Description
The paper aims to differentiate the differences of both night market experience and image
between temporary residents and foreign visitors in Taiwan and to explore the relationship between
experience and image.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Night market experience and image of temporary residents and foreign visitors
Su-Hsin Lee Shu-Chen Chang J ing-Shoung Hou Chung-Hsien Lin
Article information:
To cite this document:
Su-Hsin Lee Shu-Chen Chang J ing-Shoung Hou Chung-Hsien Lin, (2008),"Night market experience and
image of temporary residents and foreign visitors", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 2 Iss 3 pp. 217 - 233
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506180810891591
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Yi-Fei Chuang, Shiuh-Nan Hwang, J ehn-Yih Wong, Chun-Der Chen, (2014),"The attractiveness of tourist
night markets in Taiwan – a supply-side view", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 8 Iss 3 pp. 333-344http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-09-2013-0067
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Night market experience and
image of temporary residents
and foreign visitors
Su-Hsin Lee
Graduate Institute of Landscape and Recreation, Feng-Chia University,
Taichung, Taiwan and
University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Shu-Chen Chang
Graduate Institute of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Feng-Chia University,
Taichung, Taiwan
Jing-Shoung Hou
National Formosa University, Yunlin, Taiwan and
Department of Landscape Architecture, Tung-Hai University,
Taichung, Taiwan, and
Chung-Hsien Lin
Feng-Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan
Abstract
Purpose – The paper aims to differentiate the differences of both night market experience and image
between temporary residents and foreign visitors in Taiwan and to explore the relationship between
experience and image.
Design/methodology/approach – Night market experiences comprise the dimensions of Schmitt’s
experiential marketing theory and night market image is analyzed by exploratory factor analysis. This
research probes the socio-demographics differences of experience and image between temporary
residents and foreign visitors. Canonical analysis explores the experience-image relationships.
Findings – Some socio-demographics have relativity differences in night market experiences and
images. Visitors have stronger thinking experience than temporary residents. Temporary residents
have stronger image in atmosphere, while foreign visitors have general stronger images than
temporary residents. Canonical analysis shows that visitors have stronger relationships between
experience and image than temporary residents.
Practical implications – Marketing organizations must develop marketing strategies speci?c to
cultural background and the length of residence of its speci?c visitors.
Originality/value – The paper provides the evidence showing that familiarity and novelty-seeking
would be of particular importance to examine whether experience and image are equally applicable to
the various foreign visitors.
Keywords Taiwan, Retail marketing, Shopping centres, Individual perception, Tourism
Paper type Research paper
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1750-6182.htm
The authors thank the Taiwan National Science Council for providing the research funding to
carry out this research (NSC-95-2415-H-035-002-SSS).
Night market
experience
and image
217
International Journal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research
Vol. 2 No. 3, 2008
pp. 217-233
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
1750-6182
DOI 10.1108/17506180810891591
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Introduction
Owing to the globalization of recent years, international tourism and business have
become a universal phenomenon. The exchanges of informational, economic, and
population ?ows in?uence the formation of culture and can lead to homogenization and
cultural adaptation (Hughes, 1995). Tourists from different cultural backgrounds
exhibit different behavior patterns such as trip arrangement, recreation, shopping
activities and expenditure, once they have arrived at their destinations (Yuksel, 2004).
International tourists often shed the culture of their home environments, and become
more tolerant, and less critical to the visited culture. Residents, being in their living
country, may not shed their home culture to the extent that international visitors can,
and hence residents and international visitors differed in their evaluation of services
and shopping item preferences (Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988; Yuksel, 2004; Boom
et al., 2005). Recently, there are increasing numbers of temporary residents, permanent
residents, and business residents, who move from overseas countries to Taiwan.
Taiwanese night markets are street markets operating at night, mainly in urban or
suburban areas that generally tend to have more leisurely strolling, shopping, and
eating areas than more businesslike day markets. The night market is one of the most
popular shopping options in Taiwan, with unique consumption activities, displays,
products, and bargain prices. The night market re?ects the Taiwanese history, society,
and economics; it provides a true experience of modern Taiwanese nightlife. Most
night markets offer entertainments, bargains, and local customs; many sell varieties of
traditional products, such as casual clothes, fruit, exotic snacks, and novelty items.
The markets offer an insight to a culture that is not very apparent during typical days
(Lee et al., 2005). Taiwan government and public have been supporting many local
Taiwanese night markets to market them and to transform them into international
tourism night markets. According to Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2006), the main tourism
attractions of Taiwan are food and natural scenery, followed by shopping, night
markets, and historical sites. The most popular visiting destinations are night markets
(59 percent), followed by the Taipei 101 building (36 percent), and the National Palace
Museum (33 percent). This survey indicates that night markets represent an important
international consumption activity in Taiwan. Previous studies show the main
attraction factors for local Taiwanese are: low prices, variety of products, and
neighborhood location (Lee et al., 2005). For international tourists, novelty-seeking,
exercising and experiencing local culture and customs are the major motives to visit
tourist night markets (Hsieh and Chang, 2004). A survey of Hong Kong tourists shows
their main activities when visiting Taiwan are eating out, everyday shopping,
novelty-seeking, and entertainment (Hsieh and Chang, 2004). These activities overlap
with the activities of tourist night market, which suggests that understanding tourists’
behavior when visiting night markets can increase Taiwan’s tourism and create
a comfortable shopping environment.
Shoppers with different cultural backgrounds differ in their shopping preferences
(Mak et al., 1998; Pizam and Jeong, 1996). Temporary residents retain the culture of
their original country but Taiwanese culture also in?uences them, which might result
in a mixture of culture and shopping preferences. However, the role of cultural
adaptation in determining behavior has not been given much attention in tourism
research, and there is relatively less study on the shopping behavior of culturally
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adapted foreigners in Taiwan. Hence, this research is to determine the role of cultural
adaptation on Taiwanese night market shopping behavior.
Although past literature suggests experience is related to complex images, the
complex images of on-site experiences can be dissimilar among people (Chon, 1991;
Selby and Morgan, 1996). Therefore, this study investigates the difference of
relationship between experience and complex image. This study compares temporary
residents and foreign visitors’ experiences of Taiwanese night markets. The purposes
of this study are:
.
to identify the dimensions of Taiwanese night markets’ image;
.
to explore the differences in the night market experience and image with regard
to foreigners’ socio-demographics; and
.
to compare the experience-image relationships of temporary residents with those
of foreign visitors.
Literature review
Cultural adaptation of tourists
When traveling abroad, tourists must face foreign cultures, different social norms,
languages, cultural life styles, racial/cultural recognition and many more cultural
differences that may lead to problems of intercultural adaptation and cross-cultural
adaptation. Kim (1979) divides cross-culture adaptation researches into two types:
immigrant research and temporary resident research. Foreigner means stranger in the
host country. Temporary residents mean strangers in host country including
temporary or short-term residents, immigrants, and visitors. Foreign tourists are
strangers in the host country with visit duration under three month and only require a
travel visa. Past research shows differences in the behavior of cross-cultural tourists
(Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988). Nationalities’ cultures have stronger moderating
effects on tourist behavior than tourist’ culture, that is, nationality has the most
in?uence on tourist behavior (Pizam and Jeong, 1996; Bonn et al., 2005). When they
have immigrated or resided for a long-period overseas, they often adapt to the new
culture or nationality. Residential time and experience can affect their image when they
are in a familiar space. However, there is limited research determining the level of
adaptation of foreign residents, and no research on their shopping preferences and
behavior in comparison with local culture slightly in?uence on foreign tourists.
Therefore, this research divides foreigners into two categories according to the
durations of their visiting periods. One category is foreigners who live in Taiwan over
three months, another is those who visit Taiwan and stay for less than three months.
Experience of night market
In night markets entrepreneurs induce various purchase behaviors and interaction
behaviors in tourists, therefore the night market experience is one of the most
important experiencing products. Experience refers to subjective matters; a night
market experience is a produced sense, a psychological event that comes from an
individual’s participation experience (Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Joy and Sherry, 2003).
Schmitt (1999) advocates a notion of experience as individual response to certain
stimuli induced by events. Pine and Gilmore (1999) working from the perspective of
evolutionary economic development, regard experience as a new economic product and
Night market
experience
and image
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de?ne experience as a conscious pleasure product when individuals’ mood, physical
strength, intelligence and spirit achieve a certain standard. Holbrook (2000) believes
when we enter the era of experiential economy, the marketing focus will shift from
product performance and bene?t to experiences, entertainment, exhibitionism, and
evangelizing development. Consumers’ expenditure demand gradually includes more
fantasy, feelings and fun. Numerous typologies have been proposed to account for
possible similarities and differences between experiences (Schmitt, 1999; Pine and
Gilmore, 1999; Addis and Holbrook, 2001). Pine and Gilmore (1999) describe four types
of pleasurable experiences according to consumers’ connections to and levels of
participation in experiences labeled escapist, educational, entertainment, and aesthetic.
Schmitt (1999), on the other hand, proposes ?ve experience modules that describe
consumers’ involvement with experiences labeled sense, feel, think, relate, and act.
Sense experience includes the senses of hearing, vision, smell, taste and touch are
?ve kinds of physiologically determined sensory experiences. Sensory marketing
provides joy, excitement, and a satis?ed mood. Questionnaire entries for sense
experience are:
.
the experience engages my senses;
.
the experience lacks sensory appeal; and
.
the experience is perceptually interesting.
Feel experience is the consumers’ intrinsic emotion and mood, the intense emotion
arising as the result of contact and interaction. Feel experience may take diverse forms;
its scope ranges from temperate to intense mood. The survey statements are:
.
the experience tries to put me in a certain mood;
.
the experience makes me respond in an emotional manner; and
.
the experience does not try to appeal to feelings.
Think experience stimulus focuses and utilizes the intelligence of the consumer to
create cognition of the experience. By applying excitements and stimulation, this sort
of experience draws the consumer’s focused attention. The corresponding
questionnaire entries are:
.
the experience tries to intrigue me;
.
the experience stimulates my curiosity; and
.
the experience does not try to appeal to my creative thinking.
Finally, act experience is to create unique bodily experience. The experience can be
similar to or different from customer experience of other stimuli. Such other stimuli can
include long-term behavior patterns, the life state of the customer, and interactions
with other people. The relevant questionnaire entries are:
.
the experience tries to make me think about my lifestyle;
.
the experience reminds me of activities I can do; and
.
the experience does not try to make me think about actions and behaviors.
Related experience: it includes sense, feel, think and act marketing. Related marketing
develops from the consumer’s individual personality, personal sentiments, and
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connections with individual experience and culture. Questionnaire queries for this
topic are:
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the experience tries to get me to think about relationships;
.
I can relate to other people through this experience; and
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the experience does not try to remind me of social rules and arrangements.
Image of night market
Potential visitors use various destination information/attributes to construct their
destination image. According to previous research (Pike, 2002; So¨nmez and Sirakaya,
2002; Bonn et al., 2005; O’Leary and Deegan, 2005), the importance of image for a
place has emphasized. After strolling in night markets, people will form cognitive
images of the night market. The cognitive evaluation refers to subjective belief or
knowledge about destination attributes, while affective evaluation refers to feeling
about the destination itself (Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999). Thus, both
cognitive and affective evaluations form the overall image of a destination. Echtner
and Ritchie (1991, 1993) propose that image is multidimensional and comprises both
symbolic and tangible features. Image describes fragmented stimulation attributes or
consciousness as in?uenced by individual characteristics. Image also describes a
person stimulating an overall impression due to consciousness. Although conveying
a consistent image may be bene?cial for marketing implementation, a single image
may have different connotations in different cultures (Hofstede, 1980) and,
consequently, will lessen marketing effectiveness (MacKey and Fesenmaier, 1997).
Therefore, a night market physical and mental features are important in shaping
tourists’ image of that night market.
Embacher and Buttle (1989) point out when people refer to certain speci?c nations
or to local areas, locality often has association with local climate, culture, natural
environment and even facilities and equipment. This concept is called destination
image; traveling brings new ideas, manners and impressions to tourists by means of
destination image. Nasar (1998) mentions that images are the relationship between
human and environmental reciprocity; image is the in?uence they exert on each other.
Simon (1998) proposes an environmental psychology approach to study urban retail
areas images, which include sight impressions, customer service, convenience, and
prices. But nowadays studies lack discussion of night market experience and image.
Gunn (1988) proposes the image formation has two stages, organic image and
induced image. The ?rst stage of image formation mainly consists of information
primarily gathered as follows: from non-commercial traveling resources; from other
people who rephrase their own words; or from correlation reports, such as media and
common media (newspaper, magazine, television and so on), relatives, friend,
education programs, etc. The second stage is gathering information from commercial
resources, or from other sightseeing traveling directly. This information from traveling
handbook and travel agency has effects on the image. Fakeye and Crompton (1991)
state when visitors are experiencing the traveling destination they produce the
complex image. Therefore, a complex image synthesizes images with the previous two
stages, and then ?nally forms an overall image. The night market is one of the most
important places where foreigners come to travel or do leisure consumption in Taiwan,
but at present, there is no systematic research regarding foreigners’ perceptions of the
Night market
experience
and image
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night market and their experiences. This research aims to research both temporary
residents’ and foreign tourists’ points of view concerning night market experiences and
image differences.
Method
Data collection
The subject of this research is the population of all foreigners who are potential night
market customers. According to the Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2006), the top three
origin points of visitors to Taiwan in 2005 were Japan, Hong Kong and Macao, and the
USA. For foreign residents of Taiwan, according to the National Immigration Agency
Ministry of Interior, 2006, Vietnamese, Thai, and Filipino are the top three nationalities
of foreign residents living in Taiwan. Outside Southeast Asia countries, the highest
number of foreign residents is from Japan, followed by America and Canada. Hence,
the questionnaire is prepared in three languages: Chinese, Japanese, and English.
We omit other languages since most Vietnamese, Thai, and Filipino persons have
English training.
This research aims to research those of Taiwan foreigners who have experience of
Taiwan night markets. The sample is on the basis that the subject agrees the interview
and has visited Taiwan night market. We collected data between 10 March 2006
and 7 April 2007, from 9 am to 8 pm in Taiwan National Airport departure
lobbies. We collected 689 completed questionnaires. Owing to missing data of 68
questionnaires, this results in a total of 626 usable questionnaires, a response rate of
94.1 percent.
Instrument
The questionnaire includes questions regarding socio-demographics of the foreign
visitors (gender, age, marriage status, educational level, occupation, and visit or
residential duration in Taiwan). Night market images include 31 items in ?ve
dimensions of local characteristics, public facilities, representation, attraction, and
price bargain using questions from a series researches (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991, 1993;
Simon, 1998). Night market experiences comprise the dimensions of Schmitt’s (1999)
research, which include sense experience, feel experience, think experience, act
experience, and related experience. There are three questions for each dimension in
total of 15 questions. Both experience and image items are ?ve-point Likert-type scales,
ranging from “strongly disagree” ð¼ 1Þ to “strongly agree” ð¼ 5Þ.
Descriptive univariate analyses, such as means and standard deviations, describe the
pro?le of the sample. We utilize one-way ANOVAand t-test to examine the differences in
the night market experience and image with regard to foreigners’ socio-demographics.
Factor analysis, reliability analysis and canonical analysis explore the relationships
between experience factors and image factors.
Results
Sample description
As seen in Table I, the study sample has 293 (46.8 percent) foreign residents, and 333
(53.2 percent) foreign visitors. About 273 subjects are from Southeast Asia (43.6 percent),
166subjectsfromJapan(26.5percent), 187subjectsfromEuropeandAmerica(29.9percent).
The total sample has 320 (51.1 percent) males and 306 (48.9 percent) females. About 440 are
IJCTHR
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Table I.
Socio-demographics of
surveyed temporary
resident and foreign
tourists
Night market
experience
and image
223
D
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o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
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N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
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A
t
2
2
:
0
5
2
4
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n
u
a
r
y
2
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1
6
(
P
T
)
single (70.3 percent), and 186 are married (29.7 percent). Most respondents are between the
ages of 21-30 and 31-40 (totaling 71.2 percent). The education level of the respondents has
the most distribution in university or college level, and graduate educated (62.0 percent of
the total sample). Most occupations are full-employment with270 respondents (43.1 percent
of the total sample) and students with 272 subjects (43.5 percent).
Analysis of night market experience with socio-demographics
The ?nding results show that educational level, occupation, and marriage status have
no signi?cant differences in experience, the other variables such as gender, age, type
(foreign resident or foreign tourist), and country of origin, has relativity differences to
their night market experiences (Table II). Females have stronger values in think
dimension than males do. The age has effects on think, act, and related experiences.
The 31-40 years group has stronger experience of think than groups with other age
values. The younger groups (under 20 and 21-30 years) put more importance on
experience of act and related than older groups. There is interaction between type and
country of origin on sense experience. Comparing those who are visiting with those
residing in Taiwan, we ?nd the foreign visitors have higher value on think experience
than foreign residents. The country of origin has main effect on the feel, act and related
experiences. Europe and America subjects put less importance on the feel, act and
related dimensions than Japanese and Southeast Asian. Japanese put more importance
on feel dimension. Southeast Asian has stronger value on act and related experiences,
which might because there is more Southeast Asians working as foreign laborers in
Taiwan and they have stronger act and related experience along with staying time.
Analysis of night market image with socio-demographics
The examination of the dimensional structure of night market image is to use
exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Using varimax rotation, the extraction of factors
with eigenvalues is greater than 1.0. Items keep in the respective factors when their
factor loading is greater than 0.30 (Kim and Mueller, 1978). Using Cronbach a
coef?cients to evaluate the internal consistency of underlying factors, generally,
acceptable values of Cronbach a coef?cients is 0.70 and above. However, if a factor has
Socio-demographics Dimensions of the night market experience
Variables Sense Feel Think Act Related
Gender (F-value) 2.77 2.33 8.35
*
0.023 1.03
Age (F-value) 1.52 1.90 2.43
*
3.87
* *
2.99
*
Types (F-value) 0.93 0.38 4.36
*
0.51 0.197
Temporary residents 3.30 3.24 3.23 2.93 3.03
Foreign visitors 3.35 3.27 3.34 2.97 3.06
Country of origin (F-value) 1.84 4.46
*
2.12 4.88
*
7.22
* *
Europe and America 3.30 3.15 3.21 2.83 2.90
Japan 3.40 3.31 3.31 2.94 3.07
Southeast Asia 3.29 3.30 3.33 3.03 3.13
Scheffe test – (1,2)(1,3) – (1,3) (1,2)(1,3)
Notes: Signi?cant at levels
*
0.05,
* *
0.01 and
* * *
0.001, respectively. Means were derived from a
5-point Likert scale ranging from 1-strongly disagrees to 5-strongly agree
Table II.
Relationship of night
market experience and
socio-demographics
IJCTHR
2,3
224
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n
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a
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e
d
b
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P
O
N
D
I
C
H
E
R
R
Y
U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y
A
t
2
2
:
0
5
2
4
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
2
0
1
6
(
P
T
)
a reduced number of items (e.g. six or less), 0.60 and above may be acceptable (Cortina,
1993). As from Table III, all factors have Cronbach a values over 0.60 suggesting
acceptable levels of internal consistency for every scale. The ?nal results of the EFA
indicate eight image factors accounting for 61.7 percent of the variance explained. The
factors are: food and local specialty, atmosphere, public facility, environment,
products, price, bargain, and reputation (Table III). The subjects put the highest image
value in reputation, followed by local food and specialty, and public facility, which
exhibit they are the most important complex images of Taiwan night market.
The results of different image in socio-demographics show that while gender has
no signi?cant differences in image dimensions, the other variables such as marriage
status, educational level, age, occupation, staying type, and country of origin have
signi?cant differences to night market image (Table IV).
Marriage status is signi?cantly related to the image of public facility, and
environment. Single subjects have more positive image of public facility and
environment than married subjects. Educational level has signi?cant difference in the
image of local food and specialty and atmosphere. The subjects with junior high school
level place higher value than other groups. Public facility, environment and price have
signi?cant differences relative to the age variable. Subjects with age under 20 and
21-30 have more positive image of public facility, environment than other groups, while
subjects with age 31-40 and 41-50 thought price are reasonable than other age level
groups. Atmosphere, public facility, environment, and price have signi?cant
differences in occupation. Student and housekeeping put lower image on atmosphere
and price than other groups. But student and part-time workers place higher image
value in public facility and environment than other groups.
Temporary residents have stronger image ratings in atmosphere than foreign
tourists, while foreign tourists have stronger local food and specialty, public facility,
environment and reputation image ratings than temporary residents. Foreign tourists
have general stronger image except atmosphere than temporary residents. Country of
origin shows signi?cant difference in dimensions of local food and specialty,
atmosphere, public facility, environment, price, bargain, and reputation. Europeans
and Americans have stronger image ratings for local food and specialty, atmosphere,
price, bargain, and reputation than Japanese and Southeast Asians. But Europeans and
Americans put less values on public facility and environment than Japanese and
Southeast Asians do, which means Europeans and Americans have general stronger
image excluding public facility and environment quality.
Canonical correlation analysis of experience and image
This study conducts canonical correlation analysis to con?rm possible relationships
between night market experience and night market image for temporary residents and
foreign visitors separately. A discussion then compares the differences between the
two models.
Canonical analysis produces two functions for temporary residents. Only function
1 scores signi?cantly and its redundancy index is higher than 5 percent. The canonical
correlation of function 1 is 0.47 (R
2
¼ 0.22) and is signi?cant at 0.001 level. Its
redundancy index on experience is 29.7 percent and image is 32.1 percent (Figure 1).
Judging from the result of canonical loadings relates to the canonical factor for
experience, sense (0.90), feel (0.51), and think (0.61) signi?cantly correlate to the factor.
Night market
experience
and image
225
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
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D
I
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E
R
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Table III.
Factor analysis of night
image
IJCTHR
2,3
226
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d
b
y
P
O
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(
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)
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Table IV.
Relationship of night
market image and
socio-demographics
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The canonical loadings of local food and specialty (0.83), atmosphere (0.73), products
(0.74), price (0.50), bargain (0.53), and reputation (0.49) signi?cantly correlate to the
image canonical factor. The canonical dimension indicates that the temporary
residents who have stronger sense, feel, and think experiences also have stronger
images of local food and specialty, atmosphere, products, price, bargain, and reputation
for Taiwan night markets.
The result from foreign visitors shows that there are two functions. Only function
1 scores signi?cantly and its redundancy index is higher than 5 percent. The canonical
correlation of function 1 is 0.53 (R
2
¼ 0.28) and is signi?cant at the 0.001 level.
Its redundancy index on experience is 33.4 percent and its redundancy index on image
is 47.2 percent (Figure 2). From the result of canonical loadings, it is found that sense
(0.85), feel (0.71), think (0.92), action (0.38), and related (0.38) signi?cantly correlate to
the experience canonical factor. The canonical loadings of local food and specialty
(0.83), atmosphere (0.52), public facility (0.36), products (0.82), price (0.64), bargain
(0.52), and reputation (0.47) signi?cantly correlate to the image canonical factor.
The function between these two sets of variables is on the basis of the composition of
foreign visitors who have experiences of sense, feel, and think, which have association
with the local food and specialty, atmosphere, public facility, products, price, bargain,
and reputation.
Discussion and conclusion
The purpose of this study is to investigate how the socio-demographics of foreign
temporary residents and visitors as related to their images and experiences of
Taiwanese night markets. It also examines the relationships of experience and image
and the differences in the relative importance of components for each construct
regarding temporary foreign residents and foreign tourists. The results suggest that
gender, age, staying type, and country of origin have in?uence on foreigners’ night
Figure 1.
Canonical function
of experience and image
for foreign residents
Image
Experience
Sense
Feel
Think
Action
Related
Atmosphere
Public facility
Environment
Products
Price
–0.90
0.12
–0.61
–0.16
–0.73
–0.03
–0.14
–0.74
–0.50
r = 0.47
R
2
= 0.22
RI = 0.321 RI = 0.297
Bargain
Reputation
Food &
products
–0.53
–0.49
–0.83
–0.51
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market experience. Foreigners’ marriage status, education level, age, occupation,
staying type, and country of origin also have relativity differences to their night
market image. The ?nding supports the notion that cultural background and
familiarity with a host culture will affect foreigners’ experience (Pizam and Jeong, 1996;
Arnold and Reynolds, 2003; Yuksel, 2004) and image (Embacher and Buttle, 1989;
Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Bonn et al., 2005; O’Leary and Deegan, 2005) of night
market. Think experience has greater difference than other four experiences in
socio-demographics. That shows that psychological difference is the main difference
between foreigners of different age groups, genders, and staying type. According to
Schmitt (1999) the think experience stimulates curiosity and appeal to the customer’s
creative thinking. Female, and middle age and visitors would have stronger thinking
experience than other experiences such as sense and feel. The results also show that
the younger subjects have stronger values in act and related experience than elders did.
Based on Schmitt’s (1999) act and related experiences re?ect that younger persons have
stronger unique bodily experience and relationship experience with others. Regarding
to visiting or residing in Taiwan, we ?nd the foreign visitors have higher value on
think experience than foreign residents. Perhaps, the longer foreign residents
have stayed in Taiwan, the less special or exciting night markets are for them, and
hence they have less thinking experience than foreign visitors. For foreign visitors
who have little experience in visiting night markets, the experience will trigger their
thinking mechanism, and increasing information intakes. The feel, act, and related
experiences are important variables regarding to country of origin (nationality).
European and American have lowered these three experiences than Japanese and
Figure 2.
Canonical function
of experience and image
for foreign visitors
Image
Experience
Sense
Feel
Think
Action
Related
Food &
products
Public facility
Environment
Products
Price
–0.71
–0.85
–0.38
–0.92
–0.38
–0.52
–0.12
–0.358
–0.82
–0.64
r = 0.53
R
2
= 0.28
RI = 0.33 RI = 0.47
Reputation
Bargain
Atmosphere
–0.83
–0.47
–0.52
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Southeast Asian, which might be due to their cultural backgrounds (Pizam and Jeong,
1996; Bonn et al., 2005). Japanese and Southeast Asian have similar oriental
background with Taiwanese; they might more familiar with night market. This result
also supports with individual’s participation experience of Pine and Gilmore (1999) and
Joy and Sherry (2003).
Results show that temporary foreign residents have stronger image values in
atmosphere than foreign tourists, while foreign visitors have stronger numbers in local
food and specialty, public facility, environment, and reputation image than temporary
residents. This may be the effect of the length of residence time in Taiwan. Yuksel’s
(2004) study shows that domestic visitors are more critical and having less tolerant to
rotten facility and service than foreign visitors do. In this study, foreign residents have
stayed in Taiwan for a longer period and adopt similar values to those of the locals,
and hence being more critical on qualities such as local food, specialty, public facility,
environment, and reputation. To compare the nationality, Europeans and Americans
with little experience of night markets picture visiting night markets as a unique
experience, and hence they have stronger image on local food, specialty, atmosphere,
price, bargain, and reputation. But Europeans and Americans who have more broad
space and cleaner living environment in their country and hence being more critical on
qualities such as public facility and environment.
The results suggest that experience is indeed related to image and such a
relationship is reasonably ?tting for temporary residents and foreign tourists. These
?ndings support our hypothesis that cross-cultural effectiveness may explore the
relationship of place experience related to its generalized images. However, the ?ndings
also reveal that earlier studies might have overlooked the complexity of the
experience-image relationship. In this study, the effect of components on experience
and image depend on temporary residents’ and tourists’ perceptions.
According to the ?ndings, temporary residents place higher values on sense, feel,
and think experience of a night market, which relate to local food/specialty,
atmosphere, products, price, bargain, and reputation. The foreign visitor model shows
that ?ve experience dimensions are all positively related with seven image dimensions
except environment. The model of foreign visitor explains stronger variance than
foreign residents; this might be due to the foreign residents have longer time lived in
Taiwan. Their behaviors and perceptions of night market are more like domestic
visitors who have different relationships between components of experience and image
of night markets compared to foreign visitors. For example, they are more familiar
with Taiwan environment and public facility situation which have no effect on night
market experiences.
According to Schmitt (1999), act experience relates to personal lifestyle, actions and
behaviors. Related experience connects to speci?c culture or signi?cant others. The
foreign visitors have certain motivation to visit other countries may cause stronger
feelings or experiences. This may be affected by more complex images than organic
and induced image (Gunn, 1988; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Echtner and Ritchie,
1991, 1993). However, the level of cultural adaptation of foreign residents adapting to
Taiwanese night markets is hard to measure. Night markets are also more popular in
Southeast Asian countries, than in Japan, hence Southeast Asians might accept and
adapt to night market culture faster or easier than Japanese, and even Japanese might
adapt more than Europeans and Americans. Their valuations of night markets and
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shopping preferences will be more similar to local Taiwanese valuations. The
differences among different countries or geographical regions need further study.
Therefore, future efforts to understand cross-cultural behavior should consider the
multidimensionality of place experience and image as well as their varying levels of
importance to residents and visitors.
The results of this research may help Taiwan government and entrepreneurs to
develop an international promotion strategy targeted at target markets (Assael, 1984).
For example, the most important images are local food and specialty, products, and
price which means night markets that can offer characteristically local products,
fashionable products, diverse food and drink, low-price products, and distinctively
?avored international foods will attract international visitors. Taiwan Tourism Bureau
may promote Taiwanese foods and beverages to overseas tourists by using think,
sense, and feel experiential marketing method, or may segment visitors by
socio-demographics and geographic variables. Some bene?ts may accrue from
promotion of factors such as Taiwan’s reputation, special local experience, and public
facility, but the primary bene?t will arise from strengthening the image of night
markets as representative of Taiwan’s attractions.
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Corresponding author
Su-Hsin Lee can be contacted at: [email protected]
Night market
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doc_701358964.pdf
The paper aims to differentiate the differences of both night market experience and image
between temporary residents and foreign visitors in Taiwan and to explore the relationship between
experience and image.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
Night market experience and image of temporary residents and foreign visitors
Su-Hsin Lee Shu-Chen Chang J ing-Shoung Hou Chung-Hsien Lin
Article information:
To cite this document:
Su-Hsin Lee Shu-Chen Chang J ing-Shoung Hou Chung-Hsien Lin, (2008),"Night market experience and
image of temporary residents and foreign visitors", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 2 Iss 3 pp. 217 - 233
Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506180810891591
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International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 6 Iss 3 pp. 209-222 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506181211246366
Yi-Fei Chuang, Shiuh-Nan Hwang, J ehn-Yih Wong, Chun-Der Chen, (2014),"The attractiveness of tourist
night markets in Taiwan – a supply-side view", International J ournal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Vol. 8 Iss 3 pp. 333-344http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJ CTHR-09-2013-0067
Chin-Tarn Lee, Szu-Chi Yang, Henry Y. Lo, (2008),"Customer satisfaction and customer characteristic in
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Night market experience and
image of temporary residents
and foreign visitors
Su-Hsin Lee
Graduate Institute of Landscape and Recreation, Feng-Chia University,
Taichung, Taiwan and
University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Shu-Chen Chang
Graduate Institute of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Feng-Chia University,
Taichung, Taiwan
Jing-Shoung Hou
National Formosa University, Yunlin, Taiwan and
Department of Landscape Architecture, Tung-Hai University,
Taichung, Taiwan, and
Chung-Hsien Lin
Feng-Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan
Abstract
Purpose – The paper aims to differentiate the differences of both night market experience and image
between temporary residents and foreign visitors in Taiwan and to explore the relationship between
experience and image.
Design/methodology/approach – Night market experiences comprise the dimensions of Schmitt’s
experiential marketing theory and night market image is analyzed by exploratory factor analysis. This
research probes the socio-demographics differences of experience and image between temporary
residents and foreign visitors. Canonical analysis explores the experience-image relationships.
Findings – Some socio-demographics have relativity differences in night market experiences and
images. Visitors have stronger thinking experience than temporary residents. Temporary residents
have stronger image in atmosphere, while foreign visitors have general stronger images than
temporary residents. Canonical analysis shows that visitors have stronger relationships between
experience and image than temporary residents.
Practical implications – Marketing organizations must develop marketing strategies speci?c to
cultural background and the length of residence of its speci?c visitors.
Originality/value – The paper provides the evidence showing that familiarity and novelty-seeking
would be of particular importance to examine whether experience and image are equally applicable to
the various foreign visitors.
Keywords Taiwan, Retail marketing, Shopping centres, Individual perception, Tourism
Paper type Research paper
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1750-6182.htm
The authors thank the Taiwan National Science Council for providing the research funding to
carry out this research (NSC-95-2415-H-035-002-SSS).
Night market
experience
and image
217
International Journal of Culture,
Tourism and Hospitality Research
Vol. 2 No. 3, 2008
pp. 217-233
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
1750-6182
DOI 10.1108/17506180810891591
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Introduction
Owing to the globalization of recent years, international tourism and business have
become a universal phenomenon. The exchanges of informational, economic, and
population ?ows in?uence the formation of culture and can lead to homogenization and
cultural adaptation (Hughes, 1995). Tourists from different cultural backgrounds
exhibit different behavior patterns such as trip arrangement, recreation, shopping
activities and expenditure, once they have arrived at their destinations (Yuksel, 2004).
International tourists often shed the culture of their home environments, and become
more tolerant, and less critical to the visited culture. Residents, being in their living
country, may not shed their home culture to the extent that international visitors can,
and hence residents and international visitors differed in their evaluation of services
and shopping item preferences (Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988; Yuksel, 2004; Boom
et al., 2005). Recently, there are increasing numbers of temporary residents, permanent
residents, and business residents, who move from overseas countries to Taiwan.
Taiwanese night markets are street markets operating at night, mainly in urban or
suburban areas that generally tend to have more leisurely strolling, shopping, and
eating areas than more businesslike day markets. The night market is one of the most
popular shopping options in Taiwan, with unique consumption activities, displays,
products, and bargain prices. The night market re?ects the Taiwanese history, society,
and economics; it provides a true experience of modern Taiwanese nightlife. Most
night markets offer entertainments, bargains, and local customs; many sell varieties of
traditional products, such as casual clothes, fruit, exotic snacks, and novelty items.
The markets offer an insight to a culture that is not very apparent during typical days
(Lee et al., 2005). Taiwan government and public have been supporting many local
Taiwanese night markets to market them and to transform them into international
tourism night markets. According to Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2006), the main tourism
attractions of Taiwan are food and natural scenery, followed by shopping, night
markets, and historical sites. The most popular visiting destinations are night markets
(59 percent), followed by the Taipei 101 building (36 percent), and the National Palace
Museum (33 percent). This survey indicates that night markets represent an important
international consumption activity in Taiwan. Previous studies show the main
attraction factors for local Taiwanese are: low prices, variety of products, and
neighborhood location (Lee et al., 2005). For international tourists, novelty-seeking,
exercising and experiencing local culture and customs are the major motives to visit
tourist night markets (Hsieh and Chang, 2004). A survey of Hong Kong tourists shows
their main activities when visiting Taiwan are eating out, everyday shopping,
novelty-seeking, and entertainment (Hsieh and Chang, 2004). These activities overlap
with the activities of tourist night market, which suggests that understanding tourists’
behavior when visiting night markets can increase Taiwan’s tourism and create
a comfortable shopping environment.
Shoppers with different cultural backgrounds differ in their shopping preferences
(Mak et al., 1998; Pizam and Jeong, 1996). Temporary residents retain the culture of
their original country but Taiwanese culture also in?uences them, which might result
in a mixture of culture and shopping preferences. However, the role of cultural
adaptation in determining behavior has not been given much attention in tourism
research, and there is relatively less study on the shopping behavior of culturally
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adapted foreigners in Taiwan. Hence, this research is to determine the role of cultural
adaptation on Taiwanese night market shopping behavior.
Although past literature suggests experience is related to complex images, the
complex images of on-site experiences can be dissimilar among people (Chon, 1991;
Selby and Morgan, 1996). Therefore, this study investigates the difference of
relationship between experience and complex image. This study compares temporary
residents and foreign visitors’ experiences of Taiwanese night markets. The purposes
of this study are:
.
to identify the dimensions of Taiwanese night markets’ image;
.
to explore the differences in the night market experience and image with regard
to foreigners’ socio-demographics; and
.
to compare the experience-image relationships of temporary residents with those
of foreign visitors.
Literature review
Cultural adaptation of tourists
When traveling abroad, tourists must face foreign cultures, different social norms,
languages, cultural life styles, racial/cultural recognition and many more cultural
differences that may lead to problems of intercultural adaptation and cross-cultural
adaptation. Kim (1979) divides cross-culture adaptation researches into two types:
immigrant research and temporary resident research. Foreigner means stranger in the
host country. Temporary residents mean strangers in host country including
temporary or short-term residents, immigrants, and visitors. Foreign tourists are
strangers in the host country with visit duration under three month and only require a
travel visa. Past research shows differences in the behavior of cross-cultural tourists
(Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988). Nationalities’ cultures have stronger moderating
effects on tourist behavior than tourist’ culture, that is, nationality has the most
in?uence on tourist behavior (Pizam and Jeong, 1996; Bonn et al., 2005). When they
have immigrated or resided for a long-period overseas, they often adapt to the new
culture or nationality. Residential time and experience can affect their image when they
are in a familiar space. However, there is limited research determining the level of
adaptation of foreign residents, and no research on their shopping preferences and
behavior in comparison with local culture slightly in?uence on foreign tourists.
Therefore, this research divides foreigners into two categories according to the
durations of their visiting periods. One category is foreigners who live in Taiwan over
three months, another is those who visit Taiwan and stay for less than three months.
Experience of night market
In night markets entrepreneurs induce various purchase behaviors and interaction
behaviors in tourists, therefore the night market experience is one of the most
important experiencing products. Experience refers to subjective matters; a night
market experience is a produced sense, a psychological event that comes from an
individual’s participation experience (Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Joy and Sherry, 2003).
Schmitt (1999) advocates a notion of experience as individual response to certain
stimuli induced by events. Pine and Gilmore (1999) working from the perspective of
evolutionary economic development, regard experience as a new economic product and
Night market
experience
and image
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de?ne experience as a conscious pleasure product when individuals’ mood, physical
strength, intelligence and spirit achieve a certain standard. Holbrook (2000) believes
when we enter the era of experiential economy, the marketing focus will shift from
product performance and bene?t to experiences, entertainment, exhibitionism, and
evangelizing development. Consumers’ expenditure demand gradually includes more
fantasy, feelings and fun. Numerous typologies have been proposed to account for
possible similarities and differences between experiences (Schmitt, 1999; Pine and
Gilmore, 1999; Addis and Holbrook, 2001). Pine and Gilmore (1999) describe four types
of pleasurable experiences according to consumers’ connections to and levels of
participation in experiences labeled escapist, educational, entertainment, and aesthetic.
Schmitt (1999), on the other hand, proposes ?ve experience modules that describe
consumers’ involvement with experiences labeled sense, feel, think, relate, and act.
Sense experience includes the senses of hearing, vision, smell, taste and touch are
?ve kinds of physiologically determined sensory experiences. Sensory marketing
provides joy, excitement, and a satis?ed mood. Questionnaire entries for sense
experience are:
.
the experience engages my senses;
.
the experience lacks sensory appeal; and
.
the experience is perceptually interesting.
Feel experience is the consumers’ intrinsic emotion and mood, the intense emotion
arising as the result of contact and interaction. Feel experience may take diverse forms;
its scope ranges from temperate to intense mood. The survey statements are:
.
the experience tries to put me in a certain mood;
.
the experience makes me respond in an emotional manner; and
.
the experience does not try to appeal to feelings.
Think experience stimulus focuses and utilizes the intelligence of the consumer to
create cognition of the experience. By applying excitements and stimulation, this sort
of experience draws the consumer’s focused attention. The corresponding
questionnaire entries are:
.
the experience tries to intrigue me;
.
the experience stimulates my curiosity; and
.
the experience does not try to appeal to my creative thinking.
Finally, act experience is to create unique bodily experience. The experience can be
similar to or different from customer experience of other stimuli. Such other stimuli can
include long-term behavior patterns, the life state of the customer, and interactions
with other people. The relevant questionnaire entries are:
.
the experience tries to make me think about my lifestyle;
.
the experience reminds me of activities I can do; and
.
the experience does not try to make me think about actions and behaviors.
Related experience: it includes sense, feel, think and act marketing. Related marketing
develops from the consumer’s individual personality, personal sentiments, and
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connections with individual experience and culture. Questionnaire queries for this
topic are:
.
the experience tries to get me to think about relationships;
.
I can relate to other people through this experience; and
.
the experience does not try to remind me of social rules and arrangements.
Image of night market
Potential visitors use various destination information/attributes to construct their
destination image. According to previous research (Pike, 2002; So¨nmez and Sirakaya,
2002; Bonn et al., 2005; O’Leary and Deegan, 2005), the importance of image for a
place has emphasized. After strolling in night markets, people will form cognitive
images of the night market. The cognitive evaluation refers to subjective belief or
knowledge about destination attributes, while affective evaluation refers to feeling
about the destination itself (Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999). Thus, both
cognitive and affective evaluations form the overall image of a destination. Echtner
and Ritchie (1991, 1993) propose that image is multidimensional and comprises both
symbolic and tangible features. Image describes fragmented stimulation attributes or
consciousness as in?uenced by individual characteristics. Image also describes a
person stimulating an overall impression due to consciousness. Although conveying
a consistent image may be bene?cial for marketing implementation, a single image
may have different connotations in different cultures (Hofstede, 1980) and,
consequently, will lessen marketing effectiveness (MacKey and Fesenmaier, 1997).
Therefore, a night market physical and mental features are important in shaping
tourists’ image of that night market.
Embacher and Buttle (1989) point out when people refer to certain speci?c nations
or to local areas, locality often has association with local climate, culture, natural
environment and even facilities and equipment. This concept is called destination
image; traveling brings new ideas, manners and impressions to tourists by means of
destination image. Nasar (1998) mentions that images are the relationship between
human and environmental reciprocity; image is the in?uence they exert on each other.
Simon (1998) proposes an environmental psychology approach to study urban retail
areas images, which include sight impressions, customer service, convenience, and
prices. But nowadays studies lack discussion of night market experience and image.
Gunn (1988) proposes the image formation has two stages, organic image and
induced image. The ?rst stage of image formation mainly consists of information
primarily gathered as follows: from non-commercial traveling resources; from other
people who rephrase their own words; or from correlation reports, such as media and
common media (newspaper, magazine, television and so on), relatives, friend,
education programs, etc. The second stage is gathering information from commercial
resources, or from other sightseeing traveling directly. This information from traveling
handbook and travel agency has effects on the image. Fakeye and Crompton (1991)
state when visitors are experiencing the traveling destination they produce the
complex image. Therefore, a complex image synthesizes images with the previous two
stages, and then ?nally forms an overall image. The night market is one of the most
important places where foreigners come to travel or do leisure consumption in Taiwan,
but at present, there is no systematic research regarding foreigners’ perceptions of the
Night market
experience
and image
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night market and their experiences. This research aims to research both temporary
residents’ and foreign tourists’ points of view concerning night market experiences and
image differences.
Method
Data collection
The subject of this research is the population of all foreigners who are potential night
market customers. According to the Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2006), the top three
origin points of visitors to Taiwan in 2005 were Japan, Hong Kong and Macao, and the
USA. For foreign residents of Taiwan, according to the National Immigration Agency
Ministry of Interior, 2006, Vietnamese, Thai, and Filipino are the top three nationalities
of foreign residents living in Taiwan. Outside Southeast Asia countries, the highest
number of foreign residents is from Japan, followed by America and Canada. Hence,
the questionnaire is prepared in three languages: Chinese, Japanese, and English.
We omit other languages since most Vietnamese, Thai, and Filipino persons have
English training.
This research aims to research those of Taiwan foreigners who have experience of
Taiwan night markets. The sample is on the basis that the subject agrees the interview
and has visited Taiwan night market. We collected data between 10 March 2006
and 7 April 2007, from 9 am to 8 pm in Taiwan National Airport departure
lobbies. We collected 689 completed questionnaires. Owing to missing data of 68
questionnaires, this results in a total of 626 usable questionnaires, a response rate of
94.1 percent.
Instrument
The questionnaire includes questions regarding socio-demographics of the foreign
visitors (gender, age, marriage status, educational level, occupation, and visit or
residential duration in Taiwan). Night market images include 31 items in ?ve
dimensions of local characteristics, public facilities, representation, attraction, and
price bargain using questions from a series researches (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991, 1993;
Simon, 1998). Night market experiences comprise the dimensions of Schmitt’s (1999)
research, which include sense experience, feel experience, think experience, act
experience, and related experience. There are three questions for each dimension in
total of 15 questions. Both experience and image items are ?ve-point Likert-type scales,
ranging from “strongly disagree” ð¼ 1Þ to “strongly agree” ð¼ 5Þ.
Descriptive univariate analyses, such as means and standard deviations, describe the
pro?le of the sample. We utilize one-way ANOVAand t-test to examine the differences in
the night market experience and image with regard to foreigners’ socio-demographics.
Factor analysis, reliability analysis and canonical analysis explore the relationships
between experience factors and image factors.
Results
Sample description
As seen in Table I, the study sample has 293 (46.8 percent) foreign residents, and 333
(53.2 percent) foreign visitors. About 273 subjects are from Southeast Asia (43.6 percent),
166subjectsfromJapan(26.5percent), 187subjectsfromEuropeandAmerica(29.9percent).
The total sample has 320 (51.1 percent) males and 306 (48.9 percent) females. About 440 are
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Table I.
Socio-demographics of
surveyed temporary
resident and foreign
tourists
Night market
experience
and image
223
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b
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D
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(
P
T
)
single (70.3 percent), and 186 are married (29.7 percent). Most respondents are between the
ages of 21-30 and 31-40 (totaling 71.2 percent). The education level of the respondents has
the most distribution in university or college level, and graduate educated (62.0 percent of
the total sample). Most occupations are full-employment with270 respondents (43.1 percent
of the total sample) and students with 272 subjects (43.5 percent).
Analysis of night market experience with socio-demographics
The ?nding results show that educational level, occupation, and marriage status have
no signi?cant differences in experience, the other variables such as gender, age, type
(foreign resident or foreign tourist), and country of origin, has relativity differences to
their night market experiences (Table II). Females have stronger values in think
dimension than males do. The age has effects on think, act, and related experiences.
The 31-40 years group has stronger experience of think than groups with other age
values. The younger groups (under 20 and 21-30 years) put more importance on
experience of act and related than older groups. There is interaction between type and
country of origin on sense experience. Comparing those who are visiting with those
residing in Taiwan, we ?nd the foreign visitors have higher value on think experience
than foreign residents. The country of origin has main effect on the feel, act and related
experiences. Europe and America subjects put less importance on the feel, act and
related dimensions than Japanese and Southeast Asian. Japanese put more importance
on feel dimension. Southeast Asian has stronger value on act and related experiences,
which might because there is more Southeast Asians working as foreign laborers in
Taiwan and they have stronger act and related experience along with staying time.
Analysis of night market image with socio-demographics
The examination of the dimensional structure of night market image is to use
exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Using varimax rotation, the extraction of factors
with eigenvalues is greater than 1.0. Items keep in the respective factors when their
factor loading is greater than 0.30 (Kim and Mueller, 1978). Using Cronbach a
coef?cients to evaluate the internal consistency of underlying factors, generally,
acceptable values of Cronbach a coef?cients is 0.70 and above. However, if a factor has
Socio-demographics Dimensions of the night market experience
Variables Sense Feel Think Act Related
Gender (F-value) 2.77 2.33 8.35
*
0.023 1.03
Age (F-value) 1.52 1.90 2.43
*
3.87
* *
2.99
*
Types (F-value) 0.93 0.38 4.36
*
0.51 0.197
Temporary residents 3.30 3.24 3.23 2.93 3.03
Foreign visitors 3.35 3.27 3.34 2.97 3.06
Country of origin (F-value) 1.84 4.46
*
2.12 4.88
*
7.22
* *
Europe and America 3.30 3.15 3.21 2.83 2.90
Japan 3.40 3.31 3.31 2.94 3.07
Southeast Asia 3.29 3.30 3.33 3.03 3.13
Scheffe test – (1,2)(1,3) – (1,3) (1,2)(1,3)
Notes: Signi?cant at levels
*
0.05,
* *
0.01 and
* * *
0.001, respectively. Means were derived from a
5-point Likert scale ranging from 1-strongly disagrees to 5-strongly agree
Table II.
Relationship of night
market experience and
socio-demographics
IJCTHR
2,3
224
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b
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P
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N
D
I
C
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2
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a
r
y
2
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1
6
(
P
T
)
a reduced number of items (e.g. six or less), 0.60 and above may be acceptable (Cortina,
1993). As from Table III, all factors have Cronbach a values over 0.60 suggesting
acceptable levels of internal consistency for every scale. The ?nal results of the EFA
indicate eight image factors accounting for 61.7 percent of the variance explained. The
factors are: food and local specialty, atmosphere, public facility, environment,
products, price, bargain, and reputation (Table III). The subjects put the highest image
value in reputation, followed by local food and specialty, and public facility, which
exhibit they are the most important complex images of Taiwan night market.
The results of different image in socio-demographics show that while gender has
no signi?cant differences in image dimensions, the other variables such as marriage
status, educational level, age, occupation, staying type, and country of origin have
signi?cant differences to night market image (Table IV).
Marriage status is signi?cantly related to the image of public facility, and
environment. Single subjects have more positive image of public facility and
environment than married subjects. Educational level has signi?cant difference in the
image of local food and specialty and atmosphere. The subjects with junior high school
level place higher value than other groups. Public facility, environment and price have
signi?cant differences relative to the age variable. Subjects with age under 20 and
21-30 have more positive image of public facility, environment than other groups, while
subjects with age 31-40 and 41-50 thought price are reasonable than other age level
groups. Atmosphere, public facility, environment, and price have signi?cant
differences in occupation. Student and housekeeping put lower image on atmosphere
and price than other groups. But student and part-time workers place higher image
value in public facility and environment than other groups.
Temporary residents have stronger image ratings in atmosphere than foreign
tourists, while foreign tourists have stronger local food and specialty, public facility,
environment and reputation image ratings than temporary residents. Foreign tourists
have general stronger image except atmosphere than temporary residents. Country of
origin shows signi?cant difference in dimensions of local food and specialty,
atmosphere, public facility, environment, price, bargain, and reputation. Europeans
and Americans have stronger image ratings for local food and specialty, atmosphere,
price, bargain, and reputation than Japanese and Southeast Asians. But Europeans and
Americans put less values on public facility and environment than Japanese and
Southeast Asians do, which means Europeans and Americans have general stronger
image excluding public facility and environment quality.
Canonical correlation analysis of experience and image
This study conducts canonical correlation analysis to con?rm possible relationships
between night market experience and night market image for temporary residents and
foreign visitors separately. A discussion then compares the differences between the
two models.
Canonical analysis produces two functions for temporary residents. Only function
1 scores signi?cantly and its redundancy index is higher than 5 percent. The canonical
correlation of function 1 is 0.47 (R
2
¼ 0.22) and is signi?cant at 0.001 level. Its
redundancy index on experience is 29.7 percent and image is 32.1 percent (Figure 1).
Judging from the result of canonical loadings relates to the canonical factor for
experience, sense (0.90), feel (0.51), and think (0.61) signi?cantly correlate to the factor.
Night market
experience
and image
225
D
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P
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Table III.
Factor analysis of night
image
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Table IV.
Relationship of night
market image and
socio-demographics
Night market
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The canonical loadings of local food and specialty (0.83), atmosphere (0.73), products
(0.74), price (0.50), bargain (0.53), and reputation (0.49) signi?cantly correlate to the
image canonical factor. The canonical dimension indicates that the temporary
residents who have stronger sense, feel, and think experiences also have stronger
images of local food and specialty, atmosphere, products, price, bargain, and reputation
for Taiwan night markets.
The result from foreign visitors shows that there are two functions. Only function
1 scores signi?cantly and its redundancy index is higher than 5 percent. The canonical
correlation of function 1 is 0.53 (R
2
¼ 0.28) and is signi?cant at the 0.001 level.
Its redundancy index on experience is 33.4 percent and its redundancy index on image
is 47.2 percent (Figure 2). From the result of canonical loadings, it is found that sense
(0.85), feel (0.71), think (0.92), action (0.38), and related (0.38) signi?cantly correlate to
the experience canonical factor. The canonical loadings of local food and specialty
(0.83), atmosphere (0.52), public facility (0.36), products (0.82), price (0.64), bargain
(0.52), and reputation (0.47) signi?cantly correlate to the image canonical factor.
The function between these two sets of variables is on the basis of the composition of
foreign visitors who have experiences of sense, feel, and think, which have association
with the local food and specialty, atmosphere, public facility, products, price, bargain,
and reputation.
Discussion and conclusion
The purpose of this study is to investigate how the socio-demographics of foreign
temporary residents and visitors as related to their images and experiences of
Taiwanese night markets. It also examines the relationships of experience and image
and the differences in the relative importance of components for each construct
regarding temporary foreign residents and foreign tourists. The results suggest that
gender, age, staying type, and country of origin have in?uence on foreigners’ night
Figure 1.
Canonical function
of experience and image
for foreign residents
Image
Experience
Sense
Feel
Think
Action
Related
Atmosphere
Public facility
Environment
Products
Price
–0.90
0.12
–0.61
–0.16
–0.73
–0.03
–0.14
–0.74
–0.50
r = 0.47
R
2
= 0.22
RI = 0.321 RI = 0.297
Bargain
Reputation
Food &
products
–0.53
–0.49
–0.83
–0.51
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market experience. Foreigners’ marriage status, education level, age, occupation,
staying type, and country of origin also have relativity differences to their night
market image. The ?nding supports the notion that cultural background and
familiarity with a host culture will affect foreigners’ experience (Pizam and Jeong, 1996;
Arnold and Reynolds, 2003; Yuksel, 2004) and image (Embacher and Buttle, 1989;
Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Bonn et al., 2005; O’Leary and Deegan, 2005) of night
market. Think experience has greater difference than other four experiences in
socio-demographics. That shows that psychological difference is the main difference
between foreigners of different age groups, genders, and staying type. According to
Schmitt (1999) the think experience stimulates curiosity and appeal to the customer’s
creative thinking. Female, and middle age and visitors would have stronger thinking
experience than other experiences such as sense and feel. The results also show that
the younger subjects have stronger values in act and related experience than elders did.
Based on Schmitt’s (1999) act and related experiences re?ect that younger persons have
stronger unique bodily experience and relationship experience with others. Regarding
to visiting or residing in Taiwan, we ?nd the foreign visitors have higher value on
think experience than foreign residents. Perhaps, the longer foreign residents
have stayed in Taiwan, the less special or exciting night markets are for them, and
hence they have less thinking experience than foreign visitors. For foreign visitors
who have little experience in visiting night markets, the experience will trigger their
thinking mechanism, and increasing information intakes. The feel, act, and related
experiences are important variables regarding to country of origin (nationality).
European and American have lowered these three experiences than Japanese and
Figure 2.
Canonical function
of experience and image
for foreign visitors
Image
Experience
Sense
Feel
Think
Action
Related
Food &
products
Public facility
Environment
Products
Price
–0.71
–0.85
–0.38
–0.92
–0.38
–0.52
–0.12
–0.358
–0.82
–0.64
r = 0.53
R
2
= 0.28
RI = 0.33 RI = 0.47
Reputation
Bargain
Atmosphere
–0.83
–0.47
–0.52
Night market
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Southeast Asian, which might be due to their cultural backgrounds (Pizam and Jeong,
1996; Bonn et al., 2005). Japanese and Southeast Asian have similar oriental
background with Taiwanese; they might more familiar with night market. This result
also supports with individual’s participation experience of Pine and Gilmore (1999) and
Joy and Sherry (2003).
Results show that temporary foreign residents have stronger image values in
atmosphere than foreign tourists, while foreign visitors have stronger numbers in local
food and specialty, public facility, environment, and reputation image than temporary
residents. This may be the effect of the length of residence time in Taiwan. Yuksel’s
(2004) study shows that domestic visitors are more critical and having less tolerant to
rotten facility and service than foreign visitors do. In this study, foreign residents have
stayed in Taiwan for a longer period and adopt similar values to those of the locals,
and hence being more critical on qualities such as local food, specialty, public facility,
environment, and reputation. To compare the nationality, Europeans and Americans
with little experience of night markets picture visiting night markets as a unique
experience, and hence they have stronger image on local food, specialty, atmosphere,
price, bargain, and reputation. But Europeans and Americans who have more broad
space and cleaner living environment in their country and hence being more critical on
qualities such as public facility and environment.
The results suggest that experience is indeed related to image and such a
relationship is reasonably ?tting for temporary residents and foreign tourists. These
?ndings support our hypothesis that cross-cultural effectiveness may explore the
relationship of place experience related to its generalized images. However, the ?ndings
also reveal that earlier studies might have overlooked the complexity of the
experience-image relationship. In this study, the effect of components on experience
and image depend on temporary residents’ and tourists’ perceptions.
According to the ?ndings, temporary residents place higher values on sense, feel,
and think experience of a night market, which relate to local food/specialty,
atmosphere, products, price, bargain, and reputation. The foreign visitor model shows
that ?ve experience dimensions are all positively related with seven image dimensions
except environment. The model of foreign visitor explains stronger variance than
foreign residents; this might be due to the foreign residents have longer time lived in
Taiwan. Their behaviors and perceptions of night market are more like domestic
visitors who have different relationships between components of experience and image
of night markets compared to foreign visitors. For example, they are more familiar
with Taiwan environment and public facility situation which have no effect on night
market experiences.
According to Schmitt (1999), act experience relates to personal lifestyle, actions and
behaviors. Related experience connects to speci?c culture or signi?cant others. The
foreign visitors have certain motivation to visit other countries may cause stronger
feelings or experiences. This may be affected by more complex images than organic
and induced image (Gunn, 1988; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Echtner and Ritchie,
1991, 1993). However, the level of cultural adaptation of foreign residents adapting to
Taiwanese night markets is hard to measure. Night markets are also more popular in
Southeast Asian countries, than in Japan, hence Southeast Asians might accept and
adapt to night market culture faster or easier than Japanese, and even Japanese might
adapt more than Europeans and Americans. Their valuations of night markets and
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shopping preferences will be more similar to local Taiwanese valuations. The
differences among different countries or geographical regions need further study.
Therefore, future efforts to understand cross-cultural behavior should consider the
multidimensionality of place experience and image as well as their varying levels of
importance to residents and visitors.
The results of this research may help Taiwan government and entrepreneurs to
develop an international promotion strategy targeted at target markets (Assael, 1984).
For example, the most important images are local food and specialty, products, and
price which means night markets that can offer characteristically local products,
fashionable products, diverse food and drink, low-price products, and distinctively
?avored international foods will attract international visitors. Taiwan Tourism Bureau
may promote Taiwanese foods and beverages to overseas tourists by using think,
sense, and feel experiential marketing method, or may segment visitors by
socio-demographics and geographic variables. Some bene?ts may accrue from
promotion of factors such as Taiwan’s reputation, special local experience, and public
facility, but the primary bene?t will arise from strengthening the image of night
markets as representative of Taiwan’s attractions.
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Further reading
Hsu, C.H.C., Wolfe, K. and Kang, S.K. (2004), “Image assessment for a destination with limited
comparative advantages”, Tourism Management, Vol. 25, pp. 121-6.
Hunt, J.D. (1975), “Image as a factor in tourism development”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 13
No. 1, pp. 1-7.
Corresponding author
Su-Hsin Lee can be contacted at: [email protected]
Night market
experience
and image
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