Description
Dear All, Please find attached ppt on Perception for your understanding.
Perception
Memories
Our memories are influenced by what we eat, how we feel, how much we sleep, and whether or not we exercise. We use info in the memory to interpret the world around us, and memory influences our performances on a variety of tasks. As humans we are constantly strive to make sense of our surroundings. The resulting knowledge influences our behaviour and helps us navigate our way through life. Study: employees who perceived that their orgn cared about them, reciprocated with reduced absenteeism, increased performance, innovation and positive work attitudes.
Definitions
Perception: Process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceives may be different from perceived reality. However, the world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important. Factors influencing perception: The perceiver, The target The situation
The Perceiver
When an individual looks at the target and attempts to interpret what he/she observes, that interpretation is heavily influenced by the person characteristics of the individual E.g. you purchase a new car and suddenly notice many of similar models around If hungry, you notice food outlets around you. Plastic surgeon notices an imperfect nose!! Your expectations can distort your perceptions. Expect a nurse to be kind and caring and you think one is so even when she isn’t.
The target
Characteristics of the target being observed can affect what is perceived Loud people more likely to be noticed People dressing different from the crowd are noticed. Motion, sounds, size, and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Also the relationship of the target to the background: Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived together rather than separately. E.g. two aircraft crashes and we conclude flying is risky. Persons, objects, or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together.
The situation
The context in which we see objects or events is important. Elements in the surrounding environment influence our perception. E.g. a lady dressed in an evening gown and makeup in a management class. The time at which an object or event is seen can influence your attention.
Concept
• Perception is more that reality:
Our personal version of reality comes both from the raw material we pick up from our senses and from the beliefs, desires, memories and expectations that we use to interpret this material Two individuals will experience the same situation differently
• The perception may be the same but the interpretation could be different • We could interpret another’s behaviours acc to the notion we hold about that person • Prejudices pervade our every perception – sometimes it is individual, often shared by an entire culture
Concept
• Everyone’s perceptions are private; but to communicate and share understanding, we must have some idea of the world the other people construct in their mind • Perception is altered by mood: - Depressed people, e.g. see life as grey than people in a bouyant state of mind, because the colour areas of their brain are less active • Mirror neurons: gives us build-in empathy – and automatic, intuitive sense of what the other person is experiencing • Contact through conversation: Most everyday differences in perception can be resolved through discussion & dialogue.
Concept
• Schizophrenics: extreme psychotic perceptions; come from the real world actually made of hallucinations - distorted views of Hitler, Idi Amin, Charles Mason, etc. • Need to hold one’s own sense of reality – and constantly test beliefs against the widest range of evidence, rather than relying on the opinions of selected other s to confirm or deny them • Only a fraction of of the info stimuli; received by our sensory organs enter our consciousness - Brain has filters that prevent us from being overwhelmed by the constant stream of new stimuli
Concept
• Everyone has the same set of sensory organs; but each individual places emphasis on certain senses, or on a single sense at the expense of others • By understanding what you are keen at, you could make the best of it • Every sense can be trained and developed: Wine connoisseurs ? smell; Chefs ? taste, smell, sight • Nature has placed limits on our sensory organs: - we see limited range of colour spectrum; bees see ultraviolet light - When hungry we only notice places to eat • Meditation: best method to direct our thoughts; training
Concept
• Most managers admit that, in practice, they rely quite heavily on hunches to make decisions and choose direction. • The unconscious plays a far greater role in thinking, learning and decision making than has been anticipated. • Intuitive ways of knowing are particularly critical when handling messy, ill defined, ambiguous and uncertain situations. • The unconscious is quicker off the mark than the conscious. • Thus, it is the unconscious rather than the conscious that does most of our thinking, learning, decision making and problem solving.
Concept
• Most people assume that our perception offer accurate reflection of what is going around us. Not true: - Cells capture differently colour, movement, shape and size of object. - The picture constructed is very much affected by what we expect to see – we make the strange familiar. - The brain does not capture an image as in a photograph: - It reconstructs every time we recall - We recreate images of past events as new on each occasion. - Easier to recall memories when we are in a similar or same state.
Concept
• In real life, managers also make decisions, based on intuitive expertise, that they may be unable to justify. - Interestingly people’s confidence in their ability to do a task tends to corelate with their ability to explain what they are doing. • Our memory for how to do things is often tied to the situation in which it was learnt. - The implication is that knowledge is situated and does not transfer easily.
Unconscious decision making
• Business schools teach students rational approaches to decision making. • Real life studies suggest that experienced professionals base numerous decisions on haunch and intuition. • Experiment: those who thought through their decisions were more likely to go back on the decisions that those who had followed their gut reaction. • Gut decisions were closer the decisions made by experts than those which the novices had to justify. • In certain circumstances, conscious awareness can interfere with unconscious learning.
Intuitive management
• Sr. mgrs rarely formulate goals, assess their worth, evaluate the probabilities of alternate ways of reaching them, and choose the path that maximize expected returns. - Rather, managers frequently by pass rigour, analytical planning altogether, particularly when they face difficult, novel, and extremely entangled problems. - When they do use analysis for a prolonged time, it is always in conjunction with intuition. - Senior managers devote most of their attention to the tactics of implementation rather than the formulation of strategy.
Intuitive management
• Mintsberg: there is a fundamental difference between formal planning and informal managing: - Planning is associated with an analytical, ordered and sequential approach, whereas, - Management normally involves responding to complex, ambiguous and uncertain situations, which may need a different sort of thinking process: one that recognizes the part played by intuition and the superior info processing capacity of the unconscious mind. • Managers studied relied more on “soft” data like feelings and impressions to make strategic judgement and rarely mentioned using explicit analysis.
Intuition
• Most managers working simultaneously on various issues and these issues are complex, messy and ill-structured, and information is incomplete. The time taken to make the decision is limited, and outcome of the decision is uncertain. • It is precisely in these conditions that intuitive thinking comes into its own. - Also the inevitable time pressures most mgrs have to work under and the need to act before a complete picture is available. • Intuition involves apprehending rather than analysing what is going on.
Intuition
Isenberg: Managers use intuition in at least 5 ways: To sense when a problem exists To perform well learned patterns rapidly To synthesize isolated data To use ‘gut feelings’ to check results arrived at rationally To by-pass in-depth analysis. Intuitions are not fallible: Can be difficult to differentiate between valid intuition and haunches, wishful thinking, fantasy or plain prejudice. - Sound intuitive judgement more likely when people’s ego’s are not bound up in the decision outcomes and they are truly open to all possibilities. • • -
Judgment bias
• Availability bias: refers to the tendency to assume events are more frequent if they come to mind easily. (e.g. accident in a plane crash – overestimate likelihood of accidents being more than at home. • Confirmation bias: We tend to stick to our initial judgments noticing confirming evidence and dismissing info that does not fit our beliefs. • We tend to be overconfident about our own opinions, believing ourselves to be correct much more often than justified – may lead to taking dangerous decisions (smoking & lung cancer). • Hindsight: believing that we were more certain about judgments initially than we in fact were – leads to further over confidence in our judgments.
Mind sets
• There is much more info around us than our limited senses can hope to attend to. - We have to choose what we have to attend to, and find ways of construing the world that create the image of reality that we see. - We select those things that interest us, that fit with our world view. - We form a map of reality which ‘paints out what is to be noticed and valued among a plethora of events each day’. - Hence, our understanding of the world is partial.
Mind sets
• The mind is set to find and create meanings everywhere and anywhere. - We invariably impose order in chaos, finding images in clouds and ink bolts. - We also tend to simplify complexity and make the inconsistent coherent. - Danger: we see what we expect, not what is there (interviews). - The events that does not fit our understanding of what is or what should be, be ignored, overlooked assumed to be wrong. - The perceiver may unconsciously deny or downplay the event, for info that contradicts cherished beliefs can be disturbing
Mind sets
• In addition to inhibiting problem solving strategies, a rigidity in thinking, lack of perception and poor self-image can also block a creative approach. • Self-fulfilling prophesy: Our values and mindsets about orgns and about the world around us guide many of our decisions in these areas, just as they guide the judgments we make about our own ability. - If we think we cannot do something we are less likely to try, or we notice failures when we do try and probably give up earlier, our expectations confirmed. • The sheer info overload, part of life means we all rely on mind sets or shortcuts to make sense of situations. - The belief can become so set that we limit our perf in accord with our assumptions.
Theories
Attribution: We judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Selective Perception
eople selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience & attitudes. Halo / Horn effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. Contrast effects: Evaluation of a person affected by comparison with another recently met. Projection: Attributing one’s own characteristic to other Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.
Control or Learn
• Life is a continual process of growth and change. It is possible to prepare ourselves to be constantly surprised by life, so that we can deal with things as they come up instead of waiting to be knocked down by a crisis. • We can learn to perceive the subtler, early warning signs of impending crisis if we can let go of the idea that we live in an orderly and predictable universe. • There is a way to maintain an overall sense of balance without resorting to outdated notions of order and stability. • There are two sets of basic assumptions about life. Each sets of assumptions leads to a different way of viewing and dealing with life’s surprises.
Security / Control mindset
The world is basically stable, predictable and in large part controllable. I get my sense of well-being by knowing the rules, by being around others who are similar to me, and from having things turn out more or less as predicted. Attitude assumes things will be as they always have been. It is uncomfortable with uncertainty, change, ambiguity, lack of structure and with people who see things differently. You are focused on making a living.
Learning / Discovery mindset
The world is a complex system of interacting forces, many of which I cannot directly perceive with my five senses. I enjoy experimenting to discover what works and what doesn’t I do not presume that what worked the last time will work this time I get my sense of well-being from staying awake to myself and my surroundings and from the constant learning process that results from paying attention and from moving into unknown territory. In this mind-set, you are focuses on making yourself.
Security/Control vs Learning/Discovery
Resists change; sees change as disruptive Holds on; Holds on to what was or what should be Focuses on externals; values appearance over essence Communicates for control; attempts to get others to agree Thinks in “either/or” terms; uses polarized, black and white thinking Fosters poor teamwork; cannot share responsibility or power Participates with change; sees change as natural Lets go; lets go into what is Focuses on essentials; values inner essence over appearance Communicates to build trust; wishes to know and be known Thinks “both/and”; looks for mutuality and complimentarity Fosters team learning; shares responsibility and power.
Specific applications in organizations
Employment interviews: - input into who is hired and who is not - Agreement among interviewers normally poor. - Early impressions and get entrenched Performance expectations: - People will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when they are faulty - Self-fulfilling prophesy – people’s expectations determine their behaviour Performance evaluation: Employee effort / Employee loyalty:
Attribution
Concept
• Human beings innately curious. Want to know why people behave the way they do. • We also seek to understand and explain our own behaviour. • Attribution theory explains how we pinpoint the causes of our own behaviour and that of other people. • We can attribute our behaviour to an internal source of responsibility (something within the individual’s control) or an external source (something outside the individual’s control). • E.g. topping the exam: You could credit to you – you studied hard, or to the exam being easy, or you had good luck.
Concept
• Attribution patterns differ among individuals: - Achievement oriented individuals attribute success to their ability and failures to lack of effort. - Failure oriented individuals attribute their failures to lack of ability, and may develop feelings of incompetence as a result. • The way you explain your own behaviour affects your motivation: - If you believe careful preparation led to successful presentations, will take credit; have a sense of self-efficacy. - If belief is that you are lucky, will not repeat performance as you believe you have less influence on the outcome.
Concepts
• During interviews: Candidates want to give interviewers reasons to hire them. • Research: Successful and unsuccessful candidates make different attributions for negative outcomes: - Successful candidates are willing to make internal attributions for negative events. - Unsuccessful candidates blame negative outcomes on things beyond their control – interviewers get the impression that they did not learn from the event and will blame others when something goes wrong.
Attributional biases
• The attribution process may be affected by two very common errors: • Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to make attributions to internal causes when focusing on someone else’s behaviour. • Self-serving biases: The tendency to attribute one’s own successes to internal causes and one’s failure to external causes – when we succeed we take credit and when we fail we blame the situation or other people. • In evaluating perf, mgrs must determine the cause of behaviour and perceived source of resp. - Employee’s perf attributed to internal source gets better raise than due to external sources.
Concepts
• Humans innately curious. Want to know why people behave as they do. Also seek to understand and explain our own behaviour. • Attribution theory explains how we pinpoint the causes of our own behaviour and that of other people. • We attribute events to an internal source of resp (something within an individual’s control) or an external source. (exam: tough: we did not work hard enough or the exam paper was out of syllabus). • Achievement oriented people attribute success to ability, failure to lack of effort (both internal) • Failure oriented people attribute failures due to lack of ability and may develop feelings of incompetence.
doc_820793877.ppt
Dear All, Please find attached ppt on Perception for your understanding.
Perception
Memories
Our memories are influenced by what we eat, how we feel, how much we sleep, and whether or not we exercise. We use info in the memory to interpret the world around us, and memory influences our performances on a variety of tasks. As humans we are constantly strive to make sense of our surroundings. The resulting knowledge influences our behaviour and helps us navigate our way through life. Study: employees who perceived that their orgn cared about them, reciprocated with reduced absenteeism, increased performance, innovation and positive work attitudes.
Definitions
Perception: Process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceives may be different from perceived reality. However, the world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important. Factors influencing perception: The perceiver, The target The situation
The Perceiver
When an individual looks at the target and attempts to interpret what he/she observes, that interpretation is heavily influenced by the person characteristics of the individual E.g. you purchase a new car and suddenly notice many of similar models around If hungry, you notice food outlets around you. Plastic surgeon notices an imperfect nose!! Your expectations can distort your perceptions. Expect a nurse to be kind and caring and you think one is so even when she isn’t.
The target
Characteristics of the target being observed can affect what is perceived Loud people more likely to be noticed People dressing different from the crowd are noticed. Motion, sounds, size, and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Also the relationship of the target to the background: Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived together rather than separately. E.g. two aircraft crashes and we conclude flying is risky. Persons, objects, or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together.
The situation
The context in which we see objects or events is important. Elements in the surrounding environment influence our perception. E.g. a lady dressed in an evening gown and makeup in a management class. The time at which an object or event is seen can influence your attention.
Concept
• Perception is more that reality:
Our personal version of reality comes both from the raw material we pick up from our senses and from the beliefs, desires, memories and expectations that we use to interpret this material Two individuals will experience the same situation differently
• The perception may be the same but the interpretation could be different • We could interpret another’s behaviours acc to the notion we hold about that person • Prejudices pervade our every perception – sometimes it is individual, often shared by an entire culture
Concept
• Everyone’s perceptions are private; but to communicate and share understanding, we must have some idea of the world the other people construct in their mind • Perception is altered by mood: - Depressed people, e.g. see life as grey than people in a bouyant state of mind, because the colour areas of their brain are less active • Mirror neurons: gives us build-in empathy – and automatic, intuitive sense of what the other person is experiencing • Contact through conversation: Most everyday differences in perception can be resolved through discussion & dialogue.
Concept
• Schizophrenics: extreme psychotic perceptions; come from the real world actually made of hallucinations - distorted views of Hitler, Idi Amin, Charles Mason, etc. • Need to hold one’s own sense of reality – and constantly test beliefs against the widest range of evidence, rather than relying on the opinions of selected other s to confirm or deny them • Only a fraction of of the info stimuli; received by our sensory organs enter our consciousness - Brain has filters that prevent us from being overwhelmed by the constant stream of new stimuli
Concept
• Everyone has the same set of sensory organs; but each individual places emphasis on certain senses, or on a single sense at the expense of others • By understanding what you are keen at, you could make the best of it • Every sense can be trained and developed: Wine connoisseurs ? smell; Chefs ? taste, smell, sight • Nature has placed limits on our sensory organs: - we see limited range of colour spectrum; bees see ultraviolet light - When hungry we only notice places to eat • Meditation: best method to direct our thoughts; training
Concept
• Most managers admit that, in practice, they rely quite heavily on hunches to make decisions and choose direction. • The unconscious plays a far greater role in thinking, learning and decision making than has been anticipated. • Intuitive ways of knowing are particularly critical when handling messy, ill defined, ambiguous and uncertain situations. • The unconscious is quicker off the mark than the conscious. • Thus, it is the unconscious rather than the conscious that does most of our thinking, learning, decision making and problem solving.
Concept
• Most people assume that our perception offer accurate reflection of what is going around us. Not true: - Cells capture differently colour, movement, shape and size of object. - The picture constructed is very much affected by what we expect to see – we make the strange familiar. - The brain does not capture an image as in a photograph: - It reconstructs every time we recall - We recreate images of past events as new on each occasion. - Easier to recall memories when we are in a similar or same state.
Concept
• In real life, managers also make decisions, based on intuitive expertise, that they may be unable to justify. - Interestingly people’s confidence in their ability to do a task tends to corelate with their ability to explain what they are doing. • Our memory for how to do things is often tied to the situation in which it was learnt. - The implication is that knowledge is situated and does not transfer easily.
Unconscious decision making
• Business schools teach students rational approaches to decision making. • Real life studies suggest that experienced professionals base numerous decisions on haunch and intuition. • Experiment: those who thought through their decisions were more likely to go back on the decisions that those who had followed their gut reaction. • Gut decisions were closer the decisions made by experts than those which the novices had to justify. • In certain circumstances, conscious awareness can interfere with unconscious learning.
Intuitive management
• Sr. mgrs rarely formulate goals, assess their worth, evaluate the probabilities of alternate ways of reaching them, and choose the path that maximize expected returns. - Rather, managers frequently by pass rigour, analytical planning altogether, particularly when they face difficult, novel, and extremely entangled problems. - When they do use analysis for a prolonged time, it is always in conjunction with intuition. - Senior managers devote most of their attention to the tactics of implementation rather than the formulation of strategy.
Intuitive management
• Mintsberg: there is a fundamental difference between formal planning and informal managing: - Planning is associated with an analytical, ordered and sequential approach, whereas, - Management normally involves responding to complex, ambiguous and uncertain situations, which may need a different sort of thinking process: one that recognizes the part played by intuition and the superior info processing capacity of the unconscious mind. • Managers studied relied more on “soft” data like feelings and impressions to make strategic judgement and rarely mentioned using explicit analysis.
Intuition
• Most managers working simultaneously on various issues and these issues are complex, messy and ill-structured, and information is incomplete. The time taken to make the decision is limited, and outcome of the decision is uncertain. • It is precisely in these conditions that intuitive thinking comes into its own. - Also the inevitable time pressures most mgrs have to work under and the need to act before a complete picture is available. • Intuition involves apprehending rather than analysing what is going on.
Intuition
Isenberg: Managers use intuition in at least 5 ways: To sense when a problem exists To perform well learned patterns rapidly To synthesize isolated data To use ‘gut feelings’ to check results arrived at rationally To by-pass in-depth analysis. Intuitions are not fallible: Can be difficult to differentiate between valid intuition and haunches, wishful thinking, fantasy or plain prejudice. - Sound intuitive judgement more likely when people’s ego’s are not bound up in the decision outcomes and they are truly open to all possibilities. • • -
Judgment bias
• Availability bias: refers to the tendency to assume events are more frequent if they come to mind easily. (e.g. accident in a plane crash – overestimate likelihood of accidents being more than at home. • Confirmation bias: We tend to stick to our initial judgments noticing confirming evidence and dismissing info that does not fit our beliefs. • We tend to be overconfident about our own opinions, believing ourselves to be correct much more often than justified – may lead to taking dangerous decisions (smoking & lung cancer). • Hindsight: believing that we were more certain about judgments initially than we in fact were – leads to further over confidence in our judgments.
Mind sets
• There is much more info around us than our limited senses can hope to attend to. - We have to choose what we have to attend to, and find ways of construing the world that create the image of reality that we see. - We select those things that interest us, that fit with our world view. - We form a map of reality which ‘paints out what is to be noticed and valued among a plethora of events each day’. - Hence, our understanding of the world is partial.
Mind sets
• The mind is set to find and create meanings everywhere and anywhere. - We invariably impose order in chaos, finding images in clouds and ink bolts. - We also tend to simplify complexity and make the inconsistent coherent. - Danger: we see what we expect, not what is there (interviews). - The events that does not fit our understanding of what is or what should be, be ignored, overlooked assumed to be wrong. - The perceiver may unconsciously deny or downplay the event, for info that contradicts cherished beliefs can be disturbing
Mind sets
• In addition to inhibiting problem solving strategies, a rigidity in thinking, lack of perception and poor self-image can also block a creative approach. • Self-fulfilling prophesy: Our values and mindsets about orgns and about the world around us guide many of our decisions in these areas, just as they guide the judgments we make about our own ability. - If we think we cannot do something we are less likely to try, or we notice failures when we do try and probably give up earlier, our expectations confirmed. • The sheer info overload, part of life means we all rely on mind sets or shortcuts to make sense of situations. - The belief can become so set that we limit our perf in accord with our assumptions.
Theories
Attribution: We judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Selective Perception
eople selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience & attitudes. Halo / Horn effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. Contrast effects: Evaluation of a person affected by comparison with another recently met. Projection: Attributing one’s own characteristic to other Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.Control or Learn
• Life is a continual process of growth and change. It is possible to prepare ourselves to be constantly surprised by life, so that we can deal with things as they come up instead of waiting to be knocked down by a crisis. • We can learn to perceive the subtler, early warning signs of impending crisis if we can let go of the idea that we live in an orderly and predictable universe. • There is a way to maintain an overall sense of balance without resorting to outdated notions of order and stability. • There are two sets of basic assumptions about life. Each sets of assumptions leads to a different way of viewing and dealing with life’s surprises.
Security / Control mindset
The world is basically stable, predictable and in large part controllable. I get my sense of well-being by knowing the rules, by being around others who are similar to me, and from having things turn out more or less as predicted. Attitude assumes things will be as they always have been. It is uncomfortable with uncertainty, change, ambiguity, lack of structure and with people who see things differently. You are focused on making a living.
Learning / Discovery mindset
The world is a complex system of interacting forces, many of which I cannot directly perceive with my five senses. I enjoy experimenting to discover what works and what doesn’t I do not presume that what worked the last time will work this time I get my sense of well-being from staying awake to myself and my surroundings and from the constant learning process that results from paying attention and from moving into unknown territory. In this mind-set, you are focuses on making yourself.
Security/Control vs Learning/Discovery
Resists change; sees change as disruptive Holds on; Holds on to what was or what should be Focuses on externals; values appearance over essence Communicates for control; attempts to get others to agree Thinks in “either/or” terms; uses polarized, black and white thinking Fosters poor teamwork; cannot share responsibility or power Participates with change; sees change as natural Lets go; lets go into what is Focuses on essentials; values inner essence over appearance Communicates to build trust; wishes to know and be known Thinks “both/and”; looks for mutuality and complimentarity Fosters team learning; shares responsibility and power.
Specific applications in organizations
Employment interviews: - input into who is hired and who is not - Agreement among interviewers normally poor. - Early impressions and get entrenched Performance expectations: - People will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when they are faulty - Self-fulfilling prophesy – people’s expectations determine their behaviour Performance evaluation: Employee effort / Employee loyalty:
Attribution
Concept
• Human beings innately curious. Want to know why people behave the way they do. • We also seek to understand and explain our own behaviour. • Attribution theory explains how we pinpoint the causes of our own behaviour and that of other people. • We can attribute our behaviour to an internal source of responsibility (something within the individual’s control) or an external source (something outside the individual’s control). • E.g. topping the exam: You could credit to you – you studied hard, or to the exam being easy, or you had good luck.
Concept
• Attribution patterns differ among individuals: - Achievement oriented individuals attribute success to their ability and failures to lack of effort. - Failure oriented individuals attribute their failures to lack of ability, and may develop feelings of incompetence as a result. • The way you explain your own behaviour affects your motivation: - If you believe careful preparation led to successful presentations, will take credit; have a sense of self-efficacy. - If belief is that you are lucky, will not repeat performance as you believe you have less influence on the outcome.
Concepts
• During interviews: Candidates want to give interviewers reasons to hire them. • Research: Successful and unsuccessful candidates make different attributions for negative outcomes: - Successful candidates are willing to make internal attributions for negative events. - Unsuccessful candidates blame negative outcomes on things beyond their control – interviewers get the impression that they did not learn from the event and will blame others when something goes wrong.
Attributional biases
• The attribution process may be affected by two very common errors: • Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to make attributions to internal causes when focusing on someone else’s behaviour. • Self-serving biases: The tendency to attribute one’s own successes to internal causes and one’s failure to external causes – when we succeed we take credit and when we fail we blame the situation or other people. • In evaluating perf, mgrs must determine the cause of behaviour and perceived source of resp. - Employee’s perf attributed to internal source gets better raise than due to external sources.
Concepts
• Humans innately curious. Want to know why people behave as they do. Also seek to understand and explain our own behaviour. • Attribution theory explains how we pinpoint the causes of our own behaviour and that of other people. • We attribute events to an internal source of resp (something within an individual’s control) or an external source. (exam: tough: we did not work hard enough or the exam paper was out of syllabus). • Achievement oriented people attribute success to ability, failure to lack of effort (both internal) • Failure oriented people attribute failures due to lack of ability and may develop feelings of incompetence.
doc_820793877.ppt