information regarding leadership styles and areas of potential conflict. If teams take the assessment together, they can compare the extent to which each person's preferences complement or conflict with colleagues. For example, a team member wanting a high degree of inclusion would appreciate and respond well to a manager who invites him/her to various meetings. A team member with a high degree of expressed affection is likely to work well with a colleague who seeks affection and attention. The FIRO-B® system is a simple and elegant model that particularly assists understanding of team dynamics, greater self-awareness, mutual awareness among team-members (which relates helpfully to the Johari Window model), and team leadership development. My acknowledgements to Barbara Heyn for these introductory notes about the FIRO-B® assessment. Barbara runs Atticus Consulting LLC in Blue Ash, Ohio, and specialises in developing teams, leadership and organisations. See also Barbara Heyn's article in the love and spirituality section - about bringing compassion and humanity to work, which is obviously closely connected with understanding and respecting personality. FIRO-B® is a trademark of the CPP, Inc (Consulting Psychologists Press).
the birkman method®
I am grateful to Birkman International Inc. for their help in providing this summary (within which the US-English spelling of 'behavior' is used because it is appropriate for the terminology and origins of the theory). The Birkman Method® consists of ten scales describing motivations (Interests) and occupational preferences. It also has eleven scales describing 'effective behaviors' (Usual behaviors) and eleven scales describing interpersonal and environmental 'expectations' (Needs). A corresponding set of eleven derived scales describe the associated 'less than effective' (Stress) behaviors when expectations are not fulfilled. Together, these eleven scales are titled Components. In application, The Birkman Method® provides a method of improving personal and interpersonal effectiveness, articulating issues and resolving them, and revealing hidden assumptions that directly affect interpersonal effectiveness. The Birkman Method® notably:
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assesses perceptions and situational motivators is non-clinical, online, valid, reliable, and without 'adverse impact' identifies 'effective,' 'less than effective' behaviors and provides practical suggestions to improve personal and interpersonal effectiveness provides respondents with a unique problem-solving approach that can be applied to many situations, even situations beyond the extensive report options identifies the career choices most likely to appeal to the respondent and is translated into 13 languages.
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The core of The Birkman Method® predicts significant behavioral and motivational patterns by asking respondents about personal and social perceptions. Dr Birkman confirmed that individuals don't react to the 'real' world, but rather to their perception of it. This is the scientific response to the adage, 'perceptions are reality'.
Most researchers at the time were focused on 'why' respondents behaved the way they did. Dr Birkman was interested 'what' behaviors resulted from their perceptions. Specifically, Birkman identified work and business behaviors resulting from 'self' and 'other' perceptual responses. Ultimately, the Birkman Method® became a multifaceted, self-report tool that provides practical insights into everyday issues confronting adults as they live and work. It offers a unique way of discovering how individuals accomplish goals or miss opportunities.
origins of the theory
Roger W Birkman PhD, began his exploration of individual differences of behavior and perception while pilot and pilot instructor. His experience with the impact that misperceptions – both visual and interpersonal had on pilot performance and student learning led him to the study of psychology. By 1950, Birkman had developed a new method of assessment called the Test of Social Comprehension. It was empirically developed from workplace interviews and observations. The instrument was designed to measure the human characteristics that he saw influence perceptions, behaviors, and motivations in normally functioning adults. Eventually, Birkman met Roy B Mefferd Jr, who was a statistician/psychometrician. Mefferd was a colleague of H J Eysenck and Mefford also worked closely Raymond Cattel, creator of the 16PF. Mefferd was the first to analyze, modify and revise The Birkman Method using factor analysis. Over the years, many more PhD psychometricians have added to the research base. Originally, Birkman developed the scale descriptions by comparing self report item results with descriptions of likes, dislikes, and behaviors provided by third parties. Birkman then matched self-report results, item by item, with these third party behavioral descriptions. Eventually, these scales and the relationships between these scales became the working model of perceptual and interest interactions. During the 1960s, the assessment further integrated interests and occupational measurement. This integrated assessment came to be known as The Birkman Method®. Minor modifications and improvements occurred in the following decades. In 2008, The Birkman Method was updated to current standards by combining classical test theory and item test theory to review and update the instrument. Refer
to the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method® for more information.
scales used in the method interest scales
Interest scales describe an expressed motivational construct. Individuals with high scale values tend to prefer to be engaged in activities consistent with the commonly expected responsibilities of the interest scale meaning. The scales interact to form measures of general interest beyond measures of specific interest. The scale values measure intensity of desire to be involved with these activities, not skill or proficiency with these responsibilities. The reporting style of the Interest scales ranks Interests in order of highest to lowest values. Long bars indicate a strong preference or attraction while short bars indicate minimal interest and possibly disinterest or avoidance. The following figure depicts a typical Interest profile for a respondent.
component scales
According to Birkman's research, the Components are the constructs that significantly affect normal adults in the work environment. The following is a list of the Components titles and descriptions:
acceptance
The Acceptance scales describe a sociability-based construct that addresses the manner of relating to people in groups. It includes the degree to which an individual wants to be talkative; enjoy people in groups; enjoy of social laughter; comfort in talking to strangers; enjoying parties and group activities; and approachability.
activity
The Activity scales describe a construct that addresses preferred pace of action and aspects of style, planning and decision making. This construct includes the degree to which an individual prefers action; quick thinking; and physical expression of energy.
advantage
The Advantage scales describe a construct that includes the degree to which an individual prefers to drive for personal rewards or to share in team rewards. This construct addresses the approach to idealism, and team vs. individual approaches to winning competitions and incentives. It also encompasses cautiousness about giving trust; involvement with money (as an incentive); and seeking personal advantage.
authority
The Authority scales address approaches to directing and influencing or persuading others in verbal exchanges. This construct describes the degree to which an individual wants to persuade; speak up; express opinions openly and forcefully; and/or argue.
challenge
Challenge involves the way in which a person approaches and understands the issues of socially correct behavior and especially social
image. The scale addresses issues on managing social image and social expectation.
change
The Change Orientation refers to openness to new personal experiences. Individuals who score low tend to prefer repetitive effort, minimal personal disruptions, and predictable responsibilities. Individuals who score high tend to seek new experiences and explore novel approaches, even within stable environments.
empathy
The Empathy scales describe a construct the degree to which an individual is comfortable with emotional expression and involvement of feelings.
esteem
The Esteem scales describe a sensitivity-based construct that includes shyness; saying no; praising and being praised; sensitivity about correcting others or being corrected by others; getting one's feelings hurt or being embarrassed.
freedom
The Freedom scales describe a construct concerning the degree to which an individual is more conventional or unconventional in their approach to solving issues.
structure
These scales describe an orderliness-based construct that includes the degree to which an individual insists on to giving or receiving clear direction; following instructions carefully; finishing tasks; dealing with detailed tasks; working for accuracy; and using systematic approaches.
thought
The Thought scales describe a construct concerning the degree to which an individual approaches forming conclusions and making decisions; concerns for making the right decision the first time; and concerns over the consequences of those decisions.
construction of the component scales
This section provides one example of the scoring of The Birkman Method®. For the purpose of explaining this approach, let's create a fictitious Component named Handedness. Low scores indicate a lefthanded approach to solving dexterity problems and high scores indicate right-handed preferences. The following scale uses numbers to indicate the degree to which the left hand is preferred. Handedness: From a Left-Hander's Perspective
Conversely, we could explain Handedness from the right-handers perspective using the same scale. If the Handedness score (or bandwidth) is between 1 and 9, the right hand is never used and, by default, the left hand is always used (unless hurt). Handedness: From a Right-Hander's Perspective
Scores of 1-9 and 90-99 are the pure forms of opposing preferences; they are differences of kind. For some individuals, the pure forms are more than 'preferences'. They are often viewed as the 'right' way. In terms of application, these 'differences of kind' can lead to one or more individuals becoming judgmental or unable to see things from the 'other' perspective. As you might suspect, the three middle bands (scores of 10-39, 40-60 and 61-89) are differences of degree, that is, they are blends of the two pure preferences. Birkman crafted the expected Component scales so that individuals with 'low scale' values needed situations and relationships that precipitated one style of behavioral effectiveness and those who expected 'high scale' conditions that created the opposite productive style of response. Scales contained only descriptive information, no value judgment was attached to either end of any scale; therefore, both ends of the scale had equal value and positive cultural connotations. The scale values described how an individual needed to be treated or what type situation an individual prefers, not intensity or frequency of need alone. The next section describes the aspects of each Component scale in more detail.
expectation (need) scales
Birkman found that when an individual was in a situation or relationship that proceeded in a manner that was consistent with their underlying expectations (needs) that individual felt good about self, was adaptable and exhibited positive, productive behaviors. When the relationship or situation was consistent with the individual's expectations, the individual frequently behaved in a productive manner. Birkman also found that when these expectations were not met, individuals tended to exhibit less-than-effective behaviors. This is consistent recent research in the related topic of Self-Regulation and the attending behavioral implications. Ultimately, Birkman found that the conditions that created less-thaneffective behaviors varied greatly. The only precise way for Birkman to define these 'frustrating' conditions was that they were not the expectation 'fulfillment' conditions. In other words, there were many ways to frustrate expectations but very few ways to fulfill them.
productive (usual) behavior scales
The typical, or usual, productive behaviors are expressed in a variety of situations and are readily observable by others. These scales describe an individual's effective style of dealing with relationships and tasks. These behaviors are typically described as positive or effective (although it may not mean the goals are accomplished). Low scale values are described as approaching relationships or tasks in one manner and those with a high scale value are described as approaching them in an opposite but equally effective manner. It is easy to envision two equally skilled individuals, one excellent at motivating using intangible rewards and someone else who motivates excellently using only tangible rewards. Theoretically, this is similar to the FIRO-B Elements® assessment, which assumes that an individual's behavior is independent of their desired environmental conditions.
less-than-effective (stress) behavior scales
Scale values indicate an individual's ineffective style of dealing with relationships or tasks. These behaviors are typically described as 'how he acts when he is under stress,' or 'how she behaves when she is frustrated'. Within The Birkman Method®, this non-productive behavior
might be practically productive in the short term, but costly in terms of relationships and long term effectiveness. In essence, there might be bodies along the way to achieving the objective. Individuals often report that they are not pleased with themselves after they use these 'lessthan-productive' behaviors. Again, scale values indicate the style of behavior, not level of ineffectiveness. Note: Further insights into the causes of various less-than-productive behaviors have recently been studied by researchers within the selfregulation domain.
the birkman method® and MBTI® comparison
In 2008, CPP and Birkman International teamed together to develop the correlation tables between The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® Step II Facet Scales. For a complete comparison between both the MBTI® and MBTI® Step II, please refer to the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method®.
similarities and differences found in the study
Both The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® are non-clinical assessments. The technical manuals for both assessments have established and documented face, content, construct (convergent/divergent), and criterion-related validities. However, these two instruments have fundamentally different foundations and psychometric properties. The MBTI® is an indicator of type. As such it does not measure the amount of a personality trait. Rather, the MBTI® sorts, or categorizes, individuals based on preference or type ('Bill prefers introversion.'), but not the strength or degree of preference ('Jane strongly prefers extraversion') nor degree of aptitude ('Harry is good at thinking'). The MBTI® is socially and environmentally independent, provides generic descriptions of productive and less-than-productive behaviors for each the sixteen possible types, and has no corresponding equivalent of the Birkman Expectations.
The Birkman Method® provides the degree of preference across eleven scales, and independently measures ten motivational factors. As well, The Birkman Method® reports on specific contextual factors which affect behavior (Expectations). Birkman reports contain thousands of productive and less-than-productive behavioral combinations and provide specific prescriptions for improving performance.
comparison between the birkman method® and the 'big five' factor model of personality
The Birkman Method® aligns with the FFM (Five Factor Model or 'Big Five' or OCEAN model), but also has sub-factors for Emotive, Social and Control Orientations. This provides additional insight into the personality and productiveness dynamics.
FFM Constructs ('Big Five' or OCEAN model) Neuroticism Extraversion Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness Birkman Orientations Associated Birkman Components
Emotive Orientation Empathy, Thought, Activity Social Orientation Process Orientation Control Orientation Change Orientation Esteem, Acceptance Structure Advantage, Authority Change
appropriate uses for the birkman method®
The continuous trait-measurements, multi-dimensional properties, and predictive reporting provided by The Birkman Method® make it useful in decision-making and issues-based activities, such as hiring, selection, conflict resolution, personal development, leadership development, and team building.
birkman international - acknowledgements
I am grateful to Birkman International for their help in providing this summary. For more about The Birkman Method® assessment or to purchase a copy of the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method® call (800) 215-2760 (USA) or email [email protected]. The 2008 Technical Manual contains the complete statistical analysis between The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® Step I and MBTI® Step II. The Technical Manual also covers the full developmental history, theoretical background, reliability and validity, empirical evidence, and norms for The Birkman Method® assessment. You may also visit the Birkman website at www.birkman.com for general information about Birkman International, Inc., The Birkman Method® assessment, and other products and services. For more about the MBTI® or MBTI® Step II or to obtain a copy of the technical manuals, visit www.cpp.com. References/sources used in compiling the Birkman summary: Birkman, R.W., Elizondo, Fabian, Lee, Larry G., Wadlington, Patrick L., Zamzow, Matt W. (2008). The Birkman Method® Manual. Houston, TX: Birkman International, Inc. Birkman, R.W. (1961). Development of a personality test using social and self perception inventories. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin. Birkman, R.W. (1997). True Colors. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc. Briggs Myers, Isabel, McCaulley, Mary H., Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L. (1998). A Guide to the Development and Use of the MyersBriggs Type Indicator®. Mountain View, CA: CPP, Inc. Pittenger, David J. (1993). Measuring the MBTI And Coming Up Short. Journal of Career Planning and Employment, November, pp. 48–52. Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L., Majors, Mark S. (2001). MBTI Step II Manual: Exploring the Next Level of Type with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Form Q. Mountain View, CA: CPP, Inc. Quenk, Naomi L. (1993). Beside ourselves: Our hidden personality in everyday life. Palo Alto, CA: CPP, Inc. Stricker, L.J. & J. Ross. (1964). An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian personality Typology. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 68, pp. 67-72.
other personality theories and psychometrics tests models
Review and explanation of additional personality types theories and psychometrics tests models will be added to this section in due course. If you have suggestions, or if you are a principal provider of personality testing services, psychometrics tests or personality and behavioural assessment instruments, and wish to contribute some helpful explanatory theory please get in touch.
cattell's 16PF
Here's a very brief summary. Raymond B Cattell (1905-1998) developed his 16PF in the 1940s. Most sources indicate an original publication date of 1949, so it's been around for a while, and has gone through at least five edition revisions, which probably explains the strange letter coding sequence. The PF stands for 'Personality Factors', and there are sixteen of them, hence 16PF. The 16PF is one of the longest-standing and most widely used personality testing systems of all. Belbin used the Cattell 16PF model in constructing his 'Belbin Team Roles' theory, model and testing instruments. Cattell's theory asserts that every person possesses a degree of each of the following sixteen traits. Note that these traits include scale descriptions (not shown here) and terminology can vary; hence the code letters are helpful references. Cattell's 16PF personality testing instruments are available from various providers. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Warmth (A) Reasoning (B) Emotional Stability (C) Dominance (E) Liveliness (F) Rule-consciousness (G)
7. Social Boldness (H) 8. Sensitivity (I) 9. Vigilance (L) 10. Abstractedness (M) 11. Privateness (N) 12. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness (O) 13. Openness to change (Q1) 14. Self-reliance (Q2) 15. Perfectionism (Q3) 16. Tension (Q4) The Cattell systems also include an interpretation of the 'Big Five' factors, which the Cattell organisation refers to as 'Five Global' factors (and which mostly use different descriptive factors names). More explanation in due course...
OPQ
Which stands for: Occupational Personality Questionnaire. Coming in due course...
PARIO
PARIO (oiginally named PRISM, and since changed to PARIO, to avoid confusion with a different PRISM system) is a relatively very modern personality model and psychological profiling system, developed by occupational psychologist David Sharpley in the late 1990s. PARIO was designed to identify Individual Needs, and Patterns of Response to work demands. PARIO was developed to address Performance at Work, and is structured somewhat differently to many traditional trait-oriented profiling systems.
PARIO draws particularly on the psychological Needs theory of Henry Murray (in turn relating toDavid McLelland), and George Kelly's Personal Construct theory (which is referenced and explained on this website in John Fisher's work), to produce a 24-scale model organised into Edgar Schien's three broad Career Anchors of:
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analytical competence - in relation to problems and problemsolving interpersonal competence - in relation to working with and through people emotional competence - in relation to tasks and taking responsibility for and achieving them
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enneagram of personality types
The nine-point model developed by Gurdjieff et al during the 1900s. Explanation coming in due course...
graphology
Graphology is the study and analysis of hand-writing. Graphology can be used to understand personality of self and others, and has been used as an aid to recruitment and selection for many years. Interestingly graphology can also be used for self-awareness and selfdevelopment, to change and improve personality traits and behaviours. See the graphology and handwriting analysis section.
using free personality tests to create interest in seminars and workshops etc
Free personality tests of various types are becoming increasingly prevalent and available on the internet. Many require the test to be completed online, which, given the increasing numbers of employees with internet-enabled laptops, makes these tests ideal for team development sessions. Other free tests can be downloaded and used manually, such as those featured on this site. Free tests present opportunities for training and development, but care is required when using them. Free tests can be free for various reasons, for example:
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'lite' versions offered by serious psychometrics providers as 'teasers' or introductory tools tests created by various providers for different purposes and available legitimately to use and share (intentionally or unwittingly) unauthorised copied or 'pirated' tests which find their way onto websites or which appear to be in the 'public domain' via photocopies (unauthorised tests are obviously to be avoided since using them can incur serious liabilities)
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Legitimately free-to-use tests have a place in the learning and development toolkit, but they should only be used for certain situations. Free tests are fine for fun and for basic rough indicators, but generally (there are some exceptions) not for serious applications, nor for purposes involving sensitive situations or serious decisions, such as recruitment, career direction, counselling, or serious training and development needs analysis. Personality tests hold a big fascination for most people - it's human nature to want to learn and discover things that we don't know about ourselves, and to have our strengths confirmed, and to have our weaknesses and vulnerabilities gently queried or explored. Tests can do all of these things - even free ones. Personality tests can therefore introduce great interest and also stimulate lots of discussion when used in a light-hearted way in meetings, seminars and workshops, etc., but you do need to ensure that you position and explain your purpose - and the limitations of the test - carefully, so that delegates understand and feel comfortable.
People with strong (Jungian/Myers Briggs®) 'sensing' and 'thinking' personalities (engineers, adminstrators, accountants for example) will be less comfortable with vague and approximate tesst than people who have strong intuitive and empathic mindsets. Think about your type of audience before you decide on a use and an explanation. Ensure it's acceptable and suitable for the delegates. If you ware using free personality tests 'mostly for fun', and 'just as a rough indicator' then say so. Do not position a free 'lite' test of uncertain origin and debatable scientific validity as being a reliable indicator; if you do then people will take it too seriously and you'll defeat the object - which might simply be to introduce a bit of amusement and a discussion point. All tests - whether robust or otherwise - provide a reflection of personality of some sort, the use of which usually provokes thought, prompts discussion and possibly also invites a little self-discovery. Tests cause us to think about ourselves from a different perspective, which in itself is a liberating exercise. Provided that the use of a test is not serious, and is positioned and explained accordingly, then it's possible to make good stimulating use of many and various free 'personality tests' that are increasingly available on the web. Be careful to avoid unintentionally using any tests that appear free but which are actually subject to copyright and intellectual property terms of use and costs. When using free tests available on the web check that the the terms of use are appropriate for your purposes, and certainly be suspicious if anything looks too good to be true, because it might be. If in doubt seek clarification from whomever's source model or test name is referenced in the material. There are very many free tests that can be 'positioned' for given functions (eg, management style) subject to thinking logically about how the perspective of the particular test relates to personality, style, and by implication (in this case) to management. For example, on this website all of the free tests (such as the test based on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the Multiple Intelligences test, and the VAK learning style test) can be used to indicate management style from a particular perspective. It's a matter of interpretation.
In this way, provided that your purpose is not serious (I repeat, recruitment, for example, is not to be trifled with) tests of all sorts can generally be used one way or another for most job functions, roles or aspects of work. It's a question of thinking about how a particular test relates to people's interests and/or what you are seeking to discover or indicate, be it management style, learning style, personality, aptitude, communications style, personal outlook, etc. Thus, all tests - even the free 'lite' versions available on the web (MBTI® free versions, Enneagrams, Keirsey Temperament Sorter, etc) can provide a useful management style perspective - or any other perspective - subject to understanding how the test criteria or model relates to whatever aspect of personality or work is being explored. Additionally, if you want to include a personality test in a seminar or workshop, and are unsure where to start, it generally helps if you first ask your audience what they'd like to know about themselves, and if they already are aware of any particular frames of reference or personality models. And then seek and source tests accordingly, that are aimed at, or which enable, measuring those criteria, or which use the model concerned. As with measuring anything involving the participation of a group of people, it's important to use a measurement model or set of criteria that your audience understands, otherwise the test won't mean much, on which point, different audiences more naturally relate to different models and personality theories. By way of example, Carl Jung's 'Psychological Types' model is very applicable to management style and will commonly be readily recognised and understood by a healthcare audience or medical professionals. Having established such a 'fit' you can then set about finding a suitable Jungian test (and as already previously referenced on this page, a good free Jungian-type test is available from www.gesher.com, along with some really wonderful reference material). Free tests are useful and helpful when used appropriately, and when they are adapted and interpreted in a way that is meaningful to the audience.
It's the same as using any other tool for any other situation: first understand the perspective - the frame of reference of the audience or user - and then select and adapt a tool to fit.
johari window
Ingham and Luft's Johari Window model diagrams and examples - for self-awareness, personal development, group development and understanding relationships
The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. The Johari Window model can also be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other groups. The Johari Window model was devised by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955, while researching group dynamics at the University of California Los Angeles. The model was first published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development by UCLA Extension Office in 1955, and was later expanded by Joseph Luft. Today the Johari Window model is especially relevant due to modern emphasis on, and influence of, 'soft' skills, behaviour, empathy, cooperation, inter-group development and interpersonal development. The Johari Window concept is particularly helpful to understanding employee/employer relationships within the Psychological Contract. Over the years, alternative Johari Window terminology has been developed and adapted by other people - particularly leading to different descriptions of the four regions, hence the use of different terms in this explanation. Don't let it all confuse you - the Johari Window model is really very simple indeed.
free johari window model diagram (pdf landscape) free johari window model diagram (pdf portrait)
(The Johari Window diagram is also available in MSWord format from the free resources section.) Luft and Ingham called their Johari Window model 'Johari' after combining their first names, Joe and Harry. In early publications the word appears as 'JoHari'. The Johari Window soon became a widely used model for understanding and training self-awareness, personal development, improving communications, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, team development and inter-group relationships. The Johari Window model is also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of self awareness', and by some people an 'information processing tool'. The Johari Window actually represents information feelings, experience, views, attitudes, skills, intentions, motivation, etc within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four perspectives, which are described below. The Johari Window model can also be used to represent the same information for a group in relation to other groups. Johari Window terminology refers to 'self' and 'others': 'self' means oneself, ie, the person subject to the Johari Window analysis. 'Others' means other people in the person's group or team. N.B. When the Johari Window model is used to assess and develop groups in relation to other groups, the 'self' would be the group, and 'others' would be other groups. However, for ease of explanation and understanding of the Johari Window and examples in this article, think of the model applying to an individual within a group, rather than a group relating to other groups. The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of these regions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known about the person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and whether the information is known or unknown by others in the group.
The Johari Window's four regions, (areas, quadrants, or perspectives) are as follows, showing the quadrant numbers and commonly used names:
johari window four regions
1. what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others - open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the arena' 2. what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know - blind area, blind self, or 'blindspot' 3. what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know - hidden area, hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade' 4. what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others - unknown area or unknown self
johari window four regions - model diagram
Like some other behavioural models (eg, Tuckman, Hersey/Blanchard), the Johari Window is based on a four-square grid - the Johari Window is like a window with four 'panes'. Here's how the Johari Window is normally shown, with its four regions.
This is the standard representation of the Johari Window model, showing each quadrant the same size. The Johari Window 'panes' can be changed in size to reflect the relevant proportions of each type of 'knowledge' of/about a particular person in a given group or team situation. In new groups or teams the open free space for any team member is small (see the Johari Window new team member example below) because shared awareness is relatively small. As the team member becomes better established and known, so the size of the team member's open free area quadrant increases. See the Johari Window established team member example below.
johari window model - explanation of the four regions
Refer to the free detailed Johari Window model diagram in the free resources section - print a copy and it will help you to understand what follows.
johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public area', or 'arena'
Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the person - behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others'). The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person, because when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and productive, and the group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the space where good communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict and misunderstanding. Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members. New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledge about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members. This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback, sensitively of course. The size of the open area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and group members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by asking the person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and in directly giving
feedback to individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote a culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive communications, and the sharing of knowledge throughout their organization. Top performing groups, departments, companies and organizations always tend to have a culture of open positive communication, so encouraging the positive development of the 'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective leadership.
johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'
Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the person him/herself. By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area (see the Johari Window diagram below), ie, to increase self-awareness. This blind area is not an effective or productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person. We all know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works well when subject to 'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind area'. Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to reduce their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental feedback, and group response to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both processes to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on which feedback is sought, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. The process of soliciting serious and deep feedback relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.
johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided self/area' or 'facade'
Johari region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to others. This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a person knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others. The hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural for very personal and private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and so is better positioned in the open area. Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team effectiveness. Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members' preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or vulnerability and therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve group awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness. The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issues which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should disclose at a pace
and depth that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. Also as with soliciting feedback, the process of serious disclosure relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needsdevelopment and motivation model.
johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of unknown activity' or 'unknown area'
Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that areunknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown issues take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behaviour to various degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in younger people, and people who lack experience or self-belief. Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant and common, especially in typical organizations and teams:
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an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity, encouragement, confidence or training a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have an unknown illness repressed or subconscious feelings conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood
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The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various, and can be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations through collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can
also uncover unknown issues, but this would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group. Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as feedback, or disclosed. As with the processes of soliciting feedback and disclosure, striving to discover information and feelings in the unknown is relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model. Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a sensitive one. The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown feelings must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to do this. Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things, with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and thereby reduce the unknown area. Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery, and to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and feedback among team members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of staff in any organization are at any time working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate and expectation for self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to achieve more, and to contribute more to organizational performance. A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences, which can stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari Window should not be used to address issues of a clinical nature. Useful references are Arthur Janov's seminal book The Primal Scream (read about the book here), and Transactional Analysis.
johari window example - increasing open area through feedback solicitation
This Johari Window model diagram is an example of increasing the open area , by reduction of the blind area, which would normally be achieved through the process of asking for and then receiving feedback. Feedback develops the open area by reducing the blind area. The open area can also be developed through the process of disclosure, which reduces the hidden area. The unknown area can be reduced in different ways: by others' observation (which increases the blind area); by self-discovery (which increases the hidden area), or by mutual enlightenment typically via group experiences and discussion - which
increases the open area as the unknown area reduces.
A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual understanding with the team - is far more effective than a team which does not understand each other- that is, whose members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown areas. Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their open free areas, and to reduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas. A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform to their best potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's potential and the person's potential too. Effort should generally be made by the person to increase his/her open free area, by disclosing information about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc, which will reduce the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area. Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the open free area. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and experience, will reduce the unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas, depending on who knows what, or better still if known by the person and others, to the open free area.
johari window model - example for new team member or member within a new team
This Johari Window model diagram is an example of a member of a new team or a person who is new to an existing team. The open free region is small because others know little about the new person. Similarly the blind area is small because others know little about the new person. The hidden or avoided issues and feelings are a relatively large area. In this particular example the unknown area is the largest, which might be because the person is young, or lacking in self-knowledge or belief.
johari window example - established team member example
This Johari Window model diagram is an example of an established member of a team. The open free region is large because others know a lot about the person that the person also knows. Through the processes of disclosure and receiving feedback the open area has expanded and at the same time reduced the sizes of the hidden, blind and unknown areas.
It's helpful to compare the Johari Window model to other four-quadrant behavioural models, notably Bruce Tuckman's Forming, Storming Norming Performing team development model; also to a lesser but nonetheless interesting extent, The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership team development and management styles model (See both here). The common principle is that as the team matures and communications improve, so performance improves too, as less energy is spent on internal issues and clarifying understanding, and more effort is devoted to external aims and productive output. The Johari Window model also relates to emotional intelligence theory (EQ), and one's awareness and development of emotional intelligence. As already stated, the Johari Window relates also to Transactional Analysis (notably understanding deeper aspects of the 'unknown' area, region 4).
The Johari Window processes of serious feedback solicitation, disclosure, and striving to uncover one's unknown area relate to Maslow's 'self-actualization' ideas contained in the Hierarchy of Needs. There are several exercises and activities for Johari Window awareness development among teams featured on the team building games section, for example the ring tones activity.
exploring more ideas for using ingham and luft's johari window model in training, learning and development
The examples of exercises using the Johari Window theory on this website which might begin to open possibilities for you. The Johari Window obviously model provides useful background rationale and justification for most things that you might think to do with people relating to developing mutual and self-awareness, all of which links strongly to team effectiveness and harmony. There are many ways to use the Johari model in learning and development - much as using any other theory such as Maslow's, Tuckman's, TA, NLP, etc. It very much depends on what you want to achieve, rather than approaching the subject from 'what are all the possible uses?' which would be a major investigation. This being the case, it might help you to ask yourself first what you want to achieve in your training and development activities? And what are your intended outputs and how will you measure that they have been achieved? And then think about how the Johari Window theory and principles can be used to assist this. Researching academic papers (most typically published on university and learning institutions websites) written about theories such as Johari is a fertile method of exploring possibilities for concepts and models like Johari. This approach tends to improve your in-depth understanding, instead of simply using specific interpretations or applications 'off-theshelf', which in themselves might provide good ideas for a one-off
session, but don't help you much with understanding how to use the thinking at a deeper level. Also explore the original work of Ingham and Luft, and reviews of same, relating to the development and applications of the model. Johari is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other powerful ideas, simply helping people to understand is the most effective way to optimise the value to people. Explaining the meaning of the Johari Window theory to people, so they can really properly understand it in their own terms, then empowers people to use the thinking in their own way, and to incorporate the underlying principles into their future thinking and behaviour.
Relevant reading, (if you can find copies): 'Group Processes - An Introduction to Group Dynamics' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1963; and 'Of Human Interaction: The Johari Model' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1969. In the books Joseph Luft explains that Johari is pronounced as if it were Joe and Harry, and that is '...just what the word means'. He explains also that the Johari model was developed by him and Harrington V Ingham MD in 1955 during a summer laboratory session, and that the model was published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development for that year by the UCLA (University of California Los Angeles) Extension Office.
transactional analysis
Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis - early TA history and theory
Transactional Analysis is one of the most accessible theories of modern psychology. Transactional Analysis was founded by Eric Berne, and the famous 'parent adult child' theory is still being developed today. Transactional Analysis has wide applications in clinical, therapeutic, organizational and personal development, encompassing communications, management, personality, relationships and behaviour. Whether you're in business, a parent, a social worker or interested in personal development, Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theories, and those of his followers, will enrich your dealings with people, and your understanding of yourself. This section covers the background to Transactional Analysis, and Transactional Analysis underpinning theory. See also the modern Transactional Analysis theory article.
roots of transactional analysis
Throughout history, and from all standpoints: philosophy, medical science, religion; people have believed that each man and woman has a multiple nature. In the early 20th century, Sigmund Freud first established that the human psyche is multi-faceted, and that each of us has warring factions in our subconscious. Since then, new theories continue to be put forward, all concentrating on the essential conviction that each one of us has parts of our personality which surface and affect our behaviour according to different circumstances. In 1951 Dr Wilder Penfield began a series of scientific experiments. Penfield proved, using conscious human subjects, by touching a part of the brain (the temporal cortex) with a weak electrical probe, that the brain could be caused to 'play back' certain past experiences, and the feelings associated with them. The patients 'replayed' these events and their feelings despite not normally being able to recall them using their conventional memories. Penfield's experiments went on over several years, and resulted in wide acceptance of the following conclusions:
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The human brain acts like a tape recorder, and whilst we may 'forget' experiences, the brain still has them recorded.
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Along with events the brain also records the associated feelings, and both feelings and events stay locked together. It is possible for a person to exist in two states simultaneously (because patients replaying hidden events and feelings could talk about them objectively at the same time). Hidden experiences when replayed are vivid, and affect how we feel at the time of replaying. There is a certain connection between mind and body, i.e. the link between the biological and the psychological, eg a psychological fear of spiders and a biological feeling of nausea.
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early transactional analysis theory and model
In the 1950's Eric Berne began to develop his theories of Transactional Analysis. He said that verbal communication, particularly face to face, is at the centre of human social relationships and psychoanalysis. His starting-point was that when two people encounter each other, one of them will speak to the other. This he called the Transaction Stimulus. The reaction from the other person he called the Transaction Response. The person sending the Stimulus is called the Agent. The person who responds is called the Respondent. Transactional Analysis became the method of examining the transaction wherein: 'I do something to you, and you do something back'. Berne also said that each person is made up of three alter ego states:
Parent Adult Child
These terms have different definitions than in normal language.
Parent
This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. We were conditioned by our real parents, teachers, older people, next door neighbours, aunts and uncles, Father Christmas and Jack Frost. Our Parent is made up of a huge number of hidden and overt recorded playbacks. Typically embodied by phrases and attitudes starting with 'how to', 'under no circumstances', 'always' and 'never forget', 'don't lie, cheat, steal', etc, etc. Our parent is formed by external events and influences upon us as we grow through early childhood. We can change it, but this is easier said than done.
Child
Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the 'Child'. This is the seeing, hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within each of us. When anger or despair dominates reason, the Child is in control. Like our Parent we can change it, but it is no easier.
Adult
Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves, based on received data. The adult in us begins to form at around ten months old, and is the means by which we keep our Parent and Child under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so through our adult. In other words:
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Parent is our 'Taught' concept of life Adult is our 'Thought' concept of life Child is our 'Felt' concept of life
When we communicate we are doing so from one of our own alter ego states, our Parent, Adult or Child. Our feelings at the time determine which one we use, and at any time something can trigger a shift from one state to another. When we respond, we are also doing this from one of the three states, and it is in the analysis of these stimuli and responses that the essence of Transactional Analysis lies. See the poem by Philip Larkin about how parental conditioning affects children and their behaviour into adulthood. And for an uplifting antidote see the
lovely Thich Nhat Hanh quote. These are all excellent illustrations of the effect and implications of parental conditioning in the context of Transactional Analysis. At the core of Berne's theory is the rule that effective transactions (ie successful communications) must be complementary. They must go back from the receiving ego state to the sending ego state. For example, if the stimulus is Parent to Child, the response must be Child to Parent, or the transaction is 'crossed', and there will be a problem between sender and receiver. If a crossed transaction occurs, there is an ineffective communication. Worse still either or both parties will be upset. In order for the relationship to continue smoothly the agent or the respondent must rescue the situation with a complementary transaction. In serious break-downs, there is no chance of immediately resuming a discussion about the original subject matter. Attention is focused on the relationship. The discussion can only continue constructively when and if the relationship is mended. Here are some simple clues as to the ego state sending the signal. You will be able to see these clearly in others, and in yourself:
Parent
Physical - angry or impatient body-language and expressions, fingerpointing, patronising gestures, Verbal - always, never, for once and for all, judgmental words, critical words, patronising language, posturing language. N.B. beware of cultural differences in body-language or emphases that appear 'Parental'.
Child
Physical - emotionally sad expressions, despair, temper tantrums, whining voice, rolling eyes, shrugging shoulders, teasing, delight, laughter, speaking behind hand, raising hand to speak, squirming and giggling.
Verbal - baby talk, I wish, I dunno, I want, I'm gonna, I don't care, oh no, not again, things never go right for me, worst day of my life, bigger, biggest, best, many superlatives, words to impress.
Adult
Physical - attentive, interested, straight-forward, tilted head, nonthreatening and non-threatened. Verbal - why, what, how, who, where and when, how much, in what way, comparative expressions, reasoned statements, true, false, probably, possibly, I think, I realise, I see, I believe, in my opinion.
And remember, when you are trying to identify ego states: words are only part of the story. To analyse a transaction you need to see and feel what is being said as well.
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Only 7% of meaning is in the words spoken. 38% of meaning is paralinguistic (the way that the words are said). 55% is in facial expression. (source: Albert Mehrabian - more info)
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There is no general rule as to the effectiveness of any ego state in any given situation (some people get results by being dictatorial (Parent to Child), or by having temper tantrums, (Child to Parent), but for a balanced approach to life, Adult to Adult is generally recommended. Transactional Analysis is effectively a language within a language; a language of true meaning, feeling and motive. It can help you in every situation, firstly through being able to understand more clearly what is going on, and secondly, by virtue of this knowledge, we give ourselves choices of what ego states to adopt, which signals to send, and where to send them. This enables us to make the most of all our communications and therefore create, develop and maintain better relationships.
modern transactional analysis theory
Transactional Analysis is a theory which operates as each of the following:
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a theory of personality a model of communication a study of repetitive patterns of behaviour
Transactional Analysis developed significantly beyond these Berne's early theories, by Berne himself until his death in 1970, and since then by his followers and many current writers and experts. Transactional Analysis has been explored and enhanced in many different ways by these people, including: Ian Stewart and Vann Joines (their book 'TA Today' is widely regarded as a definitive modern interpretation); John Dusay, Aaron and Jacqui Schiff, Robert and Mary Goulding, Pat Crossman, Taibi Kahler, Abe Wagner, Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund, Richard Erskine and Marityn Zalcman, Muriel James, Pam Levin, Anita Mountain and Julie Hay (specialists in organizational applications), Susannah Temple, Claude Steiner, Franklin Ernst, S Woollams and M Brown, Fanita English, P Clarkson, M M Holloway, Stephen Karpman and others. Significantly, the original three Parent Adult Child components were sub-divided to form a new seven element model, principally during the 1980's by Wagner, Joines and Mountain. This established Controlling and Nurturing aspects of the Parent mode, each with positive and negative aspects, and the Adapted and Free aspects of the Child mode, again each with positive an negative aspects, which essentially gives us the model to which most TA practitioners refer today:
parent
Parent is now commonly represented as a circle with four quadrants: Nurturing - Nurturing (positive) and Spoiling (negative). Controlling - Structuring (positive) and Critical (negative).
adult
Adult remains as a single entity, representing an 'accounting' function or mode, which can draw on the resources of both Parent and Child.
child
Child is now commonly represented as circle with four quadrants: Adapted - Co-operative (positive) and Compliant/Resistant (negative). Free - Spontaneous (positive) and Immature (negative).
Where previously Transactional Analysis suggested that effective communications were complementary (response echoing the path of the stimulus), and better still complementary adult to adult, the modern interpretation suggests that effective communications and relationships are based on complementary transactions to and from positive quadrants, and also, still, adult to adult. Stimulii and responses can come from any (or some) of these seven ego states, to any or some of the respondent's seven ego states.
transactional analysis
Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis - TA theory development and explanation
Please note: The technical content of this article has been authored/provided by different experts in Transactional Analysis, notably Anita Mountain and Chris Davidson of Mountain Associates. Authors/originators are indicated throughout the article. Where you use these materials please reference the authorship accordingly. See the copyright and attribution notice at the foot of this webpage.
transactional analysis - modern usage introduction
(Transactional Analysis early history) Transactional Analysis is a theory developed by Dr. Eric Berne in the 1950s. Originally trained in psychoanalysis, Berne wanted a theory which could be understood and available to everyone and began to develop what came to be called Transactional Analysis (TA). Transactional Analysis is a social psychology and a method to improve communication. The theory outlines how we have developed and treat ourselves, how we relate and communicate with others, and offers suggestions and interventions which will enable us to change and grow. Transactional Analysis is underpinned by the philosophy that:
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people can change we all have a right to be in the world and be accepted
Initially criticised by some as a simplistic model, Transactional Analysis is now gathering worldwide attention. It originally suffered much from the popularised writings in the 1960s. Also, summarised explanations, such as this, which can only touch on some of the concepts in Transactional Analysis, led their readers to believe that there was very little to it. Many did not appreciate the duration and complexity of the training. Today there is greater understanding of Transactional Analysis. More and more people are taking the four to five year part-time training courses to qualify, and increasingly universities are accrediting these courses for masters degrees. Those taking training include psychiatrists, organizational and management consultants, teachers, social workers, designers, engineers and the clergy. Today Transactional Analysis is used in psychotherapy, organisations, educational and religious settings. Books have been written for all ages, from children through to adults, by people all over the world. Transactional Analysis is truly an international theory relating to a diverse range of cultures.
Theoretical concepts within the Transactional Analysis world are constantly being challenged and developed making it a rich dynamic process. Berne died in July 1970 at the age of 60. However, Transactional Analysis has not stood still and continues to develop and change, paralleling the processes we encourage in ourselves and others. The key concepts in Transactional Analysis are outlined below in the form of introductory information.
transactional analysis - contracting
Transactional Analysis is a contractual approach. A contract is "an explicit bilateral commitment to a well-defined course of action" Berne E. (1966). Which means that all parties need to agree:
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why they want to do something with whom what they are going to do by when any fees, payment or exchanges there will be
For example, we want the outside of our house painted, we need to find a person who will paint it and who will give us a quote for doing it. If we agree the quote, and we like him or her enough, we will no doubt employ them. We will agree a date and time, perhaps check they are insured, and choose the colour of the paint and off they go. Sometimes contracts will be multi-handed with all parties to the contract having their own expectations. If these expectations are all congruent then fine, if not then discussing everyone's expectations will lead to greater understanding and therefore to a clear contract. Contracts need to be outlined in positive words i.e. what is wanted, rather than what is not wanted. Our minds tend to focus on the negative and so this encourages failure. For example, how many times do we look round when someone says to us "Don't look now but......." ,
the same is true when we set up contracts which start "I don't want to do .............. anymore". We have contracts about employment, how much will we be paid and when, what holidays we are due, what deductions there will be etc. In order to ensure placements are effective then different, but similar, details are required. Naturally, these details will vary dependent on the setting in which we work. All parties need to state what are they are prepared to do. Are they able and willing to undertake what is being asked, is this appropriate? Does it fit within any statements of purpose and function? Is it legal? Do they have the competence to deliver this? Do they want to? What does each party want of the others? In summary contracts need to be: measurable, manageable and motivational. Measurable means that the goals need to be tangible. That each party involved in the contract will be able to say in advance how they will know when the goal has been achieved. The goal will be specific and behavioural and clearly defined. The contract will also need to be manageable and feasible for all those concerned. 'Contracting' in Transactional Analysis, and indeed many other aspects of TA, provide a helpful way to understand the Psychological Contract in employment and similar organizational relationships.
transactional analysis - ego states Transactional Analysis first order structural model
Berne devised the concept of ego states to help explain how we are made up, and how we relate to others. These are drawn as three stacked circles and they are one of the building blocks of Transactional Analysis. They categorise the ways we think, feel and behave and are called Parent, Adult, and Child. Each ego state is given a capital letter to denote the difference between actual parents, adults and children.
Parent ego state
This is a set of feelings, thinking and behaviour that we have copied from our parents and significant others. As we grow up we take in ideas, beliefs, feelings and behaviours from our parents and caretakers. If we live in an extended family then there are more people to learn and take in from. When we do this, it is called introjecting and it is just as if we take in the whole of the care giver. For example, we may notice that we are saying things just as our father, mother, grandmother may have done, even though, consciously, we don't want to. We do this as we have lived with this person so long that we automatically reproduce certain things that were said to us, or treat others as we might have been treated.
Adult ego state
The Adult ego state is about direct responses to the here and now. We deal with things that are going on today in ways that are not unhealthily influenced by our past. The Adult ego state is about being spontaneous and aware with the capacity for intimacy. When in our Adult we are able to see people as they are, rather than what we project onto them. We ask for information rather than stay scared and rather than make assumptions. Taking the best from the past and using it appropriately in the present is an integration of the positive aspects of both our Parent and Child ego states. So this can be called the Integrating Adult. Integrating means that we are constantly updating ourselves through our every day experiences and using this to inform us. In this structural model, the Integrating Adult ego state circle is placed in the middle to show how it needs to orchestrate between the Parent and the Child ego states. For example, the internal Parent ego state may beat up on the internal Child, saying "You are no good, look at what you did wrong again, you are useless". The Child may then respond with "I am no good, look how useless I am, I never get anything right". Many people hardly hear this kind of internal dialogue as it goes on so much they might just believe life is this way. An effective Integrating Adult ego state can intervene between the Parent and Child ego states. This might be done by stating that this kind of parenting is not helpful and asking if it is prepared to learn another way. Alternatively, the Integrating Adult ego state can just stop any negative dialogue and decide to develop another positive Parent ego state perhaps taken in from other people they have met over the years.
Child ego state
The Child ego state is a set of behaviours, thoughts and feelings which are replayed from our own childhood. Perhaps the boss calls us into his or her office, we may immediately get a churning in our stomach and wonder what we have done wrong. If this were explored we might remember the time the head teacher called us in to tell us off. Of course, not everything in the Child ego state is negative. We might go into someone's house and smell a lovely
smell and remember our grandmother's house when we were little, and all the same warm feelings we had at six year's of age may come flooding back. Both the Parent and Child ego states are constantly being updated. For example, we may meet someone who gives us the permission we needed as a child, and did not get, to be fun and joyous. We may well use that person in our imagination when we are stressed to counteract our old ways of thinking that we must work longer and longer hours to keep up with everything. We might ask ourselves "I wonder what X would say now". Then on hearing the new permissions to relax and take some time out, do just that and then return to the work renewed and ready for the challenge. Subsequently, rather than beating up on ourselves for what we did or did not do, what tends to happen is we automatically start to give ourselves new permissions and take care of ourselves. Alternatively, we might have had a traumatic experience yesterday which goes into the Child ego state as an archaic memory that hampers our growth. Positive experiences will also go into the Child ego state as archaic memories. The positive experiences can then be drawn on to remind us that positive things do happen. The process of analysing personality in terms of ego states is called structural analysis. It is important to remember that ego states do not have an existence of their own, they are concepts to enable understanding. Therefore it is important to say "I want some fun" rather than "My Child wants some fun". We may be in our Child ego state when we say this, but saying "I" reminds us to take responsibility for our actions.
contamination of the Adult ego state
The word contamination for many conjures up the idea of disease. For instance, we tend to use the word for when bacteria has gone into milk. Well, this is similar to the case with the contaminated Integrating Adult ego state. This occurs when we talk as if something is a fact or a reality when really this is a belief. Racism is an example of this. The Integrating Adult ego state is contaminated in this case by the Parent
ego state. If we are white we might have lived with parents or significant others who said such things as "Black people take our jobs". Growing up it is likely, that having no real experience to go by, we believed this. We might also have been told that Black people are aggressive. In our Child ego state may well lodge some scared feelings about Black people and in this ego state we may start to believe "All Black people are scary". This would mean that there would be a double contamination of the Integrating Adult ego state. However, we would think that such statements were facts rather than beliefs and when this happens we say that this is Integrating Adult ego syntonic. That is, they fit with the Integrating Adult ego state and only those people outside of our situation and sometimes outside of our peer group or culture can see that, objectively, such beliefs are just that and therefore they can be changed.
Parent contamination
Child contamination
double contamination (Parent and Child)
transactional analysis - descriptive model (revised 2011)
Below is a modern interpretation of the Transactional Analysis descriptive model - called the Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model. The OK Modes Model is a relatively recent (2010/11) development of the concept, and is a more sophisticated and usable representation of the traditional PAC Transactional Analysis model.
The concept and diagram are particularly helpful tools for understanding what happens in human communications - essentially one-to-one - and what makes these communications constructive or destructive; effective or ineffective. The Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model has been developed by leading TA practitioners and thinkers Mountain Associates (of Desford, UK) and I am grateful for the help of Mountain Associates' Anita Mountain and Chris Davidson in featuring their model in this article.
Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model
The OK Modes Model of Transactional Analysis shows how we communicate and/or behave with others. The model consists of ten 'Modes' with a central 'Mindful Process'. The word Mode is used to differentiate the categories of behaviour from the structural ego state model mentioned previously. In this context the term Mode dates back to 1975, notably in an article in the Transactional Analysis Journal by Nancy Porter (now Nancy Porter-Steele). The Mountain Associates OK Modes Model provides a visual way of representing how we behave and interact with other people. The diagram below illustrates the concept. The OK Modes Model is easier to understand when you see the OK Corral model after the OK Modes Model explanation below. Miniature 'OK Corral' grids are incorporated into the diagram to emphasise that:
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ineffective Modes reflect and invite a 'Not OK' response, and the four effective Modes reflect and invite an 'I'm OK, You're OK' response.
Of the ten different communication behaviour Modes:
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four are effective - (prompted by the process of Mindfulness, i.e., taking account of current reality and acting accordingly) six are ineffective.
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Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model central element
The central circle element, upon which the full model is built, is in itself a representation of effective communication. When we are in the one of the four effective Modes shown around the circle we are responsive to the present situation. Generally when something is said from an effective Mode the response from the other person is also likely to be from an effective Mode. Equally, where a communication comes from an ineffective Mode, the invitation is for the other person to respond from one of the ineffective Modes. Note that of course in reality there are not simply four effective ways of behaving - these descriptors are intended as a broad impression or guide rather than definitive. Also some behaviours fall between (on a 'continuum') two or more of the Modes.
The central grid represents the OK Corral model, in which here the communication is 'I'm OK, You are OK' - i.e., put simply, from your 'okay' frame of mind to to the other person's 'okay' frame of mind. This central element of the OK Modes Model shows the four effective Modes. The centre 'Mindful' grid indicates that
communication is 'OK to OK' in terms of the OK Corral, i.e., the person communicating is doing so from a position of feeling OK, and this communication is to the 'OK' position or feeling of the other person.
©TA OK Modes Model, Mountain Associates, 2010.
Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model - full diagram
Here below is the Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model diagram fully presented, containing the central element with its four effective Modes, and the six ineffective Modes represented by 'Not-OK' miniature OK Corral grids (in red), relative to their effective counterparts (in green) within the central circle.
The four effective Modes are called: 1. 2. 3. 4. Structuring Supporting Co-Creating Playful Modes shown in relative/correlating positions Effective Modes Structuring Ineffective Modes Criticizing Inconsistent
The six ineffective Modes are called:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Inconsistent Interfering Reckless Oppositional Over-adapted Criticizing
Supporting Co-creating Playful
Interfering Over-adapted Oppositional Reckless
Modes are shown in green (effective) and red (ineffective) to help explain and use the model as a tool. Particularly this enables us to imagine the flow of a communication exchange in a conversation, and so to understand what happened. Effective communication comes from the green Modes, (like traffic lights, green equates to goahead). Ineffective communication comes from the red Modes (like traffic lights, red means stop). When we come
©TA OK Modes Model, Mountain Associates, 2010.
from (communicate from) the green Modes we invite a positive response, and when we communicate from a red Mode, we invite a response from one of the red Modes.
The model is linked to the OK Corral, since another way of describing this model is is that an 'OK to OK' (I'm OK, you are OK) communication invites an OK to OK response, whereas a Not-OK communication invites a Not-OK response. The adjectives used in the diagram here are not definitive. For example the term 'Interfering' could instead be described as 'fussing'. In some cases the Modes represent a 'continuum' - for instance a communication from a manager could be somewhere between Structuring and Supporting.
effective and ineffective modes
Definition of 'Effective' By effective, we mean that:
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a communication is likely to achieve the intended response or result. Information is received, necessary action(s) follow and good relationships are maintained or developed communication will (if necessary and desired) be able to continue - either now or later
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each party to the communication, whether they agree with each other (or not) or like each other (or not) maintains an I'm OK, You're OK position.
Definition of 'Ineffective' By ineffective, we mean that any/all of the following apply:
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the intended communication is not understood the person receiving the communication is themselves invited into a "not OK" position or invited to make someone else "not OK" communication may be broken in some way and so does not continue, or it escalates to even more discomfort or misunderstanding for those involved. In extreme cases the rift may be permanent what needs to be done is less likely to be done - or may be done incorrectly.
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effective modes
To help you understand the TA OK Modes Model and to avoid having to keep scrolling back up the page, the diagram is repeated alongside the explanation below. It's the same diagram. Note that the ineffective Modes are quite logical and easy to understand when seen as
negative or unhelpful extremes of the correlating effective Modes. For example, being overly Supportive quite naturally equates to Interfering; Being overly Playful quite naturally equates to Recklessness. Mindful Process - Not a Mode, this is a requirement or condition enabling effective Modes to be accessed/used. When we are operating mindfully, we communicate 'OK to OK' messages. We operate appropriately in the here-andnow and have access to the positive aspects of the care and structure we have received in the past and the experiences we had in childhood. As this Mindful
process is hereand-now, we are able to choose which of the effective Modes of behaviour to draw from, dependent on the situation. When we are stable in this Mindful process we respond appropriately rather than 'flipping' or switching (generally unconsciously) into an Ineffective Mode. Each of the effective Modes, dependent on the Mindful Process, communicate "I'm OK and You're OK". Structuring Mode - This is the boundary setting Mode, offering constructive criticism. In this Mode we are caring whilst firm. Supporting Mode - When in this Mode we
are affirming and considerate. Co-creating Mode - From this Mode we develop ways to help us live and work with others. Playful Mode This is the creative, fun loving, curious and energetic Mode. We can confront people playfully as a way of dealing with a difficult situation. This can diffuse a potential problem and get the message across. When working with others we can choose where we come from (communicate from). Effective communication happens when we are in a Mindful Process. If someone else invites us, because of how he/she
communicates to us, to go into an ineffective (red) Mode, importantly, we don't have to go there,we can instead 'cross the transaction' and come from (respond from) one of the green Modes.
ineffective modes
The ineffective (red) Modes all emanate from outdated experiences, which are not relevant or appropriate in the present. Criticizing Mode communicates a "You're not OK" message. When in this Mode you will believe that others cannot do things as well as you can, or perhaps only certain chosen people can. If you lead from this position you are unlikely to develop a loyal supportive
team or culture. Inconsistent Mode - As a leader we might be inconsistent in our style changing our behaviour in unpredictable and apparently random ways. This is not helpful for followers (or leaders). Interfering Mode communicates a "You're not OK" message. When in this Mode the person will often do things for others which they are capable of doing for themselves. People who find it difficult to delegate might be in this Mode. Over-adapted Mode - This expresses an "I'm not OK" or "I'm not OK and You're Not OK" message. When in this Mode we overadapt to others and tend to experience such emotions as
depression or unrealistic fear and anxiety. When in this Mode we are unlikely to make good team members and will be highly stressed if we have to manage others. Oppositional Mode - Even when opposing others, we are not actually free to think for ourselves as we are reacting to them in the belief that we need to 'resist' them. It is important to be clear that this is not simply about being in disagreement, but a style of going against whatever others put forward. Reckless Mode - In this Mode we run wild with no boundaries. Here we express a "You're not OK" message. At work we tend not to take responsibility
for our actions and are unlikely to progress as we need a great deal of management in order to focus our energy and keep boundaries.
The OK Modes Model of Transactional Analysis was developed by Mountain Associates or Desford, UK, and first published in this format in 2011.
transactional analysis - diagnosis
It is helpful to be able to assess or diagnose which ego state in the structural model, or which mode in the descriptive model, somebody is in. In this way we can respond appropriately as well as ensure which mode we are addressing. However, when we work with other staff or are relating with young people, we are responding on the behavioural level. It is not always possible, or appropriate, to be undertaking more in-depth types of diagnosis. I have outlined them here though so that an understanding of the complexity of the process can be achieved.
behavioural diagnosis
Words, tone, tempo of speech, expressions, postures, gestures, breathing, and muscle tone provide clues for diagnosing ego states. Parent mode words typically contain value judgments, Adult words are clear and definable, and Free Child mode words are direct and spontaneous. For example, a person in Adapted Child mode may cry silently, whereas when in Free Child mode we are likely to make a lots of noise. "You" or "one" usually come from Parent. This can switch even
mid-sentence. If we are leaning forward it is likely we are in the posture of the Parent mode, whereas if we are in Adult mode we tend to be erect. These are indicators not guarantees. Assessment needs to be supported by other methods of diagnosis.
social diagnosis
Observation of the kinds of transactions a person is having with others. For example, if eliciting a response from someone's caretaking Parent it is likely that the stimulus is coming from Child, though not necessarily the Adapted Child mode. Our own responses to someone will often be a way of assessing which ego state or mode they are coming from.
historical diagnosis
The person's past also provides important information. If, as a child we had feelings similar to those we are experiencing now, it is likely we are in Child ego state. If our mother or father behaved or talked in the same way that we are behaving or talking now then we are probably in a Parent ego state.
phenomenological diagnosis
This occurs when we re-experience the past instead of just remembering it. This means that diagnosis is undertaken by selfexamination. This is sometimes accurate and sometimes very inaccurate as the Child ego state may be afraid to allow our Adult to know what is going on.
transactional analysis - strokes
In Transactional Analysis we call compliments and general ways of giving recognition strokes. This name came from research which indicated that babies require touching in order to survive and grow. It apparently makes no difference whether the touching induces pain or pleasure - it is still important. On the whole we prefer to receive negative strokes than no strokes at all, at least that way we know we exist and others know we exist. We all have particular strokes we will accept and those we will reject. For example, if we have always been told we are clever, and our brother is creative, then we are likely to accept strokes for being clever, but not for being creative. From this frame of reference only one person in the family can be the creative one and so on. Stroking can be physical, verbal or nonverbal. It is likely that the great variety of stroke needs and styles present in the world results from differences in wealth, cultural mores, and methods of parenting.
the stroke economy
Claude Steiner suggests that, as children, we are all indoctrinated by our parents with five restrictive rules about stroking.
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don't give strokes when we have them to give don't ask for strokes when we need them don't accept strokes if we want them don't reject strokes when we don't want them don't give ourselves strokes
Together these five rules are the basis of what Steiner calls the stroke economy. By training children to obey these rules, says Steiner, parents ensure that ".. a situation in which strokes could be available in a limitless supply is transformed into a situation in which the supply is low and the price parents can extract for them is high." We therefore need to change the restrictive rules to unrestrictive ones:
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give strokes when we have them to give
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ask for strokes when we want them accept strokes if we want them reject manipulative strokes give ourselves positive strokes
Strokes can be positive or negative:
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A) "I like you" B) "I don't like you"
Strokes can be unconditional or conditional. An unconditional stroke is a stroke for being whereas a conditional stroke is a stroke for doing. For instance: "I like you" - unconditional "I like you when you smile" - conditional As negative strokes these might be: "I don't like you" - negative unconditional "I don't like you when you're sarcastic" - negative conditional People often have a stroke filter. They only let in strokes which they think they are allowed to let in. For instance they allow themselves to receive strokes for being clever and keep out strokes for being good looking. One way to think about this to consider being out in the rain. The rain is the strokes that are available to us, both positive and negative. There is a hole in the umbrella and some of the strokes go through and we save them in a bucket to enjoy in lean times. Conversely we might use them negatively to reinforce the negative strokes we give to ourselves. Of course, some just bounce off the umbrella and we might not accept the good strokes that are coming our way. Some might come in but fall straight onto the floor.
transactional analysis - life positions
Life positions are basic beliefs about self and others, which are used to justify decisions and behaviour.
When we are conceived we are hopefully at peace, waiting to emerge into the world once we have grown sufficiently to be able to survive in the outside of the womb. If nothing untoward happens we will emerge contented and relaxed. In this case we are likely to perceive the world from the perspective of I am OK and You are OK. However, perhaps our mother had some traumatic experiences, or the birth was difficult or even life threatening. This experience is likely to have an effect on the way we experience the world, even at the somatic level. In which case we might emerge sensing that life is scary and might, for example, go into "I am not OK and You are not OK either". Let's take it that the pregnancy went fine, and the birth was easy enough. What then? Well life experiences might reinforce our initial somatic level life position, or contradict it. If we were treated punitively, talked down to, and not held, we may begin to believe "I am not OK and You are OK". This might be the only sense we can make of our experiences. Let's take another situation. Perhaps we were picked on and bullied as a child. We learnt that the way to get by was to bully others and that way we felt stronger and in control. Our behaviour then comes into the I am OK and You are not OK quadrant. Of course this may cover up our belief that we are really not OK, but nobody sees that. They just see our behaviour, and in fact we may have forgotten all about our negative feelings about ourselves as we have tried so hard to deny the pain of believing we are not OK. These life positions are perceptions of the world. The reality is I just am and you just are, therefore how I view myself and others are just that "views" not fact. However, we tend to act as if they are a fact. Just like when somebody says "I can't do this, I'm useless". Rather than "I don't know how to do this. Will you show me?" The latter is staying with the fact that they do not yet know how to do it, whilst the former links being useless with not being able to do something. There are a number of ways of diagramming the life positions. Franklin Ernst drew the life positions in quadrants, which he called the OK Corral (1971). We have put these into red and green to show the effective and ineffective quadrants for communication and healthy relationships. By shading in the quadrants according to the amount of time we think we spend in each we can get an idea of the amount of time we spend in
each. Ernst used the term 'Corralogram' for this method of selfassessment using the OK Corral matrix.
the ok corral (franklin ernst, 1971)
Berne talked about the life positions as existential positions, one of which we are more likely to go to under stress. This is significantly different to the concept Ernst uses, i.e. that we move around them all during the day. Whilst there is some truth in this we could agree with Berne that there will be one major position we go into under stress, with perhaps another position underneath this one. These positions can change as we develop and grow. The difference between Berne and Ernst is important.
Chris Davidson (1999) writes about the three dimensional model of Okayness. All of the previous diagrams talk as if there were only one other person in the equation, when in reality there are often more. For example, the behaviour of young people in gangs may say that they believe they are okay and perhaps other gangs in their neighbourhood are okay, but an individual or gang from another neighbourhood are not okay. We often do this at work as well. We find other people who we like and then we gossip and put other people down. We are therefore saying that we believe we are okay but those others are awful (underneath this there may be a belief that we are not okay either but we feel better by putting someone else down). In this way the two dimensional model of okayness i.e. that there are only two people involved, becomes three dimensional model where there can be three or more involved. There is also the way in which we view life itself. If we consider that there is something wrong with us, and that others are not to be trusted and are not OK either, then the world would be a scary place and we are likely to experience life as tough and believe we will only be all right if we keep alert and on the look out for danger and difficulties.
blame model
The Transactional Analysis 'Okay Corral' can be linked to 'blame', for which Jim Davis TSTA developed this simple and helpful model. Commonly when emotions are triggered people adopt one of three attitudes relating to blame, which each correlate to a position on the Okay Corral:
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I'm to blame (You are okay and I'm not okay - 'helpless') You are to blame (I'm okay and you are not okay - 'angry') We are both to blame (I'm not okay and you are not okay 'hopeless')
None of these is a healthy position.
Instead the healthy position is, and the mindset should be: "It's noone's fault, blame isn't the issue - what matters is how we go forward and sort things out." (I'm okay and you are okay - 'happy') (With acknowledgements to Jim Davis TSTA)
transactional analysis - the script
The script is a life plan, made when we are growing up. It is like having the script of a play in front of us - we read the lines and decide what will happen in each act and how the play will end. The script is developed from our early decisions based upon our life experience. We may not realise that we have set ourselves a plan but we can often find this out if we ask ourselves what our favorite childhood story was, who was our favorite character in the story and who do we identify with. Then consider the beginning, middle and end of the story. How is this story reflected in our life today? Another way of getting to what script is may be to think about what we believe will happen when we are in old age. Do we believe we will be alive at 80 or 90 years old, be healthy, happy, and contented? What do we think will be on the headstone for our grave? What would we like to be on it?
transactional analysis - driver behaviour or working styles
These are ways in which we defend against the injunctions. These are very helpful to us and when we understand them we can work to their strengths through choice, rather than because subconsciously we believe we have to do things this way to be okay. The names of five working styles have been developed, these are:
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be perfect be strong try hard
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please others hurry up
The importance of recognising these in ourselves and others is that we can then work to the best of them rather than be driven by them. The working style Be Perfect means that we will be really good at doing accurate detailed reports, we will be neat in our appearance and our homes will be clean and tidy. If we have this style and are under stress it is likely that we would beat up on ourselves for not being good enough, for making a mistake, for something being out of place. Of course, we created the rule about what perfection is, and then we don't meet up to it we have a go at ourselves. This may also mean that we expect others to be perfect too which can be hard on the colleagues we work with. If we have a Be Strong working style we will be great in a crisis. We can take control of situations and people will often feel safe around us. The difficulty is we may come across as aloof as we don't express feelings very often. For us there is a tendency to say "it is" rather than "I am". The former phrase distances us from our feelings, enabling us to safe. We may stand apart from playful activities fearing we may look stupid. Instead of saying this however, it is likely that we condemn the activity as stupid and put down the person who suggested it. If we have the Try Hard style we are great pioneers. We love new projects and new things to do. We probably have a great wealth of information as we like to gather different ideas together. We are best working under pressure. When stressed we may start too many things. We are more likely to start things but not finish them so celebrating achievements may not happen very often. We get sidetracked by starting to experiment with different ideas or ways to do things. We are likely to use phrases such as: "I'll try and do what we agreed" or "What I am trying to tell you is". If we have the Please Others style we will be a great team member. We like to please people without even asking them how we can do this as we prefer to guess. We can see both sides of an argument and attempt to calm things down. We will be keen to do things for others, often to the point of Rescuing them. Decision making is not our strong point and we may frustrate people by not expressing our own opinion. We prefer
other people to determine priorities, not us. We worry about changing our behaviour in case others won't like us. Those of us with the Hurry Up working style will get a great deal done in a short amount of time. If reports are wanted in on time we are the person to do them. However, we tend to overload our time table and take on too much. This may mean that important aspects are overlooked. We are likely to be impatient with others and often finish their sentences for them. We make only superficial changes as we are so quick to get on with things and not take an in-depth perspective. We might select priorities so quickly that a significant area is overlooked. The way we structure our time is also influenced by our script.
transactional analysis - time structuring
The way in which we structure time is likely to reflect the different hungers. We all structure time in a variety of ways:
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Withdrawal Rituals Pastiming Activities Games Intimacy
Obtaining balance means ensuring that we have sufficient time for play and intimacy and if this does not occur then it would be beneficial to explore what we might be avoiding.
transactional analysis - games
I am sure that every one of us must have been in the situation where we have said, "Why does this always keep happening to me" or "I always keep meeting people who hurt me and then go off and leave me". Sometimes it may be that we like to help people and then it goes
wrong as the person we were trying to help says that we didn't do it well enough and that we got it wrong. We might think "Well, I was only trying to help" and feel got at. When similar situations keep happening over and over again then the term Transactional Analysis uses for this is a game. A game is a familiar pattern of behaviour with a predictable outcome. Games are played outside Adult awareness and they are our best attempt to get our needs met - although of course we don't. Games are learned patterns of behaviour, and most people play a small number of favourite games with a range of different people and in varying intensities. First Degree games are played in social circles generally lead to mild upsets not major traumas. Second Degree games occur when the stakes may be higher. This usually occurs in more intimate circles, and ends up with an even greater negative payoff. Third Degree games involve tissue damage and may end up in the jail, hospital or morgue. Chris Davidson (2002) has argued that world politics can involve fourth degree games - where the outcomes involve whole communities, countries or even the world. Games vary in the length of time that passes while they are being played. Some can take seconds or minutes while others take weeks months or even years. People play games for these reasons:
• • •
to structure time to acquire strokes to maintain the substitute feeling and the system of thinking, beliefs and actions that go with it to confirm parental injunctions and further the life script to maintain the person's life position by "proving" that self/others are not OK to provide a high level of stroke exchange while blocking intimacy and maintaining distance
• •
•
•
to make people predictable.
ways to deal with games
There are various ways to stop a game, including the use of different options than the one automatically used. We can:
•
cross the transaction by responding from a different ego state than the one the stimulus is designed to hook. pick up the ulterior rather than the social message e.g. when a person says "I can't do this, I'm useless". Rather than saying, "Let me do this for you," instead say, "It sounds like you have a problem. What do you want me to do about it?" (said from the Adult ego state) the opening message to the game always entails a discount. There are further discounts at each stage of the game. By detecting discounts we can identify game invitations and defuse them with options. (A discount is when we minimise, maximise or ignore some aspect of a problem which would assist us in resolving it. Such as saying in a whiny voice "This is too difficult for me to do", so we automatically help them). replace the game strokes. Loss of strokes to the Child ego state means a threat to survival. We get a great many strokes from games, even if they are negative. However, if we don't obtain sufficient positive strokes, or give ourselves positive strokes, we will go for quantity rather than quality of strokes and play games to get them. This loss of strokes is also a loss of excitement that the game has generated.
•
•
•
Another way to think about this is to consider the game role we or the other person is likely to take. One way to discover this is to ask the following questions: 1. What keeps happening over and over again 2. How does it start? 3. What happens next? 4. And then what happens?
5. How does it end? 6. How do feel after it ends? (John James, 1973) We can then consider the reason we might have taken up a particular role, where we might switch to, and then consider how to do things differently. We need to consider what our own responsibility is in this if the situation is too violent for us to get involved what options to we have? We could call for help, get others to come with us to intervene and so on. We need to choose the appropriate assistance and take the action required.
transactional analysis further information and training
Transactional Analysis is a fascinating, useful and effective model for managing, developing and helping people in business and in life generally. Transactional Analysis is also a wonderful model for increasing self-awareness and advancing self-development. For more information about Transactional Analysis training, and its use for personal and organizational development or therapeutic applications, I can confidently recommend Mountain Associates of Desford, Leicestershire, England, telephone +44 (0)1455 824475 or email: TA at mountainassociates dot co dot uk. See the Mountain Associates website. Mountain Associates have particular expertise and experience in organizational applications of Transactional Analysis. Refer also to the Johari Window model for personal and inter-group communications and development.
doc_181484102.pdf
Notes on personality theories
Personality theories, types and tests
Personality types, behavioral styles theories, personality and testing systems - for selfawareness, self-development, motivation, management, and recruitment
Motivation, management, communications, relationships - focused on yourself or others - are a lot more effective when you understand yourself, and the people you seek to motivate or manage or develop or help. Understanding personality is also the key to unlocking elusive human qualities, for example leadership, motivation, and empathy, whether your purpose is self-development, helping others, or any other field relating to people and how we behave. The personality theories that underpin personality tests and personality quizzes are surprisingly easy to understand at a basic level. This section seeks to explain many of these personality theories and ideas. This knowledge helps to develop self-awareness and also to help others to achieve greater self-awareness and development too. Developing understanding of personality typology, personality traits, thinking styles and learning styles theories is also a very useful way to improve your knowledge of motivation and behaviour of self and others, in the workplace and beyond. Understanding personality types is helpful for appreciating that while people are different, everyone has a value, and special strengths and qualities, and that everyone should be treated with care and respect. The relevance of love and spirituality - especially at work - is easier to see and explain when we understand that differences in people are usually personality-based. People very rarely set out to cause upset they just behave differently because they are different. Personality theory and tests are useful also for management, recruitment, selection, training and teaching, on which point see also
the learning styles theories on other pages such as Kolb's learning styles, Gardner's Multiple Intelligences, and the VAK learning styles model. Completing personality tests with no knowledge of the supporting theories can be a frustrating and misleading experience - especially if the results from personality testing are not properly explained, or worse still not given at all to the person being tested. Hopefully the explanations and theories below will help dispel much of the mistique surrounding modern personality testing. There are many different personality and motivational models and theories, and each one offers a different perspective. If you find these materials helpful please try to contribute something to the self-publishing Space, for example details of another personality model or psychology theory. Here are details about the Space on Businessballs and the philosophy behind it. The more models you understand, the better your appreciation of motivation and behaviour.
personality theories and models - introduction
Behavioural and personality models are widely used in organisations, especially in psychometrics and psychometric testing (personality assessments and tests). Behavioural and personality models have also been used by philosophers, leaders and managers for hundreds and in some cases thousands of years as an aid to understanding, explaining, and managing communications and relationships. Used appropriately, psychometrics and personality tests can be hugely beneficial in improving knowledge of self and other people motivations, strengths, weaknesses, preferred thinking and working styles, and also strengths and preferred styles for communications, learning, management, being managed, and team-working.
Understanding personality - of your self and others - is central to motivation. Different people have different strengths and needs. You do too. The more you understand about personality, the better able you are to judge what motivates people - and yourself. The more you understand about your own personality and that of other people, the better able you are to realise how others perceive you, and how they react to your own personality and style. Knowing how to adapt the way you work with others, how you communicate, provide information and learning, how you identify and agree tasks, are the main factors enabling successfully managing and motivating others - and yourself. Importantly you do not necessarily need to use a psychometrics instrument in order to understand the theory and the basic model which underpins it. Obviously using good psychometrics instruments can be extremely useful and beneficial, (and enjoyable too if properly positioned and administered), but the long-standing benefit from working with these models is actually in understanding the logic and theory which underpin the behavioural models or personality testing systems concerned. Each theory helps you to understand more about yourself and others. In terms of 'motivating others' you cannot sustainably 'impose' motivation on another person. You can inspire them perhaps, which lasts as long as you can sustain the inspiration, but sustainable motivation must come from within the person. A good manager and leader will enable and provide the situation, environment and opportunities necessary for people to be motivated - in pursuit of goals and development and achievements that are truly meaningful to the individual. Which implies that you need to discover, and at times help the other person to discover, what truly motivates them - especially their strengths, passions, and personal aims - for some the pursuit of personal destiny - to achieve their own unique potential. Being able to explain personality, and to guide people towards resources that will help them understand more about themselves, is all part of the process. Help others to help you understand what they need - for work and for
whole life development, and you will have an important key to motivating, helping and working with people. Each of the different theories and models of personality and human motivation is a different perspective on the hugely complex area of personality, motivation and behaviour. It follows that for any complex subject, the more perspectives you have, then the better your overall understanding will be. Each summary featured below is just that - a summary: a starting point from which you can pursue the detail and workings of any of these models that you find particularly interesting and relevant. Explore the many other models and theories not featured on this site too - the examples below are a just small sample of the wide range of models and systems that have been developed. Some personality testing resources, including assessment instruments, are available free on the internet or at relatively low cost from appropriate providers, and they are wonderful tools for self-awareness, personal development, working with people and for helping to develop better working relationships. Some instruments however are rather more expensive, given that the developers and psychometrics organisations need to recover their development costs. For this reason, scientifically validated personality testing instruments are rarely free. The free tests which are scientifically validated tend to be 'lite' introductory instruments which give a broad indication rather than a detailed analysis. There are dozens of different personality testing systems to explore, beneath which sit rather fewer basic theories and models. Some theories underpin well-known personality assessment instruments (such as Myers Briggs®, and DISC); others are stand-alone models or theories which seek to explain personality, motivation, behaviour, learning styles and thinking styles (such as Benziger, Transactional Analysis, Maslow, McGregor, Adams, VAK, Kolb, and others), which are explained elsewhere on this website. In this section are examples personality and style models, which are all relatively easy to understand and apply. Don't allow providers to baffle you with science - all of these theories are quite accessible at a basic level, which is immensely helpful to understanding a lot of what you need concerning motivation and personality in work and life beyond.
Do seek appropriate training and accreditation if you wish to pursue and use psychometrics testing in a formal way, especially if testing or assessing people in organisations or in the provision of services. Administering formal personality tests - whether in recruitment, assessment, training and development, counselling or for other purposes - is a sensitive and skilled area. People are vulnerable to inaccurate suggestion, misinterpretation, or poor and insensitive explanation, so approach personality testing with care, and be sure you are equipped and capable to deal with testing situations properly. For similar reasons you need to be properly trained to get involved in counselling or therapy for clinical or serious emotional situations. People with clinical conditions, depression and serious emotional disturbance usually need qualified professional help, and if you aren't qualified yourself then the best you can do is to offer to help the other person get the right support. Beware of using unlicensed 'pirated' or illegally copied psychometrics instruments. Always check to ensure that any tools that are 'apparently' free and in the public domain are actually so. If in doubt about the legitimacy of any psychometrics instrument avoid using it. Psychometric tests that are unlikely to be free include systems with specific names, such as DISC®, Situational Leadership®, MBTI®, Cattell 16PF, Belbin Team Roles. If in doubt check. These systems and others like them are not likely to be in the public domain and not legitimately free, and so you should not use them without a licence or the officially purchased materials from the relevant providers.
personality types models and theories
As a general introduction to all of these theories and models, it's important to realise that no-one fully knows the extent to which personality is determined by genetics and hereditary factors, compared to the effects of up-bringing, culture, environment and experience. Nature versus Nurture: no-one knows. Most studies seem to indicate that it's a bit of each, roughly half and half, although obviously it varies person-to-person.
Given that perhaps half our personality is determined by influences acting upon us after we are conceived and born, it's interesting and significant also that no-one actually knows the extent to which personality changes over time. Certainly childhood is highly influential in forming personality. Certainly major trauma at any stage of life can change a person's personality quite fundamentally. Certainly many people seem to mature emotionally with age and experience. But beyond these sort of generalisations, it's difficult to be precise about how and when - and if - personality actually changes. So where do we draw the line and say a personality is fixed and firm? The answer in absolute terms is that we can't. We can however identify general personality styles, aptitudes, sensitivities, traits, etc., in people and in ourselves, especially when we understand something of how to define and measure types and styles. And this level of awareness is far better than having none at all. Which is is purpose of this information about personality and style 'types'. What follows is intended to be give a broad, accessible (hopefully interesting) level of awareness of personality and types, and of ways to interpret and define and recognise different personalities and behaviours, so as to better understand yourself and others around you.
the four temperaments - the four humours/humors
The Four Temperaments, also known as the Four Humours, is arguably the oldest of all personality profiling systems, and it is fascinating that there are so many echoes of these ancient ideas found in modern psychology. The Four Temperaments ideas can be traced back to the traditions of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations over 5,000 years ago, in which the health of the body was connected with the elements, fire, water, earth and air, which in turn were related to body organs, fluids,
and treatments. Some of this thinking survives today in traditional Eastern ideas and medicine. The ancient Greeks however first formalised and popularised the Four Temperaments methodologies around 2,500 years ago, and these ideas came to dominate Western thinking about human behaviour and medical treatment for over two-thousand years. Most of these concepts for understanding personality, behaviour, illness and treatment of illness amazingly persisted in the Western world until the mid-1800s. The Four Temperaments or Four Humours can be traced back reliably to Ancient Greek medicine and philosophy, notably in the work of Hippocrates (c.460-377/359BC - the 'Father of Medicine') and in Plato's (428-348BC) ideas about character and personality. In Greek medicine around 2,500 years ago it was believed that in order to maintain health, people needed an even balance of the four body fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These four body fluids were linked (in daft ways by modern standards) to certain organs and illnesses and also represented the Four Temperaments or Four Humours (of personality) as they later became known. As regards significant body fluids no doubt natural body waste products were discounted, since perfectly healthy people evacuate a good volume of them every day. Blood is an obvious choice for a fluid associated with problems there'd have generally been quite a lot of it about when people were unwell thousands of years ago, especially if you'd been hit with a club or run over by a great big chariot. Phlegm is an obvious one too - colds and flu and chest infections tend to produce gallons of the stuff and I doubt the ancient Greeks had any better ideas of how to get rid of it than we do today. Yellow bile is less easy to understand although it's generally thought have been the yellowish liquid secreted by the liver to aid digestion. In ancient times a bucketful of yellow bile would have been the natural upshot, so to speak, after a night on the local wine or taking a drink from the well that your next-door neighbour threw his dead cat into last week. Black bile is actually a bit of a mystery. Some say it was congealed blood, or more likely stomach bile with some blood in it. Students of the technicolour yawn might have observed that bile does indeed come in a variety of shades, depending on the ailment or what exactly you had to drink the night before. Probably the ancient Greeks noticed the same variation and thought it was two different biles. Whatever, these four were the vital fluids, and they each related
strongly to what was understood at the time about people's health and personality. Imbalance between the 'humours' manifested in different behaviour and illnesses, and treatments were based on restoring balance between the humours and body fluids (which were at the time seen as the same thing. Hence such practices as blood-letting by cutting or with with leeches. Incidentally the traditional red and white striped poles representing blood and bandages - can still occasionally be seen outside barber shops and are a fascinating reminder that these medical beliefs and practices didn't finally die out until the late 1800s. Spiritually there are other very old four-part patterns and themes relating to the Four Temperaments within astrology, the planets, and people's understanding of the world, for example: the ancient 'elements' - fire, water, earth and air; the twelve signs of the zodiac arranged in four sets corresponding to the elements and believed by many to define personality and destiny; the ancient 'Four Qualities' of (combinations of) hot or cold, and dry or moist/wet; and the four seasons, Spring, Summer Autumn, Winter. The organs of the body liver, lungs, gall bladder and spleen - were also strongly connected with the Four Temperaments or Humours and medicinal theory. Relating these ancient patterns to the modern interpretation of the Four Temperaments does not however produce scientifically robust correlations. They were thought relevant at one time, but in truth they are not, just as blood letting has now been discounted as a reliable medical treatment. But while the causal link between body fluids and health and personality has not stood the test of time, the analysis of personality via the Four Temperaments seems to have done so, albeit tenuously in certain models. The explanation below is chiefly concerned with the Four Temperaments as a personality model, not as a basis for understanding and treating illness.
early representations of the four temperaments as a personality model
Richard Montgomery (author of the excellent book People Patterns - A Modern Guide to the Four Temperaments) suggests that the origins of the Four Temperaments can be identified earlier than the ancient Greeks, namely in the Bible, c.590BC, in the words of the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel, who refers (chapter 1, verse 10) to four faces of mankind, represented by four creatures which appeared from the mist: "As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and they four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle." (from the Book of Ezekiel, chapter 1, verse 10) Montgomery additionally attributes personality characteristics to each of the four faces, which he correlates to modern interpretations of the Four Temperaments and also to Hippocrates' ideas, compared below.
four temperaments - earliest origins
Ezekiel c.590BC lion ox man eagle bold sturdy humane far-seeing Hippocrates c.370BC blood black bile yellow bile phlegm cheerful somber enthusiastic calm
N.B. The Ezekiel characteristics, (bold, sturdy, humane, far-seeing), do not appear in the Bible - they have been attributed retrospectively by Montgomery. The describing words shown here for the Hippocrates Four Temperaments are also those used by Montgomery, other similar descriptions are used in different interpretations and commentaries. Later, and very significantly, Galen, (c.130-201AD) the Greek physician later interpreted Hippocrates' ideas into the Four Humours, which you might more readily recognise and associate with historic writings and references about the Four Temperaments and Four Humours. Each of Galen's describing words survives in the English language although the meanings will have altered somewhat with the passing of nearly two thousand years.
Hippocrates c.370BC cheerful somber enthusiastic calm
Galen c.190AD sanguine melancholic choleric phlegmatic
The Four Temperaments or Four Humours continued to feature in the thinking and representations of human personality in the work of many great thinkers through the ages since these earliest beginnings, and although different theorists have used their own interpretations and descriptive words for each of the temperaments through the centuries, it is fascinating to note the relative consistency of these various interpretations which are shown in the history overview table below. Brewer's 1870 dictionary refers quite clearly to the Four Humours using the translated Galen descriptions above, which is further evidence of the popularity and resilience of the Four Temperaments/Humours model and also of the Galen interpretation.
The Four Temperaments also provided much inspiration and historical reference for Carl Jung's work, which in turn provided the underpinning structures and theory for the development of Myers Briggs'® and David Keirsey's modern-day personality assessment systems, which correlate with the Four Temperaments thus:
Isabel Myers 1950s Galen c.190AD David Keirsey 1998 artisan guardian idealist rationalist
SP sensing-perceiving sangine SJ sensing-judging NF intuitive-feeling melancholic choleric
NT intuitive-thinking phlegmatic
N.B. Bear in mind that certain copyright protections apply to the MBTI® and Keirsey terms so I recommend that you be wary of using these in
the provision of chargeable services or materials since under certain circumstances they are likely to be subject to licensing conditions.
David Keirsey's interpretation of the Four Temperaments is expressed by Montgomery in a 2x2 matrix, which provides an interesting modern perspective and helpful way to appreciate the model, and also perhaps to begin to apply it to yourself. Can you see yourself in one of these descriptions?
artisan says what is, does what works guardian says what is, does what's right rationalist says what's possible, does what works idealist says what's possible, does what's right
Again bear in mind that nobody is exclusively one temperament or type. Each if us is likely to have a single preference or dominant type or style, which is augmented and supported by a mixture of the other types. Different people possess differing mixtures and dominances - some people are strongly orientated towards a single type; other people have a more even mixture of types. It seems to be accepted theory that no person can possess an evenly balanced mixture of all four types. Most people can adapt their styles according to different situations. Certain people are able to considerably adapt their personal styles to suit different situations. The advantages of being adaptable are consistent with the powerful '1st Law Of Cybernetics', which states that: "The unit (which can be a person) within the system (which can be a situation or an organisation) which has the most behavioural responses available to it controls the system". The ability to adapt or bring into play different personal styles in response to different situations is arguably the most powerful capability that anyone can possess. Understanding personality models such as the Four Temperaments is therefore of direct help in achieving such personal awareness and adaptability. Understanding personality helps you recognise behaviour and type in others - and yourself. Recognising
behaviour is an obvious pre-requisite for adapting behaviour in yourself, and in helping others to adapt too.
overview history of the four temperaments - or four humours
From various sources and references, including Keirsey and Montgomery, here is a history of the Four Temperaments and other models and concepts related to the Four Temperaments or Four Humours. The words in this framework (from Hippocrates onwards) can be seen as possible describing words for each of the temperaments concerned, although do not attach precise significance to any of the words - they are guide only and not definitive or scientifically reliable. The correlations prior to Hippocrates are far less reliable and included here more for interest than for scientific relevance. N.B. the colours in these charts do not signify anything - they merely assist (hopefully) with continuity between the different tables. The initials K and M denote interpretations according to Keirsey and Montgomery. Ancient dates are approximate. Some cautionary notes relating to the inclusion of some of these theorists and interpretations is shown below the grid. For believers in astrology and star-signs please resist the temptation to categorise yourself according to where your star-sign sits in the grid - these associations are not scientific and not reliable, and are included merely for historical context and information.
Keirsey/MBTI® reference Ezekiel 590BC Empedocles 450BC The Seasons Signs of Zodiac artisan/SP sensingperceiving lion Goea (air) Spring Libra, Aquarius, Gemini guardian/SJ sensingjudging ox Hera (earth) Autumn Capricorn, Taurus, Virgo idealist/NF intuitivefeeling man Zeus (fire) Summer Aries, Leo, Sagittarius rationalist/NT intuitivethinking eagle Poseidon (water) Winter Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces
Hippocrates 370BC Hippocrates 370BC 'Four Qualities' Plato 340BC (M) Aristotle 325BC 'contribution to social order' (K) Aristotle 325BC Four Sources of Happiness (K) Galen 190AD Four Temperaments or Four Humours Paracelsus 1550 'Four Totem Spirits' (K) Eric Adickes 1905 Four World Views (K) Eduard Spranger 1914 Four Value Attitudes (K) Ernst Kretschmer 1920 (M) Eric Fromm 1947 (K)
blood hot and moist artistic
black bile cold and dry sensible
yellow bile hot and dry intuitive 'noetic' intuitive sensibility and morality 'ethikos' moral virtue choleric
phlegm cold and moist reasoning 'dianoetic' reasoning and logical investigator 'dialogike' logical investigation phlegmatic
'iconic'- artistic 'pistic' and art-making common-sense and caretaking 'hedone' sensual pleasure sanguine 'propraieteri' acquiring assets melancholic
Salamanders impulsive and changeable innovative
Gnomes industrious and guarded traditional
Nymph inspiring and passionate doctrinaire
Sylphs curious and calm sceptical
artistic
economic
religious
theoretic
manic exploitative
depressive hoarding sober, reserved, quiet, rigid judging scheduling SJ - sensible and judicious
oversensitive receptive restless, excitable, optimistic, impulsive feeling friendly NF - intuitive and fervent
insensitive marketing careful, controlled, thoughtful, reliable thinking tough-minded NT - ingenious and theoretical
Hans Eysenck 1950s lively, (trait examples from talkative, his inventory) carefree, outgoing Myers 1958 (M) Myers 1958 (K) Montgomery 2002 on Jung/Myers perceiving probing SP spontaneous and playful
Montgomery 2002 on Keirsey's Four Temperaments
says what is, does what works
says what is, does what's right
says what's possible, does what's right
says what's possible, does what works
Empedocles (c.450BC), the Sicilian-born Greek philosopher and poet was probably first to publish the concept of 'the elements' (Fire, Earth, Water, Air) being 'scientifically' linked to human behaviour: in his long poem 'On Nature' he described the elements in relation to emotional forces that we would refer to as love and strife. However 1870 Brewer says that Empedocles preferred the names of the Greek Gods, Zeus, Hera, Poseidon and Goea. (1870 Brewer, and Chambers Biographical, which references Jean Ballock's book, 'Empedocle', 1965.) Aristotle explained four temperaments in the context of 'individual contribution to social order' in The Republic, c.325BC, and also used the Four Temperaments to theorise about people's character and quest for happiness. Incidentally 1870 Brewer states that Aristotle was first to specifically suggest the four elements, fire, earth, water, air, and that this was intended as an explanation purely of the various forms in which matter can appear, which was interpreted by 'modern' chemists (of the late 1800s) to represent 'the imponderable' (calorie), the gaseous (air), the liquid (water), and solid (earth). Paracelsus was a German alchemist and physician and considered by some to be the 'father of toxicology'. His real name was Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, which perhaps explains why he adopted a pseudonym. According to Chambers Biographical Dictionary he lived from 1493-1541, which suggests that his work was earlier than 'c.1550'. Keirsey and Montgomery cite the connection between Paracelsus's Four Totem Spirits and the Four Temperaments, however there are others who do not see the same connection to or interpretation of the Four Totem Spirits. If you are keen to know more perhaps seek out the book The Life Of Paracelsus Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, by A Stoddart, published in 1911, referenced by Chambers Biographical. Hans Jurgen Eysenck was a German-born British psychologist whose very popular scalable personality inventory model contains significant overlaps with the Four Temperaments. It's not a perfect fit, but there are many common aspects. See the Eysenck section.
Galen was a Greek physician (c.130-201AD - more correctly called Claudius Galenus), who became chief physician to the Roman gladiators in Pergamum from AD 157, and subsequently to the Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Aurelius Commodus and Lucius Septimus Severus. Galen later interpreted Hippocrates' ideas into the Four Humours, which you might more readily recognise and associate with historic writings and references. Galen's interpretation survived as an accepted and arguably the principal Western medical scientific interpretation of human biology until the advancement of cellular pathology theory during the mid-late 1800s, notably by German pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902, considered the founder of modern pathology), in his work 'Cellularpathologie' (1858), building on the work of fellow cellular scientists Theodor Schwann, Johannes Muller, Matthias Schleiden and earlier, Robert Brown. Beware of erroneous correlations between the various sets of four temperaments, humours, elements, body organs, star-signs, etc - it's easy to confuse so many sets of four. I believe the above to be reliable as far as it goes. Please let me know if you spot a fault anywhere. Also remember that the correlation between these sets is not precise and in some cases it's very tenuous. The above table of correlated four temperaments and other sets of four is not designed as a scientific basis for understanding personality - it's a historical over view of the development of the Four Temperaments included here chiefly to illustrate the broad consistency of ideas over the past two-and-a-half thousand years, and to provoke a bit of thought about describing words for the four main character types. Keep the Four Temperaments in perspective: the history of the model provides a fascinating view of the development of thinking in this area, and certainly there are strands of the very old ideas that appear in the most modern systems, so it's very helpful and interesting to know the background, but it's not a perfect science. You'll see significant echoes of the Four Temperaments in David Keirsey's personality theory, which of all modern theories seems most aligned with the Four Temperaments, although much of the detail has been built by Keirsey onto a Four Temperaments platform, rather than using a great amount of detail from old Four Temperaments ideas. The Four Temperaments model also features in Eysenck'stheory, on which others have subsequently drawn. To a far lesser extent the Four
Temperaments can also be partly correlated to the Moulton Marston's DISC theory and this is shown in the explanatory matrix in the DISC section. Jung, Myers Briggs® and Benziger's theories also partly correlate with the Four Temperaments; notably there seems general agreement that the phlegmatic temperament corresponds to Jung's 'Intuitive-Thinking', and that the choleric temperament corresponds to Jung's 'Intuitive-Feeling'. The other two temperaments, sanguine and melancholic seem now to be represented by the Jungian 'Sensing' in combination with either Jungian 'Feeling' or a preference from the Myers Briggs® Judging-Perceiving dimension. The Four Temperaments are very interesting, but being over twothousand years old they are also less than crystal clear, so correlation much beyond this is not easy. Connections with modern theories and types and traits, such as they are, are explained where appropriate in the relevant sections below dealing with other theories. Dr Stephen Montgomery's 2002 book 'People Patterns' is an excellent guide to the Four Temperaments, in which he provides his own interpretations, and explains relationships between the Four Temperaments and various other behavioural and personality assessment models, notably the David Keirsey model and theories. Incidentally Montgomery is Keirsey's long-standing editor and also his son-in-law. Keirsey's acknowledges Montgomery's depth of understanding of the Four Temperaments in Keirsey's book, Please Understand Me II, which also provides a very helpful perspective of the Four Temperaments.
carl jung's psychological types
Given that Carl Jung's psychological theory so fundamentally underpins most of the popular and highly regarded personality systems today it makes sense to explain a little about it here. Carl Gustav Jung was born 26 July 1875 in Kesswil Switzerland and was the only son of a Swiss Reformed Church Evangelical Minister. According to Maggie Hyde who wrote the excellent Introduction to Jung (Icon Books 1992), he was a strange melancholic child who played his own imaginary games, alone, for the first nine years of his life. Eight of
Jung's uncles were in the clergy, as was his maternal grandfather, who held weekly conversations with his deceased wife, while his second wife and Carl's mother sat and listened to it all. A recipe for Jung's own extraordinary personality if ever there was one. The boy Jung was raised on diet of Swiss Protestantism and pagan spirituality and seemingly his only outlets were his father's books and sitting on a big rock. Poor kid... His weird family clearly had a lot to with Jung's troubled young life and his psychotic break-down in mid-life, and his ongoing obsession with trying to make sense of it all. It is amazing that from such disturbed beginnings such a brilliant mind could emerge. Jung's work and influence extend way beyond understanding personality - he is considered to be one of the greatest thinkers ever to have theorised about life and how people relate to it. For the purposes of this explanation however, we must concentrate on just the relevant parts of his work - Jung's Psychological Types - or we'll be here for ever. Carl Jung was among many great personality theorists who drew inspiration and guidance from the ancient Greek Four Temperaments model and its various interpretations over the centuries. Carl Jung's key book in this regard, which extended and explained his theories about personality type, was Psychological Types, published in 1921. His theory of Psychological Types was part of a wider set of ideas relating to psychic energy, in which he developed important concepts for clinical psychological therapy and psycho-analysis (psychiatric diagnosis and therapy). It's helpful to note that Jung approached personality and 'psychological types' (also referred to as Jung's psychological archetypes) from a perspective of clinical psychoanalysis. He was a main collaborator of Sigmund Freud - also a seminal thinker in the field of psycho-analysis, psychology and human behaviour. Jung and Freud were scientists, scholars, deeply serious and passionate academics. They were concerned to discover and develop and extend knowledge about the human mind and how it works. They were also great friends until they disagreed and fell out, which is a further example of the complexity of the subject: even among collaborators there is plenty of room for disagreement.
In psychoanalysis, it is important for the analyst to understand the structure or nature or direction of the 'psychic energy' within the other person. More simply we might say this is 'where the person is coming from', or 'how they are thinking'. Logically if the analyst can interpret what's going on, then he/she is better able to suggest how matters might be improved. As with any analytical discipline, if we have some sort of interpretive framework or model, then we can far more easily identify features and characteristics. Jung's work was often focused on developing analytical models - beyond simply being a psycho-analyst. Modern psychometrics has benefited directly from the analytical models that Jung developed for psycho-analysis, and while this section is essentially concerned with explaining the model for the purpose of understanding personality types, if you can extract some deeper therapeutic knowledge and self-awareness from the theories and ideas which underpin the models, then I would encourage you to so so. There is enormous value in deepening understanding of ourselves as people, and Jung's ideas help many people to achieve this. Jung accordingly developed his concepts of 'psychological types' in order to improve this understanding. The fact that Carl Jung's 'psychological types' structure continue to provide the basis of many of the leading psychometrics systems and instruments in use today, including Myers Briggs® and Keirsey, is testimony to the enduring relevance and value of Jung's work.
jung's ideas about the conscious and the unconscious
First it's important to understand that Jung asserted that a person's psychological make-up is always working on two levels: the conscious and the unconscious. According to Jung, and widely held today, a person's 'psyche' (a person's 'whole being') is represented by their conscious and unconscious parts. Moreover, a person's conscious and unconscious states are in a way 'self-balancing', that is to say - and this is significant - if a person's conscious side (or 'attitude') becomes dominant or extreme, then the unconscious will surface or manifest in some way to rectify the balance. This might be in dreams or
internal images, or via more physical externally visible illness or emotional disturbance. Jung also asserted that at times in people the unconscious can surface and 'project' (be directed at) the outside world, particularly other people. This acknowledgement of the power of the unconscious features strongly in the thinking of Freud and notably in the underpinning theory of Transactional Analysis (it's a big section take time to look at it separately).
jung's psychological 'general attitude types' introverted and extraverted
Jung divided psychic energy into two basic 'general attitude types': Introverted and Extraverted. These are effectively two 'type' behaviours that combine with others explained later to create Jung's psychological types. Moreover Jung's Introvert and Extravert 'general attitude types' feature strongly as two opposite characteristics within very many modern personality systems, including Myers Briggs® and Keirsey. The 1923 translation of Jung's 1921 book Psychological Types uses the words Introverted and Extraverted to describe these types, which in German would have been Introvertiert and Extravertiert. Some interpretations of Jung's ideas use the alternative words Introvert and Introversion, and Extravert and Extraversion to describe Jung's types. The word Extravert was devised by Jung, which is how it appears in German. He formed it from the Latin words 'extra' meaning outside, and 'vertere' meaning to turn. The words extrovert, extroverted and extroversion are English adaptations which appeared soon after Jung popularised the word in German. Both 'extra' and 'extro' versions are acceptable English. Jung formed the word Introvert from the Latin 'intro' meaning inward and 'vertere' to turn. The word 'attitude' in this sense means a deeper more settled mode of behaviour than the common day-to-day use of the word. In his 1921 book Psychological Types, Jung described the introverted and extraverted general attitude types as being:
".... distinguished by the direction of general interest or libido movement..... differentiated by their particular attitude to the object.." and "....The introvert's attitude to the object is an abstracting one.... he is always facing the problem of how libido can be withdrawn from the object...... The extravert, on the contrary, maintains a positive relation to the object. To such an extent does he affirm its importance that his subjective attitude is continually being orientated by, and related to the object...." (The 1923 translation by H Godwyn Baynes is understandably a little awkward for modern times. 'Abstracting' in this context means 'drawing way', from its Latin root meaning. 'Libido' in this context probably means 'desire', although the word seems first to have appeared in earlier translations of Freud, who used it in a more sexual sense.) Both attitudes - extraversion and introversion - are present in every person, in different degrees. No-one is pure extravert or pure introvert, and more recent studies (notably Eysenck) indicate that a big majority of people are actually a reasonably well-balanced mixture of the two types, albeit with a preference for one or the other. Not black and white - instead shades of grey.
extraverted
psychic energy is directed out of the person to the world outside them objective - outward "... maintains a positive relation to the object. To such an extent does he affirm its importance that his subjective attitude is continually being orientated by, and related to the object...." (Jung)
introverted
the person's psychic energy is internally directed subjective - inward ".... attitude to the object is an abstracting one.... he is always facing the problem of how libido can be withdrawn from the object...." (Jung)
"an extravert attitude is motivated "an introvert is motivated from from the outside and is directed by within and directed by inner, external, objective factors and subjective matters" (Hyde)
relationships" (Hyde) "behaviour directed externally, to influence outside factors and events" (Benziger) "behaviour directed inwardly to understand and manage self and experience" (Benziger)
Jung's 'general attitudes' of Introverted and Extraverted are clearly quite different. It is no wonder then that strongly orientated extraverts and introverts see things in quite different ways, which can cause conflict and misunderstanding. Two people may look at the same situation and yet see different things. They see things - as we all tend to - in terms of themselves and their own own mind-sets. It is almost incredible to think that these words - extravert and introvert - that we take so much for granted today to describe people and their personality and behaviour, were not used at all until Jung developed his ideas. Without wishing to add further complication Jung said that extraversion and introversion are not mutually exclusive and will be self-balancing or compensating through the conscious and unconscious. A strongly outward consciously extravert person will according to Jungian theory possess a compensatory strong inward unconscious introvert side. And vice versa. Jung linked this compensatory effect for example to repression of natural tendencies and the resulting unhappiness or hysteria or illness. We are each born with a natural balance. If our natural balance is upset due to repression or conditioning then our minds will in some way seek to restore the balance, which Jung saw as the power of the unconscious surfacing as 'the return of the repressed'.
jung's psychological types - the 'four functional types'
In addition to the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion, Jung also developed a framework of 'four functional types'. Jung described these four 'Functional Types' as being those from which the "...most differentiated function plays the principal role in an individual's adaptation or orientation to life..." (from Psychological Types, 1921) By 'most differentiated' Jung meant 'superior' or dominant. Jung's Four Functions contain significant echoes of the Four Temperaments and of the many related four-part patterns or sets ('quaternities') that relate to the Four Temperaments, dating back to ancient Greece and arguably earlier, although Jung's ideas are more a lot sophisticated and complex than the Four Temperaments model. Like many theorists before him who had attempted to define personality Jung opted for a four-part structure, which he used alongside his Introverted-Extraverted attitudes: Jung's Four Functions of the psyche are:
• •
thinking and feeling
which he said are the functions that enable us to decide and judge, (Jung called these 'Rational') and
• •
sensation and intuition
which Jung said are the functions that enable us to gather information and perceive (Jung called these 'Irrational').
Significantly Jung also asserted that each of us needs to be able to both perceive and to judge(gather information and decide) in order to survive and to carry on normal functioning behaviour. And he also said that in doing this each of us prefers or favours one of the functions from each of the pairings.
Jung's Four Functions are described below. These very brief definitions and keywords are based respectively on descriptions by Hyde, Fordham and Benziger, all experts and writers on Jungian theory. The final column explains the pairings according to Jung's 'Rational' and 'Irrational' criteria, which nowadays correspond to the Myers Briggs® functions of 'Judging' and 'Perceiving' as featured in Myers Briggs'® theories. The colours are to help the presentation and are not part of Jung's theory:
jung's four functional types - definitions
analytic, what objective, meaning and something principles, Thinking understanding is standards, criteria, whether it's good or not subjective, personal, valuing intimacy, humane realistic, down-toearth, practical, sensible hunches, future, speculative, fantasy, imaginative
Feeling
weight and value
both are oppositereasoning and judgingfunctions - people consciously 'prefer' one or the other - Jung called these functions 'rational'
Sensation
something sensual exists perception
Intuition
where it's from and where it's going
possibilities and atmosphere
both are oppositeperceiving functions people consciously 'prefer' one or the other - Jung called these functions 'irrational'
Katherine Benziger, a leading modern thinker in the field of personality, is not alone in suggesting Jung's Sensation function equates to Galen's Phelgmatic temperament, and that Jung's Intuitionfunction equates to Galen's Choleric temperament. Relationships between Jung's two other functions (Thinking and Feeling) and the other two of the Four Temperaments (Melancholic andSanguine) are more complex and are not a direct match, although common elements do exist between these Jungian functions and Galen temperaments. You
might find Benziger's model helpful for understanding more about each of the four functional types and the characteristics each represents. Benziger's four quadrants of the brain equate directly to Jung's four functional types. Jung said that Thinking and Feeling are 'Rational' because both of these functions evaluate experience. In Jung's theory the Thinking and Feeling functions are 'Rational' because they reason anddecide and judge. Jung said that Intuition and Sensation are 'Irrational' since they are concerned with perception and do not evaluate. According to Jung the Intuition and Sensation functions are 'Irrational' because they simply gather information and perceive the nature of something they do not reason or decide or judge. The Rational and Irrational descriptions that Jung attached to the four functions might not appear particularly significant at first, especially given that Jung's use of the words is rather different to the modern meanings. However consider the modern words that describe Jung's meaning of Rational and Irrational, respectively Judging ('rational' Thinking and Feeling) and Perceiving ('irrational' Sensation and Intuition) and you can begin to see how Myers Briggs® arrived at their Judging andPerceiving dimension, which they developed from Jung's ideas, largely as a way of determining the dominance or priority of auxiliary functions within the Jungian model. (This will hopefully make more sense when you know something of the Myers Briggs® model.) Here's another perspective - some short descriptions of each of Jung's Four Functional Types:
jung's four functional types - descriptions
Jung's 'Thinking' function is a 'rational' process of understanding reality, implications, causes and effects in a logical and analytical way. It is systematic, evaluates truth, and is objective to the extent that evaluation is based on personal intelligence and comprehension. 'Thinking' is the opposite to 'Feeling'. judging (Jung's 'rational' functions)
Thinking
Feeling
Jung's 'Feeling' function makes judgements on a personal subjective basis. It is a 'rational' process of forming personal subjective opinion about whether something is good or bad, right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable, etc., and involves sentimentality and humanity. 'Feeling' is the opposite to 'Thinking'. Jung's 'Sensation' function translates signals from the senses into factual data. There is no judgement of right or wrong, good or bad, implications, causes, directions, context, possibilities, themes, or related concepts. Sensation sees what is, as what it is. 'Sensation' is the opposite to 'Intuition'. Jung's 'Intuition' function translates things, facts and details into larger conceptual pictures, possibilities, opportunities, imaginings, mysticism and new ideas. Intuition largely ignores essential facts and details, logic and truth. 'Intuition' is the opposite to 'Sensation'.
Sensation
perceiving (Jung's 'irrational' functions)
Intuition
At this point you might like to pause and go make a cup of tea and some toast. Have a rest. Don't try to absorb and understand all this in one sitting if it's new to you.
Jung accordingly arranged his four functional types as two pairs of opposites, thinking or feeling(the rational 'judging' pairing), and sensation or intuition (the irrational 'perceiving' pairing), which are often shown as four points (like North South East West) on a compass.
thinking intuition or feeling sensation
Jung said that each person has a main natural conscious orientation towards one of the four functions (their 'superior' or most 'differentiated' function), in which case the opposite function (the 'inferior' or unconscious function) would be represented and compensated within the person's unconscious. Of the other two functions, either one could be next dominant, depending on the person, and generally would 'serve' as an auxiliary function in support of the person's 'superior' function. (Again just to complicate matters Jung said that in some cases both of these functions could serve as auxiliary functions, but generally the interpretation is that one auxiliary function would be more prevalent than the other. The point here is that the auxiliary functions are not as polarised - into conscious-unconscious - as the superior and inferior functions, which are more strongly polarised into conscious-unconscious.) So, a personality would generally be represented by a conscious dominant function from each opposite pair: one of these dominant functions being dominant overall ('superior') and the other dominant function being the supporting ('auxiliary') function. In the example above, the superior function is Thinking. The opposite Feeling function would largely or entirely be a compensatory unconscious element within the whole person. Depending on the person either the Sensation or Intuition function would be the prevalent auxiliary function, causing its opposite partner to reside to an appropriate extent in the unconscious, so again balancing the whole person. Jung's important principle of personality being represented by one type from two opposing types (or a series of single types from pairs of opposites) is featured strongly in the models developed by Keirsey and Myers Briggs®, amongst others. In his Psychological Types book and theory Jung presented his (major eight) 'psychological types' as simple combinations of Introverted or Extraverted together with one 'superior' function, eg, 'IntrovertedThinking' (IT). It is however perfectly appropriate and proper (as Jung explained) to extrapolate or extend the number of Jung types to include auxiliaries, eg, 'Introverted-Thinking-Sensation' (ITS - commonly shown as IT
by a two-letter abbreviation), subsequent interpretations commonly add the auxiliary function (resulting in a three-letter abbreviation). In fact to assist this extension Myers Briggs® later introduced the JudgingPerceiving dimension, which acted mainly as a means of identifying which two of the four functions are dominant and auxiliary within the Jung framework for any particular personality (of which more later below). Here are the four conscious orientations (aside from extraversion and introversion which are added to the model later). In these examples the prevalent auxiliary function is not indicated. It could be either of the right or left functions, depending on the person.
thinking is superior function
thinking intuition < either is auxiliary > feeling < conscious 'superior' sensation < unconscious
feeling is superior function
feeling intuition < either is auxiliary > thinking < conscious 'superior' sensation < unconscious
intuition is superior function
intuition thinking < either is auxiliary > sensation
< conscious 'superior' feeling < unconscious
sensation is superior function
sensation thinking < either is auxiliary > intuition < conscious 'superior' feeling < unconscious
jung's eight psychological types
This all leads us to Jung's eight major 'Psychological Types', which as already explained Jung constructed by adding one or other of the introversion or extraversion 'general attitude types' to each of the possible four superior functions described above. Logically this produces eight main psychological types. The eight psychological types do not include 'auxiliary' functions and as such do not represent full personalities in themselves. The 'type characteristics' below are generally applicable keywords - they are not absolutes or exclusive. Interpretations can vary a lot - it impossible to summarise a personality type that encompasses millions of variations within it in just a few words, although hopefully the matrix helps to convey some sense of the collective and comparative types within the model. Fuller descriptions are available on specialised resources, for instance at Dr Robert Winer's excellent website www.gesher.org. Some commentators and resources suggest 'job examples' for the different types, and some
also suggest examples of famous people falling into each type, although stereotypical 'typing' guesswork of this sort can be misleading if taken at all seriously. Remember again that these eight main types are not the 'whole person' - people comprise a least one other functional preference, plus unconscious balancing functions, all to varying degrees, all of which which produce personality types that are much more complex than the basic eight main types shown here.
type name Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensation Introverted Sensation Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition type characteristics analytical, strategic, plans, implements, organises others contemplative, discovering, theoretical, seeks self-knowledge sociable, sentimental, seeks personal and social success inaccessible, enigmatic, self-contained, seeks inner intensity practical, hands-on, pleasure-seeking, hardheaded intense, obsessive, detached, connoisseur, expert adventurous, innovative, seeks novelty, proposes change idealistic, visionary, esoteric, mystical, aloof
jung's psychological types - principal and auxiliary functions
Jung's eight main psychological types are in themselves an oversimplification. This is borne out by Jung himself in his 1921 book Psychological Types following his presentation of each of the eight main types: "...In the foregoing descriptions I have no desire to give my readers the impression that such pure types occur at all frequently in actual practice. They are, as it were, only Galtonesque family-portraits, which
sum up in a cumulative image the common and therefore typical characters....... Accurate investigation of the individual case consistently reveals the fact that, in conjunction with the most differentiated function, another function of secondary importance, and therefore of inferior differentiation in consciousness, is constantly present, and is a relatively determining factor..." (Psychological Types, Chapter 10, General Description of the Types, point 11: The Principal and Auxiliary Functions) (Incidentally, the word 'Galtonesque' is a reference to Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), an eminent English scientist, cousin of Charles Darwin, who asserted that personality and other traits and abilities are hereditary (inherited or genetic) factors. Interestingly Galton also devised the finger-printing identification system which he first published in his book Finger Prints in 1892. Jung's use of the word Galtonesque intends to convey a general 'broad brush' meaning - the main family groups of personality - as if 'inherited' - not detailed personality types which implictly within Jung's concepts are subject to much influence and change after a person's conception, and therefore outside Galton's ideas of inherited 'genetic' traits.) Jung's theory does not aim to 'pigeon-hole' all people into one of eight personality types. The eight Psychological Types are simply the eight main groupings represented by Extraversion or Introversion and one 'Four Functional Types' (the superior or principal function). In reality each of these eight type-combinations (represented by E or I plus one Function) is augmented by one or other 'auxiliary' function according to the Jungian theory whereby conscious personality is represented by a dominant function from each of the 'Rational' and 'Irrational' (judging and perceiving) functional pairs of opposites. So, for example, an 'Extraverted Thinking' main psychological type would be augmented by a preferred auxiliary function from the 'Irrational' (or perceiving) Sensing-Intuition pairing, on the basis that Thinking is the preferred 'Rational' (or judging) Function. And also for example an 'Introverted Intuition' main psychological type would be augmented by a preferred auxiliary function from the 'Rational' Thinking-Feeling pairing, on the basis that Intuition is the preferred 'Irrational' (or perceiving) Function.
jung's sixteen personality types
These types are automatically and unavoidably implied by Jung's theory, although Jung himself never made a big song and dance about them. They do however help to build up a fuller picture of Jung's theory, and they also relate directly to Myers Briggs'® interpretation and equivalents of these types (for which Myers Briggs® used their additional Judging-Perceiving dimension to determine dominance between the two preferred functional types after the Jungian Introverted or Extraverted 'attitudes'). Logically, adding an auxiliary function to each of Jung's main eight Psychological Types now produces sixteen types, which (subsequent to Jung's Psychological Types book), might be shown as follows, and in each case the first 'Function' (the middle word) is the most dominant. Remember that Introversion and Extraversion are not 'Functions', they are Jungian 'Attitudes': 1. Extraverted Thinking Sensation - ET(S) 2. Extraverted Thinking Intuition - ET(N) 3. Extraverted Feeling Sensation - EF(S) 4. Extraverted Feeling Intuition - EF(N) 5. Extraverted Sensation Thinking - ES(T) 6. Extraverted Sensation Feeling - ES(F) 7. Extraverted Intuition Thinking - EN(T) 8. Extraverted Intuition Feeling - EN(F) 9. Introverted Thinking Sensation - IT(S) 10. Introverted Thinking Intuition - IT(N) 11. Introverted Feeling Sensation - IF(S) 12. Introverted Feeling Intuition - IF(N) 13. Introverted Sensation Thinking - IS(T) 14. Introverted Sensation Feeling - IS(F) 15. Introverted Intuition Thinking - IN(T) 16. Introverted Intuition Feeling - IN(F) Using what you know about each of these attitudes and functional types you might now be able to begin to identify and understand your own Jungian type.
(How each of these Jungian types including auxiliaries relate to the Myers Briggs® interpretation and system is explained in the Myers Briggs® section. As you will see when you come to it, the Myers Briggs® system uses the additional dimension or pairing of JudgingPerceiving, not only as a type indicator in its own right based on Jungian ideas, but also as a means of determining functional dominance among the two preferred functions, whose methodology depends also on whether the dominance is directed via Introversion or Extraversion.)
While Jung's theories are used widely in psychometrics and personality testing, his original purpose and focus was clinical, in pursuit of better understanding and treatment of mental illness, and improving the quality of human existence. As such Jung placed greater emphasis on the unconscious than is represented within modern psychometrics and 'commercialised' personality theories. On which point there is great value for us all in Carl Jung's thinking about the deeper workings of the mind, especially the unconscious, beyond simply seeing Jung's ideas as a model for categorising personality. Significantly Jung for instance observed that improving our awareness and acceptance of the four functions within ourselves - whether as conscious or unconscious elements - is important for developing a healthy existence, and 'life-balance', as we might say today. Conversely, repression of any of the functions, by oneself or by another person or pressure, is unhelpful and unhealthy, and leads to problems surfacing sooner or later, one way or another. We see evidence of this when parents condition or force certain behaviour on their children, or when adults inhibit their feelings, or deny themselves sensation of reality. We also see evidence of people's unconscious mind reverting from unconscious to conscious behaviour when they are under the influence of alcohol or significant stress. And we also see the unconscious mind as a chief element within the theories of Transactional Analysis, which when studied alongside Jung's ideas, together provide a powerful perspective of personality and behaviour. It's all mighty powerful and thoroughly fascinating stuff.
The aim of studying and learning about these ideas brings us back to Jung's own purposes and the fact that Jungian theory recommends that all people should strive to develop any neglected or suppressed functions, and to embrace all four functions as being part of the whole person.
myers briggs® type indicator (MBTI®)
The Myers Briggs® Type Indicator (MBTI®) is a widely used and highly regarded system for understanding and interpreting personality, and derives most of its underpinning theory from Carl Jung's Psychological Types ideas and to a lesser extent the Four Temperaments (or Four Humours). Myers Briggs® (in fact Isabel Briggs Myers working with her mother Katharine Briggs) essentially developed Carl Jung's theories into a usable methodology and system for understanding and assessing personality (more easily and accessibly than by becoming an expert on Jung and his theories). The owners of the system, the Myers Briggs® Foundation, explain that the purpose of their MBTI® 'personal inventory' system is to "make the theory of psychological types described by Carl G Jung understandable and useful in people's lives...", and that, "..The essence of the theory is that much seemingly random variation in the behavior is actually quite orderly and consistent, being due to basic difference in the way individual prefer to use their perception and judgment...." (This last sentence is interesting because it highlights Myers Briggs'® emphasis on and interpretation of their Judging-Perceiving dimension basically Jung's Rational/Irrational definitions - as a means of clarifying function dominance within each whole MBTI® personality type.) The MBTI® model and test instrument was developed by Katharine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers in 1942 after their studies
particularly of Carl Jung, whose basic concepts relating to this aspect of personality and behaviour are described above. Myers Briggs'® MBTI® concept is featured in Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers' key book 'MBTI® Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®' which was first published in 1962, some years after the tests had been in use. Isabel Briggs Myers later extended and built on these ideas in her 1980 book 'Gifts Differing'. The Myers Briggs Foundation explains also that "...The theory of psychological type was introduced in the 1920s by Carl G. Jung. The MBTI® tool was developed in the 1940s by Isabel Briggs Myers and the original research was done in the 1940s and 50s. This research is ongoing, providing users with updated and new information about psychological type and its applications..." According to the Myers Briggs Foundation more than two million people are assessed using the MBTI® personal inventory instrument around the world every year. It's a big business... The MBTI® model (along with other personality theories and psychometrics models) is particularly useful for:
• • • • •
understanding and developing yourself understanding and developing others understanding what motivates others understanding others' strengths and weaknesses working in teams - by ensuring that all relevant necessary capabilities are represented in the team allocating and agreeing tasks and project responsibilities agreeing roles and development with others and for oneself
• •
Myers Briggs® theory and the MBTI® model is a method for understanding personality and preferred modes of behaving. It is not a measurement of intelligence or competence, emotional state or mental stability, 'grown-upness' or maturity, and must be used with great care in assessing aptitude for jobs or careers: people can do most jobs in a variety of ways, and the MBTI® gives little or no indication of
commitment, determination, passion, experience, ambition etc., nor 'falsification of type', all of which can have a far greater influence on personal success than a single personality test. In most respects psychometrics tests and personality models are aids to personal development and to helping people understand more about themselves. They are not to be used a single basis for recruitment or career decisions.
myers briggs® theory and the MBTI® model
The Myers Briggs® MBTI® system uses a four-scale structure for identifying and categorising an individual's behavioural preferences, based almost entirely on Carl Jung's theories and his (translated) descriptive words. Each of the four MBTI® scales represents two opposing 'preferences' (in other words, preferred styles or capabilities). All abbreviations are obvious first letters, other than N for Intuition, which causes the word to be shown sometimes as iNtuition - just in case you were wondering. The Myers Briggs® Judging-Perceiving dimension basically equates to Jung's Rational/Irrational categories of the two pairs of Jungian Functional types. The colour coding is consistent with the colours used in the Jung section - it was not part of Jung's or Myers Briggs'® theory, but hopefully the colours help explain the pattern and connections.
the focus or direction or orientation of our behaviour outward or inward how we gather information
(E)
Extraversion
or Introversion
(I)
'Attitude' or orientation
(S)
Sensing
or
iNtuition
(N)
Function(Jungian 'Irrational' or MB 'Perceiving') Function(Jungian 'Rational' or MB 'Judging') Myers Briggs'®
(T) (J)
Thinking Judging
or or
Feeling Perceiving
(F) (P)
how we decide how we react
to the world - added dimension do prefer to equating to Jung's make decisions 'Irrational' and or keep open to 'Rational' options (and also which middle 'Functions' do we favour)
Myers Briggs® (Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Briggs) added a fourth dimension to the three Jung dimensions (Introvert-Extravert, Thinking-Feeling, Sensation-Intuition), namely Judging-Perceiving, which is related to a personality's approach to decision-making, and particularly how the personality deals with the outer world (Extraverted) as distinct from the inner world (Introverted). The Myers Briggs® Judging-Perceiving dimension can also be used to determine functional dominance among the two preferred functional types (aside from Introvert-Extravert, which are not functions but 'Attitudes', or orientations). This can be a tricky little aspect of the Myers Briggs® theory and is explained at the end of this Myers Briggs® section. Happily it's not crucial to deriving value and benefit from Myers Briggs'® ideas, so don't agonise over it if you don't understand it straight away. Aside from determining functional dominance, irrespective of the way decisions are made (by Thinking or Feeling) the Judging type makes decisions sooner than the Perceiving type. As such the Myers Briggs'® Judging-Perceiving dimension is not found (as a functional dimension) in the Jung model, although Judging and Perceiving most certainly relate to the Jungian descriptions respectively of Rational and Irrational, which Jung uses to categorise the two pairs of Functional Types (the Rational 'judging' Thinking and Feeling, and the Irrational 'perceiving' Sensing and Intuition - refer to the Jung explanation). Moving on, David Keirsey, in his book Please Understand Me II, provides some additional helpful explanation of how Isabel Myers attached her own meanings to these Jungian words, he said, "putting her own spin on them". Keirsey interestingly also points out that Myers
differed markedly from Jung's use of the words Sensation and Perception, which Jung considered held the same meaning, but to which you can see here and elsewhere that the Myers Briggs® system attached different meanings. For this reason if you want to avoid doubt and any confusion in the minds of Jungian purists then it's safest to use the words 'Rational' and 'Irrational' when correlating these Jung terms to the Myers Briggs'® 'Judging' and 'Perceiving'. The right-side column is simply a translation, using more recognisable modern words, for showing the four MBTI® dimensions.
MBTI® type names, based on Jung's language (E) Extraversion or Introversion (I) (S) Sensing or Intuitive (N) (T) Thinking or Feeling (F)
alternative Myers Briggs® meaning or 'spin' (E) Expressive or Reserved (I) (S) Observant or Introspective (N) (T) Tough-minded or Friendly (F)
(J) Judging or Perceiving (P) (S) Scheduling or Probing (P)
It is interesting to note that many of these words above appear commonly in different personality testing systems, for example DISC systems, which again demonstrates the closely connected nature of many psychometrics models and products. Most people, to varying degrees at different times depending on circumstances, use both preferences within each of the four scales, but each of us tends to have (and therefore will indicate via testing) a certain preference for one style or another in each of the four scales. There are no 'right' or 'wrong' or 'good' or 'bad' preferences, and there are no good or bad or right or wrong 'types' although obviously certain 'preference' behaviours and personality 'types' can be more or less appropriate or effective in given situations. Within personal limits, adaptability, as ever, is a valuable attribute. Self-awareness enables
adaptability. If you seek confirmation of the value of adaptability look at the Cybernetics page (later best, not right now). Here are descriptions of each of the MBTI® preferences in slightly more detail.
preference for the outer world and one's own action and effect on it preference for inner self and Introversion ideas to (I) understand and protect or nurture it gathers information by: interpreting patterns, iNtuition (N) possibilities and meaning from information received decides according to what matters to Feeling (F) self and others, and personal values in dealing with the world responds and acts with flexibility, Perceiving (P) spontaneity, adaptability and understanding relatively slow to decide
(E) Extraversion
or
gathers information by: focusing on facts within information
(S) Sensing
or
decides by using logic, consistency, objective analysis, process-driven conclusions
(T) Thinking
or
in dealing with the world organises, plans, controls, and decides clear (J) Judging firm actions and responses relatively quick to decide
or
According to the Myers Briggs® (MBTI®) system each of us is represented by four preferences, one from each of the four scales. Can you begin to identify yourself, and others around you?
(E)
Extraversion or Introversion
do we focus on outside world (E) or inner self(I) - do we (I) find people energising (E) or somewhat draining (I)? the way we inform ourselves how we prefer to form a view and (N) receive information - observed facts and specifics (S) or what we imagine things can mean (N)? our way of deciding - how we prefer to make decisions (F) objective and tough-minded (T)or friendly and sensitive to others and ourselves (F)? our method for handling the outside world and particularly for making decisions - do quite soon (P) evaluate and decide (J) or continue gathering data and keep options open (P)?
(S)
Sensing or iNtuition
(T)
Thinking or Feeling
(J)
Judging or Perceiving
By measuring or categorising a person's overall personality or behavioural style according to four preferences - one from each of the four scales (E-I, S-N, T-F, J-P), the MBTI® system logically contains sixteen main 'types', each represented by four-letter code, for example: ESFJ or INFP or ESTJ, etc. The sequence of the four-letter preferences within the Myers Briggs® code, whatever the combination, does not change: The 1st letter denotes the Jungian 'Attitude' or orientation; the direction or focus of the personality - Introvert or Extravert The middle two letters denote the Jungian 'Functional Type' preferences, namely: The 2nd letter is the preferred Jungian 'Irrational' function (Myers Briggs® 'perceiving') -Sensing or Intuition The 3rd letter is the preferred Jungian 'Rational' function (Myers Briggs® 'judging') -Thinking or Feeling
The 4th letter is Myers Briggs'® added dimension to indicate the preferred way of dealing with the outer world; to evaluate and decide or to continue gathering information - Judging or Perceiving - equating to Jung's 'Irrational' and 'Rational' functional type categories, and thereby enabling functional dominance to be determined.
All sixteen different Myers Briggs® MBTI® personality type combinations, each being a four-letter code, are commonly presented in an MBTI® 'Type Table'. In the 'Type Table' example below the groupings correlate (according particularly to Keirsey) to the Four Temperaments, which for interest is reflected by the colour coding in the table below to to aid comparisons when you look again at the Four Temperaments types. However this is merely an interesting point of note, and is not significant in the workings of the Myers Briggs® theory or its application. The Four Temperaments correlations are more significant in the Keirsey model. The MBTI® 'Type Table' is typically shown elsewhere in other resources without these headings, and can be shown using other groupings, depending on the views of the theorist or interpreter.
the MBTI® 'type table' related to Four Temperaments Keirsey groupings
SP - sensing perceiving ESTP ISTP ESFP ISFP sanguine or artisan SJ - sensing judging ESTJ ISTJ ESFJ ISFJ melancholic or guardian NF intuitive feeling ENFJ INFJ ENFP INFP choleric or idealist NT - intuitive thinking ENTJ INTJ ENTP INTP phlegmatic or rationalist
I repeat that you will see these MBTI® types shown in different groupings than the Keirsey/Four Temperaments structure shown above. This is by no means the definitive arrangement of the MBTI® personality types. There are others. I place no particular significance on the structure of these groupings and perhaps neither should you since many great minds disagree about it. For example Myers Briggs® themselves prefer to show the types in no particular stated grouping, but which are actually grouped in four columns ST, SF, NF and NT, which are the four logical groupings when combining pairs of Jung's four functional types. This is close to Keirsey's presentation of them, but not the same. And highly the regarded MBTI® Jungian neurologist, psychiatrist, psychopharmacologist, and psychotherapist Robert I. Winer, M.D., prefers the following four-way grouping on the basis that he considers these types to be the four most distinguishable through observation of people's behaviour: TJ, ('Thinker-Judgers') FJ ('Feeler-Judgers'), SP ('Sensor-Perceiver') and NP ('Intuitive-Perceiver'). You pays yer money and takes yer choice as they say. Incidentally Winer's 'Winer Foundation' website (www.gesher.org) is one of the most impressive and wonderous on the web dedicated to MBTI®/Jungian theory, full of useful profiles and guidance for self-awareness and development. He seems a lovely fellow. Other interesting groupings of the sixteen MBTI® types are shown in matrix presentations in each of the Benziger and DISC sections. These different groupings attempt to correlate the personality types (and traits implied) between the different systems and as such can be very helpful in trying to understand it all. The Myers Briggs® organisation is at pains to point out, rightly, that all (MBTI®) types are equal. As with the individual 'preferences', there are no 'right' or 'wrong' or 'good' or 'bad' types, although again obviously, certain 'type' behaviours can be more or less appropriate in different given situations. Indeed most people will display type-behaviours resembling many of the sixteen types in any one day, depending on the circumstances. It is however the case that most of us will have a certain preferred
type with which we are most comfortable, and which is held to be, according to the MBTI® model, our 'personality'. In terms of understanding what personality characteristics each of these sixteen various 'MBTI®' types represent, at a very basic level you can simply combine the type descriptions, for example: An ISTJ is someone who is on balance focused inwardly (Introvert - I) who tends to or prefers to gather information by concentrating on facts (Sensing - S), makes decisions by logic and process (Thinking - T), and whose approach and response to the world is based on order, control, and firm decisions (Judging - J). And for a contrasting example, an ENFP is someone who is on balance focused on external things and people (Extravert - E) who tends to or prefers to gather information by interpreting patterns, possibilities and meaning (Intuitive - N), makes decisions according to personal values and what matters to self or others (Feeling - F), and whose approach and response to the world is flexible, adaptable and understanding (Perceiving - P). At a more detailed level it's useful to consider 'functional dominance', specifically relating to the original four Jungian functions (the middle two letters of the four-letter Myers Briggs® MBTI® code). The methodology for identifying dominant and auxiliary functions, and thereafter 3rd and 4th functions (which do not appear in each fourletter type code), is explained below in the MBTI® function dominance sub-section. While a little tricky for some people to grasp quickly, anyone can understand this if they put their mind to it, and it's well worth the effort because identifying functional dominance does provide an excellent and rapid way to define each and any of the sixteen main personality types from their four-letter codes without the need for reams of supporting notes. At a more complex and fully detailed level there are various resources which give detailed descriptions of the MBTI® personality types, including myersbriggs.org, and in my opinion far more fully and clearly at the excellent www.gesher.org. The Jungian psychologist Michael Daniels' website at www.mdani.demon.co.uk is also an excellent resource for learning about Myers Briggs® types and Jungian theory.
MBTI® function dominance
Acknowledgments to Simon Pusey for the in MBTI® Function Dominance diagram (Powerpoint slide)and a PDF diagram; also to Andrew Roughton for the alternative explanation of MBTI® dominance; to Ian Mitchell for correcting an error in the the ISTJ example below (previously wrongly shown as ISTJ), and to José María Ribal for correcting an error in two paragraphs which wrongly referred to the 2nd letter being 'Thinking or Feeling' instead of 'Sensing or iNtuition'. For a quick explanation see the in MBTI® Function Dominance diagram in Powerpoint slide format or as a PDF. For a more detailed explanation of function dominance read on. It's not vital to understand function dominance in order to benefit from the Myers Briggs® theory, but it does help explain how to identify the dominant function (of the middle two letters - the Jungian Functional Types) within any MBTI® four-letter type code, and logically from this the auxiliary function (and then also the 3rd and 4th functions). The methodology therefore enables rapid description and understanding of any four-letter MBTI® type code without supporting notes. It's a neat technique. An additional alternative explanation of MBTI® dominance using different examples and perspective follows this one. Feel free to skip ahead to it if the first explanation is not to your liking. In any event having two different perspectives of a complex theory is often helpful towards gaining best possible understanding. Remember that the first letter is the Introvert-Extravert 'Attitude' or orientation - it's not a 'function', and the fourth letter is the Myers Briggs® additional Judging-Perceiving dimension, it's not a Jungian 'Function', and was largely introduced by Myers Briggs® in order to determine dominance between the preferred Jungian Functions (second and third letters). Understanding Myers Briggs'® functional dominance methodology also helps explain how the Myers Briggs'® four-dimension model (four letters) relates to Jung's three-dimension model (main Jungian 'Psychological Type' plus auxiliary function - three letters), at least in the way that the Myers Briggs® interpretation implies and considers it to do so. (Just to repeat once more, Jung didn't use the Judging-
Perceiving dimension as such, he stuck with three dimensions: Introvert-Extravert; Sensing-Intuition, and Thinking-Feeling.) This explanation necessarily repeats the essential structure already explained in order to stand alone as a useful item in its own right. Here goes. Hold on to your hats. The Myers Briggs® MBTI® personality type is always presented as a four-letter code, in which the letters take the same positions in the code regardless of dominance. This is to say: function dominance is not indicated by the sequence of the letters. Again, here is the sequence of the MBTI® letters and descriptions of what they denote. View this table as columns, not rows:
1st letter Extravert or Introvert E or I 2nd letter Sensing or Intuition S or N 3rd letter Thinking or Feeling T or F how we decide 4th letter Judging or Perceiving J or P how do we handle the outside world? how soon do we decide? - do we judge or continue to perceive?
inwardly or how we get outwardly information focused/oriented
Jungian 'Attitude' or orientation
Jungian 'Irrational' or Jungian 'Rational' dimension added Myers Briggs® or Myers Briggs® by Myers 'Perceiving' Function 'Judging' Function Briggs® - also identifies which Function is used in dealing with the outer world
These four preferences produce a four-letter code, for example ENFP or ISTJ. It is very useful if we can determine within the personality which is the dominant Function of the essential Jungian 'Four Functional Types'. In
other words is it the 2nd or 3rd letter that is most dominant within the whole type? If we know the dominant superior function then obviously we can determine the auxiliary, because it will be the other middle letter in the code. (Incidentally when we've sorted out the superior and auxiliary functions, we can also then determine the 3rd and 4th functions, which is explained after we sort out the superior and auxiliary). So, for the examples above: Within the ENFP personality type is Intuition (N) or Feeling (F) dominant? And within the ISTJ personality type is Sensing (S) or Thinking (T) dominant? In fact the dominant function within the ENFP personality type is N (Intuition), which for the sake of this exercise we will show as ENFP. This means that F (Feeling) is the auxiliary function. And the dominant function within the ISTJ personality type is S (Sensing), which for the sake of this exercise we show as ISTJ. This means that T (Thinking) is the auxiliary function. But why? Here's my best explanation of the Myers Briggs® methodology for determining dominant function, which they based on their interpretation of Jung's theory, and it is quite logical when you think about it. The methodology operates by using different points of reference - it's like a formula or a process: First,
•
Extraverts direct their dominant function outwardly, towards the outer world, and theirauxiliary function inwardly. Introverts direct their dominant function inwardly, towards their inner world, and theirauxiliary function outwardly. So whether the personality is Extravert or Introvert (1st letter E or I) is a factor in determining functional dominance (between the 2nd and 3rd letters).
•
•
Second, Remember Jung categorised the two pairs of opposite functions as Irrational and Rational, which correlate to Myers Briggs® Judging and Perceiving:
•
Myers Briggs® 'Perceiving' refers to Jung's 'Irrational' functions (2nd letter) - Sensing or Intuition. Myers Briggs® 'Judging' refers to Jung's 'Rational' functions (3rd letter) - Thinking or Feeling.
•
Third,
•
A Judging preference (4th letter J) indicates that the personality prefers to use the Judging function (3rd letter Thinking or Feeling) to deal with the outer world. A Perceiving preference (4th letter P) indicates that the personality prefers to use thePerceiving function (2nd letter Sensing or Intuition) to deal with the outer world.
•
Fourth, therefore, If the personality is Extravert (1st letter E) and is also Judging (4th letter J) then the Judging Function (3rd letter Thinking or Feeling) will be the dominant function (since this is the function used chiefly to deal with the outside world, and Extroverts use their dominant function chiefly to deal with the outside world). For example in the ENFJ type, Feeling is the dominant function, which is mainly directed outwardly. The auxiliary function Intuition which tends to be directed inwardly. If the personality is Extravert (1st letter E) and is also Perceiving (4th letter P) then thePerceiving Function (2nd letter Sensing or iNtuition) will be the dominant function (again this is the function used to deal with the outside world, and Extroverts use their dominant function to deal with the outside world). For example in the ESTP type, Sensing is the dominant function, which is mainly directed outwardly. The auxiliary function is Thinking, which is mainly directed inwardly.
Fifth, (on the other hand), Remember that an Introvert's dominant function is mainly directed inwardly, towards theirinner world, therefore an Introvert's Judging-Perceiving preference (4th letter J or P) which represents how they approach the outer world will indicate their less dominant function, which means that for Introvert types, the letter other than the one indicated by the 4th letter J or P will be their dominant function. So it follows, if the personality is Introvert (1st letter I) and is also Judging (4th letter J) then theJudging Function (3rd letter Thinking or Feeling) will be the auxiliary function, since this is the function used to deal with the outside world. Remember, Introverts use their dominant function chiefly to deal with their inner world, not the outside world. An Introvert uses their auxiliaryfunction chiefly to deal with the outside world. For example, in the INTP type, Intuition is used mainly to deal with the outside world, but since the priority focus of the Introvert is their inner world, so Thinking is their dominant function. Similarly if the personality is Introvert (1st letter I) and is also Perceiving (4th letter P) then thePerceiving Function (2nd letter Sensing or iNtuition) will be the auxiliary function since this is the function used to deal with the outside world. The dominant function will be the other function, which the Introvert focuses on their inner world. For example, in the ISFJ type, the outside world approach indicated by the Judging preference (4th letter J) is Feeling, which because it is focused on the outside world in an Introvert is the auxiliary function. Therefore the other function, Sensing, is the dominant one focused on the Introvert's priority inner world. There. That's the difficult bit. You may now take a break. Here is additional explanation of MBTI® dominant functions. Having a second perspective can assist overall appreciation of any complex matter.
additional explanation of MBTI® function dominance
This additional explanation is kindly provided by Andrew Roughton, which is gratefully acknowledged. (I'm also grateful to Ian Mitchell for correcting an error in the ISTJ example above which was wrongly shown as ISTJ, and to Pierre Lemasson for correcting an error in 3b below - probably my typo, not Andrew's - which stated that the the remaining letter will be your auxiliary instead of dominant function.)
1) Your dominant function is found in either the 2nd or 3rd letter in your code. You also have an auxiliary (second) function. a) If the 2nd letter is your dominant function then the 3rd is your auxiliary function and vice versa. b) If the 3rd letter is your dominant function then the 2nd is your auxiliary function. Remember the 2nd letter in your code relates to your Perceiving function. Do you perceive information through your senses (S) or through intuition (N)? The 3rd letter in your code relates to your Judging function. Do you make judgements (decisions) through Thinking (T) or through Feeling (F)? 2) The 4th letter describes how you relate to the outside world. Do you prefer to deal with the world through your Judging function or through your Perceiving function? a) If your 4th letter is J then we first look to the Judging functions - Thinking or Feeling. i) If your code is ISFJ then we first look to the judging functions. b) If your 4th letter is P then we first look to the Perceiving functions - Sensing or Intuition.
i) If your code is ENFP then we first look to the Perceiving functions. 3) The 1st letter in your code (E or I) tells you whether you will first find your dominant or your auxiliary function. a) If your 1st letter is E (Extravert) then you will first identify your dominant function letter and the remaining letter will be your auxiliary function. i) If your code is ENFP then you will find your dominant function. Because the 4th letter is P we look to the perceiving function letter in your code which in this case is N for Intuition. So your dominant function is Intuition. Your auxiliary function is represented by the remaining letter F for Feeling. b) If your 1st letter is I (Introvert) then you will first identify your auxiliary code and the remaining letter will be your dominant function. i) If your code is ISFJ you will first identify your auxiliary function. Because the 4th letter is J we look to the judging function letter in your code which in this case is F for Feeling. So your auxiliary function is Feeling. Your dominant function is represented by the remaining letter S for Sensing. 4) The reason for the different treatment for Extravert and Introvert is to do with the preference for the outer (E) or inner (I) world, and the 4th letter only identifies how they relate to the outer world. For the Introvert this will always be their auxiliary function because their dominant function must relate to their inner world. a) Logically if the introvert relates to their outer world through, for example, their judging functions (thinking or feeling) then their remaining letter tells you which function they use in their inner world. This, for them, is their dominant function.
i) The ISFJ relates to the outer world through their Judging function (represented by the J) which in this case is Feeling (represented by the F). By elimination they must relate to their inner world through the Sensing function (represented by the S). Thus Sensing is the ISFJ's dominant function and Feeling is their auxiliary function. b) Extraverts on the other hand use their dominant function to relate to the outer world and so the 4th letter identifies how you relate to the outer world. i) The ENFP relates to the outer world through their Perceiving function (represented by the P) which is Intuition (represented by the N). Thus Intuition is the ENFP's dominant function and Feeling is their auxiliary function. Andrew Roughton, July 2006. National Principal Vision College New Zealand
identifying 3rd and 4th function dominance
Logically according to Jung's theory, and Myers Briggs® interpretation, functional dominance can be extended beyond the superior (dominant) and auxiliary (secondary) functions to potential tertiary (3rd) and quarternary (4th) functions. This enables the identification of the order (relative strength or preference) of all four functions - Thinking, Feeling, Sensing and Intuition - within any given type. The process for doing this is simple, once you crack the dominant and auxiliary methodology. Here's how to determine 3rd and 4th functional dominance:
Remember Jung's principle of opposites and the four compass points. The most dominant or 'superior' function is balanced by its opposite in the unconscious, and will be correspondingly the least dominant just as the superior function is the most dominant, to whatever extent. The 4th function therefore, available consciously in whatever degree, is always the opposite of the superior. For example, where a personality's superior or most dominant function is Thinking, logically its quaternary (or 4th or weakest function) function will be Feeling. Where a personality's superior function is Feeling, its 4th function will be Thinking. Where Intuition is dominant, soSensing will be least strong. Where Sensing is the superior function, so Intuition will be the weakest. And that's the full set. Applying the same 'balancing opposites' principle, logically, the 3rd function is the opposite of the 2nd or auxiliary. Same pattern as for the 1st-4th correlations. Easy. The extent to which any personality is able to make use of supporting functions depends on other factors. Some people are able to draw on the 3rd and 4th functions more ably than others (dominant and auxiliary as well for that matter). From the perspective of understanding and describing each of the sixteen MBTI® personality types simply from their four-letter codes, identifying functional dominance - from superior or dominant, to auxiliary, to 3rd and to 4th functions - is a very useful technique. When you understand the methodology you can say a great deal about any personality type just by looking at its MBTI® four-letter code - because you can determine the preference (which implies prevalence and priority) of each of the four functions, two of which will not even be represented in the MBTI® four-letter code! Below is the complete set of functional dominance mixtures, showing 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th preferred functions according to MBTI® type. By using this methodology we can also very usefully group the Myers Briggs® types according to their Jungian four dominant functions, which is a super matrix for understanding these theories, and for applying the thinking to team-building and job roles within teams, etc.
MBTI® types and functional dominance
The left column shows the MBTI® sixteen types, colour-coded as to Extravert or Introvert. These MBTI® types are grouped in four sets according to '1st functional dominance' ('superior' function) which are colour-coded in the middle and right columns accordingly. For each MBTI® type, the middle and right columns show the dominant (superior) function, followed by the 2nd (auxiliary) function, and then the 3rd and 4th functions, which are largely unconscious and can be accessed when required depending on the person. Note that each of the four main functional dominance groupings (Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuition, represented by the four colours) contains only two different sequential 'dominance sets', and that each of these can be formed by both an Extraverted and an Introverted type.
MBTI® type ESTJ ISTP ENTJ INTP ESTP ISTJ ESFP ISFJ ESFJ ISFP ENFJ INFP ENTP INTJ ENFP INFJ functional dominance - 1st to 4th TSNF TSNF TNSF TNSF STFN STFN SFTN SFTN FSNT FSNT FNST FNST NTFS NTFS NFTS NFTS Thinking, Sensing, Intuition, Feeling Thinking, Sensing, Intuition, Feeling Thinking, Intuition, Sensing, Feeling Thinking, Intuition, Sensing, Feeling Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuition Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuition Sensing, Feeling, Thinking, Intuition Sensing, Feeling, Thinking, Intuition Feeling, Sensing, Intuition, Thinking Feeling, Sensing, Intuition, Thinking Feeling, Intuition, Sensing, Thinking Feeling, Intuition, Sensing, Thinking Intuition, Thinking, Feeling, Sensing Intuition, Thinking, Feeling, Sensing Intuition, Feeling, Thinking, Sensing Intuition, Feeling, Thinking, Sensing
The extent to which people are able to call upon and make use of their auxiliary, and particularly 3rd and 4th functions depends on the individual person, and is also the subject of continuing debate and ongoing research by psychologists. Most people are capable of developing their less strong functions to some degree or other. Knowing what they are and that they exist in us is the starting point. Similarly everyone is capable of understanding their own functional dominance and how this style might be perceived by others. Using this matrix you might be able to have a good guess as to your own Myers Briggs® MBTI® type and your functional dominance. Look at the right column: ask yourself - and maybe also ask someone who knows you well - what order of preferences best represents your own personality? Having decided this, are you mainly extraverted or introverted? You might now have a reasonable idea of your own MBTI® personality type. If anyone can suggest more clearly how to present all this I am very much open to suggestions. Please let me know any daft typos or errors in this. It's not an easy thing to explain. Aside from using Myers Briggs® MBTI® model to understand one's own or other other people's personality types, the most important opportunity is that everyone can and should use systems such these to endeavour to access and develop their weaker functions. This was central to Jung's motivation, and this opportunity and encouragement echoes through Myers Briggs'® ideas too. Awareness of the fact that we all possess these unconscious under-developed functions is the first step towards realising that they can be developed and used, alongside our natural preferences, brought into play consciously, where we see the need and possibility to do so.
The Myers Briggs® MBTI® system typically involves the use of MBTI® testing instruments to determine people's own types or 'profiles', the process and analysis of which is best administered by a suitably qualified person to give proper explanation and feedback to people being 'tested'. There are significant commonalities between the Myers Briggs® personality model and that of David Keirsey. Both systems draw
strongly on the work of Carl Jung and (Keirsey's more than Myers Briggs®) also to the Four Temperaments. Further comparisons are indicated in the Four Temperaments and Keirsey sections on this page, and these cross-references between models (notablyBenziger) help with the understanding of each model independently, and also help to build up a variety of perspectives of oneself, and human personality and behaviour. There are some differences between Myers Briggs® and Keirsey's interpretations. Not least, as Keirsey points out, Myers Briggs® is effectively an interpretation and extension of Jung's model - both of which focus on the minds and thinking types of people, whereas Keirsey's system, building on Myers Briggs®, Jung, and others, seeks to identify and point to what the different personality types can do well in different circumstances. In addition there are some detailed differences between certain type descriptions of Myers Briggs® and Keirsey, which concern complex interpretations that seem to me to be a matter of personal opinion, based on the experiences of the theorists themselves and not matters that can be proven one way or another. As we've already seen, this is not a perfect science, and when we drill down deeper than broad definitions the detail is open to different interpretation, which I encourage you to do yourself. Despite the best efforts of some of the providers in the psychometrics industry to convince us that all this is highly complex and impenetrable, you can hopefully see that much of the thinking is extremely accessible and within the grasp of ordinary folk. As you learn about these concepts, see each model (Myers Briggs®, Jung, Keirsey, Four Temperaments, Eysenck, Benziger, etc) as selfsufficient and stand-alone. Note the common aspects between the models by all means because there are many: seeing the common aspects will greatly improve your overall understanding of the subject and of people; but do not try to overlay and match definitions and descriptions from model to model if the fit is not obvious and clear. Respect each model in isolation for what it is - a different perspective of the same highly complicated thing - the human mind. More information about the Myers Briggs® organisation and MBTI® system and types descriptions is at myersbriggs.org.
Note that Myers Briggs®, MBTI® and other terminology is likely to be protected trademarked intellectual property for use in direct training and testing applications, so beware of using any of these terms for commercial purposes without a licence, or at least checking whether a licence is required or not.
david keirsey's personality model and the 'keirsey temperament sorter'
As mentioned above, David Keirsey's work refers significantly to the age-old 'Four Temperaments' model, and to the work of Carl Jung, and Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, who also drew strongly on Jung's work. Keirsey's key book (with Bates) was 'Please Understand Me', first published in 1978 and since revised and re-issued several times, more recently as 'Please Understand Me II', which is a wonderful book and includes a self-test to discover your detailed temperament type (of the sixteen types). David Keirsey's ideas extend and develop the Four Temperaments and the ideas of Carl Jung, and also relate very directly to the Myers Briggs® MBTI® system. In fact according to Keirsey the two systems - Keirsey and MBTI® - are quite similar. (Here's a good explanation of the similarities and differences between the Keirsey and Myers Briggs® systems.) Keirsey's model has for many years underpinned a highly regarded personality assessment methodology, which Keirsey claims to be the most widely used in the world. Keirsey's model has also enabled the development of a considerable supporting business corporation, which markets his testing instruments and their associated training and accreditation. Like Myers Briggs®, Keirsey's personality model analyses human personality according to sixteen types, which are compared below to the Myers Briggs® MBTI® equivalents. There are fundamental
similarities between the Keirsey types and the Myers Briggs® types, but there are also some significant differences, so do not see the two systems as being the same thing.
keirsey/MBTI® types correlations
Keirsey's personality model is particularly helpful because of the meaningful personality 'type' descriptions, especially when used alongside Myers Briggs® abbreviated letter codes. The colour-coded groupings reflect Keirsey's view that certain categories of MBTI® or Keirsey types equate strongly to the Four Temperaments. Keirsey is a fan of the Four Temperaments. Not everyone is, particularly when it comes to categorising MBTI® types. This layout is shown because Keirsey favours it. The use of colours are purely to aid comparison with the Four Temperaments model shown earlier in this section. Other than an echo of Jung's 'Perceiving' and 'Judging' within the SP and SJ blocks, these colours do not relate to the colours used in the Jung and Myers Briggs® sections.
artisan promoter crafter performer composer guardian supervisor inspector provider protector SP sensingperceiving ESTP ISTP ESFP ISFP SJ sensingjudging ESTJ ISTJ ESFJ ISFJ rational fieldmarshall mastermind inventor architect idealist teacher counsellor champion healer NT intuitivethinking ENTJ INTJ ENTP INTP NF intuitivefeeling ENFJ INFJ ENFP INFP
N.B. Again bear in mind that certain copyright protections apply to the MBTI® and Keirsey terms so I recommend that you be wary of using these in the provision of chargeable services or materials since under
certain circumstances they are likely to be subject to licensing conditions. A free 'lite' Keirsey personality test and descriptions of each of the Keirsey sixteen types is available via the Keirsey website at Keirsey.com. The 'lite' test indicates your dominant or preferred temperament of the four main types, but not your detailed type within the temperament, which is something you need to pay to discover. In my view the most enjoyable and useful way to do this is to buy a copy of Keirsey's book 'Please Understand Me II', which contains the 70-question Keirsey Temperament Sorter II personality test, which will in a few minutes reveal your detailed Keirsey personality type, and also provides a vast amount of descriptive information relating to your type and all the other fifteen types within the Keirsey model.
eysenck's personality inventory and the four temperaments
British psychologist Hans Jurgen Eysenck (1916-97) was born in Berlin. A Jewish sympathiser, he left Germany in 1934 for England, where he studied and later taught psychology at London University. He became a prolific writer in the field of clinical psychology and also had a great interest in psychometrics. He disagreed with the principles of psychoanalysis and preferred the (at times controversial) view that genetics (inherited factors - our genes) are significant in determining the psychological differences between people, and more besides. Eysenck used extensive research and questionnaires to build a personality inventory which he related to Galen's Four Temperaments. The fit is not perfect with the more recent interpretations of the Four Temperaments (Keirsey, Myers Briggs®) but there are certainly many common aspects between the Eysenck and Galen models.
Eysenck's concepts are particularly interesting, and provide a valuable additional perspective compared to the Four Temperaments, Jung, Myers Briggs®, and Keirsey, because they explore and analyse a personality dimension related to emotional stability. Eysenck's approach to personality assessment was the first popular scalable mathematical methodology. Previous theories generally placed a person within one of the defining types, or between two types, or attributed a mixture of types to a person's personality. Eysenck's 1950s theory (he later added a third dimension) measures personality using two scales:
• •
introversion-extraversion stability-instability (unemotional-emotional*)
Eysenck's theory also refers to instability as unstable, emotionally unstable, or neurotic. *While Eysenck's scientific headings of 'stable' and 'unstable' or 'neurotic' can be seen as judgemental (good or bad) it's important not to see them in this way. Academics (including Eysenck) tend to write for other academics and forget or disregard that certain language carries negative meanings and stigmas in normal life, such as the words unstable and neurotic. Eysenck did not use the words to convey a sense of good or bad - he used them because he felt scientifically comfortable with the terms. If discussing these concepts with people who might be sensitive to words like 'unstable' or 'neurotic' it can be helpful to interpret Eysenck's 'instability' or 'neuroticism' to mean 'emotional', and for 'stable' to equate to 'unemotional'. 'Unemotional-emotional' was not Eysenck's alternative scale, it's my suggested alternative for seeing that this scale is not a question of good or bad. By surveying many thousands of people, using many and various adjectives (traits) representing behaviours and types, Eysenck built a scalable model which also formed the basis of what became the Eysenck personality test. Eysenck's theory regards the choleric and melancholic temperaments as being emotionallyunstable (let's say 'emotional'), and the sanguine and phlegmatic temperaments as being emotionally stable (unemotional). The theory sees
the phlegmatic and melancholictemperaments as being introverted, and the choleric and sangine temperaments as beingextraverted. At this point there is clear divergence from the Eysenck model and certain recent interpretations of the Four Temperaments, since, for example, Keirsey and Myers Briggs® clearly assert that introversion and extraversion appear in each of the four temperaments. Eysenck's ideas are a part-fit with MBTI® and Keirsey, but certainly not a direct overlay. The Eysenck theory produces four main types types of personality, which he said resembled Galen's Four Temperaments:
• • • •
unstable-introverted (emotional-introverted) = melancholic unstable-extraverted (emotional-extraverted) = choleric stable-introverted (unemotional-introverted) = phlegmatic stable-extraverted (unemotional-extraverted) = sanguine
Within which are several key words of graduated significance relative to the heading elements (Eysenck presented this as a four-quadrant circle containing his describing words, rather than the matrix shown here). The colours merely reflect those used in the Four Temperaments section for ease of comparison and do not appear in Eysenck's theory:
stable-extraverted (unemotionalextravert) sociable outgoing talkative responsive easy-going lively carefree leadership (sanguine) unstable-introvert (emotional-introvert) moody anxious rigid sober pessimistic reserved unsociable quiet (melancholic) stable-introverted (unemotional-introvert) calm even-tempered reliable controlled peaceful thoughtful careful passive (phlegmatic)
unstable-extravert (emotional-extravert) touchy restless aggressive excitable changeable impulsive optimistic active (choleric)
Can you see yourself, and others perhaps, in this model? Could you define yourself according to a mixture of these characteristics? Perhaps you can see in yourself a leading 'type' with one or two supporting types? (This is not how Eysenck intended the model to be used, but seeing it in this way can be helpful for understanding your own and others' personality types.) Again note that the fit is not perfect between Eysenck's model and recent interpretations of the Four Temperaments such as Keirsey and Myers Briggs®, but there are certainly many common aspects between Eysenck and Galen. The significant difference between Eysenck's ideas and the Four Temperaments interpretations of Galen and the older theorists is that Eysenck's (1950s) theory measures personality according to two scalable dimensions, introversion-extraversion and stabilityinstability; whereas traditional Four Temperaments ideas simply seek to define personality according to one of the four temperaments. In this respect Eysenck's model is far more sophisticated, and indeed add an extra dimension (stable-unstable) that is not found at all in popular systems such as Keirsey and Myers Briggs®. In this respect Eysenck's model offers a highly significant and helpful additional perspective to the Four Temperaments, Jung's Psychological Types, and the Keirsey and Myers Briggs® systems on which they were based. Eysenck's ideas have been developed and supported using studies and surveys of many thousands of people. Eysenck was one of the most prolific researchers and writers on the subject of personality and its measurement, and yet he continued to strive for improved understanding and interpretation into the 1990s, having worked for 60 years in the field. Proof, if any were needed, that this is indeed a complex area, and one which we are still a long long way from fully comprehending. It is interesting to note also that Eysenck's 1950s key words feature strongly in at least one modern version of the DISC personality testing system, which testifies to the enduring importance of Eysenck's work, and which provides yet another indication of the similarity and common themes between many of these 'different' personality models. Eysenck later theorised about a third dimension: psychoticism, from his studies of mentally disturbed people, and which can be related to risk-
taking and eccentricity. In his later life Eysenck also developed better scientific understanding of Jung's introversion and extraversion 'attitudes', which, along with his other ideas helped Katherine Benziger develop her own ideas of personality and behaviour. Hans Eysenck's key books include: Uses and Abuses of Psychology (1953); Know Your Own IQ (1962); Race, Intelligence and Education (1971), and the autobiographical Rebel without a Cause (1990).
katherine benziger's personality and brain-type theory
Benziger's model is relatively recent compared to the Four Temperaments, Jung, Eysenck, etc. Her theories and tools have been widely used by many of the world's major corporations, and are still the subject of ongoing research and refinement. Benziger's key book, The Art Of Using Your Whole Brain, was first published in 1989, revised as 'Thriving In Mind' in 2000. Benziger's main psychometrics instrument is the BTSA (Benziger Thinking Styles Assessment). Katherine Benziger is unusual compared to many other personality thinkers (and particularly the way that other seminal theories have been developed into highly commercialised 'testing' systems) because she places greatest emphasis on 'wellness' and the need to help people avoid 'falsifying' their true type. Benziger says that very many people 'falsify type', so as to fit into a role or career path that might not be right for them, which has a negative impact on health, happiness and personal effectiveness. Benziger drew great inspiration from Carl Jung and from the work of Myers Briggs® and Hans Eysenck. Her work has also been influenced and supported by the late 20th century scientific developments into brain imaging, using modern scanning technologies - basically using safe equivalents of X-Ray techniques - to actually determine which parts of the brain are being used for various functions and types of thinking
('thinking' here in the general sense of what the brain is doing, not in the 'logical' Jungian sense). Put simply, Benziger's theory expresses personality in terms of four quadrants of the brain (basal means rear or back):
• • • •
Basal Left - process and routine Basal Right - intuition and empathy Front Left - logic and results Front Right - vision and creativity
Benziger relates these modes of thinking to Jung's Four Functions, and Benziger's theory provides many people an immensely helpful way to make sense of what Jung said and advocated. For ease of comparison between Benziger's and Jung's models the same colours are used for corresponding 'functions' or 'styles', although these colours were not part of either theorist's concepts. Importantly Benziger acknowledges and uses the Jungian Extravert and Introvert dimension, but does not represent it within the four-quadrant model of the four functional types (Benziger's 'behaving' or 'thinking' or 'preferred' styles - the word 'thinking' is used here in a more general sense than the specific Jungian meaning). These brain-type functions also correlate to the Myers Briggs® and Keirsey models, naturally since all of these theories make use of the fundamental Jungian 'four functional types' reference points - Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuition.
Benziger's model uses this representation of the brain (viewed from above, top is front) and the summary definitions below. The brain has four specialised areas. Each is responsible for different brain functions (which imply strengths, behaviour and thinking style). Within Benziger's model the specialised areas are called 'modes'.
According to Benziger each of us possesses natural strengths in only one of these specialised areas, which causes us to favour and use a certain style ahead of others. Outside of that one style, we may have strengths and weaknesses which are based on what competencies we have been exposed to, or developed, and indeed which competencies we have not been exposed to. Katherine Benziger refers to the natural specialised area as the 'preferred thinking and behavioural mode'. Typically this will equate to the Jungian 'superior function' and the Myers Briggs® 'dominant function' as described in this section. Benziger's books ('The Art of Using Your Whole Brain', and in revised form 'Thriving in Mind') contain an excellent and simple personality assessment to illustrate this point. The benziger personality assessment relies on complete honesty when answering - if you are 'falsifying your type' then you will distort the analysis (which of course is true for any personality assessment or psychometrics test, although most theorists and providers seem to emphasise this aspect far less than Benziger). Incidentally the Benziger assessment also contains a section which determines the extent to which the person is falsifying type, and this for Benziger is a fundamentally important aspect of her theory and assessment methodology. Without wishing to go off on a long tangent, Benziger's ideas about 'falsification of type' relate strongly to the need for people to seek
proper 'congruence' and 'alignment' between their own true natural personal preferences, style, strengths, and the organisations and services within which they work. Organisations and employers need increasingly to wake up to these issues, both in terms of re-aligning their own values and aims so that they become more helpful for the world at large, and also in helping their people to identify and pursue and fulfil their own unique potential and destiny. Benziger's ideas are at the heart of this very modern sort of organisational philosophy. Now back to the model. Here's how Benziger's model relates to Jung's Four Functions. Once more the colours are merely to help with comparisons to the Jung and Myers Briggs® models:
Benziger brain quadrant frontal left Benziger's describing characteristics examples analytical, objective, principles, standards, criteria, critiques realistic, down-to-earth, practical, sensible, the past subjective, personal, values intimacy, sees extenuating circumstances, humane, sees harmony hunches, speculative, fantasy, imaginative, the future behaviour directed inwardly to understand and manage self and experience behaviour directly externally, to influence outside factors and events Jungian 'function' or 'attitude' Thinking
basal left basal right
Sensing Feeling
frontal right
Intuition Introversion
Extraversion
Remember while Benziger certainly acknowledges and makes use of Jung's Extravert-Introvert dimension, it is not represented within Benziger's four-quadrants brain model.
These are Benziger's brain functions or 'modes' in more detail. Note again the correlation to the Jungian functions.
mode 1 specialised area basal left brain functions response to stimulus Jungian function Sensing
Order and habit Remembers Ordered procedures definitions. What is, Sequential routines is as described. Spiritual experience Picks up emotional Rhythm and feeling tone and the Harmony presence or absence of harmony (including harmony between people). What is, is how we feel about it. Sees the essence of things, in pictures and metaphors. What is, is something meaning or enabling something else. Converts into logical results or effects. What is, leads to, or produces results.
2
basal right
Feeling
3
frontal right Internal imaging Metaphor and imagination Expressiveness
Intuition
4
frontal left
Structural analysis Prioritising and logic Mathematics
Thinking
Benziger says that people possess one and only one natural leading function or 'mode' in which their brain is naturally efficient. People can and often do however develop competencies in other modes. When they do in practice they will be using more areas of their brain, and when they do this the competencies outside their natural lead are always somewhat draining, which links to Benziger's ideas about the dangers of falsification of type. If it's 'draining' using competencies that are not our natural strength, it must be more
stressful still when we have to work exclusively in a competence other than our natural preference.
benziger and correlations to other personality models
Benziger's model is particularly helpful for many people in providing an excellent framework for comparing and understanding other personality models, including Jung's original four functional types, Kolb, and one or two other less well-known ideas from around the world. Once more the colours aim to help show the relationships with Jung's model, and are not part of the original theories. The correlations to the Myers Briggs® MBTI® types (and by implication Keirsey's also) are based on the functional dominance within each of these types (explained in the functional dominancesub-section of the Myers Briggs® section).
Benziger Benziger Jung's brain (broad) 'Four mode or types Functional quadrant Types' process basal left and routine intuition and empathy sensing Jungian 'superior' and 'auxiliary' Myers Keirsey Briggs® types MBTI® types promoter inspector performer protector provider composer teacher healer inventor mastermind champion counsellor Kolb's learning styles
ST and SF ESTP ISTJ ESFP ISFJ FS and FN ESFJ ISFP ENFJ INFP NT and NF ENTP INTJ ENFP INFJ ESTJ ISTP ENTJ INTP
Reflective Observation
feeling
basal right
Concrete Experience
frontal right
vision intuition and creativity logic and thinking results
Active Experimentation
frontal left
TS and TN
supervisor Abstract crafter Conceptualisation fieldmarshall architect
More detail about Katherine Benziger's fascinating theory is on the Benziger page.
DISC
You will see the DISC model often represented as DiSC®, which reflects the ownership of this particular logoform by the US Inscape Publishing company. Inscape has extensively researched and developed its own DISC systems, which according to the company's publicity have been used by over 40 million people since the early 1970s, which are used with the intention of enabling people to "...gain the insight they need to be more successful, productive, and fulfilled at work..." Inscape also say, "... DiSC® instruments are based on a simple idea - that the foundation of personal and professional success lies in knowing yourself, understanding others, and realizing the impact of your actions and attitudes on other people..." The DISC model is attributed to Dr William Moulton Marston, whose book Emotions Of Normal People (1928) first explained the model using the DISC terminology, and which also provided the descriptive words on which the commonly used DISC personality assessment systems were built. Marston didn't create an assessment tool. This was done initially by researchers at the University of Minnesota, in 1972 according to Inscape. Inscape, and others, have continued to develop, test and validate DISC assessment systems, which are marketed with gusto to the corporate and organisational development communities. The dimensions of Behaviour and Situation feature strongly in Marston's ideas. There are several slightly varying interpretations of this model. Here's a general outline.
DISC basic personality types model
There are different interpretations of this model, based on the same underpinning structure. This presentation of the DISC model borrows
from various interpretations. The colours mainly emphasise the columns - they are not part of the original DISC theory - but they also reflect the logical correlations to two of the Four Temperaments and Keirsey main types (D = Phlegmatic/Rational; I = Choleric/Idealist) and the Jungian Extravert-Introvert 'attitudes'. Other than this there is no attempt here to overlay the DISC model or personality traits directly onto any other personality model. There are overlaps and correlations between DISC and other personality systems but not a direct overlay. Logical comparisons and correlations between DISC types and the types contained in the theories ofJung, Benziger, etc, are shown lower in the grid below. D
Dominance
I
Influence
S
Steadiness
C
Compliance
generally proactive and extravert
generally reactive and introvert reliable, dependable, processorientated, listener, friendly, trustworthy, solid, ethical, finishes what others start and leave, methodical, decides according to process people motivated by time, space and continuity to do things properly dependence on process can become resistance
decisive, dominant, selfassured, forceful, taskorientated, instigates, leads and directs
motivates others via influence and persuasion, good communication skills, presents well, friendly, affable, inspires others, intuitive, gregarious, friendly
painstaking, investigative, curious, decides using facts and figures, correct, checker, detailed,
things motivated by responsibility and achievement
people motivated by recognition and personal approval
things motivated by attention to detail, perfection and truth need for perfection can delay or obstruct
strong focus on emphasis on task and image can neglect forceful style substance can upset people
fears failure and fears rejection and fears insecurity loss of power loss of reputation and change Benziger 'double frontal' (frontal right and frontal left), extraverted Jung's ET(N) and EN(T) IntuitiveThinking Myers Briggs® ENTJ, less so ENTP, INTJ, INTP closest Keirsey type equivalent is fieldmarshall temperament or humour implied by Keirsey is entirely phlegmatic (Keirsey's rationalist) Benziger 'double right' (basal right and frontal right), extraverted Jung's EF(N) and EN(F) Intuitive-Feeling Myers Briggs® ENFJ, less so ENFP, INFJ, INFP closest Keirsey type equivalent is teacher Benziger 'double basal' (basal left and basal right), introverted Jung's IF(S) and IS(F) SensingFeeling
fears inaccuracy and unpredictability Benziger 'double left' (basal left and frontal left) introverted Jung's IT(S) and IS(T) Sensing-Thinking
Myers Briggs® Myers Briggs® ISFP, less so ISTP, less so ISTJ, ISFJ, ESFP, ESTP, ESTJ ESFJ closest Keirsey type equivalent is composer closest Keirsey type equivalent is crafter temperament or humour implied by Keirsey is half sanguine half melancholic (Keirsey's artisan and guardian)
temperament or humour temperament or implied by humour implied Keirsey is half by Keirsey is sanguine half entirely choleric melancholic (Keirsey's idealist) (Keirsey's artisan and guardian)
N.B. The closest equivalent types shown above from the models of Jung, Myers Briggs® and Keirsey are just a guide, and have been arrived at by factoring in the typical DISC dimensions of extraversionintroversion and proactive-passive, which imply the obvious Extraverted or Introverted Jungian equivalents, and Judging (proactive) or Perceiving (reactive) Jungian equivalents. As we've seen, none of this is a perfect science, and the correlations are formed by logical extension rather than clear admissions of statements from the originating
theorists. Benziger's correlations however are those stated by Katherine Benziger herself.
Unlike testing systems such as Myers Briggs® and Keirsey which typically match people to defined 'types', The DISC model instead presents a series of four main 'type' descriptions (titled above as Dominance, Influence, Steadiness and Compliance). The DISC testing instruments tend to identify people's dominant or preferred type and one or two supporting types from the four available, and this mixture is then represented by a graph or personality description based on the mixture of the types. In this respect no person is exclusively just one of the four DISC types. Most people have a dominant or preferred main type, plus one or two supporting types in different degrees depending on the person and the situation. DISC systems commonly not only assess the person but also the person's mix of dominant types from different perspectives. It is important to note again that the DISC system of personality assessment, like all personality models, provides a guide and a perspective of personality; it is not a 100% reliable or definitive measurement. Under certain circumstances DISC and related terminology are protected or trademarked intellectual property, so if you have ideas to use any DISC theory or tools in connection with the commercial delivery of personality assessment or testing services it's wise to check whether you can do so freely or whether such use is governed by licensing conditions. DiSC® is a trademark of the US Inscape Publishing company.
belbin® team roles
Dr Meredith Belbin, UK academic and consultant developed the Belbin team roles model in the late 1970s. Belbin's work at Henley Management College demonstrated that balanced teams comprising people with different capabilities performed better than teams that are less well balanced. Belbin's key book 'Management Teams - Why They Succeed or Fail', was first published in 1981. According to Belbin publicity (Belbin founded Belbin Associates, who produce and provide psychometrics (personality and behavioural testing) instruments and other related services based on Belbin's theories) the Belbin Team Roles model is used by over 40% of the UK's top 100 companies, and thousands more internationally. N.B. The Belbin Team Role model and certain related teminology is © Belbin Associates - if in doubt about usage check with Belbin. The use of Belbin tests and training materials is subject to licence from Belbin. Meredith Belbin initially identified a set of eight roles, which, it is argued, are all present in a team provide good balance and increase likelihood of success. The eight roles were later increased to nine, with the addition of the 'Specialist' role. Presumably due to political correctness and changing attitudes in organisations, the names of certain roles have been altered in recent years. Below are the modern role names and brief descriptions, with notes of what they were previously called where appropriate. There are no 'good' or 'bad' roles. People are as they are, and all roles play important parts in successful teams. Belbin suggested that certain roles tend to be more extraverted (outgoing, proactive, outward-looking) while other roles tend to be more introverted (inward-looking, reactive). These days less emphasis is placed on whether a role was considered extravert or introvert, but for the record, the roles originally presented as extravert are indicated with an asterisk* within the roles listing and descriptions below:
belbin team roles and descriptions
It is not easy to correlate precisely the Belbin team roles to specific personality types in other personality models, although there are certain common elements, for example Extraverted and Introverted roles,
which are colour coded appropriately below. There are also some useful correlations with the Big Five Factors model. This colour-coding does not form part of the original Belbin theory, it simply aims to assist comparisons with other models explained in this section.
role name Coordinator (CO)* strengths and styles able to get others working to a shared aim; confident, mature - (originally called 'Chairman' by Belbin) motivated, energetic, achievement-driven, assertive, competitive innovative, inventive, creative, original, imaginative, unorthodox, problem-solving serious, prudent, critical thinker, analytical systematic, common sense, loyal, structured, reliable, dependable, practicable, efficient (originally called 'Company Workers') quick, good communicator, networker, outgoing, affable, seeks and finds options, negotiator supportive, sociable, flexible, adaptable, perceptive, listener, calming influence, mediator attention to detail, accurate, high standards, quality orientated, delivers to schedule and specification technical expert, highly focused capability and knowledge, driven by professional standards and dedication to personal subject area
Shaper (SH)* Plant (PL)* Monitor-Evaluator (ME)
Implementer (IMP)
Resource Investigator (RI)*
Team Worker (TW) Completer-Finisher (CF)
Specialist (SP)
* Belbin suggested these roles are more extravert than introvert. N.B. It does not follow that extraverted roles are always self-motivating. Neither does it follow that introverted roles need 'motivating' or instructing. The proactivity, direction, attitude and motivation of any roles, in a Belbin context (as for any other personality profiling system), depend on a wide variety of factors, including alignment of
organisational and personal aims and values, personal circumstances, emotional maturity, life-stage, leadership influences, reward systems, and more. Greater understanding of these issues can be achieved by considering many different behavioural perspectives, theories and models. The simplest central point relating to motivation is that different people respond to different stimuli. Therefore the more we understand about ourselves and people, then the more we understand about what motivates us. People are more motivated and happy when they are performing and working in a way that is natural to them. Expecting a person with a particular personality type (be it represented by a Belbin team role, a Jung psychological type, a Myers Briggs® MBTI®, or whatever) to perform well and enthusiastically in a role that is foreign or alien to their natural preferences and strengths is not helpful for anyone.
The UK DTI quality management guidance notes provides further some useful interpretation of the parts that these roles play in teams:
'belbin team roles' within teams
The Co-ordinator clarifies group objectives, sets the agenda, establishes priorities, selects problems, sums up and is decisive, but does not dominate discussions. The Shaper gives shape to the team effort, looking for pattern in discussions and practical considerations regarding the feasibility of the project. Can steamroller the team, but gets results. The Plant is the source of original ideas, suggestions and proposals that are usually original and radical. The Monitor-Evaluator contributes a measured and dispassionate analysis and, through objectivity, stops the team committing itself to a misguided task. The Implementer turns decisions and strategies into defined and manageable tasks, sorting out objectives and pursuing them logically.
The Resource Investigator goes outside the team to bring in ideas, information and developments to it. They are the team's sales-person, diplomat, liaison officer and explorer. The Team Worker operates against division and disruption in the team, like cement, particularly in times of stress and pressure. The Finisher maintains a permanent sense of urgency with relentless follow-through. All of these roles have value and are missed when not in a team; there are no stars or extras. An individual's team role can be determined by the completion of a Belbin questionnaire. It is not essential that teams comprise eight people each fulfilling one of the roles above, but that people who are aware and capable of carrying out these roles should be present. In small teams, people can, and do, assume more than one role. In addition, analysing existing teams and their performance or behaviour, using these team role concepts, can lead to improvements, for example:
• • •
Under-achievement demands a good coordinator or finisher Conflict requires a team worker or strong coordinator Mediocre performance needs a resource investigator, innovator or shaper Error prone teams need an evaluator Different roles are important in different circumstances, for example: New teams need a strong shaper to get started. Competitive situations demand an innovator with good ideas. In areas of high risk, a good evaluator may be needed. Teams should, therefore, be analysed both in terms of what team roles members can play, and also in relation to what team skills are most needed.
• •
• • • •
Despite having well defined roles within a team, the interaction between the different personalities of individuals can be a frequent source of friction. However, this can largely be avoided by understanding and valuing people's differences.
(The above notes about Belbin team roles within teams are UK DTI quality management guidance notes and are Crown Copyright.)
the 'big five' factors personality model - OCEAN
'The Big Five' is the commonly used term for the model of personality which describes the five fundamental factors of our personality. For reasons explained below the model is commonly referred to as OCEAN, being an acronym for names often used for the five traits. The alternative acronym CANOE is less commonly used. This summary and explanation has been provided by psychologist and psychometrics expert Paul Sinclair (see Paul's biography below), which is greatly appreciated. The Big Five 'super traits' have been researched and validated by many different psychologists (WT Norman 1963, McCrae & Costa 1987, Brand & Egan 1989, LR Goldman 1990 and P Sinclair 1992) and are at the core of many other personality questionnaires. While Raymond Cattell 'uncovered' 16 traits from his factor analysis (a statistical way of reducing a variety of things down to a smaller number of related clusters) in the development of the 16PF; no one else was able to replicate his work. On the other hand, the Big Five Factors have been replicated in studies across the world and give us a confident summary of our mental building blocks, according to trait theory. This had led to a number of slightly different 'translations' of the Big Five model, although each version essentially deals with the same theory and content. The words describing the characteristics change,
but the basic characteristics do not. The 'translations' between the different interpretations are explained later. Trait theory, on which many of our occupational questionnaires are based (for example, Cattell's 16PF and Saville & Holdsworth's 'OPQ' Occupational Personality Questionnaire), states that by the time we are in our early 20s and start work, our personality traits become more stable and reliable. This does not necessarily mean we become more stable or reliable, but that our individual personality traits become more fixed and are thus capable of being reliably measured. For example, loud, confident, creative people tend to remain loud, confident and creative people throughout their careers. Quiet, unassuming, dependable people tend to remain so also. When the first Big Five questionnaire was launched the UK in 1990, people were surprised and a little sceptical about the speed of the personality profiler; it took under 10 minutes to complete. This was because it was only measuring five factors and not sixteen or thirty-two personality factors. Suffice it to say, validation studies were published and presented to the British Psychology Society by the end of the 1990s the Big Five was established as a significant and fundamental personality testing model. N.B. The pink colour in the tables is used for the Big Five terminology recommended by Paul Sinclair. Aside from this, colour is used (hopefully) to improve presentation only, and does not relate to other personality models on this webpage.
the big five model - five 'bipolar' scales
The bold names in the left column are the recommended names (by Paul Sinclair) for these factors. Other names are used for each of the factors, which might equate to names in the left or right columns. See the OCEAN names below.
Extraversion vs Introversion
Confidence Detail-conscious Tough-minded Conforming
vs vs vs vs
Sensitive Unstructured Agreeable Creative
These scales are commonly alternatively represented by the OCEAN acronym and descriptions:
•
Openness to experience (equates to Creative, opposite Conforming above) Conscientiousness (equates to Detail-conscious above) Extraversion/Introversion (same as above) Agreeableness (equates to Agreeable, opposite Tough-minded above) Neuroticism (equates to Sensitive, opposite Confidence above)
• • •
•
While some psychologists refer to the OCEAN terminology it's not particularly recommended for use where people are likely to be sensitive to the words, notably 'neuroticism'. Other words in the OCEAN scale can also be perceived as judgmental or stigmatised. And while 'Conscientiousness' is technically accurate, using this word tends to influence decision-makers (notably users of psychometric testing systems) towards the characteristic and those displaying it, not least because the other end of the scale would logically be called 'Unconscientious'; better instead to refer to the scale of 'Detailconscious - Unstructured', which carries no sense of good or bad. It is generally more helpful to use the Big Five terms as detailed in the grid, which tend to present the scales as 'one or the other' rather than 'good or bad'. For the sake of reference however, here is the correlation between the OCEAN Big Five factor names and the more user-friendly names. See above for the precise description correlations.
Recommended Big Five Factor terms Common 'OCEAN' equivalents
Extraversion Introversion Confidence - Sensitive Detail-conscious Unstructured Tough-minded - Agreeable Conforming - Creative
Extraversion/Introversion Neuroticism/Stability Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness to experience
You will find other variations of how people refer to the Big Five Factors. For example The Big Five according to McCrae & Costa (1987) is typically shown as:
• • • • •
Neuroticism (vs Emotional Stability) Extraversion (vs Introversion) Openness to experience (vs Closedness to experiences) Agreeableness (vs Disagreeableness) Conscientiousness (vs Lack of conscientiousness)
The following tables show the typical behaviours within this model. Psychologists and psychometrics practitioners use the term 'Factor' to describe each of these five 'large traits' or scales. In turn, each of the Big Five Factors contains several behaviours, which are clustered under the five main Factor headings. Of course each main Factor can be further broken down into 'sub traits' or 'facets', for example, Extraversion could have sub-traits such as Sociable, Competitive, Energetic and Seeking Recognition. Each factor is named according to the 'high scoring' end of each scale. Low scores logically indicate behaviours at the opposite side of the scale.
High scores are not good or bad. Low scores are not good or bad. The majority of us actually tend to score close to the middle (the 'norm'). The higher a person scores for the behavioural elements shown within each of the five factors, the more (logically) they will exhibit these behaviours, and be less able to sustain the tendencies of the low scorer. And vice versa. Again, there is no good or bad. It's simply a measure of what we are.
the big five factors including behavioural elements
Other commonly used factor names (notably OCEAN) for the Big Five Factors are shown in Green.
extraversion
low score (introversion)
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high score (extraversion)
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Reserved and shy in company Able to concentrate on long tasks Prefers a calm environment Dislikes the limelight and attention Inhibited and somewhat reluctant in teams Not a natural communicator Deliberate, and
Open and talkative Competitive, enthusiastic and persuasive Enjoys a fast pace and variety at work Gregarious Socially active and energetic Can be impulsive or indiscreet Needs praise enjoys attention Can lack
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reflects on things
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Lacks spontaneity
concentration in routine or long tasks
confidence
low score (sensitive, aka neuroticism)
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high score (confidence, aka stability)
Unsure of self, hesitant, checks with superiors Prone to anxiety under pressure Dislikes making big/important decisions Not ambitious, somewhat pessimistic Concerned by change or the unexpected May be temperamental, low emotional control Nervous presenting self or own ideas
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Relaxed, calm under pressure High self esteem Decisive, asserts him/herself Optimistic, enjoys taking lead Resilient to pressure Copes with the unexpected Enjoys autonomy, ambitious
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detail-conscious
low score (unstructured) high score (detailconscious akaconscientiousness)
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Flexible and informal approach to work Multi-tasker Not detail conscious - expedient Prefers 'big picture' - strategic Less committed to formal tasks Works well in a chaotic environment Dislikes paper work - unstructured
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Structured approach to work Quality-conscious and detailed Plans and forecasts - organised Reliable and efficient Persevering and dutiful Committed to the job - striving Keen to achieve goals
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tough-minded
low score (agreeableness) high score (toughminded)
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Empathetic and consensus oriented Enjoys team participation Tolerant of others Seen as kind and generous Patient and democratic with others Can find disciplining others difficult Can be seen as too soft or submissive
Self reliant and independent - pushy Not a natural team player - dominant Goal oriented tough and determined Capable of dealing with 'office politics' Drives through obstacles Somewhat impatient with weaker colleagues Able to make unpopular decisions
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Naturally democratic management style
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Autocratic management style
conforming
low score (creative, akaopenness/openness to experience)
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high score (conforming)
Finds routines and systems constricting Enjoys challenging the status quo Champions change - accepts risks Idealistic, with a variety of interests Creative thinker and problem solver Unconventional and intellectual Thinks on feet, improvises
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Follow rules and procedures Risk-averse and cautious of change Adapts rather than creates new approaches Conservative and serious Obedient to corporate methodology Practical and down to earth Adheres to guidelines and systems
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the combinations of factors define the personality - not single scales
When using this model, as with many other personality concepts, it is the combination of scores from all of the scales that shows us how people operate and identifies their underlying preferences. Looking at a single scale in isolation tells us hardly anything, and can be very misleading. For example: Although a creative (non-conformist) has the intellectual ability to be creative, if their non-conformity is combined with introversion and low confidence, they may not express their creative thoughts and ideas. A creative (non-conformist) who is also extravert, confident and unstructured (low detailconscious), will not only express their ideas but may also propose quite impractical suggestions.
usage of the big five factor model
The Big Five is a very useful model for assessing non-managerial staff, but it lacks some of the rigour required for assessing people in or destined for managerial and executive roles. The Big Five model gives us an accurate and fast way of assessing the main drivers of someone's personality. But the model by itself is not able to drill down into complex management capabilities or competencies. For this we must refer more to work-related behaviours rather than 'pure' personality. Management performance depends more on the subtle use of discretionary elements of the job, which the Big Five will not measure. The Big Five is a 'broad brush' personality methodology. A different approach is required for management assessment, to gauge the 'components' of people's behaviour and the detailed combinations of working style. Each of the Big Five factors consists of 'sub-traits', for example, 'Agreeable' (at the opposite end of the 'Tough-minded' scale) consists of sub-traits (behavioural elements) such as 'Tactful', 'Diplomatic',
'Team-centred', 'Submissive', 'Warm', 'Friendly','Tolerant' and 'Democratic'. In typical use of the Big Five model and tests, a person's score on the 'Agreeable' scale will be an average of how they match the sub-traits. Showing the detail and variance of the sub-traits scores would entail a vastly more complex and time-consuming analysis. The strengths of the Big Five Factor model lie in its speed and ease of use and this makes it a very useful tool for gaining a rapid overview of a person's key drivers. The Big Five Factor model has been very well validated, and while it has shown correlations with performance in jobs, studies indicate that the correlation with particular jobs does not exceed 0.30, which accounts for no more than 15% of the variables. There is a big difference between measuring job suitability, style, etc., and measuring personality per se. The Big Five model is a modern, widely replicated and validated methodology for understanding, explaining and measuring personality. Various Big Five tests have been developed. The first to be launched in the UK, and one of the most popular, is the RPQ (Rapid Personality Questionnaire), which is available from various suppliers. Here is a free Big Five mini-test (5 mins max) on the excellent website of Professor George Boeree (pronounced boo-RAY). This test gives a very quick Big Five profile and is more for understanding the model thank for serious personality assessment, although as a quick simple guide it works well. Bear in mind that the Big Five factor headings Professor Boeree's minitest vary slightly compared to factor names mentioned above, and correlate as follows (precise correlations in bold). Aside from 'Stability' Boeree uses the OCEAN headings:
Recommend Big Five Factor terms Extraversion - Introversion Confidence - Sensitive Detail-conscious - Unstructured Boeree mini-test equivalents Extraversion Stability Conscientiousness
Tough-minded - Agreeable Conforming - Creative
Agreeableness Openness
the big five - some notable combinations
The 'personality-based sub-types' in column one are broad generic profiles and do not relate to any particular model's definitions. Be careful not to read too much into these single-word descriptions - they provide a rough guide, not a detailed scientific correlation.
personalitybased 'subtypes' dependent social leader intellectual submissive need for praise confidence, extraversion defensive exhibitionist autonomous harm avoidance supportive conscientious extraversion, tough-minded confidence conforming extraversion detailconscious, conforming extraversion, conforming tough-minded tough-minded confidence, tough-minded will contain Big Five high scoring factors conforming confidence, extraversion extraversion conforming extraversion, tough-minded will contain Big Five low scoring factors confidence, tough-minded
impulsive authoritarian sensitive to criticism persuasive completerfinisher
tough-minded, extraversion tough-minded, conforming tough-minded extraversion, confidence detailconscious, conforming
conforming
confidence conforming confidence
'the big five' correlations with other personality models
Here are correlations between the Big Five factors and respectively the models of 16PF, OPQ and the Belbin 'team role' types. Below first are the Big Five correlations with Cattell's 16PF model. Understanding these correlations is aided by knowing the 16PF scale definitions. As ever, single word descriptions are open to different interpretations, hence inclusion of the 16PF letter codes. An explanation of the 16PF model will appear on this page in due course. The word 'negatively' below means that the correlation is with the opposite end of the Big Five scale concerned, for example, below, the 16PF description 'Shrewd' correlates to the opposite of the Big Five 'Extraversion', ie., 'Introversion'
big five and 16pf
Big Five Factors Extraversion Cattell's 16PF descriptive equivalents Assertive (E) Happy-go-lucky (F) Venturesome (H) Shrewd (N), negatively
Experimenting (Q1) Controlled (Q3), negatively Confidence Emotional (C) Assertive (E) Happy-go-lucky (F) Conscientious (G), negatively Apprehensive (O), negatively Experimenting (Q1), negatively Tense (Q4) Happy-go-lucky (F), negatively Conscientious (G) Controlled (Q3) Assertive (E) Happy-go-lucky (F) Conscientious (G), negatively Suspicious (L) Experimenting (Q1) Controlled (Q3), negatively Assertive (E), negatively Happy-go-lucky (F), negatively Conscientious (G) Venturesome (H), negatively Shrewd (N) Controlled (Q3)
Detail-conscious
Tough-minded
Conforming
the big five and opq (occupational personality questionnaire)
Below are the Big Five correlations with the OPQ model (Occupational Personality Questionnaire). Understanding these correlations is aided by knowing the OPQ scale definitions. As ever, single word descriptions are open to different interpretations, hence inclusion of the OPQ letter
codes. Again, an explanation of the OPQ model will appear on this page in due course. And again, the word 'negatively' signifies that the correlation is to the opposite end of the Big Five factor concerned, eg., OPQ description 'Modest' correlates to the opposite of the Big Five 'Extraversion', ie., 'Introversion'.
Big Five Factors OPQ (Occupational Personality Questionnaire) descriptive equivalents Persuasive (R1) Controlling (R2) Independent (R3) Outgoing (R4) Confident (R6) Modest (R7), negatively Traditional (T5), negatively Change Orientated (T6) Innovative (T8) Emotional Control (F4) Optimistic (F5) Critical (F6) Competitive (F8) Achieving (F9) Decisive (F10) Persuasive (R1) Controlling (R2) Independent (R3) Outgoing (R4) Socially Confident (R6) Modest (R7), negatively Traditional (T5), negatively Change Orientated (T6) Innovative (T8) Relaxed (F1) Worrying (F2), negatively Tough Minded (F3) Optimistic (F5) Traditional (T5) Detail Conscious (T10) Conscientious (T11) Independent (R3)
Extraversion
Confidence
Detail-conscious
Tough-minded
Democratic (R8), negatively Caring (R9), negatively Detail Conscious (T10), negatively Critical (F6) Conforming Persuasive (R1), negatively Independent (R3), negatively Outgoing (R4), negatively Modest (R7) Traditional (T5) Innovative (T8), negatively Competitive (F8), negatively Achieving (F9), negatively Decisive (F10), negatively
the big five and belbin 'team role' types
Below are the Big Five correlations with the Belbin team role types. Given the overlap of Big Five factors across the Belbin team role types, the correlations are shown between the Belbin types and the corresponding dominant Big Five factors. See the Belbin section above.
Belbin 'team role' type Coordinator/Chairman (CO)* Shaper (SH)* Plant (PL)* Monitor-Evaluator (ME) Big Five correlating scale score/emphasis Extraversion, Confidence Extraversion, Tough-minded, Creative Extraversion, Confidence, Tough-minded, Creative No strong correlations with the Big Five, probably because this Belbin team type is not high or low on any scale, ie., they are sober, detached, able to look at things objectively. They are most likely people with 'middle scores' across most of the Big Five scales, suggesting a balanced profile
with little emphasis on any specific scale, quite a rare Big Five profile. Implementer/Co Worker (IMP) Resource Investigator (RI)* Detail-conscious, Agreeable, Conforming Extraversion, Confidence, Creative Introversion, Sensitive, Detail-conscious, Conforming Sensitive, Detail-conscious, Agreeable, Conforming Not correlated with the Big Five. This recently added Belbin type is based less on personality and describes a technical specialism, thus linked to specialist knowledge/ability rather than temperament.
Team Worker (TW) Completer-Finisher (CF) Specialist (SP)
paul sinclair biography
Paul Sinclair is the founder and managing partner of Sinclair Associates and has spent fifteen years at the leading edge of psychological profiling and performance development. He works with companies to assess individual and team potential and develops plans to improve personal competencies. Paul co-launched the UK's first 'Big Five' personality profiler in 1990 and published a paper on 'Personality and Performance' in the British Psychological Society's journal - Selection and Development Review, and also presented a validation of the Big Five against the OPQ and the 16PF, at the BPS conference in 1992. Paul has been interviewed on BBC Radio 4 and consulted on the BBC2 TV series, 'Mind of the Millionaire'. Paul now focuses on business coaching and team building. A member of the European Mentoring & Coaching Council, Paul is based near Bath and works across the UK & Europe.
Paul's website is: www.cloudtalent.com and his email is [email protected]. Paul's contribution of this explanation of the Big Five Factor model is gratefully acknowledged.
firo-b®
FIRO-B® stands for Fundamental Interpersonal Relations OrientationBehaviour. Developed by William Schutz in 1958, Schutz first used the FIRO-B® tool to assess how teams performed in the US Navy. The FIRO-B® is an assessment tool used to help individuals and teams better understand their preferences in satisfying three basic social needs:
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Inclusion (the degree to which one belongs to a group, team or community) Control (the extent to which one prefers to have structure, hierarchy and influence) Affection (one's preference for warmth, disclosure and intimacy).
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For each of these factors, FIRO-B® assesses individuals as to:
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how much they express the needs and how much they want to have the needs expressed to them from others.
In this respect, FIRO-B® is measuring the three aspects of Inclusion, Control and Affection, from two 'needs perspectives' of expressing (outwardly directed behaviour towards others) andwanting (behaviour from others directed towards oneself).
The overall 'scores' from the assessment also reveal the degree to which people attain satisfaction from their interactions with others versus time spent alone. The FIRO-B® assessment data is particularly rich in enabling understanding individual and team behaviour. As with many other personality assessments, there are no 'right or wrong', nor 'good or bad' profiles. By reviewing the assessment information, an individual can gain insight into what kind of teams they prefer to work in, what kind of environment they'd like to work in, and what roles they prefer in the workplace. The FIRO-B® model and assessment tool can also provide information regarding leadership styles and areas of potential conflict. If teams take the assessment together, they can compare the extent to which each person's preferences complement or conflict with colleagues. For example, a team member wanting a high degree of inclusion would appreciate and respond well to a manager who invites him/her to various meetings. A team member with a high degree of expressed affection is likely to work well with a colleague who seeks affection and attention. The FIRO-B® system is a simple and elegant model that particularly assists understanding of team dynamics, greater self-awareness, mutual awareness among team-members (which relates helpfully to the Johari Window model), and team leadership development. My acknowledgements to Barbara Heyn for these introductory notes about the FIRO-B® assessment. Barbara runs Atticus Consulting LLC in Blue Ash, Ohio, and specialises in developing teams, leadership and organisations. See also Barbara Heyn's article in the love and spirituality section - about bringing compassion and humanity to work, which is obviously closely connected with understanding and respecting personality. FIRO-B® is a trademark of the CPP, Inc (Consulting Psychologists Press).
the birkman method®
I am grateful to Birkman International Inc. for their help in providing this summary (within which the US-English spelling of 'behavior' is used because it is appropriate for the terminology and origins of the theory). The Birkman Method® consists of ten scales describing motivations (Interests) and occupational preferences. It also has eleven scales describing 'effective behaviors' (Usual behaviors) and eleven scales describing interpersonal and environmental 'expectations' (Needs). A corresponding set of eleven derived scales describe the associated 'less than effective' (Stress) behaviors when expectations are not fulfilled. Together, these eleven scales are titled Components. In application, The Birkman Method® provides a method of improving personal and interpersonal effectiveness, articulating issues and resolving them, and revealing hidden assumptions that directly affect interpersonal effectiveness. The Birkman Method® notably:
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assesses perceptions and situational motivators is non-clinical, online, valid, reliable, and without 'adverse impact' identifies 'effective,' 'less than effective' behaviors and provides practical suggestions to improve personal and interpersonal effectiveness provides respondents with a unique problem-solving approach that can be applied to many situations, even situations beyond the extensive report options identifies the career choices most likely to appeal to the respondent and is translated into 13 languages.
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The core of The Birkman Method® predicts significant behavioral and motivational patterns by asking respondents about personal and social perceptions. Dr Birkman confirmed that individuals don't react to the 'real' world, but rather to their perception of it. This is the scientific response to the adage, 'perceptions are reality'.
Most researchers at the time were focused on 'why' respondents behaved the way they did. Dr Birkman was interested 'what' behaviors resulted from their perceptions. Specifically, Birkman identified work and business behaviors resulting from 'self' and 'other' perceptual responses. Ultimately, the Birkman Method® became a multifaceted, self-report tool that provides practical insights into everyday issues confronting adults as they live and work. It offers a unique way of discovering how individuals accomplish goals or miss opportunities.
origins of the theory
Roger W Birkman PhD, began his exploration of individual differences of behavior and perception while pilot and pilot instructor. His experience with the impact that misperceptions – both visual and interpersonal had on pilot performance and student learning led him to the study of psychology. By 1950, Birkman had developed a new method of assessment called the Test of Social Comprehension. It was empirically developed from workplace interviews and observations. The instrument was designed to measure the human characteristics that he saw influence perceptions, behaviors, and motivations in normally functioning adults. Eventually, Birkman met Roy B Mefferd Jr, who was a statistician/psychometrician. Mefferd was a colleague of H J Eysenck and Mefford also worked closely Raymond Cattel, creator of the 16PF. Mefferd was the first to analyze, modify and revise The Birkman Method using factor analysis. Over the years, many more PhD psychometricians have added to the research base. Originally, Birkman developed the scale descriptions by comparing self report item results with descriptions of likes, dislikes, and behaviors provided by third parties. Birkman then matched self-report results, item by item, with these third party behavioral descriptions. Eventually, these scales and the relationships between these scales became the working model of perceptual and interest interactions. During the 1960s, the assessment further integrated interests and occupational measurement. This integrated assessment came to be known as The Birkman Method®. Minor modifications and improvements occurred in the following decades. In 2008, The Birkman Method was updated to current standards by combining classical test theory and item test theory to review and update the instrument. Refer
to the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method® for more information.
scales used in the method interest scales
Interest scales describe an expressed motivational construct. Individuals with high scale values tend to prefer to be engaged in activities consistent with the commonly expected responsibilities of the interest scale meaning. The scales interact to form measures of general interest beyond measures of specific interest. The scale values measure intensity of desire to be involved with these activities, not skill or proficiency with these responsibilities. The reporting style of the Interest scales ranks Interests in order of highest to lowest values. Long bars indicate a strong preference or attraction while short bars indicate minimal interest and possibly disinterest or avoidance. The following figure depicts a typical Interest profile for a respondent.
component scales
According to Birkman's research, the Components are the constructs that significantly affect normal adults in the work environment. The following is a list of the Components titles and descriptions:
acceptance
The Acceptance scales describe a sociability-based construct that addresses the manner of relating to people in groups. It includes the degree to which an individual wants to be talkative; enjoy people in groups; enjoy of social laughter; comfort in talking to strangers; enjoying parties and group activities; and approachability.
activity
The Activity scales describe a construct that addresses preferred pace of action and aspects of style, planning and decision making. This construct includes the degree to which an individual prefers action; quick thinking; and physical expression of energy.
advantage
The Advantage scales describe a construct that includes the degree to which an individual prefers to drive for personal rewards or to share in team rewards. This construct addresses the approach to idealism, and team vs. individual approaches to winning competitions and incentives. It also encompasses cautiousness about giving trust; involvement with money (as an incentive); and seeking personal advantage.
authority
The Authority scales address approaches to directing and influencing or persuading others in verbal exchanges. This construct describes the degree to which an individual wants to persuade; speak up; express opinions openly and forcefully; and/or argue.
challenge
Challenge involves the way in which a person approaches and understands the issues of socially correct behavior and especially social
image. The scale addresses issues on managing social image and social expectation.
change
The Change Orientation refers to openness to new personal experiences. Individuals who score low tend to prefer repetitive effort, minimal personal disruptions, and predictable responsibilities. Individuals who score high tend to seek new experiences and explore novel approaches, even within stable environments.
empathy
The Empathy scales describe a construct the degree to which an individual is comfortable with emotional expression and involvement of feelings.
esteem
The Esteem scales describe a sensitivity-based construct that includes shyness; saying no; praising and being praised; sensitivity about correcting others or being corrected by others; getting one's feelings hurt or being embarrassed.
freedom
The Freedom scales describe a construct concerning the degree to which an individual is more conventional or unconventional in their approach to solving issues.
structure
These scales describe an orderliness-based construct that includes the degree to which an individual insists on to giving or receiving clear direction; following instructions carefully; finishing tasks; dealing with detailed tasks; working for accuracy; and using systematic approaches.
thought
The Thought scales describe a construct concerning the degree to which an individual approaches forming conclusions and making decisions; concerns for making the right decision the first time; and concerns over the consequences of those decisions.
construction of the component scales
This section provides one example of the scoring of The Birkman Method®. For the purpose of explaining this approach, let's create a fictitious Component named Handedness. Low scores indicate a lefthanded approach to solving dexterity problems and high scores indicate right-handed preferences. The following scale uses numbers to indicate the degree to which the left hand is preferred. Handedness: From a Left-Hander's Perspective
Conversely, we could explain Handedness from the right-handers perspective using the same scale. If the Handedness score (or bandwidth) is between 1 and 9, the right hand is never used and, by default, the left hand is always used (unless hurt). Handedness: From a Right-Hander's Perspective
Scores of 1-9 and 90-99 are the pure forms of opposing preferences; they are differences of kind. For some individuals, the pure forms are more than 'preferences'. They are often viewed as the 'right' way. In terms of application, these 'differences of kind' can lead to one or more individuals becoming judgmental or unable to see things from the 'other' perspective. As you might suspect, the three middle bands (scores of 10-39, 40-60 and 61-89) are differences of degree, that is, they are blends of the two pure preferences. Birkman crafted the expected Component scales so that individuals with 'low scale' values needed situations and relationships that precipitated one style of behavioral effectiveness and those who expected 'high scale' conditions that created the opposite productive style of response. Scales contained only descriptive information, no value judgment was attached to either end of any scale; therefore, both ends of the scale had equal value and positive cultural connotations. The scale values described how an individual needed to be treated or what type situation an individual prefers, not intensity or frequency of need alone. The next section describes the aspects of each Component scale in more detail.
expectation (need) scales
Birkman found that when an individual was in a situation or relationship that proceeded in a manner that was consistent with their underlying expectations (needs) that individual felt good about self, was adaptable and exhibited positive, productive behaviors. When the relationship or situation was consistent with the individual's expectations, the individual frequently behaved in a productive manner. Birkman also found that when these expectations were not met, individuals tended to exhibit less-than-effective behaviors. This is consistent recent research in the related topic of Self-Regulation and the attending behavioral implications. Ultimately, Birkman found that the conditions that created less-thaneffective behaviors varied greatly. The only precise way for Birkman to define these 'frustrating' conditions was that they were not the expectation 'fulfillment' conditions. In other words, there were many ways to frustrate expectations but very few ways to fulfill them.
productive (usual) behavior scales
The typical, or usual, productive behaviors are expressed in a variety of situations and are readily observable by others. These scales describe an individual's effective style of dealing with relationships and tasks. These behaviors are typically described as positive or effective (although it may not mean the goals are accomplished). Low scale values are described as approaching relationships or tasks in one manner and those with a high scale value are described as approaching them in an opposite but equally effective manner. It is easy to envision two equally skilled individuals, one excellent at motivating using intangible rewards and someone else who motivates excellently using only tangible rewards. Theoretically, this is similar to the FIRO-B Elements® assessment, which assumes that an individual's behavior is independent of their desired environmental conditions.
less-than-effective (stress) behavior scales
Scale values indicate an individual's ineffective style of dealing with relationships or tasks. These behaviors are typically described as 'how he acts when he is under stress,' or 'how she behaves when she is frustrated'. Within The Birkman Method®, this non-productive behavior
might be practically productive in the short term, but costly in terms of relationships and long term effectiveness. In essence, there might be bodies along the way to achieving the objective. Individuals often report that they are not pleased with themselves after they use these 'lessthan-productive' behaviors. Again, scale values indicate the style of behavior, not level of ineffectiveness. Note: Further insights into the causes of various less-than-productive behaviors have recently been studied by researchers within the selfregulation domain.
the birkman method® and MBTI® comparison
In 2008, CPP and Birkman International teamed together to develop the correlation tables between The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® Step II Facet Scales. For a complete comparison between both the MBTI® and MBTI® Step II, please refer to the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method®.
similarities and differences found in the study
Both The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® are non-clinical assessments. The technical manuals for both assessments have established and documented face, content, construct (convergent/divergent), and criterion-related validities. However, these two instruments have fundamentally different foundations and psychometric properties. The MBTI® is an indicator of type. As such it does not measure the amount of a personality trait. Rather, the MBTI® sorts, or categorizes, individuals based on preference or type ('Bill prefers introversion.'), but not the strength or degree of preference ('Jane strongly prefers extraversion') nor degree of aptitude ('Harry is good at thinking'). The MBTI® is socially and environmentally independent, provides generic descriptions of productive and less-than-productive behaviors for each the sixteen possible types, and has no corresponding equivalent of the Birkman Expectations.
The Birkman Method® provides the degree of preference across eleven scales, and independently measures ten motivational factors. As well, The Birkman Method® reports on specific contextual factors which affect behavior (Expectations). Birkman reports contain thousands of productive and less-than-productive behavioral combinations and provide specific prescriptions for improving performance.
comparison between the birkman method® and the 'big five' factor model of personality
The Birkman Method® aligns with the FFM (Five Factor Model or 'Big Five' or OCEAN model), but also has sub-factors for Emotive, Social and Control Orientations. This provides additional insight into the personality and productiveness dynamics.
FFM Constructs ('Big Five' or OCEAN model) Neuroticism Extraversion Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness Birkman Orientations Associated Birkman Components
Emotive Orientation Empathy, Thought, Activity Social Orientation Process Orientation Control Orientation Change Orientation Esteem, Acceptance Structure Advantage, Authority Change
appropriate uses for the birkman method®
The continuous trait-measurements, multi-dimensional properties, and predictive reporting provided by The Birkman Method® make it useful in decision-making and issues-based activities, such as hiring, selection, conflict resolution, personal development, leadership development, and team building.
birkman international - acknowledgements
I am grateful to Birkman International for their help in providing this summary. For more about The Birkman Method® assessment or to purchase a copy of the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method® call (800) 215-2760 (USA) or email [email protected]. The 2008 Technical Manual contains the complete statistical analysis between The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® Step I and MBTI® Step II. The Technical Manual also covers the full developmental history, theoretical background, reliability and validity, empirical evidence, and norms for The Birkman Method® assessment. You may also visit the Birkman website at www.birkman.com for general information about Birkman International, Inc., The Birkman Method® assessment, and other products and services. For more about the MBTI® or MBTI® Step II or to obtain a copy of the technical manuals, visit www.cpp.com. References/sources used in compiling the Birkman summary: Birkman, R.W., Elizondo, Fabian, Lee, Larry G., Wadlington, Patrick L., Zamzow, Matt W. (2008). The Birkman Method® Manual. Houston, TX: Birkman International, Inc. Birkman, R.W. (1961). Development of a personality test using social and self perception inventories. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin. Birkman, R.W. (1997). True Colors. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc. Briggs Myers, Isabel, McCaulley, Mary H., Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L. (1998). A Guide to the Development and Use of the MyersBriggs Type Indicator®. Mountain View, CA: CPP, Inc. Pittenger, David J. (1993). Measuring the MBTI And Coming Up Short. Journal of Career Planning and Employment, November, pp. 48–52. Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L., Majors, Mark S. (2001). MBTI Step II Manual: Exploring the Next Level of Type with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Form Q. Mountain View, CA: CPP, Inc. Quenk, Naomi L. (1993). Beside ourselves: Our hidden personality in everyday life. Palo Alto, CA: CPP, Inc. Stricker, L.J. & J. Ross. (1964). An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian personality Typology. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 68, pp. 67-72.
other personality theories and psychometrics tests models
Review and explanation of additional personality types theories and psychometrics tests models will be added to this section in due course. If you have suggestions, or if you are a principal provider of personality testing services, psychometrics tests or personality and behavioural assessment instruments, and wish to contribute some helpful explanatory theory please get in touch.
cattell's 16PF
Here's a very brief summary. Raymond B Cattell (1905-1998) developed his 16PF in the 1940s. Most sources indicate an original publication date of 1949, so it's been around for a while, and has gone through at least five edition revisions, which probably explains the strange letter coding sequence. The PF stands for 'Personality Factors', and there are sixteen of them, hence 16PF. The 16PF is one of the longest-standing and most widely used personality testing systems of all. Belbin used the Cattell 16PF model in constructing his 'Belbin Team Roles' theory, model and testing instruments. Cattell's theory asserts that every person possesses a degree of each of the following sixteen traits. Note that these traits include scale descriptions (not shown here) and terminology can vary; hence the code letters are helpful references. Cattell's 16PF personality testing instruments are available from various providers. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Warmth (A) Reasoning (B) Emotional Stability (C) Dominance (E) Liveliness (F) Rule-consciousness (G)
7. Social Boldness (H) 8. Sensitivity (I) 9. Vigilance (L) 10. Abstractedness (M) 11. Privateness (N) 12. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness (O) 13. Openness to change (Q1) 14. Self-reliance (Q2) 15. Perfectionism (Q3) 16. Tension (Q4) The Cattell systems also include an interpretation of the 'Big Five' factors, which the Cattell organisation refers to as 'Five Global' factors (and which mostly use different descriptive factors names). More explanation in due course...
OPQ
Which stands for: Occupational Personality Questionnaire. Coming in due course...
PARIO
PARIO (oiginally named PRISM, and since changed to PARIO, to avoid confusion with a different PRISM system) is a relatively very modern personality model and psychological profiling system, developed by occupational psychologist David Sharpley in the late 1990s. PARIO was designed to identify Individual Needs, and Patterns of Response to work demands. PARIO was developed to address Performance at Work, and is structured somewhat differently to many traditional trait-oriented profiling systems.
PARIO draws particularly on the psychological Needs theory of Henry Murray (in turn relating toDavid McLelland), and George Kelly's Personal Construct theory (which is referenced and explained on this website in John Fisher's work), to produce a 24-scale model organised into Edgar Schien's three broad Career Anchors of:
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analytical competence - in relation to problems and problemsolving interpersonal competence - in relation to working with and through people emotional competence - in relation to tasks and taking responsibility for and achieving them
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enneagram of personality types
The nine-point model developed by Gurdjieff et al during the 1900s. Explanation coming in due course...
graphology
Graphology is the study and analysis of hand-writing. Graphology can be used to understand personality of self and others, and has been used as an aid to recruitment and selection for many years. Interestingly graphology can also be used for self-awareness and selfdevelopment, to change and improve personality traits and behaviours. See the graphology and handwriting analysis section.
using free personality tests to create interest in seminars and workshops etc
Free personality tests of various types are becoming increasingly prevalent and available on the internet. Many require the test to be completed online, which, given the increasing numbers of employees with internet-enabled laptops, makes these tests ideal for team development sessions. Other free tests can be downloaded and used manually, such as those featured on this site. Free tests present opportunities for training and development, but care is required when using them. Free tests can be free for various reasons, for example:
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'lite' versions offered by serious psychometrics providers as 'teasers' or introductory tools tests created by various providers for different purposes and available legitimately to use and share (intentionally or unwittingly) unauthorised copied or 'pirated' tests which find their way onto websites or which appear to be in the 'public domain' via photocopies (unauthorised tests are obviously to be avoided since using them can incur serious liabilities)
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Legitimately free-to-use tests have a place in the learning and development toolkit, but they should only be used for certain situations. Free tests are fine for fun and for basic rough indicators, but generally (there are some exceptions) not for serious applications, nor for purposes involving sensitive situations or serious decisions, such as recruitment, career direction, counselling, or serious training and development needs analysis. Personality tests hold a big fascination for most people - it's human nature to want to learn and discover things that we don't know about ourselves, and to have our strengths confirmed, and to have our weaknesses and vulnerabilities gently queried or explored. Tests can do all of these things - even free ones. Personality tests can therefore introduce great interest and also stimulate lots of discussion when used in a light-hearted way in meetings, seminars and workshops, etc., but you do need to ensure that you position and explain your purpose - and the limitations of the test - carefully, so that delegates understand and feel comfortable.
People with strong (Jungian/Myers Briggs®) 'sensing' and 'thinking' personalities (engineers, adminstrators, accountants for example) will be less comfortable with vague and approximate tesst than people who have strong intuitive and empathic mindsets. Think about your type of audience before you decide on a use and an explanation. Ensure it's acceptable and suitable for the delegates. If you ware using free personality tests 'mostly for fun', and 'just as a rough indicator' then say so. Do not position a free 'lite' test of uncertain origin and debatable scientific validity as being a reliable indicator; if you do then people will take it too seriously and you'll defeat the object - which might simply be to introduce a bit of amusement and a discussion point. All tests - whether robust or otherwise - provide a reflection of personality of some sort, the use of which usually provokes thought, prompts discussion and possibly also invites a little self-discovery. Tests cause us to think about ourselves from a different perspective, which in itself is a liberating exercise. Provided that the use of a test is not serious, and is positioned and explained accordingly, then it's possible to make good stimulating use of many and various free 'personality tests' that are increasingly available on the web. Be careful to avoid unintentionally using any tests that appear free but which are actually subject to copyright and intellectual property terms of use and costs. When using free tests available on the web check that the the terms of use are appropriate for your purposes, and certainly be suspicious if anything looks too good to be true, because it might be. If in doubt seek clarification from whomever's source model or test name is referenced in the material. There are very many free tests that can be 'positioned' for given functions (eg, management style) subject to thinking logically about how the perspective of the particular test relates to personality, style, and by implication (in this case) to management. For example, on this website all of the free tests (such as the test based on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the Multiple Intelligences test, and the VAK learning style test) can be used to indicate management style from a particular perspective. It's a matter of interpretation.
In this way, provided that your purpose is not serious (I repeat, recruitment, for example, is not to be trifled with) tests of all sorts can generally be used one way or another for most job functions, roles or aspects of work. It's a question of thinking about how a particular test relates to people's interests and/or what you are seeking to discover or indicate, be it management style, learning style, personality, aptitude, communications style, personal outlook, etc. Thus, all tests - even the free 'lite' versions available on the web (MBTI® free versions, Enneagrams, Keirsey Temperament Sorter, etc) can provide a useful management style perspective - or any other perspective - subject to understanding how the test criteria or model relates to whatever aspect of personality or work is being explored. Additionally, if you want to include a personality test in a seminar or workshop, and are unsure where to start, it generally helps if you first ask your audience what they'd like to know about themselves, and if they already are aware of any particular frames of reference or personality models. And then seek and source tests accordingly, that are aimed at, or which enable, measuring those criteria, or which use the model concerned. As with measuring anything involving the participation of a group of people, it's important to use a measurement model or set of criteria that your audience understands, otherwise the test won't mean much, on which point, different audiences more naturally relate to different models and personality theories. By way of example, Carl Jung's 'Psychological Types' model is very applicable to management style and will commonly be readily recognised and understood by a healthcare audience or medical professionals. Having established such a 'fit' you can then set about finding a suitable Jungian test (and as already previously referenced on this page, a good free Jungian-type test is available from www.gesher.com, along with some really wonderful reference material). Free tests are useful and helpful when used appropriately, and when they are adapted and interpreted in a way that is meaningful to the audience.
It's the same as using any other tool for any other situation: first understand the perspective - the frame of reference of the audience or user - and then select and adapt a tool to fit.
johari window
Ingham and Luft's Johari Window model diagrams and examples - for self-awareness, personal development, group development and understanding relationships
The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. The Johari Window model can also be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other groups. The Johari Window model was devised by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955, while researching group dynamics at the University of California Los Angeles. The model was first published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development by UCLA Extension Office in 1955, and was later expanded by Joseph Luft. Today the Johari Window model is especially relevant due to modern emphasis on, and influence of, 'soft' skills, behaviour, empathy, cooperation, inter-group development and interpersonal development. The Johari Window concept is particularly helpful to understanding employee/employer relationships within the Psychological Contract. Over the years, alternative Johari Window terminology has been developed and adapted by other people - particularly leading to different descriptions of the four regions, hence the use of different terms in this explanation. Don't let it all confuse you - the Johari Window model is really very simple indeed.
free johari window model diagram (pdf landscape) free johari window model diagram (pdf portrait)
(The Johari Window diagram is also available in MSWord format from the free resources section.) Luft and Ingham called their Johari Window model 'Johari' after combining their first names, Joe and Harry. In early publications the word appears as 'JoHari'. The Johari Window soon became a widely used model for understanding and training self-awareness, personal development, improving communications, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, team development and inter-group relationships. The Johari Window model is also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of self awareness', and by some people an 'information processing tool'. The Johari Window actually represents information feelings, experience, views, attitudes, skills, intentions, motivation, etc within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four perspectives, which are described below. The Johari Window model can also be used to represent the same information for a group in relation to other groups. Johari Window terminology refers to 'self' and 'others': 'self' means oneself, ie, the person subject to the Johari Window analysis. 'Others' means other people in the person's group or team. N.B. When the Johari Window model is used to assess and develop groups in relation to other groups, the 'self' would be the group, and 'others' would be other groups. However, for ease of explanation and understanding of the Johari Window and examples in this article, think of the model applying to an individual within a group, rather than a group relating to other groups. The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of these regions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known about the person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and whether the information is known or unknown by others in the group.
The Johari Window's four regions, (areas, quadrants, or perspectives) are as follows, showing the quadrant numbers and commonly used names:
johari window four regions
1. what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others - open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the arena' 2. what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know - blind area, blind self, or 'blindspot' 3. what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know - hidden area, hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade' 4. what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others - unknown area or unknown self
johari window four regions - model diagram
Like some other behavioural models (eg, Tuckman, Hersey/Blanchard), the Johari Window is based on a four-square grid - the Johari Window is like a window with four 'panes'. Here's how the Johari Window is normally shown, with its four regions.
This is the standard representation of the Johari Window model, showing each quadrant the same size. The Johari Window 'panes' can be changed in size to reflect the relevant proportions of each type of 'knowledge' of/about a particular person in a given group or team situation. In new groups or teams the open free space for any team member is small (see the Johari Window new team member example below) because shared awareness is relatively small. As the team member becomes better established and known, so the size of the team member's open free area quadrant increases. See the Johari Window established team member example below.
johari window model - explanation of the four regions
Refer to the free detailed Johari Window model diagram in the free resources section - print a copy and it will help you to understand what follows.
johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public area', or 'arena'
Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the person - behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others'). The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person, because when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and productive, and the group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the space where good communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict and misunderstanding. Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members. New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledge about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members. This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback, sensitively of course. The size of the open area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and group members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by asking the person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and in directly giving
feedback to individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote a culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive communications, and the sharing of knowledge throughout their organization. Top performing groups, departments, companies and organizations always tend to have a culture of open positive communication, so encouraging the positive development of the 'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective leadership.
johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'
Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the person him/herself. By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area (see the Johari Window diagram below), ie, to increase self-awareness. This blind area is not an effective or productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person. We all know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works well when subject to 'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind area'. Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to reduce their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental feedback, and group response to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both processes to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on which feedback is sought, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. The process of soliciting serious and deep feedback relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.
johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided self/area' or 'facade'
Johari region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to others. This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a person knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others. The hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural for very personal and private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and so is better positioned in the open area. Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team effectiveness. Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members' preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or vulnerability and therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve group awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness. The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issues which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should disclose at a pace
and depth that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset. Also as with soliciting feedback, the process of serious disclosure relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needsdevelopment and motivation model.
johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of unknown activity' or 'unknown area'
Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that areunknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown issues take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behaviour to various degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in younger people, and people who lack experience or self-belief. Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant and common, especially in typical organizations and teams:
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an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity, encouragement, confidence or training a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have an unknown illness repressed or subconscious feelings conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood
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The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various, and can be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations through collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can
also uncover unknown issues, but this would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group. Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as feedback, or disclosed. As with the processes of soliciting feedback and disclosure, striving to discover information and feelings in the unknown is relates to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model. Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a sensitive one. The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown feelings must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to do this. Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things, with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and thereby reduce the unknown area. Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery, and to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and feedback among team members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of staff in any organization are at any time working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate and expectation for self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to achieve more, and to contribute more to organizational performance. A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences, which can stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari Window should not be used to address issues of a clinical nature. Useful references are Arthur Janov's seminal book The Primal Scream (read about the book here), and Transactional Analysis.
johari window example - increasing open area through feedback solicitation
This Johari Window model diagram is an example of increasing the open area , by reduction of the blind area, which would normally be achieved through the process of asking for and then receiving feedback. Feedback develops the open area by reducing the blind area. The open area can also be developed through the process of disclosure, which reduces the hidden area. The unknown area can be reduced in different ways: by others' observation (which increases the blind area); by self-discovery (which increases the hidden area), or by mutual enlightenment typically via group experiences and discussion - which
increases the open area as the unknown area reduces.
A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual understanding with the team - is far more effective than a team which does not understand each other- that is, whose members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown areas. Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their open free areas, and to reduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas. A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform to their best potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's potential and the person's potential too. Effort should generally be made by the person to increase his/her open free area, by disclosing information about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc, which will reduce the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area. Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the open free area. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and experience, will reduce the unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas, depending on who knows what, or better still if known by the person and others, to the open free area.
johari window model - example for new team member or member within a new team
This Johari Window model diagram is an example of a member of a new team or a person who is new to an existing team. The open free region is small because others know little about the new person. Similarly the blind area is small because others know little about the new person. The hidden or avoided issues and feelings are a relatively large area. In this particular example the unknown area is the largest, which might be because the person is young, or lacking in self-knowledge or belief.
johari window example - established team member example
This Johari Window model diagram is an example of an established member of a team. The open free region is large because others know a lot about the person that the person also knows. Through the processes of disclosure and receiving feedback the open area has expanded and at the same time reduced the sizes of the hidden, blind and unknown areas.
It's helpful to compare the Johari Window model to other four-quadrant behavioural models, notably Bruce Tuckman's Forming, Storming Norming Performing team development model; also to a lesser but nonetheless interesting extent, The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership team development and management styles model (See both here). The common principle is that as the team matures and communications improve, so performance improves too, as less energy is spent on internal issues and clarifying understanding, and more effort is devoted to external aims and productive output. The Johari Window model also relates to emotional intelligence theory (EQ), and one's awareness and development of emotional intelligence. As already stated, the Johari Window relates also to Transactional Analysis (notably understanding deeper aspects of the 'unknown' area, region 4).
The Johari Window processes of serious feedback solicitation, disclosure, and striving to uncover one's unknown area relate to Maslow's 'self-actualization' ideas contained in the Hierarchy of Needs. There are several exercises and activities for Johari Window awareness development among teams featured on the team building games section, for example the ring tones activity.
exploring more ideas for using ingham and luft's johari window model in training, learning and development
The examples of exercises using the Johari Window theory on this website which might begin to open possibilities for you. The Johari Window obviously model provides useful background rationale and justification for most things that you might think to do with people relating to developing mutual and self-awareness, all of which links strongly to team effectiveness and harmony. There are many ways to use the Johari model in learning and development - much as using any other theory such as Maslow's, Tuckman's, TA, NLP, etc. It very much depends on what you want to achieve, rather than approaching the subject from 'what are all the possible uses?' which would be a major investigation. This being the case, it might help you to ask yourself first what you want to achieve in your training and development activities? And what are your intended outputs and how will you measure that they have been achieved? And then think about how the Johari Window theory and principles can be used to assist this. Researching academic papers (most typically published on university and learning institutions websites) written about theories such as Johari is a fertile method of exploring possibilities for concepts and models like Johari. This approach tends to improve your in-depth understanding, instead of simply using specific interpretations or applications 'off-theshelf', which in themselves might provide good ideas for a one-off
session, but don't help you much with understanding how to use the thinking at a deeper level. Also explore the original work of Ingham and Luft, and reviews of same, relating to the development and applications of the model. Johari is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other powerful ideas, simply helping people to understand is the most effective way to optimise the value to people. Explaining the meaning of the Johari Window theory to people, so they can really properly understand it in their own terms, then empowers people to use the thinking in their own way, and to incorporate the underlying principles into their future thinking and behaviour.
Relevant reading, (if you can find copies): 'Group Processes - An Introduction to Group Dynamics' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1963; and 'Of Human Interaction: The Johari Model' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1969. In the books Joseph Luft explains that Johari is pronounced as if it were Joe and Harry, and that is '...just what the word means'. He explains also that the Johari model was developed by him and Harrington V Ingham MD in 1955 during a summer laboratory session, and that the model was published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development for that year by the UCLA (University of California Los Angeles) Extension Office.
transactional analysis
Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis - early TA history and theory
Transactional Analysis is one of the most accessible theories of modern psychology. Transactional Analysis was founded by Eric Berne, and the famous 'parent adult child' theory is still being developed today. Transactional Analysis has wide applications in clinical, therapeutic, organizational and personal development, encompassing communications, management, personality, relationships and behaviour. Whether you're in business, a parent, a social worker or interested in personal development, Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theories, and those of his followers, will enrich your dealings with people, and your understanding of yourself. This section covers the background to Transactional Analysis, and Transactional Analysis underpinning theory. See also the modern Transactional Analysis theory article.
roots of transactional analysis
Throughout history, and from all standpoints: philosophy, medical science, religion; people have believed that each man and woman has a multiple nature. In the early 20th century, Sigmund Freud first established that the human psyche is multi-faceted, and that each of us has warring factions in our subconscious. Since then, new theories continue to be put forward, all concentrating on the essential conviction that each one of us has parts of our personality which surface and affect our behaviour according to different circumstances. In 1951 Dr Wilder Penfield began a series of scientific experiments. Penfield proved, using conscious human subjects, by touching a part of the brain (the temporal cortex) with a weak electrical probe, that the brain could be caused to 'play back' certain past experiences, and the feelings associated with them. The patients 'replayed' these events and their feelings despite not normally being able to recall them using their conventional memories. Penfield's experiments went on over several years, and resulted in wide acceptance of the following conclusions:
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The human brain acts like a tape recorder, and whilst we may 'forget' experiences, the brain still has them recorded.
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Along with events the brain also records the associated feelings, and both feelings and events stay locked together. It is possible for a person to exist in two states simultaneously (because patients replaying hidden events and feelings could talk about them objectively at the same time). Hidden experiences when replayed are vivid, and affect how we feel at the time of replaying. There is a certain connection between mind and body, i.e. the link between the biological and the psychological, eg a psychological fear of spiders and a biological feeling of nausea.
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early transactional analysis theory and model
In the 1950's Eric Berne began to develop his theories of Transactional Analysis. He said that verbal communication, particularly face to face, is at the centre of human social relationships and psychoanalysis. His starting-point was that when two people encounter each other, one of them will speak to the other. This he called the Transaction Stimulus. The reaction from the other person he called the Transaction Response. The person sending the Stimulus is called the Agent. The person who responds is called the Respondent. Transactional Analysis became the method of examining the transaction wherein: 'I do something to you, and you do something back'. Berne also said that each person is made up of three alter ego states:
Parent Adult Child
These terms have different definitions than in normal language.
Parent
This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. We were conditioned by our real parents, teachers, older people, next door neighbours, aunts and uncles, Father Christmas and Jack Frost. Our Parent is made up of a huge number of hidden and overt recorded playbacks. Typically embodied by phrases and attitudes starting with 'how to', 'under no circumstances', 'always' and 'never forget', 'don't lie, cheat, steal', etc, etc. Our parent is formed by external events and influences upon us as we grow through early childhood. We can change it, but this is easier said than done.
Child
Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the 'Child'. This is the seeing, hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within each of us. When anger or despair dominates reason, the Child is in control. Like our Parent we can change it, but it is no easier.
Adult
Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves, based on received data. The adult in us begins to form at around ten months old, and is the means by which we keep our Parent and Child under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so through our adult. In other words:
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Parent is our 'Taught' concept of life Adult is our 'Thought' concept of life Child is our 'Felt' concept of life
When we communicate we are doing so from one of our own alter ego states, our Parent, Adult or Child. Our feelings at the time determine which one we use, and at any time something can trigger a shift from one state to another. When we respond, we are also doing this from one of the three states, and it is in the analysis of these stimuli and responses that the essence of Transactional Analysis lies. See the poem by Philip Larkin about how parental conditioning affects children and their behaviour into adulthood. And for an uplifting antidote see the
lovely Thich Nhat Hanh quote. These are all excellent illustrations of the effect and implications of parental conditioning in the context of Transactional Analysis. At the core of Berne's theory is the rule that effective transactions (ie successful communications) must be complementary. They must go back from the receiving ego state to the sending ego state. For example, if the stimulus is Parent to Child, the response must be Child to Parent, or the transaction is 'crossed', and there will be a problem between sender and receiver. If a crossed transaction occurs, there is an ineffective communication. Worse still either or both parties will be upset. In order for the relationship to continue smoothly the agent or the respondent must rescue the situation with a complementary transaction. In serious break-downs, there is no chance of immediately resuming a discussion about the original subject matter. Attention is focused on the relationship. The discussion can only continue constructively when and if the relationship is mended. Here are some simple clues as to the ego state sending the signal. You will be able to see these clearly in others, and in yourself:
Parent
Physical - angry or impatient body-language and expressions, fingerpointing, patronising gestures, Verbal - always, never, for once and for all, judgmental words, critical words, patronising language, posturing language. N.B. beware of cultural differences in body-language or emphases that appear 'Parental'.
Child
Physical - emotionally sad expressions, despair, temper tantrums, whining voice, rolling eyes, shrugging shoulders, teasing, delight, laughter, speaking behind hand, raising hand to speak, squirming and giggling.
Verbal - baby talk, I wish, I dunno, I want, I'm gonna, I don't care, oh no, not again, things never go right for me, worst day of my life, bigger, biggest, best, many superlatives, words to impress.
Adult
Physical - attentive, interested, straight-forward, tilted head, nonthreatening and non-threatened. Verbal - why, what, how, who, where and when, how much, in what way, comparative expressions, reasoned statements, true, false, probably, possibly, I think, I realise, I see, I believe, in my opinion.
And remember, when you are trying to identify ego states: words are only part of the story. To analyse a transaction you need to see and feel what is being said as well.
• •
Only 7% of meaning is in the words spoken. 38% of meaning is paralinguistic (the way that the words are said). 55% is in facial expression. (source: Albert Mehrabian - more info)
•
There is no general rule as to the effectiveness of any ego state in any given situation (some people get results by being dictatorial (Parent to Child), or by having temper tantrums, (Child to Parent), but for a balanced approach to life, Adult to Adult is generally recommended. Transactional Analysis is effectively a language within a language; a language of true meaning, feeling and motive. It can help you in every situation, firstly through being able to understand more clearly what is going on, and secondly, by virtue of this knowledge, we give ourselves choices of what ego states to adopt, which signals to send, and where to send them. This enables us to make the most of all our communications and therefore create, develop and maintain better relationships.
modern transactional analysis theory
Transactional Analysis is a theory which operates as each of the following:
• • •
a theory of personality a model of communication a study of repetitive patterns of behaviour
Transactional Analysis developed significantly beyond these Berne's early theories, by Berne himself until his death in 1970, and since then by his followers and many current writers and experts. Transactional Analysis has been explored and enhanced in many different ways by these people, including: Ian Stewart and Vann Joines (their book 'TA Today' is widely regarded as a definitive modern interpretation); John Dusay, Aaron and Jacqui Schiff, Robert and Mary Goulding, Pat Crossman, Taibi Kahler, Abe Wagner, Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund, Richard Erskine and Marityn Zalcman, Muriel James, Pam Levin, Anita Mountain and Julie Hay (specialists in organizational applications), Susannah Temple, Claude Steiner, Franklin Ernst, S Woollams and M Brown, Fanita English, P Clarkson, M M Holloway, Stephen Karpman and others. Significantly, the original three Parent Adult Child components were sub-divided to form a new seven element model, principally during the 1980's by Wagner, Joines and Mountain. This established Controlling and Nurturing aspects of the Parent mode, each with positive and negative aspects, and the Adapted and Free aspects of the Child mode, again each with positive an negative aspects, which essentially gives us the model to which most TA practitioners refer today:
parent
Parent is now commonly represented as a circle with four quadrants: Nurturing - Nurturing (positive) and Spoiling (negative). Controlling - Structuring (positive) and Critical (negative).
adult
Adult remains as a single entity, representing an 'accounting' function or mode, which can draw on the resources of both Parent and Child.
child
Child is now commonly represented as circle with four quadrants: Adapted - Co-operative (positive) and Compliant/Resistant (negative). Free - Spontaneous (positive) and Immature (negative).
Where previously Transactional Analysis suggested that effective communications were complementary (response echoing the path of the stimulus), and better still complementary adult to adult, the modern interpretation suggests that effective communications and relationships are based on complementary transactions to and from positive quadrants, and also, still, adult to adult. Stimulii and responses can come from any (or some) of these seven ego states, to any or some of the respondent's seven ego states.
transactional analysis
Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis - TA theory development and explanation
Please note: The technical content of this article has been authored/provided by different experts in Transactional Analysis, notably Anita Mountain and Chris Davidson of Mountain Associates. Authors/originators are indicated throughout the article. Where you use these materials please reference the authorship accordingly. See the copyright and attribution notice at the foot of this webpage.
transactional analysis - modern usage introduction
(Transactional Analysis early history) Transactional Analysis is a theory developed by Dr. Eric Berne in the 1950s. Originally trained in psychoanalysis, Berne wanted a theory which could be understood and available to everyone and began to develop what came to be called Transactional Analysis (TA). Transactional Analysis is a social psychology and a method to improve communication. The theory outlines how we have developed and treat ourselves, how we relate and communicate with others, and offers suggestions and interventions which will enable us to change and grow. Transactional Analysis is underpinned by the philosophy that:
• •
people can change we all have a right to be in the world and be accepted
Initially criticised by some as a simplistic model, Transactional Analysis is now gathering worldwide attention. It originally suffered much from the popularised writings in the 1960s. Also, summarised explanations, such as this, which can only touch on some of the concepts in Transactional Analysis, led their readers to believe that there was very little to it. Many did not appreciate the duration and complexity of the training. Today there is greater understanding of Transactional Analysis. More and more people are taking the four to five year part-time training courses to qualify, and increasingly universities are accrediting these courses for masters degrees. Those taking training include psychiatrists, organizational and management consultants, teachers, social workers, designers, engineers and the clergy. Today Transactional Analysis is used in psychotherapy, organisations, educational and religious settings. Books have been written for all ages, from children through to adults, by people all over the world. Transactional Analysis is truly an international theory relating to a diverse range of cultures.
Theoretical concepts within the Transactional Analysis world are constantly being challenged and developed making it a rich dynamic process. Berne died in July 1970 at the age of 60. However, Transactional Analysis has not stood still and continues to develop and change, paralleling the processes we encourage in ourselves and others. The key concepts in Transactional Analysis are outlined below in the form of introductory information.
transactional analysis - contracting
Transactional Analysis is a contractual approach. A contract is "an explicit bilateral commitment to a well-defined course of action" Berne E. (1966). Which means that all parties need to agree:
• • • • •
why they want to do something with whom what they are going to do by when any fees, payment or exchanges there will be
For example, we want the outside of our house painted, we need to find a person who will paint it and who will give us a quote for doing it. If we agree the quote, and we like him or her enough, we will no doubt employ them. We will agree a date and time, perhaps check they are insured, and choose the colour of the paint and off they go. Sometimes contracts will be multi-handed with all parties to the contract having their own expectations. If these expectations are all congruent then fine, if not then discussing everyone's expectations will lead to greater understanding and therefore to a clear contract. Contracts need to be outlined in positive words i.e. what is wanted, rather than what is not wanted. Our minds tend to focus on the negative and so this encourages failure. For example, how many times do we look round when someone says to us "Don't look now but......." ,
the same is true when we set up contracts which start "I don't want to do .............. anymore". We have contracts about employment, how much will we be paid and when, what holidays we are due, what deductions there will be etc. In order to ensure placements are effective then different, but similar, details are required. Naturally, these details will vary dependent on the setting in which we work. All parties need to state what are they are prepared to do. Are they able and willing to undertake what is being asked, is this appropriate? Does it fit within any statements of purpose and function? Is it legal? Do they have the competence to deliver this? Do they want to? What does each party want of the others? In summary contracts need to be: measurable, manageable and motivational. Measurable means that the goals need to be tangible. That each party involved in the contract will be able to say in advance how they will know when the goal has been achieved. The goal will be specific and behavioural and clearly defined. The contract will also need to be manageable and feasible for all those concerned. 'Contracting' in Transactional Analysis, and indeed many other aspects of TA, provide a helpful way to understand the Psychological Contract in employment and similar organizational relationships.
transactional analysis - ego states Transactional Analysis first order structural model
Berne devised the concept of ego states to help explain how we are made up, and how we relate to others. These are drawn as three stacked circles and they are one of the building blocks of Transactional Analysis. They categorise the ways we think, feel and behave and are called Parent, Adult, and Child. Each ego state is given a capital letter to denote the difference between actual parents, adults and children.
Parent ego state
This is a set of feelings, thinking and behaviour that we have copied from our parents and significant others. As we grow up we take in ideas, beliefs, feelings and behaviours from our parents and caretakers. If we live in an extended family then there are more people to learn and take in from. When we do this, it is called introjecting and it is just as if we take in the whole of the care giver. For example, we may notice that we are saying things just as our father, mother, grandmother may have done, even though, consciously, we don't want to. We do this as we have lived with this person so long that we automatically reproduce certain things that were said to us, or treat others as we might have been treated.
Adult ego state
The Adult ego state is about direct responses to the here and now. We deal with things that are going on today in ways that are not unhealthily influenced by our past. The Adult ego state is about being spontaneous and aware with the capacity for intimacy. When in our Adult we are able to see people as they are, rather than what we project onto them. We ask for information rather than stay scared and rather than make assumptions. Taking the best from the past and using it appropriately in the present is an integration of the positive aspects of both our Parent and Child ego states. So this can be called the Integrating Adult. Integrating means that we are constantly updating ourselves through our every day experiences and using this to inform us. In this structural model, the Integrating Adult ego state circle is placed in the middle to show how it needs to orchestrate between the Parent and the Child ego states. For example, the internal Parent ego state may beat up on the internal Child, saying "You are no good, look at what you did wrong again, you are useless". The Child may then respond with "I am no good, look how useless I am, I never get anything right". Many people hardly hear this kind of internal dialogue as it goes on so much they might just believe life is this way. An effective Integrating Adult ego state can intervene between the Parent and Child ego states. This might be done by stating that this kind of parenting is not helpful and asking if it is prepared to learn another way. Alternatively, the Integrating Adult ego state can just stop any negative dialogue and decide to develop another positive Parent ego state perhaps taken in from other people they have met over the years.
Child ego state
The Child ego state is a set of behaviours, thoughts and feelings which are replayed from our own childhood. Perhaps the boss calls us into his or her office, we may immediately get a churning in our stomach and wonder what we have done wrong. If this were explored we might remember the time the head teacher called us in to tell us off. Of course, not everything in the Child ego state is negative. We might go into someone's house and smell a lovely
smell and remember our grandmother's house when we were little, and all the same warm feelings we had at six year's of age may come flooding back. Both the Parent and Child ego states are constantly being updated. For example, we may meet someone who gives us the permission we needed as a child, and did not get, to be fun and joyous. We may well use that person in our imagination when we are stressed to counteract our old ways of thinking that we must work longer and longer hours to keep up with everything. We might ask ourselves "I wonder what X would say now". Then on hearing the new permissions to relax and take some time out, do just that and then return to the work renewed and ready for the challenge. Subsequently, rather than beating up on ourselves for what we did or did not do, what tends to happen is we automatically start to give ourselves new permissions and take care of ourselves. Alternatively, we might have had a traumatic experience yesterday which goes into the Child ego state as an archaic memory that hampers our growth. Positive experiences will also go into the Child ego state as archaic memories. The positive experiences can then be drawn on to remind us that positive things do happen. The process of analysing personality in terms of ego states is called structural analysis. It is important to remember that ego states do not have an existence of their own, they are concepts to enable understanding. Therefore it is important to say "I want some fun" rather than "My Child wants some fun". We may be in our Child ego state when we say this, but saying "I" reminds us to take responsibility for our actions.
contamination of the Adult ego state
The word contamination for many conjures up the idea of disease. For instance, we tend to use the word for when bacteria has gone into milk. Well, this is similar to the case with the contaminated Integrating Adult ego state. This occurs when we talk as if something is a fact or a reality when really this is a belief. Racism is an example of this. The Integrating Adult ego state is contaminated in this case by the Parent
ego state. If we are white we might have lived with parents or significant others who said such things as "Black people take our jobs". Growing up it is likely, that having no real experience to go by, we believed this. We might also have been told that Black people are aggressive. In our Child ego state may well lodge some scared feelings about Black people and in this ego state we may start to believe "All Black people are scary". This would mean that there would be a double contamination of the Integrating Adult ego state. However, we would think that such statements were facts rather than beliefs and when this happens we say that this is Integrating Adult ego syntonic. That is, they fit with the Integrating Adult ego state and only those people outside of our situation and sometimes outside of our peer group or culture can see that, objectively, such beliefs are just that and therefore they can be changed.
Parent contamination
Child contamination
double contamination (Parent and Child)
transactional analysis - descriptive model (revised 2011)
Below is a modern interpretation of the Transactional Analysis descriptive model - called the Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model. The OK Modes Model is a relatively recent (2010/11) development of the concept, and is a more sophisticated and usable representation of the traditional PAC Transactional Analysis model.
The concept and diagram are particularly helpful tools for understanding what happens in human communications - essentially one-to-one - and what makes these communications constructive or destructive; effective or ineffective. The Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model has been developed by leading TA practitioners and thinkers Mountain Associates (of Desford, UK) and I am grateful for the help of Mountain Associates' Anita Mountain and Chris Davidson in featuring their model in this article.
Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model
The OK Modes Model of Transactional Analysis shows how we communicate and/or behave with others. The model consists of ten 'Modes' with a central 'Mindful Process'. The word Mode is used to differentiate the categories of behaviour from the structural ego state model mentioned previously. In this context the term Mode dates back to 1975, notably in an article in the Transactional Analysis Journal by Nancy Porter (now Nancy Porter-Steele). The Mountain Associates OK Modes Model provides a visual way of representing how we behave and interact with other people. The diagram below illustrates the concept. The OK Modes Model is easier to understand when you see the OK Corral model after the OK Modes Model explanation below. Miniature 'OK Corral' grids are incorporated into the diagram to emphasise that:
• •
ineffective Modes reflect and invite a 'Not OK' response, and the four effective Modes reflect and invite an 'I'm OK, You're OK' response.
Of the ten different communication behaviour Modes:
•
four are effective - (prompted by the process of Mindfulness, i.e., taking account of current reality and acting accordingly) six are ineffective.
•
Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model central element
The central circle element, upon which the full model is built, is in itself a representation of effective communication. When we are in the one of the four effective Modes shown around the circle we are responsive to the present situation. Generally when something is said from an effective Mode the response from the other person is also likely to be from an effective Mode. Equally, where a communication comes from an ineffective Mode, the invitation is for the other person to respond from one of the ineffective Modes. Note that of course in reality there are not simply four effective ways of behaving - these descriptors are intended as a broad impression or guide rather than definitive. Also some behaviours fall between (on a 'continuum') two or more of the Modes.
The central grid represents the OK Corral model, in which here the communication is 'I'm OK, You are OK' - i.e., put simply, from your 'okay' frame of mind to to the other person's 'okay' frame of mind. This central element of the OK Modes Model shows the four effective Modes. The centre 'Mindful' grid indicates that
communication is 'OK to OK' in terms of the OK Corral, i.e., the person communicating is doing so from a position of feeling OK, and this communication is to the 'OK' position or feeling of the other person.
©TA OK Modes Model, Mountain Associates, 2010.
Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model - full diagram
Here below is the Transactional Analysis OK Modes Model diagram fully presented, containing the central element with its four effective Modes, and the six ineffective Modes represented by 'Not-OK' miniature OK Corral grids (in red), relative to their effective counterparts (in green) within the central circle.
The four effective Modes are called: 1. 2. 3. 4. Structuring Supporting Co-Creating Playful Modes shown in relative/correlating positions Effective Modes Structuring Ineffective Modes Criticizing Inconsistent
The six ineffective Modes are called:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Inconsistent Interfering Reckless Oppositional Over-adapted Criticizing
Supporting Co-creating Playful
Interfering Over-adapted Oppositional Reckless
Modes are shown in green (effective) and red (ineffective) to help explain and use the model as a tool. Particularly this enables us to imagine the flow of a communication exchange in a conversation, and so to understand what happened. Effective communication comes from the green Modes, (like traffic lights, green equates to goahead). Ineffective communication comes from the red Modes (like traffic lights, red means stop). When we come
©TA OK Modes Model, Mountain Associates, 2010.
from (communicate from) the green Modes we invite a positive response, and when we communicate from a red Mode, we invite a response from one of the red Modes.
The model is linked to the OK Corral, since another way of describing this model is is that an 'OK to OK' (I'm OK, you are OK) communication invites an OK to OK response, whereas a Not-OK communication invites a Not-OK response. The adjectives used in the diagram here are not definitive. For example the term 'Interfering' could instead be described as 'fussing'. In some cases the Modes represent a 'continuum' - for instance a communication from a manager could be somewhere between Structuring and Supporting.
effective and ineffective modes
Definition of 'Effective' By effective, we mean that:
•
a communication is likely to achieve the intended response or result. Information is received, necessary action(s) follow and good relationships are maintained or developed communication will (if necessary and desired) be able to continue - either now or later
•
•
each party to the communication, whether they agree with each other (or not) or like each other (or not) maintains an I'm OK, You're OK position.
Definition of 'Ineffective' By ineffective, we mean that any/all of the following apply:
•
the intended communication is not understood the person receiving the communication is themselves invited into a "not OK" position or invited to make someone else "not OK" communication may be broken in some way and so does not continue, or it escalates to even more discomfort or misunderstanding for those involved. In extreme cases the rift may be permanent what needs to be done is less likely to be done - or may be done incorrectly.
•
•
effective modes
To help you understand the TA OK Modes Model and to avoid having to keep scrolling back up the page, the diagram is repeated alongside the explanation below. It's the same diagram. Note that the ineffective Modes are quite logical and easy to understand when seen as
negative or unhelpful extremes of the correlating effective Modes. For example, being overly Supportive quite naturally equates to Interfering; Being overly Playful quite naturally equates to Recklessness. Mindful Process - Not a Mode, this is a requirement or condition enabling effective Modes to be accessed/used. When we are operating mindfully, we communicate 'OK to OK' messages. We operate appropriately in the here-andnow and have access to the positive aspects of the care and structure we have received in the past and the experiences we had in childhood. As this Mindful
process is hereand-now, we are able to choose which of the effective Modes of behaviour to draw from, dependent on the situation. When we are stable in this Mindful process we respond appropriately rather than 'flipping' or switching (generally unconsciously) into an Ineffective Mode. Each of the effective Modes, dependent on the Mindful Process, communicate "I'm OK and You're OK". Structuring Mode - This is the boundary setting Mode, offering constructive criticism. In this Mode we are caring whilst firm. Supporting Mode - When in this Mode we
are affirming and considerate. Co-creating Mode - From this Mode we develop ways to help us live and work with others. Playful Mode This is the creative, fun loving, curious and energetic Mode. We can confront people playfully as a way of dealing with a difficult situation. This can diffuse a potential problem and get the message across. When working with others we can choose where we come from (communicate from). Effective communication happens when we are in a Mindful Process. If someone else invites us, because of how he/she
communicates to us, to go into an ineffective (red) Mode, importantly, we don't have to go there,we can instead 'cross the transaction' and come from (respond from) one of the green Modes.
ineffective modes
The ineffective (red) Modes all emanate from outdated experiences, which are not relevant or appropriate in the present. Criticizing Mode communicates a "You're not OK" message. When in this Mode you will believe that others cannot do things as well as you can, or perhaps only certain chosen people can. If you lead from this position you are unlikely to develop a loyal supportive
team or culture. Inconsistent Mode - As a leader we might be inconsistent in our style changing our behaviour in unpredictable and apparently random ways. This is not helpful for followers (or leaders). Interfering Mode communicates a "You're not OK" message. When in this Mode the person will often do things for others which they are capable of doing for themselves. People who find it difficult to delegate might be in this Mode. Over-adapted Mode - This expresses an "I'm not OK" or "I'm not OK and You're Not OK" message. When in this Mode we overadapt to others and tend to experience such emotions as
depression or unrealistic fear and anxiety. When in this Mode we are unlikely to make good team members and will be highly stressed if we have to manage others. Oppositional Mode - Even when opposing others, we are not actually free to think for ourselves as we are reacting to them in the belief that we need to 'resist' them. It is important to be clear that this is not simply about being in disagreement, but a style of going against whatever others put forward. Reckless Mode - In this Mode we run wild with no boundaries. Here we express a "You're not OK" message. At work we tend not to take responsibility
for our actions and are unlikely to progress as we need a great deal of management in order to focus our energy and keep boundaries.
The OK Modes Model of Transactional Analysis was developed by Mountain Associates or Desford, UK, and first published in this format in 2011.
transactional analysis - diagnosis
It is helpful to be able to assess or diagnose which ego state in the structural model, or which mode in the descriptive model, somebody is in. In this way we can respond appropriately as well as ensure which mode we are addressing. However, when we work with other staff or are relating with young people, we are responding on the behavioural level. It is not always possible, or appropriate, to be undertaking more in-depth types of diagnosis. I have outlined them here though so that an understanding of the complexity of the process can be achieved.
behavioural diagnosis
Words, tone, tempo of speech, expressions, postures, gestures, breathing, and muscle tone provide clues for diagnosing ego states. Parent mode words typically contain value judgments, Adult words are clear and definable, and Free Child mode words are direct and spontaneous. For example, a person in Adapted Child mode may cry silently, whereas when in Free Child mode we are likely to make a lots of noise. "You" or "one" usually come from Parent. This can switch even
mid-sentence. If we are leaning forward it is likely we are in the posture of the Parent mode, whereas if we are in Adult mode we tend to be erect. These are indicators not guarantees. Assessment needs to be supported by other methods of diagnosis.
social diagnosis
Observation of the kinds of transactions a person is having with others. For example, if eliciting a response from someone's caretaking Parent it is likely that the stimulus is coming from Child, though not necessarily the Adapted Child mode. Our own responses to someone will often be a way of assessing which ego state or mode they are coming from.
historical diagnosis
The person's past also provides important information. If, as a child we had feelings similar to those we are experiencing now, it is likely we are in Child ego state. If our mother or father behaved or talked in the same way that we are behaving or talking now then we are probably in a Parent ego state.
phenomenological diagnosis
This occurs when we re-experience the past instead of just remembering it. This means that diagnosis is undertaken by selfexamination. This is sometimes accurate and sometimes very inaccurate as the Child ego state may be afraid to allow our Adult to know what is going on.
transactional analysis - strokes
In Transactional Analysis we call compliments and general ways of giving recognition strokes. This name came from research which indicated that babies require touching in order to survive and grow. It apparently makes no difference whether the touching induces pain or pleasure - it is still important. On the whole we prefer to receive negative strokes than no strokes at all, at least that way we know we exist and others know we exist. We all have particular strokes we will accept and those we will reject. For example, if we have always been told we are clever, and our brother is creative, then we are likely to accept strokes for being clever, but not for being creative. From this frame of reference only one person in the family can be the creative one and so on. Stroking can be physical, verbal or nonverbal. It is likely that the great variety of stroke needs and styles present in the world results from differences in wealth, cultural mores, and methods of parenting.
the stroke economy
Claude Steiner suggests that, as children, we are all indoctrinated by our parents with five restrictive rules about stroking.
• • • • •
don't give strokes when we have them to give don't ask for strokes when we need them don't accept strokes if we want them don't reject strokes when we don't want them don't give ourselves strokes
Together these five rules are the basis of what Steiner calls the stroke economy. By training children to obey these rules, says Steiner, parents ensure that ".. a situation in which strokes could be available in a limitless supply is transformed into a situation in which the supply is low and the price parents can extract for them is high." We therefore need to change the restrictive rules to unrestrictive ones:
•
give strokes when we have them to give
• • • •
ask for strokes when we want them accept strokes if we want them reject manipulative strokes give ourselves positive strokes
Strokes can be positive or negative:
• •
A) "I like you" B) "I don't like you"
Strokes can be unconditional or conditional. An unconditional stroke is a stroke for being whereas a conditional stroke is a stroke for doing. For instance: "I like you" - unconditional "I like you when you smile" - conditional As negative strokes these might be: "I don't like you" - negative unconditional "I don't like you when you're sarcastic" - negative conditional People often have a stroke filter. They only let in strokes which they think they are allowed to let in. For instance they allow themselves to receive strokes for being clever and keep out strokes for being good looking. One way to think about this to consider being out in the rain. The rain is the strokes that are available to us, both positive and negative. There is a hole in the umbrella and some of the strokes go through and we save them in a bucket to enjoy in lean times. Conversely we might use them negatively to reinforce the negative strokes we give to ourselves. Of course, some just bounce off the umbrella and we might not accept the good strokes that are coming our way. Some might come in but fall straight onto the floor.
transactional analysis - life positions
Life positions are basic beliefs about self and others, which are used to justify decisions and behaviour.
When we are conceived we are hopefully at peace, waiting to emerge into the world once we have grown sufficiently to be able to survive in the outside of the womb. If nothing untoward happens we will emerge contented and relaxed. In this case we are likely to perceive the world from the perspective of I am OK and You are OK. However, perhaps our mother had some traumatic experiences, or the birth was difficult or even life threatening. This experience is likely to have an effect on the way we experience the world, even at the somatic level. In which case we might emerge sensing that life is scary and might, for example, go into "I am not OK and You are not OK either". Let's take it that the pregnancy went fine, and the birth was easy enough. What then? Well life experiences might reinforce our initial somatic level life position, or contradict it. If we were treated punitively, talked down to, and not held, we may begin to believe "I am not OK and You are OK". This might be the only sense we can make of our experiences. Let's take another situation. Perhaps we were picked on and bullied as a child. We learnt that the way to get by was to bully others and that way we felt stronger and in control. Our behaviour then comes into the I am OK and You are not OK quadrant. Of course this may cover up our belief that we are really not OK, but nobody sees that. They just see our behaviour, and in fact we may have forgotten all about our negative feelings about ourselves as we have tried so hard to deny the pain of believing we are not OK. These life positions are perceptions of the world. The reality is I just am and you just are, therefore how I view myself and others are just that "views" not fact. However, we tend to act as if they are a fact. Just like when somebody says "I can't do this, I'm useless". Rather than "I don't know how to do this. Will you show me?" The latter is staying with the fact that they do not yet know how to do it, whilst the former links being useless with not being able to do something. There are a number of ways of diagramming the life positions. Franklin Ernst drew the life positions in quadrants, which he called the OK Corral (1971). We have put these into red and green to show the effective and ineffective quadrants for communication and healthy relationships. By shading in the quadrants according to the amount of time we think we spend in each we can get an idea of the amount of time we spend in
each. Ernst used the term 'Corralogram' for this method of selfassessment using the OK Corral matrix.
the ok corral (franklin ernst, 1971)
Berne talked about the life positions as existential positions, one of which we are more likely to go to under stress. This is significantly different to the concept Ernst uses, i.e. that we move around them all during the day. Whilst there is some truth in this we could agree with Berne that there will be one major position we go into under stress, with perhaps another position underneath this one. These positions can change as we develop and grow. The difference between Berne and Ernst is important.
Chris Davidson (1999) writes about the three dimensional model of Okayness. All of the previous diagrams talk as if there were only one other person in the equation, when in reality there are often more. For example, the behaviour of young people in gangs may say that they believe they are okay and perhaps other gangs in their neighbourhood are okay, but an individual or gang from another neighbourhood are not okay. We often do this at work as well. We find other people who we like and then we gossip and put other people down. We are therefore saying that we believe we are okay but those others are awful (underneath this there may be a belief that we are not okay either but we feel better by putting someone else down). In this way the two dimensional model of okayness i.e. that there are only two people involved, becomes three dimensional model where there can be three or more involved. There is also the way in which we view life itself. If we consider that there is something wrong with us, and that others are not to be trusted and are not OK either, then the world would be a scary place and we are likely to experience life as tough and believe we will only be all right if we keep alert and on the look out for danger and difficulties.
blame model
The Transactional Analysis 'Okay Corral' can be linked to 'blame', for which Jim Davis TSTA developed this simple and helpful model. Commonly when emotions are triggered people adopt one of three attitudes relating to blame, which each correlate to a position on the Okay Corral:
• • •
I'm to blame (You are okay and I'm not okay - 'helpless') You are to blame (I'm okay and you are not okay - 'angry') We are both to blame (I'm not okay and you are not okay 'hopeless')
None of these is a healthy position.
Instead the healthy position is, and the mindset should be: "It's noone's fault, blame isn't the issue - what matters is how we go forward and sort things out." (I'm okay and you are okay - 'happy') (With acknowledgements to Jim Davis TSTA)
transactional analysis - the script
The script is a life plan, made when we are growing up. It is like having the script of a play in front of us - we read the lines and decide what will happen in each act and how the play will end. The script is developed from our early decisions based upon our life experience. We may not realise that we have set ourselves a plan but we can often find this out if we ask ourselves what our favorite childhood story was, who was our favorite character in the story and who do we identify with. Then consider the beginning, middle and end of the story. How is this story reflected in our life today? Another way of getting to what script is may be to think about what we believe will happen when we are in old age. Do we believe we will be alive at 80 or 90 years old, be healthy, happy, and contented? What do we think will be on the headstone for our grave? What would we like to be on it?
transactional analysis - driver behaviour or working styles
These are ways in which we defend against the injunctions. These are very helpful to us and when we understand them we can work to their strengths through choice, rather than because subconsciously we believe we have to do things this way to be okay. The names of five working styles have been developed, these are:
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be perfect be strong try hard
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please others hurry up
The importance of recognising these in ourselves and others is that we can then work to the best of them rather than be driven by them. The working style Be Perfect means that we will be really good at doing accurate detailed reports, we will be neat in our appearance and our homes will be clean and tidy. If we have this style and are under stress it is likely that we would beat up on ourselves for not being good enough, for making a mistake, for something being out of place. Of course, we created the rule about what perfection is, and then we don't meet up to it we have a go at ourselves. This may also mean that we expect others to be perfect too which can be hard on the colleagues we work with. If we have a Be Strong working style we will be great in a crisis. We can take control of situations and people will often feel safe around us. The difficulty is we may come across as aloof as we don't express feelings very often. For us there is a tendency to say "it is" rather than "I am". The former phrase distances us from our feelings, enabling us to safe. We may stand apart from playful activities fearing we may look stupid. Instead of saying this however, it is likely that we condemn the activity as stupid and put down the person who suggested it. If we have the Try Hard style we are great pioneers. We love new projects and new things to do. We probably have a great wealth of information as we like to gather different ideas together. We are best working under pressure. When stressed we may start too many things. We are more likely to start things but not finish them so celebrating achievements may not happen very often. We get sidetracked by starting to experiment with different ideas or ways to do things. We are likely to use phrases such as: "I'll try and do what we agreed" or "What I am trying to tell you is". If we have the Please Others style we will be a great team member. We like to please people without even asking them how we can do this as we prefer to guess. We can see both sides of an argument and attempt to calm things down. We will be keen to do things for others, often to the point of Rescuing them. Decision making is not our strong point and we may frustrate people by not expressing our own opinion. We prefer
other people to determine priorities, not us. We worry about changing our behaviour in case others won't like us. Those of us with the Hurry Up working style will get a great deal done in a short amount of time. If reports are wanted in on time we are the person to do them. However, we tend to overload our time table and take on too much. This may mean that important aspects are overlooked. We are likely to be impatient with others and often finish their sentences for them. We make only superficial changes as we are so quick to get on with things and not take an in-depth perspective. We might select priorities so quickly that a significant area is overlooked. The way we structure our time is also influenced by our script.
transactional analysis - time structuring
The way in which we structure time is likely to reflect the different hungers. We all structure time in a variety of ways:
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Withdrawal Rituals Pastiming Activities Games Intimacy
Obtaining balance means ensuring that we have sufficient time for play and intimacy and if this does not occur then it would be beneficial to explore what we might be avoiding.
transactional analysis - games
I am sure that every one of us must have been in the situation where we have said, "Why does this always keep happening to me" or "I always keep meeting people who hurt me and then go off and leave me". Sometimes it may be that we like to help people and then it goes
wrong as the person we were trying to help says that we didn't do it well enough and that we got it wrong. We might think "Well, I was only trying to help" and feel got at. When similar situations keep happening over and over again then the term Transactional Analysis uses for this is a game. A game is a familiar pattern of behaviour with a predictable outcome. Games are played outside Adult awareness and they are our best attempt to get our needs met - although of course we don't. Games are learned patterns of behaviour, and most people play a small number of favourite games with a range of different people and in varying intensities. First Degree games are played in social circles generally lead to mild upsets not major traumas. Second Degree games occur when the stakes may be higher. This usually occurs in more intimate circles, and ends up with an even greater negative payoff. Third Degree games involve tissue damage and may end up in the jail, hospital or morgue. Chris Davidson (2002) has argued that world politics can involve fourth degree games - where the outcomes involve whole communities, countries or even the world. Games vary in the length of time that passes while they are being played. Some can take seconds or minutes while others take weeks months or even years. People play games for these reasons:
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to structure time to acquire strokes to maintain the substitute feeling and the system of thinking, beliefs and actions that go with it to confirm parental injunctions and further the life script to maintain the person's life position by "proving" that self/others are not OK to provide a high level of stroke exchange while blocking intimacy and maintaining distance
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to make people predictable.
ways to deal with games
There are various ways to stop a game, including the use of different options than the one automatically used. We can:
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cross the transaction by responding from a different ego state than the one the stimulus is designed to hook. pick up the ulterior rather than the social message e.g. when a person says "I can't do this, I'm useless". Rather than saying, "Let me do this for you," instead say, "It sounds like you have a problem. What do you want me to do about it?" (said from the Adult ego state) the opening message to the game always entails a discount. There are further discounts at each stage of the game. By detecting discounts we can identify game invitations and defuse them with options. (A discount is when we minimise, maximise or ignore some aspect of a problem which would assist us in resolving it. Such as saying in a whiny voice "This is too difficult for me to do", so we automatically help them). replace the game strokes. Loss of strokes to the Child ego state means a threat to survival. We get a great many strokes from games, even if they are negative. However, if we don't obtain sufficient positive strokes, or give ourselves positive strokes, we will go for quantity rather than quality of strokes and play games to get them. This loss of strokes is also a loss of excitement that the game has generated.
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Another way to think about this is to consider the game role we or the other person is likely to take. One way to discover this is to ask the following questions: 1. What keeps happening over and over again 2. How does it start? 3. What happens next? 4. And then what happens?
5. How does it end? 6. How do feel after it ends? (John James, 1973) We can then consider the reason we might have taken up a particular role, where we might switch to, and then consider how to do things differently. We need to consider what our own responsibility is in this if the situation is too violent for us to get involved what options to we have? We could call for help, get others to come with us to intervene and so on. We need to choose the appropriate assistance and take the action required.
transactional analysis further information and training
Transactional Analysis is a fascinating, useful and effective model for managing, developing and helping people in business and in life generally. Transactional Analysis is also a wonderful model for increasing self-awareness and advancing self-development. For more information about Transactional Analysis training, and its use for personal and organizational development or therapeutic applications, I can confidently recommend Mountain Associates of Desford, Leicestershire, England, telephone +44 (0)1455 824475 or email: TA at mountainassociates dot co dot uk. See the Mountain Associates website. Mountain Associates have particular expertise and experience in organizational applications of Transactional Analysis. Refer also to the Johari Window model for personal and inter-group communications and development.
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